Лаврова Н.А. - A Coursebook on English Lexicology - 2012

..
A COURSEBOOK ON ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY

,
050303.65 ,
050100
( ())

2012
811.111'373(075.8)
81.2-3-923
13
Contents
R e v i e w e r s:
Ph.D., Professor, the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State Pedagogical
University, Nataliya N. Morozova.
Dr. Habil., Professor, Head of the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State
Pedagogical University, Elena A. Nikulina.
Dr. Habil., Professor, Moscow State Linguistic University, Ekaterina E. Golubkova
Ph.D., Moscow State Regional University of Humanities and Social Sciences, S.A. Reztsova
Professor, The Department of English Philology, Moscow State Regional University,
Irina I. Shustilova
University, Marina D. Rezvetsova
..
A Coursebook on English Lexicology : 13
: . / .. . . : : ,
2012. 168 .
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 ()
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 ()
Introduction ..........................................................................................................6
1. Word .................................................................................................................8
2. Stylistic Stratication of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms. ................22
3. Etymology ......................................................................................................36
4. Word-building ................................................................................................50
5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy
Euphemisms. Neologisms ..............................................................................69
6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms.
Meronyms ......................................................................................................98
7. Phraseology ..................................................................................................108
8. Some Regional Varieties of English ............................................................127
A Coursebook on English Lexicology is an assortment of exercises on English lexicology, which are aimed at raising students awareness of the notion of the word, it covers
stylistic stratication of the English vocabulary, its etymology, word-building patterns, the
meaning of the word, the major types of semantic transference, systematic relations between
words, English phraseology, some regional varieties of English. Hopefully, it will also aid students in understanding systemic relations between words, namely in differentiating between
paronyms, retronyms, neonyms, various types of synonyms, as well as in activating some
vocabulary items centered around specic thematic elds.
The book is meant for foreign language students, for post-graduate students, teachers
and instructors in English lexicology, as well as for a broader audience of philologists and
linguists.
8 , , ,
, , , , , .
, , ,
, .

, , , .
811.111'373(075.8)
81.2-3-923
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 ()
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 ()
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................4
.., 2012
, 2012
References ........................................................................................................136
Answer Key .....................................................................................................143
811.111'373(075.8)
81.2-3-923
13
Contents
R e v i e w e r s:
University, Nataliya N. Morozova.
Dr. Habil., Professor, Head of the Department of English Lexicology, Moscow State
Pedagogical University, Elena A. Nikulina.
Dr. Habil., Professor, Moscow State Linguistic University, Ekaterina E. Golubkova
Ph.D., Moscow State Regional University of Humanities and Social Sciences, S.A. Reztsova
Professor, The Department of English Philology, Moscow State Regional University,
Irina I. Shustilova
University, Marina D. Rezvetsova
..
A Coursebook on English Lexicology : 13
: . / .. . . : : ,
2012. 168 .
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 ()
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 ()
Introduction ..........................................................................................................6
1. Word .................................................................................................................8
2. Stylistic Stratication of English Vocabulary. Slang. Barbarisms. ................22
3. Etymology ......................................................................................................36
4. Word-building ................................................................................................50
5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference. Metaphor and Metonymy
Euphemisms. Neologisms ..............................................................................69
6. Synonyms. Antonyms. Paronyms. Hyperonyms and Hyponyms.
Meronyms ......................................................................................................98
7. Phraseology ..................................................................................................108
8. Some Regional Varieties of English ............................................................127
A Coursebook on English Lexicology is an assortment of exercises on English lexicology, which are aimed at raising students awareness of the notion of the word, it covers
stylistic stratication of the English vocabulary, its etymology, word-building patterns, the
meaning of the word, the major types of semantic transference, systematic relations between
words, English phraseology, some regional varieties of English. Hopefully, it will also aid students in understanding systemic relations between words, namely in differentiating between
paronyms, retronyms, neonyms, various types of synonyms, as well as in activating some
vocabulary items centered around specic thematic elds.
The book is meant for foreign language students, for post-graduate students, teachers
and instructors in English lexicology, as well as for a broader audience of philologists and
linguists.
8 , , ,
, , , , , .
, , ,
, .

, , , .
811.111'373(075.8)
81.2-3-923
ISBN 978-5-9765-1090-6 ()
ISBN 978-5-02-037452-2 ()
Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................4
.., 2012
, 2012
References ........................................................................................................136
Answer Key .....................................................................................................143
Acknowledgements
The author is deeply indebted to her teacher, instructor and academic
advisor, Dr. Habil., Professor, Elena A. Nikulina for her remarkable forbearance, unswerving support, encouragement and inspiration.
My sincere appreciation goes to Professor Nataliya N. Morozova,
who kindly agreed to read and review the book, bestowed her wise counsel, and suggested the ways to improve and variegate the present work.
I am grateful to Dr. Habil., Professor, Olga G. Chupryna for her comments on some of the contentious issues of the book, which enabled me to
reconsider some of the original statements made in the book.
I appreciate the help and support provided by Professor Marina D.
Resvetzova, who was very kind and benevolent in her comments and
whose love of the Word is shared by the present author.
My appreciation is also due to Dr. Habil., Professor, Ekaterina E.
Golubkova, to Ph.D., S.A. Reztsova, and to Ph.D., Professor, Irina I.
Shustilova for a review of the present book.
Words are mirrors of their times. By looking at the areas in which the vocabulary of a
language is expanding in a given period, we
can form a fairly accurate impression of the
chief preoccupations of society at that time
and the points at which the boundaries of
human endeavor are being advanced.
(John Ayto, 1999. 20th Century Words.
The Story of the New Words in English
over the Last Hundred Years)
Acknowledgements
The author is deeply indebted to her teacher, instructor and academic
advisor, Dr. Habil., Professor, Elena A. Nikulina for her remarkable forbearance, unswerving support, encouragement and inspiration.
My sincere appreciation goes to Professor Nataliya N. Morozova,
who kindly agreed to read and review the book, bestowed her wise counsel, and suggested the ways to improve and variegate the present work.
I am grateful to Dr. Habil., Professor, Olga G. Chupryna for her comments on some of the contentious issues of the book, which enabled me to
reconsider some of the original statements made in the book.
I appreciate the help and support provided by Professor Marina D.
Resvetzova, who was very kind and benevolent in her comments and
whose love of the Word is shared by the present author.
My appreciation is also due to Dr. Habil., Professor, Ekaterina E.
Golubkova, to Ph.D., S.A. Reztsova, and to Ph.D., Professor, Irina I.
Shustilova for a review of the present book.
Words are mirrors of their times. By looking at the areas in which the vocabulary of a
language is expanding in a given period, we
can form a fairly accurate impression of the
chief preoccupations of society at that time
and the points at which the boundaries of
human endeavor are being advanced.
(John Ayto, 1999. 20th Century Words.
The Story of the New Words in English
over the Last Hundred Years)
Introduction
English lexicology is not only a purely theoretical discipline aimed
to upgrade students knowledge of its past, its present and its perspectives
for the future, but is also an in-depth practical course with multiple objectives, namely:
to inspire students curiosity about the past of words;
to help them differentiate between subtle shades of meaning;
to facilitate the recognition of different word-building patterns;
to further the recognition of novel formations, actively used in the
modern media-discourse;
to broaden their repertoire of synonymic ways of referring to reality;
to make students English more authentic and idiomatic;
to ultimately make students interaction with foreigners smoother
and more gratifying, so that it should become a mutually benecial experience.
While writing this book, the author took into account some of the latest trends both in theoretical lexicology and in the lexical changes typical
of modern English. It must also be noted that some sections are covered
in greater detail, while others represent a narrower scale of material. Here
is the rationale behind some of the exercises offered by the author.
The exercises on word-building do not only cover traditional and
typical word-building patterns in English, such as composition and derivation, but also less wide-spread and codied, such as blending (contamination), formations with semi-afxes, combining forms. The rationale
behind including such formations is manifold. Firstly, some of them are
traditionally made use of in the formation of terms (combining forms),
others have gained popularity quite recently and are extensively used in
media-discourse (blending). Secondly, if a word-building pattern becomes
foregrounded, it should not be overlooked. This is the case with blending (or contamination), whose activation is down to several factors: the
condensed and compressed form of blends makes them a very efcient
means of expressing several notions through a single lexeme; it also aids
to create a new notion, more often than not, pragmatically and emotion6
ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric

formation: two notions and two words are merged due to some more or
less objective or subjective similarity. The more distant the notions are,
the more striking the emerging blend is likely to be.
The introduction of endocentric, exocentric (bahuvrihi), copulative
and appositional compounds highlights various semantic and structural
types of compound words and deepens students understanding of the
nature and essence of nomination and the features that were chosen as
the basis of nomination whether reecting the essence of the referent
or seemingly supercial. In the latter case the resultant compound is, as a
rule, idiomatic, metaphorical and evokes vivid imagery.
Paraphrasing a text belonging to a different register makes a learner of
English sensitive to formal and informal contexts and to stylistic colouring of
words. Ultimately, it is supposed to inculcate in them a sense of appropriateness of a particular word or an expression and stylistic specics thereof.
Exercises centered around regional varieties of English are meant to
raise students awareness of different types of English and to get them to
understand that they are not to be mixed up. Getting familiar with some of
the dialects of the British Isles may prove to be benecial for learners of
English and to facilitate interaction in case of their travelling abroad.
Finding a Russian equivalent for English idioms as well as constructing proverbs from smaller rearranged blocks does not only expand students knowledge thereof, but also develops their analytical skills and establishes typological characteristics of both languages. The exercise that
involves converting a literally described situation into a metaphoric idiom
provides entertainment, fun, a diversion from the traditional academic exercises and activates students mental skills that involve searching for the
relevant item in the long-term memory and lling a tting slot.
Each section of the book is divided into two parts the Points to
ponder part and the Exercises part. In the rst part some theoretical
questions, tasks as well as theoretical information are provided to facilitate a transition to the second part, which is comprised of exercises that
are related to the topic under consideration.
Many of the exercises are provided with keys, but only those where we
felt learners may have difculty in nding answers on their own or when
access to the pertinent reference sources may not easily be available.
7
Introduction
English lexicology is not only a purely theoretical discipline aimed
to upgrade students knowledge of its past, its present and its perspectives
for the future, but is also an in-depth practical course with multiple objectives, namely:
to inspire students curiosity about the past of words;
to help them differentiate between subtle shades of meaning;
to facilitate the recognition of different word-building patterns;
to further the recognition of novel formations, actively used in the
modern media-discourse;
to broaden their repertoire of synonymic ways of referring to reality;
to make students English more authentic and idiomatic;
to ultimately make students interaction with foreigners smoother
and more gratifying, so that it should become a mutually benecial experience.
While writing this book, the author took into account some of the latest trends both in theoretical lexicology and in the lexical changes typical
of modern English. It must also be noted that some sections are covered
in greater detail, while others represent a narrower scale of material. Here
is the rationale behind some of the exercises offered by the author.
The exercises on word-building do not only cover traditional and
typical word-building patterns in English, such as composition and derivation, but also less wide-spread and codied, such as blending (contamination), formations with semi-afxes, combining forms. The rationale
behind including such formations is manifold. Firstly, some of them are
traditionally made use of in the formation of terms (combining forms),
others have gained popularity quite recently and are extensively used in
media-discourse (blending). Secondly, if a word-building pattern becomes
foregrounded, it should not be overlooked. This is the case with blending (or contamination), whose activation is down to several factors: the
condensed and compressed form of blends makes them a very efcient
means of expressing several notions through a single lexeme; it also aids
to create a new notion, more often than not, pragmatically and emotion6
ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric

formation: two notions and two words are merged due to some more or
less objective or subjective similarity. The more distant the notions are,
the more striking the emerging blend is likely to be.
The introduction of endocentric, exocentric (bahuvrihi), copulative
and appositional compounds highlights various semantic and structural
types of compound words and deepens students understanding of the
nature and essence of nomination and the features that were chosen as
the basis of nomination whether reecting the essence of the referent
or seemingly supercial. In the latter case the resultant compound is, as a
rule, idiomatic, metaphorical and evokes vivid imagery.
Paraphrasing a text belonging to a different register makes a learner of
English sensitive to formal and informal contexts and to stylistic colouring of
words. Ultimately, it is supposed to inculcate in them a sense of appropriateness of a particular word or an expression and stylistic specics thereof.
Exercises centered around regional varieties of English are meant to
raise students awareness of different types of English and to get them to
understand that they are not to be mixed up. Getting familiar with some of
the dialects of the British Isles may prove to be benecial for learners of
English and to facilitate interaction in case of their travelling abroad.
Finding a Russian equivalent for English idioms as well as constructing proverbs from smaller rearranged blocks does not only expand students knowledge thereof, but also develops their analytical skills and establishes typological characteristics of both languages. The exercise that
involves converting a literally described situation into a metaphoric idiom
provides entertainment, fun, a diversion from the traditional academic exercises and activates students mental skills that involve searching for the
relevant item in the long-term memory and lling a tting slot.
Each section of the book is divided into two parts the Points to
ponder part and the Exercises part. In the rst part some theoretical
questions, tasks as well as theoretical information are provided to facilitate a transition to the second part, which is comprised of exercises that
are related to the topic under consideration.
Many of the exercises are provided with keys, but only those where we
felt learners may have difculty in nding answers on their own or when
access to the pertinent reference sources may not easily be available.
7
1. Word
Points to ponder
Over the years different denitions of the word
have been suggested, some of them are based on the
purely semantic criterion, others put the premium
on structural, functional, stylistic, communicative or
pragmatic aspects of the word.
Investigate the problems of word denition and answer the following questions (do the tasks suggested):
5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native

speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful element of the language, although linguists
would analyze these further into morphemes (Collins English Dictionary, 6th edition 2007).
Comment on the following denitions of the word and choose the

one which seems the most appropriate to you. Specify the criterion that underlies each denition. Which of the denitions is the
least precise?
6. A word is the smallest unit of language that can be used independently; such a unit represented in writing or printing,
usually separated off by spaces (Chambers Dictionary, 9th
edition, 2003).
1. A word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank space and followed by a blank space or
punctuation mark.
In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out

the morpheme as the minimal unit of communication. What is the
problematic aspect underlying this methodology?
Enumerate structural and semantic characteristics of the word and
say how it differs from a word-combination. Are there any fuzzy
sets (borderline cases)?
How can you prove that washing machine is a word? Supple
some other similar cases of a two-unit word.
Are wrap up and single out cases of one word or are they two
words?
What is the difference between a word and a sentence?
2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.
3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that

symbolizes and communicates a meaning usually without
being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use
(Merriam-Websters New Collegiate Dictionary, 2008).
8
4. A word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme
or of a combination of morphemes (American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition, 2000).
The notion of word is one of the central in

lexicology. However, there is still no unanimous
opinion as to what the word really is, that is to say,
it is not amenable to an unambiguous denition. The
9
1. Word
Points to ponder
Over the years different denitions of the word
have been suggested, some of them are based on the
purely semantic criterion, others put the premium
on structural, functional, stylistic, communicative or
pragmatic aspects of the word.
Investigate the problems of word denition and answer the following questions (do the tasks suggested):
5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native

speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful element of the language, although linguists
would analyze these further into morphemes (Collins English Dictionary, 6th edition 2007).
Comment on the following denitions of the word and choose the

one which seems the most appropriate to you. Specify the criterion that underlies each denition. Which of the denitions is the
least precise?
6. A word is the smallest unit of language that can be used independently; such a unit represented in writing or printing,
usually separated off by spaces (Chambers Dictionary, 9th
edition, 2003).
1. A word is an uninterrupted string of letters which is preceded by a blank space and followed by a blank space or
punctuation mark.
In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out

the morpheme as the minimal unit of communication. What is the
problematic aspect underlying this methodology?
Enumerate structural and semantic characteristics of the word and
say how it differs from a word-combination. Are there any fuzzy
sets (borderline cases)?
How can you prove that washing machine is a word? Supple
some other similar cases of a two-unit word.
Are wrap up and single out cases of one word or are they two
words?
What is the difference between a word and a sentence?
2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.
3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that

symbolizes and communicates a meaning usually without
being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use
(Merriam-Websters New Collegiate Dictionary, 2008).
8
4. A word is a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme
or of a combination of morphemes (American Heritage Dictionary, 4th edition, 2000).
The notion of word is one of the central in

lexicology. However, there is still no unanimous
opinion as to what the word really is, that is to say,
it is not amenable to an unambiguous denition. The
9
term word usually designates a structure smaller than a word combination, but larger that a single sound segment (Z Amvela E., 2010). This
simple and comprehensible denition is not free from fault: the indenite
article in the English language is a single sound segment and yet it is
denitely a word. Denitions of the word are legion, some of them highlighting structural, notional, functional, phonological and other aspects
of the word (see above). From the structural perspective, a word can be
dened as a unit of language or speech that consists of one or more morphemes at least one of which can be used independently. This is, so to
speak, the ideal scenario, because some words consist of morphemes that
are no longer used in speech independently. Some examples are: receive,
conceive, confer, refer, etc. These words consist of a prex and a remnant
root which is, synchronically, a bound form no longer recognized by the
majority of native speakers as a meaningful element.
According to the notional criterion, the word is dened as a linguistic unit conveying a single notion. This denition purports to distinguish
between a word and a phrase, which conveys not one but at least two
notions. According to the functional criterion the word possesses a fullyedged nominative function. Unlike that of a word, the functions of a
morpheme and a phrase can be, respectively, dened as constitutive and a
poly-nominative, the function of a sentence being predicative-communicative. According to the phonological criterion, the word is a combination
of sounds preceded and followed by pauses and conveying a meaning
which distinguishes it from other words in a language.
One of the most daunting lexicological tasks concerning the word
is to distinguish between a compound word and a word-combination (a
phrase). Some compounds represent the so-called fuzzy sets, that is, language elements whose status veers. What is meant here is that orthographically compounds can be spelt solid, hyphenated and spaced (A. Cruse,
Jackson H., G.G. Bondarchuk): Note that the orthographic treatment of
compounds is by no means consistent. Some are written as one word
(with or without a hyphen between two roots), while others are written as two or more words (emphasis mine) [Jackson H., Z Amvela E.,
2010:92]. Compounds may be spelt either solid (landmark) or hyphenated (land-law) or open (land mass). There may be some variation especially between hyphenated and open compounds: land-crab appears hy10
phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9 [Jackson H., Z Amvela

E., 2010:192]. The almost unpredictable nature of how compounds can or
should be spelt is summed up by R.W. Zandvoort and H.W. Fowler: The
reader of the last and other sections of this handbook cannot fail to have
been struck by a lack of consistency in the use of HYPHENS in the writing of compounds. This lack of consistency is entirely in keeping with
English practice, on which the late H.W. Fowler in his Dictionary of Modern English Usage (a book to be used with care) expresses himself thus:
The chaos prevailing among writers or printers or both regarding the use
of hyphens is discreditable to English education. Logic would, of course,
prescribe that undoubted compounds, like goldsmith, should be spelt as
single words; that a hyphen should be used when the two elements are
only occasionally combined, and, therefore, to some extent preserve their
individuality in combination (she-wolf); and that the two words should
be written apart when they form a group of adjectives + noun, or attrib.
noun + noun, etc., not a compound (the London streets). The very logic
of this division, however, makes it difcult to apply in many cases, with
the result that it is often ignored in cases of less difculty. The best advice
to be given in this matter is: when in doubt, consult the Concise Oxford
Dictionary [Zandvoort, 288:1962].
In the traditional sense, the word consists of at least one free lexical
morpheme, but it can also be made up of a whole series of lexical morphemes, like beer-drinker, theatergoer, segregationist, or denationalization. Leech gives the examples drum-majorettishly and railway-station refreshment room [Lipka, 2002:89].
One of the meaningful differences between a compound and a word
combination is that the meaning of a free phrase can usually be inferred
from its constituents, whereas compounds are characterized semantically
by the fact that they tend to acquire specialized meanings, thus becoming
very much like idioms. Only in rare cases is the meaning of a compound
derived from that of its constituents in the literal sense. In most cases, the
meaning of at least one of the constituents is somehow obscured [Jackson H., Z Amvela E., 2010:94].
Compounds are also prototypically characterized by a single primary
stress that falls on the rst stem of a compound. If a compound, however, consists of three or more morphemes it is rarely the rst stem that
11
term word usually designates a structure smaller than a word combination, but larger that a single sound segment (Z Amvela E., 2010). This
simple and comprehensible denition is not free from fault: the indenite
article in the English language is a single sound segment and yet it is
denitely a word. Denitions of the word are legion, some of them highlighting structural, notional, functional, phonological and other aspects
of the word (see above). From the structural perspective, a word can be
dened as a unit of language or speech that consists of one or more morphemes at least one of which can be used independently. This is, so to
speak, the ideal scenario, because some words consist of morphemes that
are no longer used in speech independently. Some examples are: receive,
conceive, confer, refer, etc. These words consist of a prex and a remnant
root which is, synchronically, a bound form no longer recognized by the
majority of native speakers as a meaningful element.
According to the notional criterion, the word is dened as a linguistic unit conveying a single notion. This denition purports to distinguish
between a word and a phrase, which conveys not one but at least two
notions. According to the functional criterion the word possesses a fullyedged nominative function. Unlike that of a word, the functions of a
morpheme and a phrase can be, respectively, dened as constitutive and a
poly-nominative, the function of a sentence being predicative-communicative. According to the phonological criterion, the word is a combination
of sounds preceded and followed by pauses and conveying a meaning
which distinguishes it from other words in a language.
One of the most daunting lexicological tasks concerning the word
is to distinguish between a compound word and a word-combination (a
phrase). Some compounds represent the so-called fuzzy sets, that is, language elements whose status veers. What is meant here is that orthographically compounds can be spelt solid, hyphenated and spaced (A. Cruse,
Jackson H., G.G. Bondarchuk): Note that the orthographic treatment of
compounds is by no means consistent. Some are written as one word
(with or without a hyphen between two roots), while others are written as two or more words (emphasis mine) [Jackson H., Z Amvela E.,
2010:92]. Compounds may be spelt either solid (landmark) or hyphenated (land-law) or open (land mass). There may be some variation especially between hyphenated and open compounds: land-crab appears hy10
phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9 [Jackson H., Z Amvela

E., 2010:192]. The almost unpredictable nature of how compounds can or
should be spelt is summed up by R.W. Zandvoort and H.W. Fowler: The
reader of the last and other sections of this handbook cannot fail to have
been struck by a lack of consistency in the use of HYPHENS in the writing of compounds. This lack of consistency is entirely in keeping with
English practice, on which the late H.W. Fowler in his Dictionary of Modern English Usage (a book to be used with care) expresses himself thus:
The chaos prevailing among writers or printers or both regarding the use
of hyphens is discreditable to English education. Logic would, of course,
prescribe that undoubted compounds, like goldsmith, should be spelt as
single words; that a hyphen should be used when the two elements are
only occasionally combined, and, therefore, to some extent preserve their
individuality in combination (she-wolf); and that the two words should
be written apart when they form a group of adjectives + noun, or attrib.
noun + noun, etc., not a compound (the London streets). The very logic
of this division, however, makes it difcult to apply in many cases, with
the result that it is often ignored in cases of less difculty. The best advice
to be given in this matter is: when in doubt, consult the Concise Oxford
Dictionary [Zandvoort, 288:1962].
In the traditional sense, the word consists of at least one free lexical
morpheme, but it can also be made up of a whole series of lexical morphemes, like beer-drinker, theatergoer, segregationist, or denationalization. Leech gives the examples drum-majorettishly and railway-station refreshment room [Lipka, 2002:89].
One of the meaningful differences between a compound and a word
combination is that the meaning of a free phrase can usually be inferred
from its constituents, whereas compounds are characterized semantically
by the fact that they tend to acquire specialized meanings, thus becoming
very much like idioms. Only in rare cases is the meaning of a compound
derived from that of its constituents in the literal sense. In most cases, the
meaning of at least one of the constituents is somehow obscured [Jackson H., Z Amvela E., 2010:94].
Compounds are also prototypically characterized by a single primary
stress that falls on the rst stem of a compound. If a compound, however, consists of three or more morphemes it is rarely the rst stem that
11
receives the primary stress: usually, it is the second or the third. Some
examples are: wastepaper basket, twenty-twenty vision. The former has
its accent on the stem paper, the latter on the last constituent vision
(Cambridge Advanced Learners Talking Dictionary).
Exercises:
I
Below are a number of words represented by numbers. Specify
their structural, semantic and functional peculiarities1. What is unusual in their semantics and structure? Is there any connection between these words and text-messaging?
Word
Meaning
24/7
24 hours a day, 7 days a week; I have to work 24/7.

incessant(ly)
411
Data, information (from dial- I like my new colleague, but I

ing 411 on the phone for infor- dont have the 411 on him.
mation)
Money for the purchase of I have got 5 on that pizza.

some item
5150
Insane, crazy. California police Have you gone 5150 to attempt

code for escaped lunatic
to tackle the gangster on your
own?
9-to-5
A job
08/15
Designation for the standard This movie was just o-eight-fmachine gun of the German teen, nothing special
army before WWI, hence the
meaning something very common, nothing special
Illustration
He dropped out of school and

got a 9-to-5
The examples are taken from the dictionary by A. Peckham, 2005, and from the
electronic dictionary PseudoDictionary.com. See references.
12
Word
Meaning
Illustration
10/90
(Also 20/
80, 30/70)
Ten percent of ones hair on the Chris has a 10/90.

top, ninety percent in the back.
11
A word for someone who be- Our school motto is Be an

lieves they are better than ev- 11. It makes me sad.
eryone else, and attempts to get
everyone else to join them by
telling them to be an eleven,
even if they dont want to.
00 (dou- super-suave,
sophisticated, He always acts so 00.
ble O)
brilliant, debonair
1-and-2ed
used to accent victory over another person, usually said in the

process of doing something unexpected or after getting someone to do something that only
aids in your purpose; duped,
betrayed, taken advantage of,
cheated on
While Chris was deliberately

distracted, Justin made the
winning shot and cried out:
Youve got 1-and-2ed!
II
Below are a number of compound words taken from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, Websters Third International Dictionary. Name the prototypical
and marginal features of the compounds and say in what way they differ
from a word combination.
Compound Words
Prototypical features Marginal features
Twenty-twenty vision (noun)

Perfect sight, especially as measured by a standard desk
e.g. The optician told me I had
twenty-twenty vision. (Cambridge
Advanced Learners Dictionary)
13
receives the primary stress: usually, it is the second or the third. Some
examples are: wastepaper basket, twenty-twenty vision. The former has
its accent on the stem paper, the latter on the last constituent vision
(Cambridge Advanced Learners Talking Dictionary).
Exercises:
I
Below are a number of words represented by numbers. Specify
their structural, semantic and functional peculiarities1. What is unusual in their semantics and structure? Is there any connection between these words and text-messaging?
Word
Meaning
24/7
24 hours a day, 7 days a week; I have to work 24/7.

incessant(ly)
411
Data, information (from dial- I like my new colleague, but I

ing 411 on the phone for infor- dont have the 411 on him.
mation)
Money for the purchase of I have got 5 on that pizza.

some item
5150
Insane, crazy. California police Have you gone 5150 to attempt

code for escaped lunatic
to tackle the gangster on your
own?
9-to-5
A job
08/15
Designation for the standard This movie was just o-eight-fmachine gun of the German teen, nothing special
army before WWI, hence the
meaning something very common, nothing special
Illustration
He dropped out of school and

got a 9-to-5
The examples are taken from the dictionary by A. Peckham, 2005, and from the
electronic dictionary PseudoDictionary.com. See references.
12
Word
Meaning
Illustration
10/90
(Also 20/
80, 30/70)
Ten percent of ones hair on the Chris has a 10/90.

top, ninety percent in the back.
11
A word for someone who be- Our school motto is Be an

lieves they are better than ev- 11. It makes me sad.
eryone else, and attempts to get
everyone else to join them by
telling them to be an eleven,
even if they dont want to.
00 (dou- super-suave,
sophisticated, He always acts so 00.
ble O)
brilliant, debonair
1-and-2ed
used to accent victory over another person, usually said in the

process of doing something unexpected or after getting someone to do something that only
aids in your purpose; duped,
betrayed, taken advantage of,
cheated on
While Chris was deliberately

distracted, Justin made the
winning shot and cried out:
Youve got 1-and-2ed!
II
Below are a number of compound words taken from Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary, Websters Third International Dictionary. Name the prototypical
and marginal features of the compounds and say in what way they differ
from a word combination.
Compound Words
Twenty-twenty vision (noun)

Perfect sight, especially as measured by a standard desk
e.g. The optician told me I had
twenty-twenty vision. (Cambridge
13
Compound Words
House husband (noun)
A man who stays at home and
cleans the house, takes care
of the children, while his wife
goes out to work. (Cambridge
Chair lift (noun)
A set of chairs hanging from a
moving wire driven by motor,
which carries people, especially
those who are going skiing, up
and down mountains. (Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary)
Sewing machine (noun)
A machine which is used for
joining together pieces of cloth,
and which has a needle that is
operated either by turning a
handle or by electricity (Cambridge Advanced Learners
Dictionary)
Fork-lift (noun)
A small vehicle which has two
strong bars of metal xed to the
front used for lifting piles of
goods. (Cambridge Advanced
Learners Dictionary)
Hatband (noun)
A strip of material which is
xed around the outside of a hat.
(Cambridge Advanced Learners
Dictionary)
14
Compound Words
Hatchback (noun)
A car which has an extra door
at the back which can be lifted
up to allow things to be put in
Dictionary)
Foxglove (noun)
A tall thin plant with white, yellow, pink or purple bell-shaped
owers growing all the way up
its stem (Cambridge Advanced
Agony aunt
A person who writes in a newspaper or magazine giving advice
in reply to peoples letters about
their personal problems
(Oxford Wordpower Dictionary)
III
The question of whether nonce-words can be regarded as words proper is open to argument. Noncewords are words created ad hoc for one particular
occasion, they have a context-bound meaning and
are created out of laziness (1), with a view to avoid
the obvious (2), for love of precision (3), out of the desire for brevity (4).
The function of nonce-words and the motivation behind their creation
will differ depending on the type of discourse and the sphere of communication in which they appear. In literary genre they are deliberate coinages minted by the author out of stylistic purposes. In everyday colloquial
communication they may be inadvertent slips of the tongue or emerge
because of linguistic laxity, recklessness or lack of linguistic knowledge.
a) Look through the nonce-words below which were coined in
spontaneous everyday communication. Specify the causes of their ap15
Compound Words
House husband (noun)
A man who stays at home and
cleans the house, takes care
of the children, while his wife
goes out to work. (Cambridge
Chair lift (noun)
A set of chairs hanging from a
moving wire driven by motor,
which carries people, especially
those who are going skiing, up
and down mountains. (Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary)
Sewing machine (noun)
A machine which is used for
joining together pieces of cloth,
and which has a needle that is
operated either by turning a
handle or by electricity (Cambridge Advanced Learners
Dictionary)
Fork-lift (noun)
A small vehicle which has two
strong bars of metal xed to the
front used for lifting piles of
goods. (Cambridge Advanced
Hatband (noun)
A strip of material which is
xed around the outside of a hat.
Dictionary)
14
Compound Words
Hatchback (noun)
A car which has an extra door
at the back which can be lifted
up to allow things to be put in
Dictionary)
Foxglove (noun)
A tall thin plant with white, yellow, pink or purple bell-shaped
owers growing all the way up
its stem (Cambridge Advanced
Agony aunt
A person who writes in a newspaper or magazine giving advice
in reply to peoples letters about
their personal problems
(Oxford Wordpower Dictionary)
III
The question of whether nonce-words can be regarded as words proper is open to argument. Noncewords are words created ad hoc for one particular
occasion, they have a context-bound meaning and
are created out of laziness (1), with a view to avoid
the obvious (2), for love of precision (3), out of the desire for brevity (4).
The function of nonce-words and the motivation behind their creation
will differ depending on the type of discourse and the sphere of communication in which they appear. In literary genre they are deliberate coinages minted by the author out of stylistic purposes. In everyday colloquial
communication they may be inadvertent slips of the tongue or emerge
because of linguistic laxity, recklessness or lack of linguistic knowledge.
a) Look through the nonce-words below which were coined in
spontaneous everyday communication. Specify the causes of their ap15
pearance. What knowledge does the speaker lack word-wise? Can

these words be regarded as words proper?
Remindful (mindful), insuccess (failure), deplacement (displacement), correctitude (correctness), briskened (quickened),
unquiet (unrest).
b) Consider the following nonce-words selected from the works

by British and American writers. Can these units be regarded as
proper words? Dwell on the rationale behind their coinage and specify the linguistic means of their creation.
They caught him, I say. Hes not a threat anymore.
Thats good! she says, a big falsey-toothy smile opening onto
her face. You are a wonderful job for us. We are all grateful to
you. [Ford, 1996: 87].
Do you feel sometimes that no ones looking out for you anymore? She smiles faintly. The creases at the corners of her
mouth make weals in her cheeks.
Every day. I try to beam back a martyrish look [Ford,
1986:245].
But if Im right, his question is of a much more omenish and

divining nature, having to do with the character of eventuality
[Ford, 1986:98].
They are large women in white, tentish maid-dresses, talking

and swinging big banger purses, waiting for their white ladies
to come and pick them up [Ford, 1986:143].
16
I am confused and sad as no idea if Mark still loves me or not

and scared to ask.
Very lovingful of Mark [Fielding, 2000:78].
So that for our most intimate moments we ended up skulking
around on the sly: rendezvousing for dinner plus surreptitious
hand-holding and smooching in angst-thick public places, then
slipping out to the car and making out in the dark till our lips
were numb and our bodies limp [Ford, 1986:42].
Was nightmare in shoe shop. Just trying on brown squareheeled 70s style shoes in ofce feeling very dj-vu-sque for all
those back-to-school times buying new shoes and ghting with
bloody mom about what they were allowed to be like [Fielding,
2000:45].
Ten minutes later I was sitting in a Mark Darsy-esque white
room in a white robe with a white towel on my head surrounded
by Mum, a swathe of coloured swatches and somebody called
Mary [Fielding, 2000:56].
I looked out my window, stood in my yard sunsets with a sense

of solace and achievement, cleaned my rain gutters, eyed my
shingles, fertilized regularly, spoke to my neighbours the normal applauseless life of us all [Ford, 1996:90].
When it came time to teach, literature seemed wide and indifferentiable not at all distillable and I didnt know where to
start; mostly I would stand at the tall windows distracted as a
camel while one of my students discussed an interesting short
story he had found on his own [Ford, 1986:67].
17
pearance. What knowledge does the speaker lack word-wise? Can

these words be regarded as words proper?
Remindful (mindful), insuccess (failure), deplacement (displacement), correctitude (correctness), briskened (quickened),
unquiet (unrest).
b) Consider the following nonce-words selected from the works

by British and American writers. Can these units be regarded as
proper words? Dwell on the rationale behind their coinage and specify the linguistic means of their creation.
They caught him, I say. Hes not a threat anymore.
Thats good! she says, a big falsey-toothy smile opening onto
her face. You are a wonderful job for us. We are all grateful to
you. [Ford, 1996: 87].
Do you feel sometimes that no ones looking out for you anymore? She smiles faintly. The creases at the corners of her
mouth make weals in her cheeks.
Every day. I try to beam back a martyrish look [Ford,
1986:245].
But if Im right, his question is of a much more omenish and

divining nature, having to do with the character of eventuality
[Ford, 1986:98].
They are large women in white, tentish maid-dresses, talking

and swinging big banger purses, waiting for their white ladies
to come and pick them up [Ford, 1986:143].
16
I am confused and sad as no idea if Mark still loves me or not

and scared to ask.
Very lovingful of Mark [Fielding, 2000:78].
So that for our most intimate moments we ended up skulking
around on the sly: rendezvousing for dinner plus surreptitious
hand-holding and smooching in angst-thick public places, then
slipping out to the car and making out in the dark till our lips
were numb and our bodies limp [Ford, 1986:42].
Was nightmare in shoe shop. Just trying on brown squareheeled 70s style shoes in ofce feeling very dj-vu-sque for all
those back-to-school times buying new shoes and ghting with
bloody mom about what they were allowed to be like [Fielding,
2000:45].
Ten minutes later I was sitting in a Mark Darsy-esque white
room in a white robe with a white towel on my head surrounded
by Mum, a swathe of coloured swatches and somebody called
Mary [Fielding, 2000:56].
I looked out my window, stood in my yard sunsets with a sense

of solace and achievement, cleaned my rain gutters, eyed my
shingles, fertilized regularly, spoke to my neighbours the normal applauseless life of us all [Ford, 1996:90].
When it came time to teach, literature seemed wide and indifferentiable not at all distillable and I didnt know where to
start; mostly I would stand at the tall windows distracted as a
camel while one of my students discussed an interesting short
story he had found on his own [Ford, 1986:67].
17
I think I know exactly what you are getting at.

What about?Mr. Tanks says suspiciously staring sharks at
me.
About wondering where I ought to go, I say in as unaggressive,
unsharky, unhomophilic a way as possible. [Ford, 1986:75].
onsequently its a good strategy to set the Markhams adrift...
staring at the greasy motel walls, listening to the trafc drum
past, everyone but them bound for cozy seaside holiday arrangements where youthful, happy, perfect-toothed loved ones wave
greetings from lighted porches, holding big pitches of cold gin
[Ford, 1986:98].
Im way ahead of him emotionally. Ill have my period pretty

soon.
Well, thats good to know, I say, my heart going ker-whonk,
my eyes suddenly hot and unhappily moist not with unhappy
tears, but with unhappy sweat that has busted out on my forehead [Ford, 1986:9].
I literally bashed right into Frank one summer night a year ago,
driving home tired and foggy-eyed from the Red Man Club,
where Id shed till ten [Ford, 1996:96].
Why are you driving so eff-ing slow? he says. Then, in a

mocking old-grannys voice, Everybody passes me, but I get
there just as fast as the rest of them. [Ford, 1986:100].
Her eyes snap at me. She offers me a long-toothed, savage

stare and waves my way as if she knew me from Bogalussa or
Minter City maybe she simply recognizes a fellow southerner
(smth. in the submissive shruggy set of my shoulders) [Ford,
1986:265].
V
Exclamations and interjections can be dened as conventional sound
words that have developed as imitative words that resemble or suggest
the sound2. Going by this denition and one (ones) that you can nd in a
dictionary (dictionaries), say in what way interjections and exclamations
differ from other functional parts of speech.
Because no matter how many emotions his fancy dipolar circuits had allowed him to mimic, he was still at it, a computer.
Even following Eddie this far into riddledoms Twilight Zone
ad caused Blaines sanity to totter [King, 2003:56].
Consider the interjections and exclamations below and express your

opinion of their linguistic status.
Instead I make my old, familiar turn down fragrant, bonneted Hoving Road, a turn I virtually never make these days but
should, since my memories have almost all boiled down to good
ones or at least to tolerable, instructive ones [Ford, 1996:79].
18
Then all at once ve immense jet planes come cracking in over

us, low and ridiculously close together, their wings steady as
knife blades, their smack-shwoosh eruption following a hearts
beat behind [Ford, 1996:8].
Exclamation and Interjections

Ah!
Aha!
Ahchoo!
Ahem!
Function and General Meaning

surprise, joy
surprise, triumph
sneezing
throaty sound to attract attention
2
This is the way Sol Steinmetz and Barbara Ann Kipfer dene exclamations and
interjections (2006).
19
I think I know exactly what you are getting at.

What about?Mr. Tanks says suspiciously staring sharks at
me.
About wondering where I ought to go, I say in as unaggressive,
unsharky, unhomophilic a way as possible. [Ford, 1986:75].
onsequently its a good strategy to set the Markhams adrift...
staring at the greasy motel walls, listening to the trafc drum
past, everyone but them bound for cozy seaside holiday arrangements where youthful, happy, perfect-toothed loved ones wave
greetings from lighted porches, holding big pitches of cold gin
[Ford, 1986:98].
Im way ahead of him emotionally. Ill have my period pretty

soon.
Well, thats good to know, I say, my heart going ker-whonk,
my eyes suddenly hot and unhappily moist not with unhappy
tears, but with unhappy sweat that has busted out on my forehead [Ford, 1986:9].
I literally bashed right into Frank one summer night a year ago,
driving home tired and foggy-eyed from the Red Man Club,
where Id shed till ten [Ford, 1996:96].
Why are you driving so eff-ing slow? he says. Then, in a

mocking old-grannys voice, Everybody passes me, but I get
there just as fast as the rest of them. [Ford, 1986:100].
Her eyes snap at me. She offers me a long-toothed, savage

stare and waves my way as if she knew me from Bogalussa or
Minter City maybe she simply recognizes a fellow southerner
(smth. in the submissive shruggy set of my shoulders) [Ford,
1986:265].
V
Exclamations and interjections can be dened as conventional sound
words that have developed as imitative words that resemble or suggest
the sound2. Going by this denition and one (ones) that you can nd in a
dictionary (dictionaries), say in what way interjections and exclamations
differ from other functional parts of speech.
Because no matter how many emotions his fancy dipolar circuits had allowed him to mimic, he was still at it, a computer.
Even following Eddie this far into riddledoms Twilight Zone
ad caused Blaines sanity to totter [King, 2003:56].
Consider the interjections and exclamations below and express your

opinion of their linguistic status.
Instead I make my old, familiar turn down fragrant, bonneted Hoving Road, a turn I virtually never make these days but
should, since my memories have almost all boiled down to good
ones or at least to tolerable, instructive ones [Ford, 1996:79].
18
Then all at once ve immense jet planes come cracking in over

us, low and ridiculously close together, their wings steady as
knife blades, their smack-shwoosh eruption following a hearts
beat behind [Ford, 1996:8].

Ah!
Aha!
Ahchoo!
Ahem!

surprise, joy
surprise, triumph
sneezing
throaty sound to attract attention
2
This is the way Sol Steinmetz and Barbara Ann Kipfer dene exclamations and
interjections (2006).
19

Bah!
boo
er
e
Hah?
Ha-ha!
Ho-hum
Huh?
Humph!
Oh!
Ouch!
Phew!
Pshaw!
psst
sh (shh)
tehee
tsk-tsk
tut-tut
ugh

contempt
disapproval or derision
hesitation
disgust
suspicion, interrogation
laughter
boredom
disbelief, confusion
disbelief
surprise, sympathy
sudden pain
disgust or exhaustion
impatience or contempt
unobtrusive sound to call smb.s attention
shushing
snickering laughter
pity or commiseration
disapproval or disdain
aversion or horror
Recommended reading:
.. . .: , 2000.
.. // . , 1975. . 129135.
.. . .: - , 1986.
.. . : , 1993.
.. :
. 3- ., . .: ,
2006.
.. . 4- ., . .: , 2007.
.. . . .: , 1973.
20
.. . .:
. ., 1985.
..
. .: , 1986.
.. : . . . - - . . . .: . ., 1986.
.. : . . . . , 2008.
.. . , 1989.
.. : . .
: . ., 1992.
Bauer L. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1983.
Lipka L. English Lexicology: lexical structure, word semantics and wordformation. Tbingen: Narr, 2002.
Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. Second Edition. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969.

Bah!
boo
er
e
Hah?
Ha-ha!
Ho-hum
Huh?
Humph!
Oh!
Ouch!
Phew!
Pshaw!
psst
sh (shh)
tehee
tsk-tsk
tut-tut
ugh

contempt
disapproval or derision
hesitation
disgust
suspicion, interrogation
laughter
boredom
disbelief, confusion
disbelief
surprise, sympathy
sudden pain
disgust or exhaustion
impatience or contempt
unobtrusive sound to call smb.s attention
shushing
snickering laughter
pity or commiseration
disapproval or disdain
aversion or horror
.. . .: , 2000.
.. // . , 1975. . 129135.
.. . .: - , 1986.
.. . : , 1993.
.. :
. 3- ., . .: ,
2006.
.. . 4- ., . .: , 2007.
.. . . .: , 1973.
20
.. . .:
. ., 1985.
..
. .: , 1986.
.. : . . . - - . . . .: . ., 1986.
.. : . . . . , 2008.
.. . , 1989.
.. : . .
: . ., 1992.
Bauer L. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1983.
Lipka L. English Lexicology: lexical structure, word semantics and wordformation. Tbingen: Narr, 2002.
Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. Second Edition. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1969.
2. Stylistic Stratication of English Vocabulary.

Slang. Barbarisms
Points to ponder
What are the earmarks of the neutral, colloquial and literary layers
of English vocabulary? Why is it essential to single them out?
Name the pertinent characteristics of the neutral layer. What accounts for its indispensability?
Say whether each neutral word has its colloquial and literary
counterparts? What does it depend on?
What are the peculiarities of common literary and common colloquial words?
Slang has been known to draw both criticisms and scholastic support over the years. Are there any contexts where slang could be
appropriate or should it be regarded as a linguistic pariah to be
avoided by all possible means? Do you think there are any situations (register) when slang words would be suitable in the speech
of an academic?
What denition of slang do you consider the most exhaustive? In
what way does slang differ from colloquial words?
What is enantiosemy and how is it related to slang?
Would you advise people who speak a dialect of English to discard
their dialect if they are going to study in a London university or if
they are required to make a public speech? Why or why not?
Would you consider a person who knows a lot of bookish words and
has an extensive recognition vocabulary as the one who has reached
the heights in language learning and who is truly procient in it?
Should literary high-own words be restricted to the printed page
or is there any place for them in oral speech?
What are the spheres of application and usage of archaic, obsolete
and poetic words? Can a word be simultaneously archaic and poetic?
Why is ofcialese so hard to read, understand and perceive for a
foreign language learner?
What is the difference between slang, jargon and vulgar words?
Can these terms be treated as synonyms?
22
Slang
Over the years slang has been an ample source
of novel lexical items, be it from the structural or
semantic point of view. Across different linguistic
traditions opinions vary as to how slang should be
treated as a vagabond language, which is insensitive to and negligent of language norms, as well as
referents it tends to downgrade or play down, or as the origin of metaphor,
be it poetic or trite. If metaphor it certainly is, the poetic value of slang
could be disputed. Poetry in the traditional sense of the word is aimed
predominantly at elevating the subject or, in case it deserves censure, at
giving its due by revealing some hideous aspects of society. In contrast,
slang tends to bring elevated or neutral subject-matter down to earth,
performing an anti-euphemistic function, it divests the clad, overfeeds
the satiated, makes thin people still thinner and those with receding hairline bald. In other words, it exaggerates the negative and dishonours the
positive. Therefore, one would be well-advised not to resort to it more often than is absolutely indispensible, and when nding oneself in a group
of more than two unfamiliar people to avoid it altogether, otherwise the
social repercussions of blatantly violating the register may be far worse
than apprehended.
One of the most popular means of creating new slang words is semantic readjustment of some existing lexeme, often in such a way that
the basis for the transference is hardly traceable, though in most cases it
is. Thus, one wouldnt have much difculty in deciphering why the affectionate name for womans breasts is girls. After all, they form part
of any girl and are deemed by some as one of the most compelling.
Seriously speaking (or writing), the two most typical types of semantic
transference are not unknown to slang. The above case is an example of
metonymy, namely synecdoche, which is a type of transference when the
whole represents some part or vice versa. The number of slang synonyms
a word may have, seems to depend on the nature of the referent the word
denotes: the more general and vague it is, the more slangish counterparts
a word is likely to have. Another factor is the relative importance or value
of the referent for the speaker the more relevant the item is the more
23
2. Stylistic Stratication of English Vocabulary.

Slang. Barbarisms
Points to ponder
What are the earmarks of the neutral, colloquial and literary layers
of English vocabulary? Why is it essential to single them out?
Name the pertinent characteristics of the neutral layer. What accounts for its indispensability?
Say whether each neutral word has its colloquial and literary
counterparts? What does it depend on?
What are the peculiarities of common literary and common colloquial words?
Slang has been known to draw both criticisms and scholastic support over the years. Are there any contexts where slang could be
appropriate or should it be regarded as a linguistic pariah to be
avoided by all possible means? Do you think there are any situations (register) when slang words would be suitable in the speech
of an academic?
What denition of slang do you consider the most exhaustive? In
what way does slang differ from colloquial words?
What is enantiosemy and how is it related to slang?
Would you advise people who speak a dialect of English to discard
their dialect if they are going to study in a London university or if
they are required to make a public speech? Why or why not?
Would you consider a person who knows a lot of bookish words and
has an extensive recognition vocabulary as the one who has reached
the heights in language learning and who is truly procient in it?
Should literary high-own words be restricted to the printed page
or is there any place for them in oral speech?
What are the spheres of application and usage of archaic, obsolete
and poetic words? Can a word be simultaneously archaic and poetic?
Why is ofcialese so hard to read, understand and perceive for a
foreign language learner?
What is the difference between slang, jargon and vulgar words?
Can these terms be treated as synonyms?
22
Slang
Over the years slang has been an ample source
of novel lexical items, be it from the structural or
semantic point of view. Across different linguistic
traditions opinions vary as to how slang should be
treated as a vagabond language, which is insensitive to and negligent of language norms, as well as
referents it tends to downgrade or play down, or as the origin of metaphor,
be it poetic or trite. If metaphor it certainly is, the poetic value of slang
could be disputed. Poetry in the traditional sense of the word is aimed
predominantly at elevating the subject or, in case it deserves censure, at
giving its due by revealing some hideous aspects of society. In contrast,
slang tends to bring elevated or neutral subject-matter down to earth,
performing an anti-euphemistic function, it divests the clad, overfeeds
the satiated, makes thin people still thinner and those with receding hairline bald. In other words, it exaggerates the negative and dishonours the
positive. Therefore, one would be well-advised not to resort to it more often than is absolutely indispensible, and when nding oneself in a group
of more than two unfamiliar people to avoid it altogether, otherwise the
social repercussions of blatantly violating the register may be far worse
than apprehended.
One of the most popular means of creating new slang words is semantic readjustment of some existing lexeme, often in such a way that
the basis for the transference is hardly traceable, though in most cases it
is. Thus, one wouldnt have much difculty in deciphering why the affectionate name for womans breasts is girls. After all, they form part
of any girl and are deemed by some as one of the most compelling.
Seriously speaking (or writing), the two most typical types of semantic
transference are not unknown to slang. The above case is an example of
metonymy, namely synecdoche, which is a type of transference when the
whole represents some part or vice versa. The number of slang synonyms
a word may have, seems to depend on the nature of the referent the word
denotes: the more general and vague it is, the more slangish counterparts
a word is likely to have. Another factor is the relative importance or value
of the referent for the speaker the more relevant the item is the more
23
slang names it is likely to develop. By way of illustration, the stylistically

neutral lexeme money and the stylistically marked, emotionally tinged
lexeme cool could be furnished. The former seems to have no fewer
than a dozen slang synonyms: bank, Benjamins, bread, cabbage, cake,
cash, change, cheddar, chips, clams, coin, dead presidents, dough, duckets, ow, loot, moola, paper, rice, scratch, smackers. The motivation behind most of the items is more or less transparent: referring to money with
the help of the foodstuffs names reects the relative value thereof during
a particular historical period. Cabbage seems to have been chosen due
to the resemblance in colour. All slang words for money are based on
some existing vocabulary item, that is, apart from the truncated mon,
there is hardly any slangish synonym that would twist the phonetic or
graphic shape of the word money. In contrast, some of the slang words
for cool do play on the phonetic and graphic shape of the word (at least
the rst two): kewl, coo, all that, awesome, badass, bangin, boss, crisp,
da bomb, def, dope, far out, y, fresh, gnarly, groovy, keen, killer, mad,
mint, neat, nifty, phat, pimp, rad, radical, sick, solid, sweet, tight, tubular,
wicked. Unlike the slang words for money mentioned above, some of
the cool counterparts are based on enantiosemy the emergence of a
positive connotation in a word that usually connotes something negative.
This is the case with the cited words badass, dope, gnarly, killer, mad,
sick, wicked. The rationale behind the positive meaning is that originally
the application of such names was based on irony: evaluating something
or a persons activities as good or laudable, one refers to it using a negative word. It could be explained psychologically, however: consciously
or subconsciously one realizes the meanness of some thing and acknowledges it linguistically.
One of the remarkable features of contemporary slang is that, for some
reason, one particular word-building pattern (which is best referred to as
word-creative) is extensively made use of in slang, namely blending (or
contamination). R. Cullen asserts that, some of todays most inventive
neologisms, or new words, have been formed by combining two existing
words. These blends, also called portmanteaux, include the prex of
one word and the sufx of another. The resulting term incorporates the
denitions of both original words, often in clever or amusing waysThe
more we talk and text our conversations, the more we seek to distinguish
24
and express ourselves with unique and creative vocabulary. When we do,
its only a matter of seconds before an interesting new coinage makes its
way around the world [Cullen, 2007:37]. Some of the recent slangish
portmanteaux are denotly (denitely + not: most denitely not), abdomen (ab + abdomen: a abby midsection), irritainment (irritate +
entertainment: the annoying and degrading reality-based entertainment
and media spectacles one nds impossible to resist), mancation (man +
vacation: a mens-only vacation; typically a weekend jaunt during which
men bond and relax during rounds of golf, steak dinners, and plenty of
beer), resolutionary (resolution + revolutionary: a person who makes a
New Years resolution to join a gym and then quits after a few months),
ringxiety (ring + anxiety: the panic and fear induced by one ringing
cell phone in a crowd, causing everyone to scramble for their phone lest
they miss a call). The Little Hiptionary by R. Cullen (2007) contains 61
blends out of 300 slang words, which is approximately 20%. The number
is suggestive of the popularity of blending as a word-building pattern.
There are a number of reasons underlying this popularity, some of them
are purely pragmatic, others psychological, still others are supposedly
down to some peculiarities of referents that are designated with the help
of blending. From pragmatic vantage point, condensed or compressed
information tends to attract more attention and be more memorable. Second, since slang words reect the distorted picture of the referent, which
still bears resemblance to it, it is only convenient to use a model that
admits of creating a paronymic lexeme a derivative word resembling a
dictionary unit and containing graphic, phonetic, morphemic and graphemic deformations simultaneously, one deformity entailing another. Due
to technological progress and constant inow of information as well as
globalization, new objects develop that are characterized by a complex,
previously incompatible properties. The blend camcorder, for instance,
is just such an example. Although a slang word, by denition, can never
be a term, it does not preclude it from lending a dictionary item some additional characteristics that vary on the scale of objectivity, never actually
reaching complete objectivity and veering between mildly subjective to
highly idiosyncratic. This is small wonder, because slang tends to disregard the usual order of things and sometimes, at least verbally, to distort
objects and phenomena, evaluating them either as negligible and despi25
slang names it is likely to develop. By way of illustration, the stylistically

neutral lexeme money and the stylistically marked, emotionally tinged
lexeme cool could be furnished. The former seems to have no fewer
than a dozen slang synonyms: bank, Benjamins, bread, cabbage, cake,
cash, change, cheddar, chips, clams, coin, dead presidents, dough, duckets, ow, loot, moola, paper, rice, scratch, smackers. The motivation behind most of the items is more or less transparent: referring to money with
the help of the foodstuffs names reects the relative value thereof during
a particular historical period. Cabbage seems to have been chosen due
to the resemblance in colour. All slang words for money are based on
some existing vocabulary item, that is, apart from the truncated mon,
there is hardly any slangish synonym that would twist the phonetic or
graphic shape of the word money. In contrast, some of the slang words
for cool do play on the phonetic and graphic shape of the word (at least
the rst two): kewl, coo, all that, awesome, badass, bangin, boss, crisp,
da bomb, def, dope, far out, y, fresh, gnarly, groovy, keen, killer, mad,
mint, neat, nifty, phat, pimp, rad, radical, sick, solid, sweet, tight, tubular,
wicked. Unlike the slang words for money mentioned above, some of
the cool counterparts are based on enantiosemy the emergence of a
positive connotation in a word that usually connotes something negative.
This is the case with the cited words badass, dope, gnarly, killer, mad,
sick, wicked. The rationale behind the positive meaning is that originally
the application of such names was based on irony: evaluating something
or a persons activities as good or laudable, one refers to it using a negative word. It could be explained psychologically, however: consciously
or subconsciously one realizes the meanness of some thing and acknowledges it linguistically.
One of the remarkable features of contemporary slang is that, for some
reason, one particular word-building pattern (which is best referred to as
word-creative) is extensively made use of in slang, namely blending (or
contamination). R. Cullen asserts that, some of todays most inventive
neologisms, or new words, have been formed by combining two existing
words. These blends, also called portmanteaux, include the prex of
one word and the sufx of another. The resulting term incorporates the
denitions of both original words, often in clever or amusing waysThe
more we talk and text our conversations, the more we seek to distinguish
24
and express ourselves with unique and creative vocabulary. When we do,
its only a matter of seconds before an interesting new coinage makes its
way around the world [Cullen, 2007:37]. Some of the recent slangish
portmanteaux are denotly (denitely + not: most denitely not), abdomen (ab + abdomen: a abby midsection), irritainment (irritate +
entertainment: the annoying and degrading reality-based entertainment
and media spectacles one nds impossible to resist), mancation (man +
vacation: a mens-only vacation; typically a weekend jaunt during which
men bond and relax during rounds of golf, steak dinners, and plenty of
beer), resolutionary (resolution + revolutionary: a person who makes a
New Years resolution to join a gym and then quits after a few months),
ringxiety (ring + anxiety: the panic and fear induced by one ringing
cell phone in a crowd, causing everyone to scramble for their phone lest
they miss a call). The Little Hiptionary by R. Cullen (2007) contains 61
blends out of 300 slang words, which is approximately 20%. The number
is suggestive of the popularity of blending as a word-building pattern.
There are a number of reasons underlying this popularity, some of them
are purely pragmatic, others psychological, still others are supposedly
down to some peculiarities of referents that are designated with the help
of blending. From pragmatic vantage point, condensed or compressed
information tends to attract more attention and be more memorable. Second, since slang words reect the distorted picture of the referent, which
still bears resemblance to it, it is only convenient to use a model that
admits of creating a paronymic lexeme a derivative word resembling a
dictionary unit and containing graphic, phonetic, morphemic and graphemic deformations simultaneously, one deformity entailing another. Due
to technological progress and constant inow of information as well as
globalization, new objects develop that are characterized by a complex,
previously incompatible properties. The blend camcorder, for instance,
is just such an example. Although a slang word, by denition, can never
be a term, it does not preclude it from lending a dictionary item some additional characteristics that vary on the scale of objectivity, never actually
reaching complete objectivity and veering between mildly subjective to
highly idiosyncratic. This is small wonder, because slang tends to disregard the usual order of things and sometimes, at least verbally, to distort
objects and phenomena, evaluating them either as negligible and despi25
cable, or elevating the despicable and the negligible. According to The

Little Hiptionary, the spheres that tend to be a draw for blended slang
words are negative feelings about something, poor or unusual quality
of some object.
Another specic feature of modern slang is that converted proper
names are used as common nouns, mostly with some negative evaluative
connotations: How dare you to Lewinsky your way up the corporate ladder! Her skirt is so short you can practically see her Britney. Rumour has
it that guy OJd his wife! [Cullen, 2007:35]. As can be seen from the cited
examples, most of the proper names that have changed their referential
status have a notorious or shameful background and more often than not
are associated with pop-culture. Some of them are used as part of a blend:
Stay away from that girl. Shes a total Paris-ite [Cullen, 2007:34]. Here
the dubious celebrity P. Hilton is compared to a parasite.
Sports, forming an integral part of British and American culture, also
serve as an ample source of slang words: Sports slang, and particularly
words and expressions from the game of baseball, is so deeply ingrained
in our culture that we may not realize the extent to which it peppers our
everyday language. We step up to the plate, pitch ideas, drop the ball, and
play hardball all without setting foot on a eld [Cullen, 2007:114].
Some examples illuminated by The Little Hiptionary are: 1. nutmeg
(v.) in soccer, to kick the ball between the defenders legs, run around
him, and continue dribbling the ball down the eld: Kent was mortied
when Michael nutmegged him in the rst half. 2. Zebra (n.) a referee
wearing a black and white striped uniform: Send this zebra back to the
zoo! the hockey fans jeered. 3. Can of corn (n.) in baseball, an easy-tocatch y ball: Cmon, Mayes! the coach yelled from the dugout. How
could you miss that can of corn? 4. Juice (n.) steroids: Three months after starting his juice regimen, Tyrones muscle mass noticeably increased.
[Cullen, 2007:117, 119, 123].
Sports slang gave rise to a couple dozen words with the meaning of
to beat or to win: bash, beat, belt, blaze, blister, clip, clock, cork, drill,
hammer, house, juice, lace, laser beam, lash, nail, own, paste, pepper,
plank, pole, pound, powder, pown, pummel, ram, rap, rip, scald, school,
scorch, shellack, slap, slug, smack, smash, smoke, spank, sting, stroke,
whack, whang, whip. Some of the expressions referred to as sports slang
26
could be regarded as idioms that have become part and parcel of everyday
parlance, in fact they could be regarded as sports terms that have developed an idiomatic meaning (for more detailed information see E.A. Nikulina, 2005): Caroline sent out party invitations in an attempt to get the ball
90
Means of Forming Slang Words
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1. Semantic readjustment
86
2. Blending
64
3. Composition
35
4. Conversion
25
5. Derivation
15
6. Graphic Distortion
13
7. Onomatopoeia
8. Shortening
9. Reduplication
10. Lexicalization of a prefix (e.g. Mc-)
11. Incorrect derivation (orientate)
12. Acronym (RIF - reduction in force)
27
cable, or elevating the despicable and the negligible. According to The

Little Hiptionary, the spheres that tend to be a draw for blended slang
words are negative feelings about something, poor or unusual quality
of some object.
Another specic feature of modern slang is that converted proper
names are used as common nouns, mostly with some negative evaluative
connotations: How dare you to Lewinsky your way up the corporate ladder! Her skirt is so short you can practically see her Britney. Rumour has
it that guy OJd his wife! [Cullen, 2007:35]. As can be seen from the cited
examples, most of the proper names that have changed their referential
status have a notorious or shameful background and more often than not
are associated with pop-culture. Some of them are used as part of a blend:
Stay away from that girl. Shes a total Paris-ite [Cullen, 2007:34]. Here
the dubious celebrity P. Hilton is compared to a parasite.
Sports, forming an integral part of British and American culture, also
serve as an ample source of slang words: Sports slang, and particularly
words and expressions from the game of baseball, is so deeply ingrained
in our culture that we may not realize the extent to which it peppers our
everyday language. We step up to the plate, pitch ideas, drop the ball, and
play hardball all without setting foot on a eld [Cullen, 2007:114].
Some examples illuminated by The Little Hiptionary are: 1. nutmeg
(v.) in soccer, to kick the ball between the defenders legs, run around
him, and continue dribbling the ball down the eld: Kent was mortied
when Michael nutmegged him in the rst half. 2. Zebra (n.) a referee
wearing a black and white striped uniform: Send this zebra back to the
zoo! the hockey fans jeered. 3. Can of corn (n.) in baseball, an easy-tocatch y ball: Cmon, Mayes! the coach yelled from the dugout. How
could you miss that can of corn? 4. Juice (n.) steroids: Three months after starting his juice regimen, Tyrones muscle mass noticeably increased.
[Cullen, 2007:117, 119, 123].
Sports slang gave rise to a couple dozen words with the meaning of
to beat or to win: bash, beat, belt, blaze, blister, clip, clock, cork, drill,
hammer, house, juice, lace, laser beam, lash, nail, own, paste, pepper,
plank, pole, pound, powder, pown, pummel, ram, rap, rip, scald, school,
scorch, shellack, slap, slug, smack, smash, smoke, spank, sting, stroke,
whack, whang, whip. Some of the expressions referred to as sports slang
26
could be regarded as idioms that have become part and parcel of everyday
parlance, in fact they could be regarded as sports terms that have developed an idiomatic meaning (for more detailed information see E.A. Nikulina, 2005): Caroline sent out party invitations in an attempt to get the ball
90
Means of Forming Slang Words
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1. Semantic readjustment
86
2. Blending
64
3. Composition
35
4. Conversion
25
5. Derivation
15
6. Graphic Distortion
13
7. Onomatopoeia
8. Shortening
9. Reduplication
10. Lexicalization of a prefix (e.g. Mc-)
11. Incorrect derivation (orientate)
12. Acronym (RIF - reduction in force)
27
rolling. Lets try to get to rst base by scheduling a meeting. How will we
ever level the playing eld? The most popular spheres which seem to have
subjective gaps to be lled are subculture, business, technology, on-line
slang, sports slang (according to The Little Hiptionary).
The research into the percentage contribution of different word-building patterns as well as semantic processes that participate in the formation
of slang items, based on The Little Hiptionary, revealed the following
statistics3:
The given gures demonstrate that semantic readjustment (86),
blending (64), and composition (35) are the most wide-spread means of
forming slang items. It must be noted that the resultant slang is not necessarily comprised of words, but may also include idiomatic phrases.
To recapitulate, one could say that slang is characterized by a multifaceted nature: in one way it is a repository of metaphors, which when
applied in an appropriate way, may serve to embellish the concept or, conversely, to foreground some hideous aspects that may be played down by
authorities. In the latter case slang performs a purgatory function, disambiguating some notions that are made to look less repugnant. Slang is born
as a result of a highly critical and judgmental attitude towards reality. One
could object to this, however, by saying that youths and adolescents, when
they resort to slang, are not really critical of reality, but, more often than
not, emulate somebody whom they deem as more upbeat, fashionable, or
popular with the peers. This indiscriminate usage of slang is traditionally
looked down upon, since it shows a lack of discretion, discrimination and
selectivity on the part of the speaker. Slang is a double edged-sword no
matter what kind of slang words you use or in what situation (formal/informal register), you have to be prepared to face the consequences of a
possible misapplied word or of somebody taking offence.
1. Although he was very loquacious at the defense, it did not

transpire from his speech how the defendant had appropriated the effect.
2. Scratch my back, and Ill scratch yours. said Oliver.
How do you mean? asked George.
I mean, lend me 5 greenbacks in dough and I leg it.
3. As I arrived, I found a despondent site, the place forlorn,

the walls bearing no vestiges of the recent dwelling.
4. Will you be so kind as to elaborate on the point minutely,

mentioning the pertaining and salient information only,
discarding digressions.
5. The punitive measures are contingent upon your prospective demeanor.
6. Are you in the possession of the wherewithal to purchase

the said article?
7. I presume you have a penchant for a more artistic occupation.
Exercises:
I
Paraphrase the words and expressions in bold using different
stylistic synonyms so that the resultant text belongs to a different register:
3
28
Some of the cases were left out as they did not lend themselves to easy categorization.
II
There are some word forming elements in slang that seem to be
more actively used than others. These are, for instance, the lexical
units monkey, happy and dog. Say what meaning they lend to
the rst element and what the resultant compound means.
29
rolling. Lets try to get to rst base by scheduling a meeting. How will we
ever level the playing eld? The most popular spheres which seem to have
subjective gaps to be lled are subculture, business, technology, on-line
slang, sports slang (according to The Little Hiptionary).
The research into the percentage contribution of different word-building patterns as well as semantic processes that participate in the formation
of slang items, based on The Little Hiptionary, revealed the following
statistics3:
The given gures demonstrate that semantic readjustment (86),
blending (64), and composition (35) are the most wide-spread means of
forming slang items. It must be noted that the resultant slang is not necessarily comprised of words, but may also include idiomatic phrases.
To recapitulate, one could say that slang is characterized by a multifaceted nature: in one way it is a repository of metaphors, which when
applied in an appropriate way, may serve to embellish the concept or, conversely, to foreground some hideous aspects that may be played down by
authorities. In the latter case slang performs a purgatory function, disambiguating some notions that are made to look less repugnant. Slang is born
as a result of a highly critical and judgmental attitude towards reality. One
could object to this, however, by saying that youths and adolescents, when
they resort to slang, are not really critical of reality, but, more often than
not, emulate somebody whom they deem as more upbeat, fashionable, or
popular with the peers. This indiscriminate usage of slang is traditionally
looked down upon, since it shows a lack of discretion, discrimination and
selectivity on the part of the speaker. Slang is a double edged-sword no
matter what kind of slang words you use or in what situation (formal/informal register), you have to be prepared to face the consequences of a
possible misapplied word or of somebody taking offence.
1. Although he was very loquacious at the defense, it did not

transpire from his speech how the defendant had appropriated the effect.
2. Scratch my back, and Ill scratch yours. said Oliver.
How do you mean? asked George.
I mean, lend me 5 greenbacks in dough and I leg it.
3. As I arrived, I found a despondent site, the place forlorn,

the walls bearing no vestiges of the recent dwelling.
4. Will you be so kind as to elaborate on the point minutely,

mentioning the pertaining and salient information only,
discarding digressions.
5. The punitive measures are contingent upon your prospective demeanor.
6. Are you in the possession of the wherewithal to purchase

the said article?
7. I presume you have a penchant for a more artistic occupation.
Exercises:
I
Paraphrase the words and expressions in bold using different
stylistic synonyms so that the resultant text belongs to a different register:
3
28
Some of the cases were left out as they did not lend themselves to easy categorization.
II
There are some word forming elements in slang that seem to be
more actively used than others. These are, for instance, the lexical
units monkey, happy and dog. Say what meaning they lend to
the rst element and what the resultant compound means.
29
Air monkey
Wheel monkey
Car-happy
Dough-happy
Power-happy
Mean dog
Penny dog
Smart dog
III
Australian slang is characterized by the extensive use of the sufx -o, which doesnt have any specic meaning but renders the
stem to which it is attached familiar-colloquial, bordering on derogatory. Using a dictionary of slang (e.g. Oxford Dictionary of Modern
Slang, 2005) nd out what the following words mean:
Beano
Blotto
Cheapo
Combo
Compo
Daddy-o
Doggo
Fatso
Limo
Milko
Nutso
Rabbito
Salvo
30
IV
The sufx -ee, which is traditionally used in
standard English with the meaning of the receiver
of the action, is also wide-spread in slang, but it is
used with the meaning of the doer of the action and
lends to the word a diminutive or a derogatory tinge.
The sufx -er is used in slang in the formation of
compound verbal nouns, it is added twice to the verb stem and to the
postpositive, making the resultant word morphologically and semantically pleonastic.
Using a dictionary of modern slang, establish what the words
below mean:
Cookee, waitee, kissee, forgettee, breaker-upper, goerawarer, reader-in-bedder.
V
Rhyming slang can be dened as a formation of a compound
word, which rhymes with a common word, but which doesnt have
any semantic connection with it. The resultant word is facetious and
humorous. Find out what the rhyming slang words below mean:
Bees-and-honey, boat-race, Brahms and Liszt, bubbleand-squeak, bull and cow, daisy roots, dog-and-bone,
ve-to-two, greengage, ham and beef, hot beef, linendraper, mince-pie, needle and pin, nickel and dime,
Peckham rye, pen and ink, plates of meat, pot and pan,
rabbit-and-talk, rogue and villain, round-the-houses,
Simple Simon, skin and blister, tomfoolery, turtledove, two-and-eight.
31
Air monkey
Wheel monkey
Car-happy
Dough-happy
Power-happy
Mean dog
Penny dog
Smart dog
III
Australian slang is characterized by the extensive use of the sufx -o, which doesnt have any specic meaning but renders the
stem to which it is attached familiar-colloquial, bordering on derogatory. Using a dictionary of slang (e.g. Oxford Dictionary of Modern
Slang, 2005) nd out what the following words mean:
Beano
Blotto
Cheapo
Combo
Compo
Daddy-o
Doggo
Fatso
Limo
Milko
Nutso
Rabbito
Salvo
30
IV
The sufx -ee, which is traditionally used in
standard English with the meaning of the receiver
of the action, is also wide-spread in slang, but it is
used with the meaning of the doer of the action and
lends to the word a diminutive or a derogatory tinge.
The sufx -er is used in slang in the formation of
compound verbal nouns, it is added twice to the verb stem and to the
postpositive, making the resultant word morphologically and semantically pleonastic.
Using a dictionary of modern slang, establish what the words
below mean:
Cookee, waitee, kissee, forgettee, breaker-upper, goerawarer, reader-in-bedder.
V
Rhyming slang can be dened as a formation of a compound
word, which rhymes with a common word, but which doesnt have
any semantic connection with it. The resultant word is facetious and
humorous. Find out what the rhyming slang words below mean:
Bees-and-honey, boat-race, Brahms and Liszt, bubbleand-squeak, bull and cow, daisy roots, dog-and-bone,
ve-to-two, greengage, ham and beef, hot beef, linendraper, mince-pie, needle and pin, nickel and dime,
Peckham rye, pen and ink, plates of meat, pot and pan,
rabbit-and-talk, rogue and villain, round-the-houses,
Simple Simon, skin and blister, tomfoolery, turtledove, two-and-eight.
31
VI
Another characteristic feature of slang is the formation of pseudo-geographical names, aimed to reect some characteristic feature
of a locality. The following words are some such examples. What localities do they stand for?
Bananaland,
Costa del Crime,
Costa Geriatrica.
IX
Barbaric words (or barbarisms) are non-assimilated words that are traceable to Latin or French
(rarely to some other languages) and that are used in
a well-educated persons speech. They also resemble
terms in that they are, rstly, not known by everyone
and, secondly, usually circulate within some specic
professional elds, like jurisdiction or medicine. Below is a list of most
common barbarisms in English.
Consult a dictionary and (1) say what language they come from
and (2) what their current meaning is4:
VII
In slang, nouns denoting colours are used to form compounds.
Predominantly, these are the nouns blue, brown, red, yellow. What do the compounds below mean and what meaning does
the rst element lend to the second one?
Blue funk, blue murder, brown job,

to brown-nose, brown sugar,
red-devil, red eye, red-hot, yellow-belly.
VIII
Some other elements that are used in the formation of slang
words are hard, Mr., de-. What do the following words containing these elements mean?
Hard ticket, hard tail, hard cheese;

Mr. Big, Mr. Clean, Mr. Proper;
de-bag, de-bunny, de-bug.
32
Ad hoc, ad hominem, a fortiori, a priori, a posteriori, alma

mater, bona de, cum laude, curriculum vitae, e pluribus
unum, Ibid, inter alia, mutatis mutandis, per se, prima
facie, quid pro quo, sine die, sine qua non, sui generis,
la carte, amour-propre, bte-noire, bon voyage, carte
blanche, coup de grce, dj vu, enfant terrible, faux pas,
laissez-faire, nom de plume, nouveau riche, par excellence, tour de force.
An inkhorn word is
a pretentious borrowing
considered to be too highown, pedantic, recondite,
or obscure, and therefore
often frowned upon by purists. The attribute
inkhorn was chosen because it used to be associated with academics and writers, and later
became a symbol of their activities. Very often
such words are scientic terms for a neutral or a
colloquial word.
4
For detailed information on barbarisms in English and their meaning see

. , 2003.
33
VI
Another characteristic feature of slang is the formation of pseudo-geographical names, aimed to reect some characteristic feature
of a locality. The following words are some such examples. What localities do they stand for?
Bananaland,
Costa del Crime,
Costa Geriatrica.
IX
Barbaric words (or barbarisms) are non-assimilated words that are traceable to Latin or French
(rarely to some other languages) and that are used in
a well-educated persons speech. They also resemble
terms in that they are, rstly, not known by everyone
and, secondly, usually circulate within some specic
professional elds, like jurisdiction or medicine. Below is a list of most
common barbarisms in English.
Consult a dictionary and (1) say what language they come from
and (2) what their current meaning is4:
VII
In slang, nouns denoting colours are used to form compounds.
Predominantly, these are the nouns blue, brown, red, yellow. What do the compounds below mean and what meaning does
the rst element lend to the second one?
Blue funk, blue murder, brown job,

to brown-nose, brown sugar,
red-devil, red eye, red-hot, yellow-belly.
VIII
Some other elements that are used in the formation of slang
words are hard, Mr., de-. What do the following words containing these elements mean?
Hard ticket, hard tail, hard cheese;

Mr. Big, Mr. Clean, Mr. Proper;
de-bag, de-bunny, de-bug.
32
Ad hoc, ad hominem, a fortiori, a priori, a posteriori, alma

mater, bona de, cum laude, curriculum vitae, e pluribus
unum, Ibid, inter alia, mutatis mutandis, per se, prima
facie, quid pro quo, sine die, sine qua non, sui generis,
la carte, amour-propre, bte-noire, bon voyage, carte
blanche, coup de grce, dj vu, enfant terrible, faux pas,
laissez-faire, nom de plume, nouveau riche, par excellence, tour de force.
An inkhorn word is
a pretentious borrowing
considered to be too highown, pedantic, recondite,
or obscure, and therefore
often frowned upon by purists. The attribute
inkhorn was chosen because it used to be associated with academics and writers, and later
became a symbol of their activities. Very often
such words are scientic terms for a neutral or a
colloquial word.
4
For detailed information on barbarisms in English and their meaning see

. , 2003.
33
Inkhorn terms may be deemed superuous and concealing the notion

they represent.
X
Consider the supposedly inkhorn words below and their more
natural English counterparts, express your attitude to them. Are they
too scientic and redundant, or could their usage be indicative of a
well-bred, well-educated person?
Inkhorn word
abecedarian
abligurition
acronyx
baisemain
batrachoid
blattoid
brevirostrate
bruxomania
buccula
calamistration
causeuse
collation
deoppilate
dompteuse
sedentate
exennium
glabrous
hirci
jactancy
jaculate
kyphotic
natalitious
noop
odontalgia
oxter
34
Meaning in plain English

a person who teaches the alphabet
excessive spending on food and drink
an ingrown ngernail or toenail
a kiss on the hand
like a frog
like a cockroach
having a short nose
the compulsive grinding of one's teeth
a double chin
the act of curling hair
a sofa built for two people
a light informal meal
to remove an obstruction
a woman who trains animals
having no teeth
a gift given at New Year
having no hair
armpit hair
the act of boasting or bragging
to throw or to hurl
hump-backed
pertaining to someone's birthday
the sharp point of the elbow
a tooth ache
to walk arm in arm
Inkhorn word
plangonologist
psellism
quader
quotidian
rosicler
saxify
senectitude
sloken
thrip

a collector of dolls
an indistinct pronunciation, such as produced by a lisp
or by stammering
to multiply a number by itself
occurring every day
the glowing light of dawn
to turn to stone or rock
old age
to quench one's thirst
to snap ones ngers
.. . .:
. ., 1973.
.. : ( ). 3- . .: , 1990.
.. . :
. 8- . .: : , 2006.
.. . .: -
, 1958.
.. . .: , 1980.
..
//
. .: , 2010. . 4147.
.. : , , . 4- . .: , 2009.
Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang. N.Y.: Oxford University Press,
2005.
Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Fularious Street Slang Dened. Kansas
City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC, 2005.
Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Ridonkulous Street Slang Dened. Kansas
City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing House, LLC, 2007.
Steinmetz S., Kipfer B.A. The Life of Language. The fascinating ways the
words are born, live and die. N.Y.; Toronto; L.: Random House Reference,
2006.
35
Inkhorn terms may be deemed superuous and concealing the notion

they represent.
X
Consider the supposedly inkhorn words below and their more
natural English counterparts, express your attitude to them. Are they
too scientic and redundant, or could their usage be indicative of a
well-bred, well-educated person?
Inkhorn word
abecedarian
abligurition
acronyx
baisemain
batrachoid
blattoid
brevirostrate
bruxomania
buccula
calamistration
causeuse
collation
deoppilate
dompteuse
sedentate
exennium
glabrous
hirci
jactancy
jaculate
kyphotic
natalitious
noop
odontalgia
oxter
34

a person who teaches the alphabet
excessive spending on food and drink
an ingrown ngernail or toenail
a kiss on the hand
like a frog
like a cockroach
having a short nose
the compulsive grinding of one's teeth
a double chin
the act of curling hair
a sofa built for two people
a light informal meal
to remove an obstruction
a woman who trains animals
having no teeth
a gift given at New Year
having no hair
armpit hair
the act of boasting or bragging
to throw or to hurl
hump-backed
pertaining to someone's birthday
the sharp point of the elbow
a tooth ache
to walk arm in arm
Inkhorn word
plangonologist
psellism
quader
quotidian
rosicler
saxify
senectitude
sloken
thrip

a collector of dolls
an indistinct pronunciation, such as produced by a lisp
or by stammering
to multiply a number by itself
occurring every day
the glowing light of dawn
to turn to stone or rock
old age
to quench one's thirst
to snap ones ngers
.. . .:
. ., 1973.
.. : ( ). 3- . .: , 1990.
.. . :
. 8- . .: : , 2006.
.. . .: -
, 1958.
.. . .: , 1980.
..
//
. .: , 2010. . 4147.
.. : , , . 4- . .: , 2009.
Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang. N.Y.: Oxford University Press,
2005.
Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Fularious Street Slang Dened. Kansas
City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC, 2005.
Peckham A. Urban Dictionary: Ridonkulous Street Slang Dened. Kansas
City, Missouri: Andrews McMeel Publishing House, LLC, 2007.
2006.
35
3. Etymology
Points to ponder
Name the major landmarks of borrowing into English. What types
of words were borrowed during these periods?
Given that the majority of words are non-native in English (mostly
of Romance origin), why cant we regard English as a Romance
language?
What are the formal signs of words borrowed from Latin, Greek,
French, Scandinavian, Spanish, etc.?
What are the major types of assimilation? What do we call words
that are completely non-assimilated? In what context are they predominately used? How would you characterize a person who uses
such words?
Specify the reasons for borrowing words.
What spheres of life do international words tend to describe?
Name the types of etymological doublets.
Enumerate structural and stylistic characteristics of borrowed
words, particularly learned and terminology.
Comment on the following quotation from Karl Sornig. Express
your opinion:
People have always used words without knowing where they came
from and what they once denoted. Such knowledge would not be of use to
a speaker anyway; on the contrary, the knowledge of obsolete meanings
would most probably interfere with the present semantic rules of usage.
And even if the etymological meaning of a lexeme has been traced and
made public, the actual meaning of the word usually remains uninuenced by this additionally acquired knowledge. Etymological explanations and clarications have absolutely no effect whatsoever upon the
speakers usage (except if he is one of the very few philologists). Despite
their etymological blindness, people know precisely how to use a word,
some are even capable of explicitly describing differentiations in meaning
[Sornig, 1981:11].
36
Many compound and derived English words

that are non-native in origin, in particular, those going down to Greek and Latin, are etymologically
meaningful. Native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of this, because, as a result of the development of the meaning of a word, its semantics may have departed from
its etymology, or, putting it differently, the word no longer means what it
used to.
Below are some examples of such well-known words. Are you surprised at their etymology?:
Atrocious (XII) 1) extremely cruel or wicked: ruthless atrocious
deeds; 2) horrifying or shocking: an atrocious road accident; 3) informal
very bad: detestable atrocious writing. Etymology: formed on Latin ter
black + stem of oculus eye.
Belfry (XIII) bell-tower or chamber. Etymology: Old French berfrei, Frankish * bergfrid, formed on *bergan protect + * friduz peace,
shelter; the etymological meaning being defensive place of shelter.
Brandy (XVII) 1) an alcoholic drink consisting of spirit distilled
from grape wine; 2) a distillation of wines made from other fruits plum
brandy. Etymology: formed on Dutch elliptical brandewijn: branden
burn, roast + wijn wine.
Caprice (XVII) sudden unaccountable turn of mind; work of art of
lively or sportive character. Etymology: formed on Latin caput head +
ericeus urchin.
Crocodile (XIII) 1) any large tropical reptile, such as C. niloticus
(African crocodile), of the family Crocodylidae: order Crocodilia (crocodilians). They have a broad head, tapering snout, massive jaws, and a thick
outer covering of bony plates, 2) any other reptile of the order Crocodilia;
a crocodilian, 3) a) leather made from the skin of any of these animals,
b) (as modier) crocodile shoes, 4) informal a line of people, esp. schoolchildren, walking two by two. Etymology: Greek *krokdrlos, formed
on krk pebble + drilos worm.
37
3. Etymology
Points to ponder
Name the major landmarks of borrowing into English. What types
of words were borrowed during these periods?
Given that the majority of words are non-native in English (mostly
of Romance origin), why cant we regard English as a Romance
language?
What are the formal signs of words borrowed from Latin, Greek,
French, Scandinavian, Spanish, etc.?
What are the major types of assimilation? What do we call words
that are completely non-assimilated? In what context are they predominately used? How would you characterize a person who uses
such words?
Specify the reasons for borrowing words.
What spheres of life do international words tend to describe?
Name the types of etymological doublets.
Enumerate structural and stylistic characteristics of borrowed
words, particularly learned and terminology.
Comment on the following quotation from Karl Sornig. Express
your opinion:
People have always used words without knowing where they came
from and what they once denoted. Such knowledge would not be of use to
a speaker anyway; on the contrary, the knowledge of obsolete meanings
would most probably interfere with the present semantic rules of usage.
And even if the etymological meaning of a lexeme has been traced and
made public, the actual meaning of the word usually remains uninuenced by this additionally acquired knowledge. Etymological explanations and clarications have absolutely no effect whatsoever upon the
speakers usage (except if he is one of the very few philologists). Despite
their etymological blindness, people know precisely how to use a word,
some are even capable of explicitly describing differentiations in meaning
[Sornig, 1981:11].
36
Many compound and derived English words

that are non-native in origin, in particular, those going down to Greek and Latin, are etymologically
meaningful. Native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of this, because, as a result of the development of the meaning of a word, its semantics may have departed from
its etymology, or, putting it differently, the word no longer means what it
used to.
Below are some examples of such well-known words. Are you surprised at their etymology?:
Atrocious (XII) 1) extremely cruel or wicked: ruthless atrocious
deeds; 2) horrifying or shocking: an atrocious road accident; 3) informal
very bad: detestable atrocious writing. Etymology: formed on Latin ter
black + stem of oculus eye.
Belfry (XIII) bell-tower or chamber. Etymology: Old French berfrei, Frankish * bergfrid, formed on *bergan protect + * friduz peace,
shelter; the etymological meaning being defensive place of shelter.
Brandy (XVII) 1) an alcoholic drink consisting of spirit distilled
from grape wine; 2) a distillation of wines made from other fruits plum
brandy. Etymology: formed on Dutch elliptical brandewijn: branden
burn, roast + wijn wine.
Caprice (XVII) sudden unaccountable turn of mind; work of art of
lively or sportive character. Etymology: formed on Latin caput head +
ericeus urchin.
Crocodile (XIII) 1) any large tropical reptile, such as C. niloticus
(African crocodile), of the family Crocodylidae: order Crocodilia (crocodilians). They have a broad head, tapering snout, massive jaws, and a thick
outer covering of bony plates, 2) any other reptile of the order Crocodilia;
a crocodilian, 3) a) leather made from the skin of any of these animals,
b) (as modier) crocodile shoes, 4) informal a line of people, esp. schoolchildren, walking two by two. Etymology: Greek *krokdrlos, formed
on krk pebble + drilos worm.
37
Pedigree (XV) genealogy in tabular form; ones line of ancestors;

family descent. Etymology: formed on Latin ps, ped- foot + de of +
gru crane: cranes foot. So called from the mark three radiating downward lines used to denote succession in a genealogical tree; later forms
show assimilation to degree.
Exercises:
I
Trace the etymology of the words below and state whether the
inner form departed from the current meaning of the word:
Belligerent
Carnival
Haemorrhage
Horoscope
Manicure
Neighbour
Pomegranate
Schizophrenia
Benediction
Garlic
Harbinger
Jeopardy
Marzipan
Nostalgia
Portmanteau
Porcupine
II
The following groups of words have the same root. 1) State how
the words are related etymology-wise; 2) Specify the difference in the
current meaning of the words:
Permission permissiveness
Aggression aggressiveness
Agreement agreeableness
Vice viciousness
Legality legalization
38
Human humane
Miser misery
Longevity longitude oblong
Closeness closure enclosure cloister
Sanity sanitation sanitarian
Minute minutiae minuet
III
The county names of Great Britain are all meaningful in the sense
that they are etymologically motivated. Below are some county names of
Great Britain. Consult an etymological dictionary or an encyclopedia
and trace their etymology:
Derby, Suffolk, Essex, Kent,
Surrey, Sussex, Buckingham,
Oxford, Dorset, Cornwall, Avon,
Gwent, Warwick, Stafford,
Cheshire, Manchester, Man
IV
The Scandinavian lexical legacy is not only comprised of common nouns and adjectives, such as sky, skin, ill, loose, but
also of various place names. Thus, the elements -by, -thorpe and
-thwaite are of Scandinavian origin and are often found in place
names. Consult a dictionary and say what they mean. Here is a list of
geographical names containing these elements:
Carnaby, Ellerby, Rugby, Thirtleby, Barleythorpe, Grimsthorpe, Hamthorpe, Hilderthorpe, Low Claythorpe, Fridaythorpe, Hampsthwaite, Hunderthwaite, Husthwaite.
39
Pedigree (XV) genealogy in tabular form; ones line of ancestors;

family descent. Etymology: formed on Latin ps, ped- foot + de of +
gru crane: cranes foot. So called from the mark three radiating downward lines used to denote succession in a genealogical tree; later forms
show assimilation to degree.
Exercises:
I
Trace the etymology of the words below and state whether the
inner form departed from the current meaning of the word:
Belligerent
Carnival
Haemorrhage
Horoscope
Manicure
Neighbour
Pomegranate
Schizophrenia
Benediction
Garlic
Harbinger
Jeopardy
Marzipan
Nostalgia
Portmanteau
Porcupine
II
The following groups of words have the same root. 1) State how
the words are related etymology-wise; 2) Specify the difference in the
current meaning of the words:
Permission permissiveness
Aggression aggressiveness
Agreement agreeableness
Vice viciousness
Legality legalization
38
Human humane
Miser misery
Longevity longitude oblong
Closeness closure enclosure cloister
Sanity sanitation sanitarian
Minute minutiae minuet
III
The county names of Great Britain are all meaningful in the sense
that they are etymologically motivated. Below are some county names of
Great Britain. Consult an etymological dictionary or an encyclopedia
and trace their etymology:
Derby, Suffolk, Essex, Kent,
Surrey, Sussex, Buckingham,
Oxford, Dorset, Cornwall, Avon,
Gwent, Warwick, Stafford,
Cheshire, Manchester, Man
IV
The Scandinavian lexical legacy is not only comprised of common nouns and adjectives, such as sky, skin, ill, loose, but
also of various place names. Thus, the elements -by, -thorpe and
-thwaite are of Scandinavian origin and are often found in place
names. Consult a dictionary and say what they mean. Here is a list of
geographical names containing these elements:
Carnaby, Ellerby, Rugby, Thirtleby, Barleythorpe, Grimsthorpe, Hamthorpe, Hilderthorpe, Low Claythorpe, Fridaythorpe, Hampsthwaite, Hunderthwaite, Husthwaite.
39
V
Consult an etymological dictionary and state the origin of the
words below. Where possible, specify the period of borrowing:
Cradle, curse, loch, camp, linen, gem, devil, disciple, martyr, mass, offer, alphabet, fever, giant, mount, polite, radish, air, beast, beauty, colour, diet, fest, ower, journey,
judge, oil, soil, tender, literature, art, medicine, gure,
grammar, remedy, romance, surgeon, fragrant, elegance,
baton, accent, adverb, amplitude, demolish, admire, avenue, balcony, opera.
VI
During the Renaissance period a lot of Italian musical terms
were borrowed. Here is a list of some of them. Consult a dictionary
and say what they mean:
Adagio (1746)
Allegretto (1740)
Andante (1742)
Cantata (1724)
Coda (1753)
Concerto (1730)
Divertimento (1759)
Falsetto (1774)
Impresario (1746)
Moderato (1724)
Oratorio (1727)
Pianissimo (1724)
Sotto voce (1737)
40
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
VII
The English Language absorbed a lot of words not only from Romance, Greek and Scandinavian languages. The inuence of Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese and Hindi should not be disregarded.
Study the table below and say in what spheres of life the following borrowed words are used. What notions do they convey? How
important are they for everyday communication?
Arabic
admiral
albatross
alcohol
algebra
amber
assassin
cotton
mattress
mosque
syrup
sultan
zenith
zero
Persian
arsenic
azure
bazaar
caravan
jackal
jasmine
kiosk
lilac
magic
paradise
shawl
spinach
tulip
turban
Hebrew
amen
behemoth
camel
cherub
hallelujah
jubilee
manna
messiah
Sabbath
sapphire
Satan
Chinese
ginseng
kung fu
yin, yan
tea
Japanese
soy
sushi
sake
aikido
judo
sumo
banzai
origami
samurai
karaoke
geisha
kimono
rickshaw
tycoon
Hindi
bandanna
bangle
bungalow
cheetah
chintz
jungle
loot
pajamas
pundit
shampoo
thug
yoga
VIII
Below is a list of words borrowed during the Renaissance from
Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese. Sort them out and allocate each
word to one of the languages. Say what the meaning of each word is:
Bully, cookie, kit, ogle, scoop, scufe,

snufe, track, albino, cocoa, hacienda,
jerk, palaver, mantilla, torero.
41
V
Consult an etymological dictionary and state the origin of the
words below. Where possible, specify the period of borrowing:
Cradle, curse, loch, camp, linen, gem, devil, disciple, martyr, mass, offer, alphabet, fever, giant, mount, polite, radish, air, beast, beauty, colour, diet, fest, ower, journey,
judge, oil, soil, tender, literature, art, medicine, gure,
grammar, remedy, romance, surgeon, fragrant, elegance,
baton, accent, adverb, amplitude, demolish, admire, avenue, balcony, opera.
VI
During the Renaissance period a lot of Italian musical terms
were borrowed. Here is a list of some of them. Consult a dictionary
and say what they mean:
Adagio (1746)
Allegretto (1740)
Andante (1742)
Cantata (1724)
Coda (1753)
Concerto (1730)
Divertimento (1759)
Falsetto (1774)
Impresario (1746)
Moderato (1724)
Oratorio (1727)
Pianissimo (1724)
Sotto voce (1737)
40
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
VII
The English Language absorbed a lot of words not only from Romance, Greek and Scandinavian languages. The inuence of Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese and Hindi should not be disregarded.
Study the table below and say in what spheres of life the following borrowed words are used. What notions do they convey? How
important are they for everyday communication?
Arabic
admiral
albatross
alcohol
algebra
amber
assassin
cotton
mattress
mosque
syrup
sultan
zenith
zero
Persian
arsenic
azure
bazaar
caravan
jackal
jasmine
kiosk
lilac
magic
paradise
shawl
spinach
tulip
turban
Hebrew
amen
behemoth
camel
cherub
hallelujah
jubilee
manna
messiah
Sabbath
sapphire
Satan
Chinese
ginseng
kung fu
yin, yan
tea
Japanese
soy
sushi
sake
aikido
judo
sumo
banzai
origami
samurai
karaoke
geisha
kimono
rickshaw
tycoon
Hindi
bandanna
bangle
bungalow
cheetah
chintz
jungle
loot
pajamas
pundit
shampoo
thug
yoga
VIII
Below is a list of words borrowed during the Renaissance from
Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese. Sort them out and allocate each
word to one of the languages. Say what the meaning of each word is:
Bully, cookie, kit, ogle, scoop, scufe,

snufe, track, albino, cocoa, hacienda,
jerk, palaver, mantilla, torero.
41
IX
Cognates are words that are etymologically related. As was mentioned elsewhere, native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of
this connection. Thus, the words fame, infamy infant, infantry
and bandit are etymologically related. Look up their etymology in a
dictionary and trace their connection.
X
Roots which are usually of Latin or Greek origin and emerge in a number or related words, but
are no longer associated with a clear-cut meaning
are called remnant roots. These are such roots
as -fer, -cur-, -aster, punct-, -pyr-, cap, syn- (sym-, syl-), -lev-, fa- (fe-, pha-, phe-). Study their
meaning and say how it is reected in the meaning of the words that
they form.
XI
Some Indo-European remnant roots are characterized by gradation, a process by which root vowels
alternate with each other or occasionally drop out of
the root. There are different types of gradation, but
the most wide-spread are e-gradation, o-gradation
and zero-gradation.
Study the following words with gradations and say how the words
are related semantically.
Root
e-gradation
o-gradation
zero-gradation
kel hollow, cover
cellar
colour
clandestine
gen birth, origin
genetic
gonorrhea
cognate
men think, warn
demented
admonish
mnemonic
pher carry, bear
Christopher
euphoria
pellagra
surplice
hyperbole
parable
cere grow
cereal
increase
gel jelly, ice, solidify
gelatin
glacial
legal
apology
melliuous
molasses
menace
Montana
pel skin, fell

bol throw, reach
-fer:
-cur-:
-aster:
punct-:
-pyr-:
cap-:
syn-:
-lev-:
42
to carry, bring, bear transfer, refer, prefer, confer, infer, offer

run current, concur, incur, occur, recur
star disaster, asteroid, astronaut
point punctuation, punctual, punctilious,
puncture
re; fever pyrotechnics, antipyretic
take, seize captor, capture, captive
(sym-, syl-): together, with synonym, synthesis, syllogism, syllable, symmetry, sympathy,
lift, rise elevate, lever, levy, levity
leg gather, read, study

mel honey
men lead, project, threaten
XII
Doublets are a pair of distinct words that ultimately derive from the
same single source, but diverge along the line of their development. Doublets may resemble each other in form and sometimes in meaning. Doublets are a result of the historical process of borrowing, which involved
acquiring the same or related vocabulary items from different sources,
usually Latin and French.
Study the etymology of the doublets below and say whether the
words are at present semantically related.
43
IX
Cognates are words that are etymologically related. As was mentioned elsewhere, native speakers, however, may no longer be aware of
this connection. Thus, the words fame, infamy infant, infantry
and bandit are etymologically related. Look up their etymology in a
dictionary and trace their connection.
X
Roots which are usually of Latin or Greek origin and emerge in a number or related words, but
are no longer associated with a clear-cut meaning
are called remnant roots. These are such roots
as -fer, -cur-, -aster, punct-, -pyr-, cap, syn- (sym-, syl-), -lev-, fa- (fe-, pha-, phe-). Study their
meaning and say how it is reected in the meaning of the words that
they form.
XI
Some Indo-European remnant roots are characterized by gradation, a process by which root vowels
alternate with each other or occasionally drop out of
the root. There are different types of gradation, but
the most wide-spread are e-gradation, o-gradation
and zero-gradation.
Study the following words with gradations and say how the words
are related semantically.
Root
e-gradation
o-gradation
zero-gradation
kel hollow, cover
cellar
colour
clandestine
gen birth, origin
genetic
gonorrhea
cognate
men think, warn
demented
admonish
mnemonic
pher carry, bear
Christopher
euphoria
pellagra
surplice
hyperbole
parable
cere grow
cereal
increase
gel jelly, ice, solidify
gelatin
glacial
legal
apology
melliuous
molasses
menace
Montana
pel skin, fell

bol throw, reach
-fer:
-cur-:
-aster:
punct-:
-pyr-:
cap-:
syn-:
-lev-:
42
to carry, bring, bear transfer, refer, prefer, confer, infer, offer

run current, concur, incur, occur, recur
star disaster, asteroid, astronaut
point punctuation, punctual, punctilious,
puncture
re; fever pyrotechnics, antipyretic
take, seize captor, capture, captive
(sym-, syl-): together, with synonym, synthesis, syllogism, syllable, symmetry, sympathy,
lift, rise elevate, lever, levy, levity
leg gather, read, study

mel honey
men lead, project, threaten
XII
Doublets are a pair of distinct words that ultimately derive from the
same single source, but diverge along the line of their development. Doublets may resemble each other in form and sometimes in meaning. Doublets are a result of the historical process of borrowing, which involved
acquiring the same or related vocabulary items from different sources,
usually Latin and French.
Study the etymology of the doublets below and say whether the
words are at present semantically related.
43
Capital, cattle, chattel. The words go down to Medieval Latin capitale, meaning property.
Canary, cynic. From Greek kun- dog.
Abbreviate, abridge. From Latin brevis short.
Aptitude, attitude. From Latin aptitd tness.
Castle, chateau. From Latin castrum fort.
Cloak, clock. From Medieval Latin clocca bell. A
cloak was so called because its shape resembled that of
a bell. A clock was a timepiece in which each hour was
marked by the sound of a bell.
Costume, custom. From Latin cnsutdinem
habit, custom.
Coy, quiet. From Latin quitus at rest, in repose.
Faction, fashion. From Latin facti doing or making.
Guarantee, warranty. The former is from Old French
garant warrant, the latter is from Old Norse French
warantie a warrant.
Guardian, warden. The former is from Old French
gardein protector, custodian, the latter is from
Old Norse French wardein guardian, custodian.
Inch, ounce. The former is from Latin uncia twelfth
part (of a foot, pound, etc.), the latter is from Old
French, meaning a twelfth of a pound.
Legal, loyal. From Latin lglis legal.
Poison, potion. From Latin ptin- a poisonous
drink.
Regal, royal. From Latin rglis t for a king.
Tradition, treason. From Latin trditin- delivery,
handing over, surrender.
44
XIII
Eponyms (from Greek eponymous named
for) are words that can be traced back to a proper name (whose bearer is noted for something) but
function as common nouns and may no longer be
capitalized.
Study the following eponyms and say what the sphere of their
application and usage is. Divide them into several groups according
to their origin.
Atlas: a collection of maps. The mythical Atlas fought an unsuccessful
war against Zeus, who condemned him to bear the heavens on his shoulders.
Band-aid : is usually generalized to refer to any small bandage for a
cut or scratch.
Bikini: the islands where the atom bomb was tested.
Boycott: after Charles Boycott, an English land agent in Ireland.
Cardigan: a sweater or jacket that opens down the front. Named after the
7th Earl of Cardigan (J.T. Brundell, 17971868), who wore such a jacket
when he led the heroic Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean
War.
Casanova: after Giovanni Jacopo Casanova de Seingalt, who wrote vividly about his amorous adventures throughout Europe.
Cashmere: ne wool; named for Cashmere (now Kashmir), a region in
the Himalayas where this wool is obtained.
Chauvinism: militant patriotism. Traced back to Nicholas Chauvin, a
wounded French veteran of the Napoleonic Wars famed for his devotion
to Napoleon and the Empire. At rst he was admired, but after Napoleons
downfall he was ridiculed for his excessive patriotism.
Cheddar: a village in Somerset whence the cheese rst came.
Dahlia: after the Swedish botanist Anders Dahl.
Denim: cotton cloth, originally serge, made in the town of Nmes, southern France, hence serge de Nim.
Derby: a stiff felt hat with rounded crown and narrow brim; named for
the Derby, the annual horse race in Britain, at which men wore this kind
45
Capital, cattle, chattel. The words go down to Medieval Latin capitale, meaning property.
Canary, cynic. From Greek kun- dog.
Abbreviate, abridge. From Latin brevis short.
Aptitude, attitude. From Latin aptitd tness.
Castle, chateau. From Latin castrum fort.
Cloak, clock. From Medieval Latin clocca bell. A
cloak was so called because its shape resembled that of
a bell. A clock was a timepiece in which each hour was
marked by the sound of a bell.
Costume, custom. From Latin cnsutdinem
habit, custom.
Coy, quiet. From Latin quitus at rest, in repose.
Faction, fashion. From Latin facti doing or making.
Guarantee, warranty. The former is from Old French
garant warrant, the latter is from Old Norse French
warantie a warrant.
Guardian, warden. The former is from Old French
gardein protector, custodian, the latter is from
Old Norse French wardein guardian, custodian.
Inch, ounce. The former is from Latin uncia twelfth
part (of a foot, pound, etc.), the latter is from Old
French, meaning a twelfth of a pound.
Legal, loyal. From Latin lglis legal.
Poison, potion. From Latin ptin- a poisonous
drink.
Regal, royal. From Latin rglis t for a king.
Tradition, treason. From Latin trditin- delivery,
handing over, surrender.
44
XIII
Eponyms (from Greek eponymous named
for) are words that can be traced back to a proper name (whose bearer is noted for something) but
function as common nouns and may no longer be
capitalized.
Study the following eponyms and say what the sphere of their
application and usage is. Divide them into several groups according
to their origin.
Atlas: a collection of maps. The mythical Atlas fought an unsuccessful
war against Zeus, who condemned him to bear the heavens on his shoulders.
Band-aid : is usually generalized to refer to any small bandage for a
cut or scratch.
Bikini: the islands where the atom bomb was tested.
Boycott: after Charles Boycott, an English land agent in Ireland.
Cardigan: a sweater or jacket that opens down the front. Named after the
7th Earl of Cardigan (J.T. Brundell, 17971868), who wore such a jacket
when he led the heroic Charge of the Light Brigade during the Crimean
War.
Casanova: after Giovanni Jacopo Casanova de Seingalt, who wrote vividly about his amorous adventures throughout Europe.
Cashmere: ne wool; named for Cashmere (now Kashmir), a region in
the Himalayas where this wool is obtained.
Chauvinism: militant patriotism. Traced back to Nicholas Chauvin, a
wounded French veteran of the Napoleonic Wars famed for his devotion
to Napoleon and the Empire. At rst he was admired, but after Napoleons
downfall he was ridiculed for his excessive patriotism.
Cheddar: a village in Somerset whence the cheese rst came.
Dahlia: after the Swedish botanist Anders Dahl.
Denim: cotton cloth, originally serge, made in the town of Nmes, southern France, hence serge de Nim.
Derby: a stiff felt hat with rounded crown and narrow brim; named for
the Derby, the annual horse race in Britain, at which men wore this kind
45
of hat. The Derby was founded by the 12th Earl of Derby in 1780, after the
county of this name in central England.
Derrick: a crane for lifting heavy weights; originally, a structure for
hanging someone, a gallows, named after Derrick, surname of a noted
hangman of the Tyburn gallows in London during
the 1600s.
Dunce: a stupid person. A clipping from the name
of John Duns Scotus (12651308), a teacher of theology and philosophy at Oxford who challenged the
teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Followers of Aquinas attacked the disciples of Scotus, calling then
Dunses, and nally equating them with fools and
blockheads.
Guillotine: a device with a large blade for beheading people, named for
Joseph Ignace Guillotin (17381814), a French physician who was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1789 when he proposed that those condemned to death should be beheaded by a machine, which would be quicker
and more humane than the methods used until then by executioners.
Guy: named for the Catholic conspirator, member of the Gunpowder Plot
in Great Britain, 1606. Since he was held up for ridicule, and in Britain
the word still means a person of odd or grotesque appearance, it is apparent that American English has generalized and neutralized the word.
Hector: to bully. Named for Hector, the champion of Troy in The Lliad,
who fought the Greeks.
Jeans: from the Italian city of Genoa, where the cloth was rst made, as
in blue jeans.
Jello : a particular brand of jellied emulsion, is generalized to refer to
any edible substance of the same type.
Nemesis: after the name of a Greek goddess who punished violations of
all forms of rightful order and proper behavior.
Malapropism: a ridiculously inappropriate use of words; named after
Mrs. Malaprop, a character in R. Sheridans comedy The Rivals (1775).
She regularly misapplied words by replacing the intended word with one
that sounded alike.
Maverick: an individualist, a political independent; (earlier) an animal
unmarked with a brand. Named after A. Maverick (18031870), a Texas
rancher who refused to brand his cattle, saying that branding was cruel.
46
His neighbours accused him of lying, since

it allowed Maverick to claim nay unbranded
cattle on the range as his. By the turn of the
century, maverick had taken on the meaning of someone independent and unconventional, especially a politician who breaks
away from his party.
Mentor: a trusted guide, advisor. Named after Mentor, the faithful
friend of Ulysses in Homers Odyssey. The goddess Athene assumes the
form of Mentor when she accompanies Telemachus as a guide and advisor in his search for his father.
Morphine: a drug extracted from opium. Named after Morpheus, the
Roman God of dreams, son of the god of sleep.
Panic: noises which caused fear in the ocks by night were attributed in
Ancient Greece to Pan, the God of misdeeds; a panic is irrational behavior in the herd.
Nicotine: after Jacques Nicot, who introduced tobacco into France in
1560.
Pompadour: an upswept style of hair. Named after the Marquise de
Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV of France, who wore her hair in
this style.
Raglan: a loose overcoat with sleeves extending to the collar. Named
after Lord Raglan (17881855), a British eld marshal who wore such a
coat during the Crimean War.
Sandwich: after the eighteenth-century British nobleman, the Earl of
Sandwich, who brought bread and meat together to provide sustenance
for himself.
Sardonic (alteration of sardinic): coming from the island of Sardinia.
Refers to a type of sarcastic laughter supposed to resemble the grotesque
effects of eating a certain Sardinian plant.
Silhouette: a portrait made by tracing the outline of a prole, gure and
so on. Named after Etienne de Silhouette (17091767), the controller of
nances in France in 1759.
Bork: to attack a political candidate, especially in the media. Named after
Judge Robert H. Bork, whose nomination to the Supreme Court in 1987 was
rejected by the Senate after an extensive media attacks by his opponents.
47
of hat. The Derby was founded by the 12th Earl of Derby in 1780, after the
county of this name in central England.
Derrick: a crane for lifting heavy weights; originally, a structure for
hanging someone, a gallows, named after Derrick, surname of a noted
hangman of the Tyburn gallows in London during
the 1600s.
Dunce: a stupid person. A clipping from the name
of John Duns Scotus (12651308), a teacher of theology and philosophy at Oxford who challenged the
teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Followers of Aquinas attacked the disciples of Scotus, calling then
Dunses, and nally equating them with fools and
blockheads.
Guillotine: a device with a large blade for beheading people, named for
Joseph Ignace Guillotin (17381814), a French physician who was a member of the Constituent Assembly in 1789 when he proposed that those condemned to death should be beheaded by a machine, which would be quicker
and more humane than the methods used until then by executioners.
Guy: named for the Catholic conspirator, member of the Gunpowder Plot
in Great Britain, 1606. Since he was held up for ridicule, and in Britain
the word still means a person of odd or grotesque appearance, it is apparent that American English has generalized and neutralized the word.
Hector: to bully. Named for Hector, the champion of Troy in The Lliad,
who fought the Greeks.
Jeans: from the Italian city of Genoa, where the cloth was rst made, as
in blue jeans.
Jello : a particular brand of jellied emulsion, is generalized to refer to
any edible substance of the same type.
Nemesis: after the name of a Greek goddess who punished violations of
all forms of rightful order and proper behavior.
Malapropism: a ridiculously inappropriate use of words; named after
Mrs. Malaprop, a character in R. Sheridans comedy The Rivals (1775).
She regularly misapplied words by replacing the intended word with one
that sounded alike.
Maverick: an individualist, a political independent; (earlier) an animal
unmarked with a brand. Named after A. Maverick (18031870), a Texas
rancher who refused to brand his cattle, saying that branding was cruel.
46
His neighbours accused him of lying, since

it allowed Maverick to claim nay unbranded
cattle on the range as his. By the turn of the
century, maverick had taken on the meaning of someone independent and unconventional, especially a politician who breaks
away from his party.
Mentor: a trusted guide, advisor. Named after Mentor, the faithful
friend of Ulysses in Homers Odyssey. The goddess Athene assumes the
form of Mentor when she accompanies Telemachus as a guide and advisor in his search for his father.
Morphine: a drug extracted from opium. Named after Morpheus, the
Roman God of dreams, son of the god of sleep.
Panic: noises which caused fear in the ocks by night were attributed in
Ancient Greece to Pan, the God of misdeeds; a panic is irrational behavior in the herd.
Nicotine: after Jacques Nicot, who introduced tobacco into France in
1560.
Pompadour: an upswept style of hair. Named after the Marquise de
Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV of France, who wore her hair in
this style.
Raglan: a loose overcoat with sleeves extending to the collar. Named
after Lord Raglan (17881855), a British eld marshal who wore such a
coat during the Crimean War.
Sandwich: after the eighteenth-century British nobleman, the Earl of
Sandwich, who brought bread and meat together to provide sustenance
for himself.
Sardonic (alteration of sardinic): coming from the island of Sardinia.
Refers to a type of sarcastic laughter supposed to resemble the grotesque
effects of eating a certain Sardinian plant.
Silhouette: a portrait made by tracing the outline of a prole, gure and
so on. Named after Etienne de Silhouette (17091767), the controller of
nances in France in 1759.
Bork: to attack a political candidate, especially in the media. Named after
Judge Robert H. Bork, whose nomination to the Supreme Court in 1987 was
rejected by the Senate after an extensive media attacks by his opponents.
47
Quisling: a traitor who cooperates with the enemy; named after major
Vidkun Quisling, who headed Norways puppet government under the
Nazis in World War II and was executed for treason in 1945.
Sherry: white wine, originally from Xerez, now Jerex de la Frontera in Spain.
The nal s was deleted on a mistaken view that it was the plural sufx.
Solon: a lawgiver. Named for Solon, an Athenian statesman and lawgiver.
Strangelove: a military strategist who plans large-scale nuclear warfare;
named after Dr. Strangelove, a mad military planner in the 1964 motion
picture Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love
the Bomb, directed by St. Kubrick.
Velcro : a fastening consisting of two strips of nylon fabric, one having tiny hooked threads and the other a coarse surface, that form a strong
bond when pressed together.
Xerox : especially as a verb has come to mean to copy by a dry process.
Reborrowing ( ) is the
process when a word is borrowed from one language
into another, and then it is borrowed back into the
original language in a different form or with a different meaning.
Study the examples below and say how the meaning of the reborrowed word differs from its etymon (etymon is the original word to
which a words etymology can be traced).
French: tenez (to hold): English tennis: French: tennis (the name of the sport)
French: cotte English: riding coat: French: redingote: English: redingote
Greek: knma (movement): French: cinma: Greek
sinem (cinema)
English: animation: Japanese: anime: English anime
(Japanese animation)
English: crack (news, gossip): Irish Gaelic: craic (fun):
English: craic
48
Phono-semantic matching ( ) is an inconspicuous, disguised

borrowing in which a foreign word is rendered by
means of the recipient language, the resultant word
resembling the original word phonetically and semantically. The rationale behind phono-semantic borrowing is as follows:
Recycling obsolete lexical items; camouaging foreign inuence; facilitating learning; playfulness; iconicity; political correctness; attracting
customers (if they are brand-names). Some examples are: the Mandarin
form of World Wide Web is wn wi wng, which literally means
myriad dimensional net; the Icelandic toekni (technology, technique)
is a phono-semantic matching of the Danish teknik, toekni derives
from toeki (tool) and the nominal sufx -ni; Turkish okul is a phonosemantic variant of the French cole (school), okul is derived from
okumak (to read, to study).
In what way does phono-semantic matching differ from loantranslation, or calquing?
: - . .
. / .3. , .. , .. .. . 2- .,
. . .: . , 1979.
.. . .: . ., 1986.
Metcalf A. Predicting new words: the secrets of their success. Boston:
Houghton Mifin Company, 2002.
Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology (OCDEE). Oxford,
N.Y., 1996.
2006.
Stockwell R., Minkova D. English Words: History and Structure. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Second edition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
49
Quisling: a traitor who cooperates with the enemy; named after major
Vidkun Quisling, who headed Norways puppet government under the
Nazis in World War II and was executed for treason in 1945.
Sherry: white wine, originally from Xerez, now Jerex de la Frontera in Spain.
The nal s was deleted on a mistaken view that it was the plural sufx.
Solon: a lawgiver. Named for Solon, an Athenian statesman and lawgiver.
Strangelove: a military strategist who plans large-scale nuclear warfare;
named after Dr. Strangelove, a mad military planner in the 1964 motion
picture Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love
the Bomb, directed by St. Kubrick.
Velcro : a fastening consisting of two strips of nylon fabric, one having tiny hooked threads and the other a coarse surface, that form a strong
bond when pressed together.
Xerox : especially as a verb has come to mean to copy by a dry process.
Reborrowing ( ) is the
process when a word is borrowed from one language
into another, and then it is borrowed back into the
original language in a different form or with a different meaning.
Study the examples below and say how the meaning of the reborrowed word differs from its etymon (etymon is the original word to
which a words etymology can be traced).
French: tenez (to hold): English tennis: French: tennis (the name of the sport)
French: cotte English: riding coat: French: redingote: English: redingote
Greek: knma (movement): French: cinma: Greek
sinem (cinema)
English: animation: Japanese: anime: English anime
(Japanese animation)
English: crack (news, gossip): Irish Gaelic: craic (fun):
English: craic
48
Phono-semantic matching ( ) is an inconspicuous, disguised

borrowing in which a foreign word is rendered by
means of the recipient language, the resultant word
resembling the original word phonetically and semantically. The rationale behind phono-semantic borrowing is as follows:
Recycling obsolete lexical items; camouaging foreign inuence; facilitating learning; playfulness; iconicity; political correctness; attracting
customers (if they are brand-names). Some examples are: the Mandarin
form of World Wide Web is wn wi wng, which literally means
myriad dimensional net; the Icelandic toekni (technology, technique)
is a phono-semantic matching of the Danish teknik, toekni derives
from toeki (tool) and the nominal sufx -ni; Turkish okul is a phonosemantic variant of the French cole (school), okul is derived from
okumak (to read, to study).
In what way does phono-semantic matching differ from loantranslation, or calquing?
: - . .
. / .3. , .. , .. .. . 2- .,
. . .: . , 1979.
.. . .: . ., 1986.
Metcalf A. Predicting new words: the secrets of their success. Boston:
Houghton Mifin Company, 2002.
Oxford Concise Dictionary of English Etymology (OCDEE). Oxford,
N.Y., 1996.
2006.
The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Second edition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
49
4. Word-building
Points to ponder
What is the smallest meaningful indivisible unit in language? In
what way can the status of this unit vary? What other types of
units do you know?
Dene a productive word-building pattern and name the types of
productive patterns in English. Say what accounts for their productivity.
Does the dichotomy productive non-productive equal the dichotomy central-marginal?
Say what derivation, composition and shortening are and specify
their major types.
What do the terms aphaeresis, syncope and apocope refer
to? Give examples.
Can the meaning of a derivative or a compound be deduced from
the meaning of their constituents?
Why does one and the same sufx or prex can lend different
meanings to the stem? What does it depend on?
Why is conversion so typical of English? What types of semantic
shift regularly occur in converted words? What part of speech
seems to be most prone to conversion?
What is the difference between semi-afxes and combining
forms? Which type of morpheme is more productive in modern
English and why?
What other terms for shortening do you know?
In what situations do people tend to reduplicate words or to apply
reduplicated words?
What is blending? Specify the structural and semantic types of
blends. Say in what types of discourse they are most commonly
used. Name all the possible reasons for their usage. Enumerate all
the synonymic terms for blending. What term do Russian scholars seem to give preference to and Western ones? How can you
explain this diversity of terms for blending. Do you know the
name of the writer who popularized this word-building pattern?
50
Exercises
I
Going by the given denitions of the stem and the root, identify
them in the following English words:
Stem is the part of a word that remains when inflections are removed, it serves as a derivational basis for other words.
Root is the core part of a word that carries its primary meaning, it
is left over when a prefix or a suffix has been removed from it.
Unmentionables, smallest, serendipity,

supercilious, director, discredit, disability, eventuality, meticulousness, friendship, parturition, capability, mileage
II
Specify the word-building pattern of the underlined words.
1. What is the make of your car?
2. My hairdresser did a good perm to my hair.
3. At rst the password to Harry Potters dorm was balderdash,

but then it was changed into gobbledegook
4. I cant administer a dressing to your wound because the nature

of injury might be conducive to the formation of pus if its not
exposed to the sun and fresh air said the nurse.
51
4. Word-building
Points to ponder
What is the smallest meaningful indivisible unit in language? In
what way can the status of this unit vary? What other types of
units do you know?
Dene a productive word-building pattern and name the types of
productive patterns in English. Say what accounts for their productivity.
Does the dichotomy productive non-productive equal the dichotomy central-marginal?
Say what derivation, composition and shortening are and specify
their major types.
What do the terms aphaeresis, syncope and apocope refer
to? Give examples.
Can the meaning of a derivative or a compound be deduced from
the meaning of their constituents?
Why does one and the same sufx or prex can lend different
meanings to the stem? What does it depend on?
Why is conversion so typical of English? What types of semantic
shift regularly occur in converted words? What part of speech
seems to be most prone to conversion?
What is the difference between semi-afxes and combining
forms? Which type of morpheme is more productive in modern
English and why?
What other terms for shortening do you know?
In what situations do people tend to reduplicate words or to apply
reduplicated words?
What is blending? Specify the structural and semantic types of
blends. Say in what types of discourse they are most commonly
used. Name all the possible reasons for their usage. Enumerate all
the synonymic terms for blending. What term do Russian scholars seem to give preference to and Western ones? How can you
explain this diversity of terms for blending. Do you know the
name of the writer who popularized this word-building pattern?
50
Exercises
I
Going by the given denitions of the stem and the root, identify
them in the following English words:
Stem is the part of a word that remains when inflections are removed, it serves as a derivational basis for other words.
Root is the core part of a word that carries its primary meaning, it
is left over when a prefix or a suffix has been removed from it.
Unmentionables, smallest, serendipity,

supercilious, director, discredit, disability, eventuality, meticulousness, friendship, parturition, capability, mileage
II
Specify the word-building pattern of the underlined words.
1. What is the make of your car?
2. My hairdresser did a good perm to my hair.
3. At rst the password to Harry Potters dorm was balderdash,

but then it was changed into gobbledegook
4. I cant administer a dressing to your wound because the nature

of injury might be conducive to the formation of pus if its not
exposed to the sun and fresh air said the nurse.
51
5. This regulation can be accepted mutatis mutandis.

6. I think you need a good shake.
Im not drinking it.
Certainly not. What I mean is
that you need a proper telling-off, man.
7. Do you need a hand?
Sorry?
I mean, shall I help you?
8. I dont want to act as a go-between or a middleman in you row.
9. If the said subject fails to clarify the provenance

of these possessions, the ramications will include a legal action on my clients behalf.
III
Analyze the underlined words from the point of view of their
morphemic structure
Mr. Moon, with the air of a man who has remembered something
which he had overlooked, shoved a sock in his guests mouth and
resumed his packing. He was what might be called an impressionist packer. His aim appeared to be speed rather than neatness.
He bundled his belongings in, closed the bag with some difculty
and stepping to the window opened it. Then he climbed out onto
the fire-escape, dragged his suitcase after him and was gone.
(P.G. Wodehouse)
52
The Rev. Thomas was a man of extreme nervous temperament. He

was, par excellence, a fusser and when he fussed, his digestive apparatus collapsed and he suffered agonizing pains. (Agatha Christie)
To Forsyte imagination that house now was a sort of Chinese pillbox, a series of layers in the last of which was Timothy. One did not
reach him, or so it was reported by members of the family who, out
of old-time habit or absent-mindedness would drive up once in a
blue moon and ask after their surviving uncle. (John Galsworthy)
IV
Spot cases of conversion in the sentences below.
1. I kept glancing at the les of kopjes which, seen from a different angle, seemed to change with every step so that even
known landmarks, like a big mountain that has sentinelled my
world since I rst became conscious of it, showed an unfamiliar sunlit valley among its foothills (D. Lessing, The Old
Chief Mshlanga, 1956, P. 9).
2. And then he grinned, too widely, and lowered his face to

the gurine, and crushed its head in his teeth, chomping and
chewing widely, swallowing in lumps. His teeth ground the
china to a ne powder, which dusted the lower part of his
face (N. Gaiman, Neverwhere, 1996, P. 210).
3. We played in the sandpit for a little while, and then he went
down the slide a few times, and then he had a ride on one of
those wooden horses that have a big spring coming out of
the bottom of them so you can wobble around (N. Hornby,
Slam, 2007, P. 234).
53
5. This regulation can be accepted mutatis mutandis.

6. I think you need a good shake.
Im not drinking it.
Certainly not. What I mean is
that you need a proper telling-off, man.
7. Do you need a hand?
Sorry?
I mean, shall I help you?
8. I dont want to act as a go-between or a middleman in you row.
9. If the said subject fails to clarify the provenance

of these possessions, the ramications will include a legal action on my clients behalf.
III
Analyze the underlined words from the point of view of their
morphemic structure
Mr. Moon, with the air of a man who has remembered something
which he had overlooked, shoved a sock in his guests mouth and
resumed his packing. He was what might be called an impressionist packer. His aim appeared to be speed rather than neatness.
He bundled his belongings in, closed the bag with some difculty
and stepping to the window opened it. Then he climbed out onto
the fire-escape, dragged his suitcase after him and was gone.
(P.G. Wodehouse)
52
The Rev. Thomas was a man of extreme nervous temperament. He

was, par excellence, a fusser and when he fussed, his digestive apparatus collapsed and he suffered agonizing pains. (Agatha Christie)
To Forsyte imagination that house now was a sort of Chinese pillbox, a series of layers in the last of which was Timothy. One did not
reach him, or so it was reported by members of the family who, out
of old-time habit or absent-mindedness would drive up once in a
blue moon and ask after their surviving uncle. (John Galsworthy)
IV
Spot cases of conversion in the sentences below.
1. I kept glancing at the les of kopjes which, seen from a different angle, seemed to change with every step so that even
known landmarks, like a big mountain that has sentinelled my
world since I rst became conscious of it, showed an unfamiliar sunlit valley among its foothills (D. Lessing, The Old
Chief Mshlanga, 1956, P. 9).
2. And then he grinned, too widely, and lowered his face to

the gurine, and crushed its head in his teeth, chomping and
chewing widely, swallowing in lumps. His teeth ground the
china to a ne powder, which dusted the lower part of his
face (N. Gaiman, Neverwhere, 1996, P. 210).
3. We played in the sandpit for a little while, and then he went
down the slide a few times, and then he had a ride on one of
those wooden horses that have a big spring coming out of
the bottom of them so you can wobble around (N. Hornby,
Slam, 2007, P. 234).
53
4. The prohibition against um probably grew into a general

expectation of awless speaking with the advent of the radio.
The popularity of the technology exploded in the 1920s in a
way that contemporary Americans who witnessed the rise of
the Internet would recognize (M. Erard, Slips, Stumbles and
Verbal Blunders and What They Mean, 2007, P. 128).
5. Take a moment to map out your own sphere of inuence.
Where is it strongest, beginning with the sphere of your formal
authority? (Power, Inuence and Persuasion, 1992, P. 41).
6. If lists of universals show that languages do not vary freely, do

they imply that languages are restricted by the structure of the
brain? Not directly. First, one must rule our two alternative explanations (S. Pinker, The Language Instinct, 1994, P. 234).
7. I met a couple out walking two large black dogs of uncertain genetic background. The dogs were romping playfully
in the tall grass, but, as always, happens, at the rst sight of
me their muscles tautened, their eyes turned a glowing red
(B. Bryson, Notes from a Small Island, 1998, P. 113).
8. He sat with the package on his knees, aware of the passengers glances, and somehow knew the colour was a giveaway
(I. McEwan, The Innocent, 1999, P. 92).
9. The place emptied rapidly. The horizontal diggers, the tunneling sergeants, had long departed. The British vertical men had
left just as the excitement was growing, and no one noticed
them go (I. McEwan, The Innocent, 1999, P. 114).
54
V
In an endocentric compound the head word
is described by the rst modifying component; in
exocentric compounds both components refer to an
unexpressed semantic head, this type of compound
is traditionally called bahuvrihi, the meaning of
such a compound is, par excellence, based on metonymic transference.
In copulative compounds both parts describe the complex nature of the
referent, that is, the referent simultaneously possesses two, very often
opposed, qualities (e.g. bittersweet). In appositional compounds both
parts provide equal descriptions for the referent (actor-director)).
Dene the type of compound endocentric, exocentric, copulative, appositional:
Milkman, blindfold, straphanger, longlegs, whitecollar, bullnch, backstage, backlog, backdrop,

tadpole, pinpoint, greenback, tall-boy, highbrow,
sweetmeats, sweetheart, headache, backpack, ladybird, treadmill, dough-nut, nightmare, pigtail.
VI
Match the left-hand word with the right hand-hand word to
form a compound. Say whether its idiomatic or non-idiomatic. What
do the words mean?
Pigeon
Salt
FreeDead
Dumb
Field
Jay
day
walk
mark
lizard
thing
hole
for-all
55
4. The prohibition against um probably grew into a general

expectation of awless speaking with the advent of the radio.
The popularity of the technology exploded in the 1920s in a
way that contemporary Americans who witnessed the rise of
the Internet would recognize (M. Erard, Slips, Stumbles and
Verbal Blunders and What They Mean, 2007, P. 128).
5. Take a moment to map out your own sphere of inuence.
Where is it strongest, beginning with the sphere of your formal
authority? (Power, Inuence and Persuasion, 1992, P. 41).
6. If lists of universals show that languages do not vary freely, do

they imply that languages are restricted by the structure of the
brain? Not directly. First, one must rule our two alternative explanations (S. Pinker, The Language Instinct, 1994, P. 234).
7. I met a couple out walking two large black dogs of uncertain genetic background. The dogs were romping playfully
in the tall grass, but, as always, happens, at the rst sight of
me their muscles tautened, their eyes turned a glowing red
(B. Bryson, Notes from a Small Island, 1998, P. 113).
8. He sat with the package on his knees, aware of the passengers glances, and somehow knew the colour was a giveaway
(I. McEwan, The Innocent, 1999, P. 92).
9. The place emptied rapidly. The horizontal diggers, the tunneling sergeants, had long departed. The British vertical men had
left just as the excitement was growing, and no one noticed
them go (I. McEwan, The Innocent, 1999, P. 114).
54
V
In an endocentric compound the head word
is described by the rst modifying component; in
exocentric compounds both components refer to an
unexpressed semantic head, this type of compound
is traditionally called bahuvrihi, the meaning of
such a compound is, par excellence, based on metonymic transference.
In copulative compounds both parts describe the complex nature of the
referent, that is, the referent simultaneously possesses two, very often
opposed, qualities (e.g. bittersweet). In appositional compounds both
parts provide equal descriptions for the referent (actor-director)).
Dene the type of compound endocentric, exocentric, copulative, appositional:
Milkman, blindfold, straphanger, longlegs, whitecollar, bullnch, backstage, backlog, backdrop,

tadpole, pinpoint, greenback, tall-boy, highbrow,
sweetmeats, sweetheart, headache, backpack, ladybird, treadmill, dough-nut, nightmare, pigtail.
VI
Match the left-hand word with the right hand-hand word to
form a compound. Say whether its idiomatic or non-idiomatic. What
do the words mean?
Pigeon
Salt
FreeDead
Dumb
Field
Jay
day
walk
mark
lizard
thing
hole
for-all
55
Land
Lounge
Nay
Play
Way
cellar
bell
pan
say
lay
VII
The word-building pattern of contamination,
also known as blending and telescoping, was traditionally a marginal model in English. At the beginning of the XXI century, however, the pattern is
gradually gathering momentum and is extensively
used in advertising. Contamination (or blending) consists in creating a
new, as a rule occasional, word formed from morphemic splinters of two
or more lexemes.
A) Try to guess from the context what products the given names
advertise.
B) Name the source-words of blends.
C) Say what the rationale behind each blend is.
1. Chewels
a. chewing transparent candies
b. candies in the form of a jewel
c. sugarless liquid-centre chewing gum
2. Charmaternity
a. nursing and maternity bras
b. utensils for child-feeding
c. apparel for pregnant women
3. Crystalace
a. tiles
b. exquisite lace
c. decorative ledges patterned after lace
4. Pleascent
a. perfume
56
b. hair permanent
c. herbal shampoo
5. Scriptip
a. markers
b. erasers
c. correction liquid
6. Slimderella
a. rubber girdles
b. tights
c. pills for losing weight
7. Softint
a. hair colouring
b. paintbrushes
c. markers
VIII
Assign the blends below to one of the seven thematic groups and
dene their components? The thematic groups are as follows: 1) journalism, 2) advertising, 3) politics and business, 4) cinematography,
5) culinary, 6) students slang, 7) computer (all blends are real):
Appeteasing, Chindia, europreneurs, amBUSHed,

pandaplomacy, aquamatic, aristicat, cosmedicake, fabulash, lmusical, cinemagnate, docufantasy, autoslobile, basketbrawl, frappuccino, lamburger, D-graded,
examnesia, herbacue, qualitea, Indy-pendence, netpreneurs, n(euro)sis, diplonomics, dramassassin, fuelishness, tragicomedy, clamato, crunchips, croissandwich,
Bushonomics, blog, emoticon, netiquette, netizen.
IX
Organize the following words into groups taking into account
their word-building patterns composition, derivation, formations
57
Land
Lounge
Nay
Play
Way
cellar
bell
pan
say
lay
VII
The word-building pattern of contamination,
also known as blending and telescoping, was traditionally a marginal model in English. At the beginning of the XXI century, however, the pattern is
gradually gathering momentum and is extensively
used in advertising. Contamination (or blending) consists in creating a
new, as a rule occasional, word formed from morphemic splinters of two
or more lexemes.
A) Try to guess from the context what products the given names
advertise.
B) Name the source-words of blends.
C) Say what the rationale behind each blend is.
1. Chewels
a. chewing transparent candies
b. candies in the form of a jewel
c. sugarless liquid-centre chewing gum
2. Charmaternity
a. nursing and maternity bras
b. utensils for child-feeding
c. apparel for pregnant women
3. Crystalace
a. tiles
b. exquisite lace
c. decorative ledges patterned after lace
4. Pleascent
a. perfume
56
b. hair permanent
c. herbal shampoo
5. Scriptip
a. markers
b. erasers
c. correction liquid
6. Slimderella
a. rubber girdles
b. tights
c. pills for losing weight
7. Softint
a. hair colouring
b. paintbrushes
c. markers
VIII
Assign the blends below to one of the seven thematic groups and
dene their components? The thematic groups are as follows: 1) journalism, 2) advertising, 3) politics and business, 4) cinematography,
5) culinary, 6) students slang, 7) computer (all blends are real):
Appeteasing, Chindia, europreneurs, amBUSHed,

pandaplomacy, aquamatic, aristicat, cosmedicake, fabulash, lmusical, cinemagnate, docufantasy, autoslobile, basketbrawl, frappuccino, lamburger, D-graded,
examnesia, herbacue, qualitea, Indy-pendence, netpreneurs, n(euro)sis, diplonomics, dramassassin, fuelishness, tragicomedy, clamato, crunchips, croissandwich,
Bushonomics, blog, emoticon, netiquette, netizen.
IX
Organize the following words into groups taking into account
their word-building patterns composition, derivation, formations
57
with semi-afxes, combining forms ( ),

blending:
zestimate (v.); womenomics (n.); inland (adv.); webonoics (n.); stressresistant (adj.); headrst (adv.); waiike (adj.); semicircle (n.); telegenic
(adj.); enslave (v.); telephone (n.) ; washave (v.); toycoon (n.); overdo
(v.); squarectangle (n.); carjack (v.); outwit (v.); eurepair (n.); whitecollar (n.); clamburger (n.); ensnare (v.); anticlockwise (adv.); bootique (n.);
booklegger (n.); tragicomic (adj.); torrible (adj.); slimnastics (n.); roundwich (n.); treetop (n.); quicktionary (n.); homicide (n.); qatnapper (n.);
pupcorn (n.); irregardless (adj.); leadvantage (n.); genomics (n.); classociation (n.); copelessness (n.); St. Petersburg; Edinburgh; buttlegger (n.);
disctraction (n.); attraction (n.); netsomnia (n.); nescape (n.); motorcade
(n.); butterine (n.); bushonomics (n.); brewtal (adj.); clockwise (adv.);
parapsychology (n.); eavesdrop (v.); outcastaway (n.) ; newseum (n.);
technocrat (n.); moneymoon (n.); childlike (adj.); telephone (n.); desktop
(n.); defendamins (n.); brathlete (n.).
blending
B) Describe the word-building pattern of each word:
to feel towny; Spanish acquistadores (about Mexican

banks); a big falsey-toothy smile; to be pally with
smb; webonomics; laboRATory; a question of omenish nature; travelocity; meritocracy; retronym; women
in tentish dresses; pill-gotten gains; $tar; to feel lovingful of smb.; propheteering; x-ray; radar; laser; to
feel dj-vu-sque; dancercise; winterval; prequel; PFInancial services; to lead an applauseless life; an oletimey pitcher of tea; medicase; car-clogged highway;
n(euro)sis; kidult; bucket-eared; kyatastrophe; razorthin whisper; badvantage; blog; to speak in a clenchedteethedly way; glocalisation; bachelord; replicant;
delicate spindly-thin boors; misunderestimate; taxicology; cyberspace; contradictate; robotics; ashy-darty
look, eyes; Beatles; weekend-empty place; stressure;
xenocide.
combining forms
composition
derivation
formations with
semi-afxes
X
A) Allocate the selected words into three groups contaminated,
occasional, neological. Can the word simultaneously belong to several groups?
58
XI
Some elements of a word may receive an unprecedented boost in usage in combination with rootwords. Although originally found as part of a single
word, they become fashionable and wide-spread due
to the topicality of the notion they convey. These are
such elements as franken-, e-, (o)rexia, eco-, Mc-, -speak,
(a)thon, -gate and some others. The number of such words is currently on the increase, therefore it is hardly possible to enumerate all of
them. The status of these word-building elements is hard to dene, for
convenience sake, we choose to refer to them as vogue neo-semi-afxes ( -). They are not afxes proper as they
appeared relatively recently and as a result are rarely registered by dic59
with semi-afxes, combining forms ( ),

blending:
zestimate (v.); womenomics (n.); inland (adv.); webonoics (n.); stressresistant (adj.); headrst (adv.); waiike (adj.); semicircle (n.); telegenic
(adj.); enslave (v.); telephone (n.) ; washave (v.); toycoon (n.); overdo
(v.); squarectangle (n.); carjack (v.); outwit (v.); eurepair (n.); whitecollar (n.); clamburger (n.); ensnare (v.); anticlockwise (adv.); bootique (n.);
booklegger (n.); tragicomic (adj.); torrible (adj.); slimnastics (n.); roundwich (n.); treetop (n.); quicktionary (n.); homicide (n.); qatnapper (n.);
pupcorn (n.); irregardless (adj.); leadvantage (n.); genomics (n.); classociation (n.); copelessness (n.); St. Petersburg; Edinburgh; buttlegger (n.);
disctraction (n.); attraction (n.); netsomnia (n.); nescape (n.); motorcade
(n.); butterine (n.); bushonomics (n.); brewtal (adj.); clockwise (adv.);
parapsychology (n.); eavesdrop (v.); outcastaway (n.) ; newseum (n.);
technocrat (n.); moneymoon (n.); childlike (adj.); telephone (n.); desktop
(n.); defendamins (n.); brathlete (n.).
blending
B) Describe the word-building pattern of each word:
to feel towny; Spanish acquistadores (about Mexican

banks); a big falsey-toothy smile; to be pally with
smb; webonomics; laboRATory; a question of omenish nature; travelocity; meritocracy; retronym; women
in tentish dresses; pill-gotten gains; $tar; to feel lovingful of smb.; propheteering; x-ray; radar; laser; to
feel dj-vu-sque; dancercise; winterval; prequel; PFInancial services; to lead an applauseless life; an oletimey pitcher of tea; medicase; car-clogged highway;
n(euro)sis; kidult; bucket-eared; kyatastrophe; razorthin whisper; badvantage; blog; to speak in a clenchedteethedly way; glocalisation; bachelord; replicant;
delicate spindly-thin boors; misunderestimate; taxicology; cyberspace; contradictate; robotics; ashy-darty
look, eyes; Beatles; weekend-empty place; stressure;
xenocide.
combining forms
composition
derivation
formations with
semi-afxes
X
A) Allocate the selected words into three groups contaminated,
occasional, neological. Can the word simultaneously belong to several groups?
58
XI
Some elements of a word may receive an unprecedented boost in usage in combination with rootwords. Although originally found as part of a single
word, they become fashionable and wide-spread due
to the topicality of the notion they convey. These are
such elements as franken-, e-, (o)rexia, eco-, Mc-, -speak,
(a)thon, -gate and some others. The number of such words is currently on the increase, therefore it is hardly possible to enumerate all of
them. The status of these word-building elements is hard to dene, for
convenience sake, we choose to refer to them as vogue neo-semi-afxes ( -). They are not afxes proper as they
appeared relatively recently and as a result are rarely registered by dic59
tionaries; nor should they be called combining forms (as some linguists
suggest), because combining forms are restricted to Latin and Greek roots,
often found in combination with each other; calling them roots is also
dubious, for they hardly ever function in speech independently, and even
if they occasionally do, this is rather an exception than the rule. It seems
that referring to them as semi-afxes is most appropriate, inasmuch as
their meaning is more precise and concrete than that of afxes.
Below are a number of words containing vogue neo-semi-afxes.
Study them closely, trace the word that caused them to appear and
say what they currently mean.
Adspeak, artspeak, businesspeak, computerspeak, femspeak,
videospeak, gayspeak, technospeak, doublespeak, litcritspeak,
videospeak, discospeak, Olymspeak, Pentagonspeak, Freudspeak, bureaucratspeak
e-Bay, e-commerce, e-trade, e-cards, e-medicine, e-nancing,
e-gold, e-library, e-pals, e-mentoring, e-music, e-museum, ehow, e-boat
iTools, iTunes, iFilm, iVillage, iWon, iEarn, iPad, iPod, iOS

Frankenfood, Frankenbeans, Frankencorn, Frankenfruit, Frankenrice, Frankenplants, Frankenword
McJob, McFashion, McTheatre, McNews, McWord

Bikeathon, talkathon, walkathon, telethon, discothon, Bachathon
Nannygate, oilgate, Irangate, Hollywoodgate
60
XII
Study the following back-formed words, specify their meaning,
say what word they are derived from. Check whether any of them are
registered by dictionaries. What accounts for their lack of representation in dictionaries?
sculpt, intuit, liaise, enthuse, donate, surveille, diagnose, swindle, escalate, sleaze,
grunge, embeds, to jell, to automate, to
jubilate, to emote, laze, televise
XIII
Clipping, or shortening, or contraction is a productive way of wordbuilding in English. Reect on the following clippings and say which
of them are entrenched in the English word-stock and which are only
emerging as fully-edged independent words. What does it depend on?
Which words are used in a clipped form exclusively without its full part
any longer emerging in communication? Which clippings have a different
meaning from their non-truncated counterparts?
Bi
Bra
Champ
Chimp
Condo
Coop
Disco
Exam
Frank
Hippo
bisexual
brassiere
champion
chimpanzee
condominium
cooperative
discotheque
examination
frankfurter
hippopotamus
61
tionaries; nor should they be called combining forms (as some linguists
suggest), because combining forms are restricted to Latin and Greek roots,
often found in combination with each other; calling them roots is also
dubious, for they hardly ever function in speech independently, and even
if they occasionally do, this is rather an exception than the rule. It seems
that referring to them as semi-afxes is most appropriate, inasmuch as
their meaning is more precise and concrete than that of afxes.
Below are a number of words containing vogue neo-semi-afxes.
Study them closely, trace the word that caused them to appear and
say what they currently mean.
Adspeak, artspeak, businesspeak, computerspeak, femspeak,
videospeak, gayspeak, technospeak, doublespeak, litcritspeak,
videospeak, discospeak, Olymspeak, Pentagonspeak, Freudspeak, bureaucratspeak
e-Bay, e-commerce, e-trade, e-cards, e-medicine, e-nancing,
e-gold, e-library, e-pals, e-mentoring, e-music, e-museum, ehow, e-boat
iTools, iTunes, iFilm, iVillage, iWon, iEarn, iPad, iPod, iOS

Frankenfood, Frankenbeans, Frankencorn, Frankenfruit, Frankenrice, Frankenplants, Frankenword
McJob, McFashion, McTheatre, McNews, McWord

Bikeathon, talkathon, walkathon, telethon, discothon, Bachathon
Nannygate, oilgate, Irangate, Hollywoodgate
60
XII
Study the following back-formed words, specify their meaning,
say what word they are derived from. Check whether any of them are
registered by dictionaries. What accounts for their lack of representation in dictionaries?
sculpt, intuit, liaise, enthuse, donate, surveille, diagnose, swindle, escalate, sleaze,
grunge, embeds, to jell, to automate, to
jubilate, to emote, laze, televise
XIII
Clipping, or shortening, or contraction is a productive way of wordbuilding in English. Reect on the following clippings and say which
of them are entrenched in the English word-stock and which are only
emerging as fully-edged independent words. What does it depend on?
Which words are used in a clipped form exclusively without its full part
any longer emerging in communication? Which clippings have a different
meaning from their non-truncated counterparts?
Bi
Bra
Champ
Chimp
Condo
Coop
Disco
Exam
Frank
Hippo
bisexual
brassiere
champion
chimpanzee
condominium
cooperative
discotheque
examination
frankfurter
hippopotamus
61
Lab
Lunch
Max
Mayo
Piano
Porn
Reg
Rep
Cute
Gator
Quake
Copter
Margarine
Possum
Cello
laboratory
luncheon
maximum
mayonnaise
pianoforte
pornography
regulation
reputation
acute
alligator
earthquake
helicopter
oleomargarine
opossum
violoncello
Diminutive sufxes are not very productive or

wide-spread in English, however, they are found in
a number of words. These words may be registered
by dictionaries, in which case they, more often than
not, have a meaning of their own. They may also be
created ad hoc, on the spur of the moment, in which case, however, the
speaker should go by the rules of morphological collocation, according to
which each diminutive can be added to a particular kind of stem. Some of
the diminutives have the remnant status, native speakers may no longer
be aware of their diminutive nature or meaning, as they are borrowed and
non-productive.
The functions of diminutives are manifold: 1) endearment and affection; 2) familiarity or intimacy; 3) condescension or dismissal; 4) a
smaller (a small) size or dimension; 5) the young of animals or pets
XIV
Study the diminutives suggested below, specify the principle of
their classication and establish the meaning they render to the stem.
Translate the words into Russian:
62
let: booklet, piglet, rivulet, starlet

et(te): kitchenette, cigarette, launderette, diskette, novelette, nymphet, statuette, towelette
ie (-y): doggie, kitty, laddie, lassie, sweetie
ling: duckling, darling, princeling, gosling, fosterling, hireling, underling, sapling, lordling,
godling
cule, -culus, -ule: animalcule, calculus, capsule,
corpuscule, globule, granule, module, molecule
el: bowel, chapel, colonel, fennel, hovel, spinel,
tunnel
elle (-ella): membranelle, novella, umbrella
ing: farthing, tithing
kin: bodkin, gherkin, lambkin, manikin, napkin,
babykins
ock: bullock, hillock, paddock, tussock
In English, as indeed in any other language,

there are a number of words used particularly by
little children or by their care-givers when talking
to them. These words are united under the heading
baby-talk or motherese. Such words are often
reduplicated, short and are based on the distortion of ordinary words. Interestingly, baby-talk is also resorted to by pet-owners when talking to
their pets, by lovers exchanging endearments and by nurses taking care
of their patients, particularly, of terminally-ill ones. The attitude towards
such words is ambiguous: on the one hand, they may be indicative of
affection and care, but on the other hand, they have been stigmatized as
infantile, superuous, shallow and lacking gravity. In fact, their abun63
Lab
Lunch
Max
Mayo
Piano
Porn
Reg
Rep
Cute
Gator
Quake
Copter
Margarine
Possum
Cello
laboratory
luncheon
maximum
mayonnaise
pianoforte
pornography
regulation
reputation
acute
alligator
earthquake
helicopter
oleomargarine
opossum
violoncello
Diminutive sufxes are not very productive or

wide-spread in English, however, they are found in
a number of words. These words may be registered
by dictionaries, in which case they, more often than
not, have a meaning of their own. They may also be
created ad hoc, on the spur of the moment, in which case, however, the
speaker should go by the rules of morphological collocation, according to
which each diminutive can be added to a particular kind of stem. Some of
the diminutives have the remnant status, native speakers may no longer
be aware of their diminutive nature or meaning, as they are borrowed and
non-productive.
The functions of diminutives are manifold: 1) endearment and affection; 2) familiarity or intimacy; 3) condescension or dismissal; 4) a
smaller (a small) size or dimension; 5) the young of animals or pets
XIV
Study the diminutives suggested below, specify the principle of
their classication and establish the meaning they render to the stem.
Translate the words into Russian:
62
let: booklet, piglet, rivulet, starlet

et(te): kitchenette, cigarette, launderette, diskette, novelette, nymphet, statuette, towelette
ie (-y): doggie, kitty, laddie, lassie, sweetie
ling: duckling, darling, princeling, gosling, fosterling, hireling, underling, sapling, lordling,
godling
cule, -culus, -ule: animalcule, calculus, capsule,
corpuscule, globule, granule, module, molecule
el: bowel, chapel, colonel, fennel, hovel, spinel,
tunnel
elle (-ella): membranelle, novella, umbrella
ing: farthing, tithing
kin: bodkin, gherkin, lambkin, manikin, napkin,
babykins
ock: bullock, hillock, paddock, tussock
In English, as indeed in any other language,

there are a number of words used particularly by
little children or by their care-givers when talking
to them. These words are united under the heading
baby-talk or motherese. Such words are often
reduplicated, short and are based on the distortion of ordinary words. Interestingly, baby-talk is also resorted to by pet-owners when talking to
their pets, by lovers exchanging endearments and by nurses taking care
of their patients, particularly, of terminally-ill ones. The attitude towards
such words is ambiguous: on the one hand, they may be indicative of
affection and care, but on the other hand, they have been stigmatized as
infantile, superuous, shallow and lacking gravity. In fact, their abun63
dant usage may indicate absence of true love and care whenever they are
automatically retrieved to refer to almost anything under the sun. Terminally-ill patients have been known to resent the application of such words
towards themselves, as well as the not-so-little children.
XV
Below are some examples of baby-talk words or motherese. Specify their word-building peculiarities and say in what context their application could be appropriate.
Beddy-bye: the time for a baby to go to bed
Binkie: a pacier
Blankie: a babys blanket
Boo-boo: a minor injury
Choo-choo: a railroad train
Da-da: father
Din-din: dinner
Icky: sticky or disgusting
Jammies: pyjamas
Nana: grandma
Oopsy-daisy: said on tossing a bay upside-down
Owie: a minor injury
Piggie: a babys nger or toe
Teeny-weeny: very small, tiny
Tummy: stomach
Tush: buttocks
Wawa: water
Yucky: sticky or disgusting
Yummy: tasty, delicious
XVI
Onomatopoeic words are represented sparingly in the English
word stock, however, a number of them play an important role in
everyday communication, most of them are also registered by dic64
tionaries. Below is a list of onomatopoeic words produced by animals.

Which of the sounds seem unusual to you?
A bee buzz
A bird chirp, chirrup
A small bird peep, tweet
A cat purr
BOW-WOW!
A cow moo
A crow caw WOOF!
A dog bow-wow, woof
A donkey he-haw
A dove or a pigeon coo
A goose honk
A grasshopper chirr
A hen clucks
A horse neigh, whinny
An owl hoot
A pig oink
A snake hiss
A sheep baa
A turkey gobble
XVII
Paraphrase the following onomatopoeic words and translate
them into Russian. What other word-building patterns (if any) are
used in the formation of such words?
Babble, blab, gab, holler, jabber, natter, stutter, susurrate,

tattle, whine, yada-yada-yada,
yap, gargle, gurgle, ululate, zap,
sizzle, wheeze, whiz, chug, clipclip, ip-op
65
dant usage may indicate absence of true love and care whenever they are
automatically retrieved to refer to almost anything under the sun. Terminally-ill patients have been known to resent the application of such words
towards themselves, as well as the not-so-little children.
XV
Below are some examples of baby-talk words or motherese. Specify their word-building peculiarities and say in what context their application could be appropriate.
Beddy-bye: the time for a baby to go to bed
Binkie: a pacier
Blankie: a babys blanket
Boo-boo: a minor injury
Choo-choo: a railroad train
Da-da: father
Din-din: dinner
Icky: sticky or disgusting
Jammies: pyjamas
Nana: grandma
Oopsy-daisy: said on tossing a bay upside-down
Owie: a minor injury
Piggie: a babys nger or toe
Teeny-weeny: very small, tiny
Tummy: stomach
Tush: buttocks
Wawa: water
Yucky: sticky or disgusting
Yummy: tasty, delicious
XVI
Onomatopoeic words are represented sparingly in the English
word stock, however, a number of them play an important role in
everyday communication, most of them are also registered by dic64
tionaries. Below is a list of onomatopoeic words produced by animals.

Which of the sounds seem unusual to you?
A bee buzz
A bird chirp, chirrup
A small bird peep, tweet
A cat purr
BOW-WOW!
A cow moo
A crow caw WOOF!
A dog bow-wow, woof
A donkey he-haw
A dove or a pigeon coo
A goose honk
A grasshopper chirr
A hen clucks
A horse neigh, whinny
An owl hoot
A pig oink
A snake hiss
A sheep baa
A turkey gobble
XVII
Paraphrase the following onomatopoeic words and translate
them into Russian. What other word-building patterns (if any) are
used in the formation of such words?
Babble, blab, gab, holler, jabber, natter, stutter, susurrate,

tattle, whine, yada-yada-yada,
yap, gargle, gurgle, ululate, zap,
sizzle, wheeze, whiz, chug, clipclip, ip-op
65
The sufx -ee has a productive status in modern English, a surprisingly large number of words are
formed with its help. It is regularly found in journalistic articles, however, its meaning may be ambiguous. It renders to the word the meaning of either the
recipient of the action (1) or the doer of the action (2) (the actor).
XVIII
Sort out the following words with the -ee sufx and allocate
them to either the rst (1) or the second (2) group. Specify the criteria
that you go by when differentiating between the groups.
Adaptee, electee, examinee, franchisee, mergee, rescuee, transportee, appellee, mortgagee, educatee, releasee, addressee, deportee, nominee, trainee, absentee, escapee, riteree, returnee.
XIX
Consider the following derivatives, single out the sufx and say
to what part of speech the stem of the derivative belongs.
Mileage, breakage, spillage; Moroccan, Egyptian, Iranian; attendance, disturbance, performance, elegance,
relevance, vigilance; assistant, attendant, consultant; accountancy, privacy; mouthful, pocketful, tablespoonful;
comedian, historian, Freudian; heroism, idealism; originality, personality, superiority; clumsiness; manliness,
politeness; agreeable, understandable, manageable; customary, honorary, momentary; bearded, bow-legged, bigheaded; ashen, golden, leaden; collectible, convertible,
digestible; angelic, artistic, heroic; childish; endish,
shortish, whitish; cloudy, greedy, earthy, jazzy; skyward,
northward, rearward; clockwise, healthwise, salarywise,
testwise; freshen, quicken, hearten, strengthen.
66
Reduplication consists in repeating the stem

either verbatim or introducing phonetic and graphic changes. Reduplicated words perform different
functions, such as: indicating plurality, repetition,
customary activity, increase of size, added intensity,
continuance. There are two basic types of reduplicatives: tautonyms and
ricochet words (these terms are upheld by E.C. Brewer, S. Steinmetz,
B.A. Kipfer). In tautonyms the repeated stem is not modied, in ricochet
words it is modied. The popularity and relative productivity of reduplicatives is explained psychologically by the fact that the repetition of sound
is pleasurable to the ear. Reduplicatives may also be loan words, in which
case they are often of terminological character: e.g. beriberi (disease of
the nerves caused by vitamin deciency, from Sinhalese beri weakness), mahimahi (dolphin, from Hawaiian mahi strong), ylangylang
(an East Indian tree or its oil, from Tagalog), couscous (semolina dish,
from Arabic), lavalava (a Polynesian garment, from Samoan clothing).
XX
Study the reduplicatives below, specify their type and function
and say in what sphere of communication they are predominantly
used.
Choo-choo, doo-doo, pee-pee; honey-bunny, itty-bitty,

itsy-bitsy, lovey-dovey;
Dilly-dally, im-am, hobnob, shilly-shally, wishywashy; boogie-woogie, chit-chat, pitter-patter, seesaw, walkie-talkie; knick-knack, hodge-podge, mishmash, pell-mell; riff-raff, fuddy-duddy, helter-skelter,
higgledy-piggledy, nitty-gritty, roly-poly, super-duper,
teeny-weeny, willy-nilly.
.. (
67
The sufx -ee has a productive status in modern English, a surprisingly large number of words are
formed with its help. It is regularly found in journalistic articles, however, its meaning may be ambiguous. It renders to the word the meaning of either the
recipient of the action (1) or the doer of the action (2) (the actor).
XVIII
Sort out the following words with the -ee sufx and allocate
them to either the rst (1) or the second (2) group. Specify the criteria
that you go by when differentiating between the groups.
Adaptee, electee, examinee, franchisee, mergee, rescuee, transportee, appellee, mortgagee, educatee, releasee, addressee, deportee, nominee, trainee, absentee, escapee, riteree, returnee.
XIX
Consider the following derivatives, single out the sufx and say
to what part of speech the stem of the derivative belongs.
Mileage, breakage, spillage; Moroccan, Egyptian, Iranian; attendance, disturbance, performance, elegance,
relevance, vigilance; assistant, attendant, consultant; accountancy, privacy; mouthful, pocketful, tablespoonful;
comedian, historian, Freudian; heroism, idealism; originality, personality, superiority; clumsiness; manliness,
politeness; agreeable, understandable, manageable; customary, honorary, momentary; bearded, bow-legged, bigheaded; ashen, golden, leaden; collectible, convertible,
digestible; angelic, artistic, heroic; childish; endish,
shortish, whitish; cloudy, greedy, earthy, jazzy; skyward,
northward, rearward; clockwise, healthwise, salarywise,
testwise; freshen, quicken, hearten, strengthen.
66
Reduplication consists in repeating the stem

either verbatim or introducing phonetic and graphic changes. Reduplicated words perform different
functions, such as: indicating plurality, repetition,
customary activity, increase of size, added intensity,
continuance. There are two basic types of reduplicatives: tautonyms and
ricochet words (these terms are upheld by E.C. Brewer, S. Steinmetz,
B.A. Kipfer). In tautonyms the repeated stem is not modied, in ricochet
words it is modied. The popularity and relative productivity of reduplicatives is explained psychologically by the fact that the repetition of sound
is pleasurable to the ear. Reduplicatives may also be loan words, in which
case they are often of terminological character: e.g. beriberi (disease of
the nerves caused by vitamin deciency, from Sinhalese beri weakness), mahimahi (dolphin, from Hawaiian mahi strong), ylangylang
(an East Indian tree or its oil, from Tagalog), couscous (semolina dish,
from Arabic), lavalava (a Polynesian garment, from Samoan clothing).
XX
Study the reduplicatives below, specify their type and function
and say in what sphere of communication they are predominantly
used.
Choo-choo, doo-doo, pee-pee; honey-bunny, itty-bitty,

itsy-bitsy, lovey-dovey;
Dilly-dally, im-am, hobnob, shilly-shally, wishywashy; boogie-woogie, chit-chat, pitter-patter, seesaw, walkie-talkie; knick-knack, hodge-podge, mishmash, pell-mell; riff-raff, fuddy-duddy, helter-skelter,
higgledy-piggledy, nitty-gritty, roly-poly, super-duper,
teeny-weeny, willy-nilly.
.. (
67
): . . . . . ,
1993.
.. : . . . . . ., 1996.
..
. .: , 1986.
.. : .
. .: : , 2007.
.. : . . . . .,
1987.
.. (
: . ... - . . ., 1997.
.. . , 1989.
Algeo J. Blends, a structural and systemic view // American Speech.
Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1977. 52. . 4764.
Bauer L. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Bauer L. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988.
Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960.
Pound L. Blends: Their Relation to English Word Formation. Heidelberg,
1914.
Dick Thurners Portmanteau Dictionary (PD). Blend Words in the English
Language, Including Trademarks and Brand Names. Jefferson, North Carolina:
McFarland & Company, 1993.
5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference.

Metaphor and Metonymy. Euphemisms. Neologisms
Points to ponder
What is the difference between the meaning of the word and the
concept (notion)?
Is there any connection between the referent and its sign? What
types of linguistic motivation can you single out?
In the ancient linguistic tradition of Greece it was customary to
distinguish between the theory of thesei and fusei5. These
theories represent the results of the research into whether there
is a natural connection between the word and its referent or not.
According to the former, words are arbitrary signs and they do not
reect the properties of objects they nominate. The latter theory,
conversely, postulates a natural connection between the word and
its referent. Which theory do you personally support? Ground
your choice.
Specify the types of analysis of the semantics of the word. Which
type do you nd the most efcient one? What are the constraints
of the componential analysis? What semantic groups of words is
it mostly applicable to?
Do you agree that the context is the ultimate sieve for the meaning of the word?
Name the types of semantic components of the word. What is
the pragmatic component of the word? What other types of
information6 that a word conveys do you know?
Why do words develop new meanings and what does it result in?
Specify the types of metaphoric and metonymic transference.
Metaphor and metonymy, which are based on different types of
transference, sometimes go hand in hand, this phenomenon is
5
The word thesei comes form Greek and means convention, the word fusei is
also of Greek origin, where it means nature.
6
The term types of information is used by prof. A.A. Reformatskij.
69
): . . . . . ,
1993.
.. : . . . . . ., 1996.
..
. .: , 1986.
.. : .
. .: : , 2007.
.. : . . . . .,
1987.
.. (
: . ... - . . ., 1997.
.. . , 1989.
Algeo J. Blends, a structural and systemic view // American Speech.
Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1977. 52. . 4764.
Bauer L. English word-formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
Bauer L. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1988.
Marchand H. The Categories and Types of Present Day English Word Formation. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960.
Pound L. Blends: Their Relation to English Word Formation. Heidelberg,
1914.
Dick Thurners Portmanteau Dictionary (PD). Blend Words in the English
Language, Including Trademarks and Brand Names. Jefferson, North Carolina:
McFarland & Company, 1993.
5. The Meaning of the Word. Semantic Transference.

Metaphor and Metonymy. Euphemisms. Neologisms
Points to ponder
What is the difference between the meaning of the word and the
concept (notion)?
Is there any connection between the referent and its sign? What
types of linguistic motivation can you single out?
In the ancient linguistic tradition of Greece it was customary to
distinguish between the theory of thesei and fusei5. These
theories represent the results of the research into whether there
is a natural connection between the word and its referent or not.
According to the former, words are arbitrary signs and they do not
reect the properties of objects they nominate. The latter theory,
conversely, postulates a natural connection between the word and
its referent. Which theory do you personally support? Ground
your choice.
Specify the types of analysis of the semantics of the word. Which
type do you nd the most efcient one? What are the constraints
of the componential analysis? What semantic groups of words is
it mostly applicable to?
Do you agree that the context is the ultimate sieve for the meaning of the word?
Name the types of semantic components of the word. What is
the pragmatic component of the word? What other types of
information6 that a word conveys do you know?
Why do words develop new meanings and what does it result in?
Specify the types of metaphoric and metonymic transference.
Metaphor and metonymy, which are based on different types of
transference, sometimes go hand in hand, this phenomenon is
5
The word thesei comes form Greek and means convention, the word fusei is
also of Greek origin, where it means nature.
6
The term types of information is used by prof. A.A. Reformatskij.
69
known as metaphtonymy, for example, the adjective black in

black despair can be treated as a case of metaphtonymy? Can
you explain why?
Give examples of broadening and narrowing of meaning and degeneration and elevation of meaning. Why can the last two terms
be regarded as arbitrary and imprecise?
Comment of the following statement by Karl Sornig and specify
the functions that a metaphor serves:
the capability to use and create metaphoric language can be regarded as a most delicate indicator of communicative competence for
a certain language. The capability and propensity for that kind of handling language creatively might very well be considered a universal of
language use. Metaphoric replacement of words for each other is a deliberate process which is brought about by the deletion of certain semantic features while other features from the feature-potential are selected
and foregrounded, viz. those that would bring certain peculiarities of a
certain denotation (whose real name has been suppressed and substituted) to the attention of the interlocutor. Focusing on a certain semantic
aspect serves at the same time as an evaluative assessment of the concept
denoted and an invitation to the recipient to comply with this assessment.
Thus, metaphorization serves the evaluative/connotative processing of
expressive means from the speakers evaluation of situational reality, and
it tries to inuence the recipients interpretation of that same situation
[Sornig, 1981:36].
The cognitive theory of metaphor by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson

According to the cognitive theory of metaphor
worked out by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, our perception of the world is metaphorically structured and
this is reected in the language. In the frame of this
conception, metaphor can be dened as understanding the essence of one thing through the essence of another. Cognitive
metaphor emerges as a result of interaction of the target domain (the
70
concept we intend to convey) and the source domain (the word by means
of which we describe the target word). Thus, in the sentence Time is
money the word time is the target word and the word money is the
source word.
All cognitive metaphors are structural because one concept is structured in terms of another, for instance argument is war, time is
money, ideas are objects, communication is sending. Structural
metaphors can be orientational if they form an opposition: happy is
up sad is down, virtue is up depravity is down, rational is up emotional is down. Ontological metaphors emerge when
events, actions, emotions, ideas are perceived as material matter and substances, for instance the mind is a brittle object, an argument is a
journey, the path of a journey is a surface.
Types of metaphors
Structural
Argument is war
Orientational
Ontological
Happy is up sad is The mind is a brittle obdown
ject
Your claims are indefen- Im feeling up.

sible.
His mind snapped.
He attacked every weak That boosted my spirits. He broke under crosspoint in my argument.
examination.
Ive never won an argu- My spirits rose.
ment with him.
You disagree?
shoot!
Ok, You are in high spirits.

Im feeling down.
She is easily crushed.

The experience shattered
him.
Im going to pieces.
Hes really low these

days.
My spirits sank.
Is there any difference between a metaphor and a cognitive metaphor? Can a metaphor be not cognitive?
71
known as metaphtonymy, for example, the adjective black in

black despair can be treated as a case of metaphtonymy? Can
you explain why?
Give examples of broadening and narrowing of meaning and degeneration and elevation of meaning. Why can the last two terms
be regarded as arbitrary and imprecise?
Comment of the following statement by Karl Sornig and specify
the functions that a metaphor serves:
the capability to use and create metaphoric language can be regarded as a most delicate indicator of communicative competence for
a certain language. The capability and propensity for that kind of handling language creatively might very well be considered a universal of
language use. Metaphoric replacement of words for each other is a deliberate process which is brought about by the deletion of certain semantic features while other features from the feature-potential are selected
and foregrounded, viz. those that would bring certain peculiarities of a
certain denotation (whose real name has been suppressed and substituted) to the attention of the interlocutor. Focusing on a certain semantic
aspect serves at the same time as an evaluative assessment of the concept
denoted and an invitation to the recipient to comply with this assessment.
Thus, metaphorization serves the evaluative/connotative processing of
expressive means from the speakers evaluation of situational reality, and
it tries to inuence the recipients interpretation of that same situation
[Sornig, 1981:36].
The cognitive theory of metaphor by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson

According to the cognitive theory of metaphor
worked out by G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, our perception of the world is metaphorically structured and
this is reected in the language. In the frame of this
conception, metaphor can be dened as understanding the essence of one thing through the essence of another. Cognitive
metaphor emerges as a result of interaction of the target domain (the
70
concept we intend to convey) and the source domain (the word by means
of which we describe the target word). Thus, in the sentence Time is
money the word time is the target word and the word money is the
source word.
All cognitive metaphors are structural because one concept is structured in terms of another, for instance argument is war, time is
money, ideas are objects, communication is sending. Structural
metaphors can be orientational if they form an opposition: happy is
up sad is down, virtue is up depravity is down, rational is up emotional is down. Ontological metaphors emerge when
events, actions, emotions, ideas are perceived as material matter and substances, for instance the mind is a brittle object, an argument is a
journey, the path of a journey is a surface.
Types of metaphors
Structural
Argument is war
Orientational
Ontological
Happy is up sad is The mind is a brittle obdown
ject
Your claims are indefen- Im feeling up.

sible.
His mind snapped.
He attacked every weak That boosted my spirits. He broke under crosspoint in my argument.
examination.
Ive never won an argu- My spirits rose.
ment with him.
You disagree?
shoot!
Ok, You are in high spirits.

Im feeling down.
She is easily crushed.

The experience shattered
him.
Im going to pieces.
Hes really low these

days.
My spirits sank.
Is there any difference between a metaphor and a cognitive metaphor? Can a metaphor be not cognitive?
71
Exercises:
I
Paraphrase the sentences and/or translate them into Russian,
thereby demonstrating different meanings of the italicized words.
Academic (noun/adjective)
1. When academics convene, their elaborations are usually lengthy
and heated.
2. I did not expect to be given the job for lack of academic credentials, so the employer was taking a risk hoping that on-the-premises
vocational training would do the trick.
3. This is an academic debate, what you are saying is ungrounded.
Anecdotal (adj.)
1. There is extensive anecdotal evidence that the rst-born child in
the family tend to have a higher IQ.
2. I hear that the district is crime-infested, do you personally have
any anecdotal evidence? Oh, yes, I was once mugged as I was going home later than usual.
Arguable (adj.), arguably (adverb)

1. There are some arguable issues still unsolved.
2. It is arguable that she is the best tennis-player.
3. She is arguably the best tennis-player.
Babushka (noun)
1. The young lady covered her head with a babushka and entered
the church.
2. A kind babushka told me that I should take bus 35 to reach my
destination.
72
To commit (smth., oneself) (verb)

1. He is considering the offer but he has not yet committed.
2. The number of crimes committed by women in handling is much
higher than the number of crimes committed by men.
Epithet (noun)
1. One of the stylistic devices used for the embellishment of speech
is an epithet, which is placed attributively before a noun.
2. Dont shout epithets at me.
Advise (verb)
1. The doctor advised me to stay in bed for at least two days
for me not to get any complications.
2. I am here to advise you that I expect the contention to
be settled within a few days.
Treatment (noun)
1. I look down on your treatment of senior citizens: it is customary
in our country to give up your seat for an elderly person, which you
always fail to do.
2. Your treatment of the famous actress was unjust: she is a celebrity
who blundered, but is she fair game to be preyed on? (a letter from
some reader of a journal addressed to the author of an article about
a well-known actress).
Ultimate (adj.)
1. The contest will be the ultimate test of your ability to come rst.
2. L Oreal is the ultimate mascara (an advertisement).
II
Insert the right word or expression. The words to be inserted
are:
73
Exercises:
I
Paraphrase the sentences and/or translate them into Russian,
thereby demonstrating different meanings of the italicized words.
Academic (noun/adjective)
1. When academics convene, their elaborations are usually lengthy
and heated.
2. I did not expect to be given the job for lack of academic credentials, so the employer was taking a risk hoping that on-the-premises
vocational training would do the trick.
3. This is an academic debate, what you are saying is ungrounded.
Anecdotal (adj.)
1. There is extensive anecdotal evidence that the rst-born child in
the family tend to have a higher IQ.
2. I hear that the district is crime-infested, do you personally have
any anecdotal evidence? Oh, yes, I was once mugged as I was going home later than usual.
Arguable (adj.), arguably (adverb)

1. There are some arguable issues still unsolved.
2. It is arguable that she is the best tennis-player.
3. She is arguably the best tennis-player.
Babushka (noun)
1. The young lady covered her head with a babushka and entered
the church.
2. A kind babushka told me that I should take bus 35 to reach my
destination.
72
To commit (smth., oneself) (verb)

1. He is considering the offer but he has not yet committed.
2. The number of crimes committed by women in handling is much
higher than the number of crimes committed by men.
Epithet (noun)
1. One of the stylistic devices used for the embellishment of speech
is an epithet, which is placed attributively before a noun.
2. Dont shout epithets at me.
Advise (verb)
1. The doctor advised me to stay in bed for at least two days
for me not to get any complications.
2. I am here to advise you that I expect the contention to
be settled within a few days.
Treatment (noun)
1. I look down on your treatment of senior citizens: it is customary
in our country to give up your seat for an elderly person, which you
always fail to do.
2. Your treatment of the famous actress was unjust: she is a celebrity
who blundered, but is she fair game to be preyed on? (a letter from
some reader of a journal addressed to the author of an article about
a well-known actress).
Ultimate (adj.)
1. The contest will be the ultimate test of your ability to come rst.
2. L Oreal is the ultimate mascara (an advertisement).
II
Insert the right word or expression. The words to be inserted
are:
73
Attested, growth (used attributively), street, sky, table, installments, with, nonce (used attributively), ux, band, scruple (v.),
under the guidance, assistance, renamed, they, feature, change,
ux, blazoned, yuppies, stunt (used attributively), cryptic, editorial, chair, on the wing, transferred (the second form of the verb
to transfer), customarily, chronicle(v.), ancestors, xerographically, host.
A community is known by the language it keeps, and its wordsthe

times. Like the rings of a tree, our vocabulary bears to our past.
While our linguistic still dwelled on the European continent, they discovered the paved road (via strata) of the Romans, and borrowed the
second half of the Latin term to become our Having translated themselves to the British Isles, they played to the Danes, who paid for the
hospitality with words like and and to the Normans, who brought
with them and As English speakers went on to meet new situations
and developing new manners and morals, the vocabulary of English went
on changing, too. In 1941 Dwight L. Bolinger, who had been writing a
column on new words for a magazine published in Los Angeles, his
work to American Speech and it Among the New Words. Bolinger
continued to edit the until 1944, when it came of I. Willis Russell,
who looked after it for forty-two years, until his death in 1985. During
the rst fty years of the features publication in American Speech, it
appeared in 113 , with 222 persons acknowledged as contributors of
citations or other
The rst monolingual English dictionaries recorded hard words
exclusively, and so were mainly glossaries of unusual new words in the
language intended to help ambitious of the seventeenth century keep
up the knowledge explosion of their day. In that sense, Among the
New Words is in a very old tradition.
The aim of Among the New Words is more detached. When American Speech began publication, it had a motto on its cover: They
haif said. Quhat say they? Lat thame say. The motto (traceable to an
inscription over a door at Marshal College in Aberdeen, but with ante74
cedents going back to magical amulets of the late Classical period) has
several interpretations. But most probably it was intended as a statement
ofpolicy: The aim of American Speech was to observe and record the
language of the populace, without concern for correcting it to be descriptive, not prescriptive, in its approach to the subject, to glory in the
vernacular.
The aim of Among the New Words has always been to catchin
our vocabulary , to record it, to marvel at it, and when possible to explain it. The feature has been a dispassionate, albeit sometimes amused,
observer of the lexical and social of our society.
On the other hand, Among the New Words does not to include
words that would not usually appear in any general dictionary: words
and words.
New contributors join every year. They watch for words that strike
them as new uses in whatever material they read or listen to. Because
printed evidence is easy to gather, most of the new words arefrom
newspapers, magazines and books.
If the material is not disposable, the preferred method of collecting
is to copy the page (with source information author, title, place, publisher, date, and page number added by hand as necessary), and then to
treat the copies in the same way as tear sheets7.
III
Reformulate the sentences below using the word in bold, which
can be changed in any way (for instance, made a derivative or a compound). The word can be any part of speech. Mind that the words
and expressions can belong to any register. The rst one (o) has been
done for you.
0) The ofce was temporarily closed because they planned to change
the interior.
furbish
Possible answer: The ofce was temporarily closed because it was
being refurbished.
7
The text is an abridged excerpt from the introduction to Fifty Years among the
New Words by J. Algeo.
75
Attested, growth (used attributively), street, sky, table, installments, with, nonce (used attributively), ux, band, scruple (v.),
under the guidance, assistance, renamed, they, feature, change,
ux, blazoned, yuppies, stunt (used attributively), cryptic, editorial, chair, on the wing, transferred (the second form of the verb
to transfer), customarily, chronicle(v.), ancestors, xerographically, host.
A community is known by the language it keeps, and its wordsthe

times. Like the rings of a tree, our vocabulary bears to our past.
While our linguistic still dwelled on the European continent, they discovered the paved road (via strata) of the Romans, and borrowed the
second half of the Latin term to become our Having translated themselves to the British Isles, they played to the Danes, who paid for the
hospitality with words like and and to the Normans, who brought
with them and As English speakers went on to meet new situations
and developing new manners and morals, the vocabulary of English went
on changing, too. In 1941 Dwight L. Bolinger, who had been writing a
column on new words for a magazine published in Los Angeles, his
work to American Speech and it Among the New Words. Bolinger
continued to edit the until 1944, when it came of I. Willis Russell,
who looked after it for forty-two years, until his death in 1985. During
the rst fty years of the features publication in American Speech, it
appeared in 113 , with 222 persons acknowledged as contributors of
citations or other
The rst monolingual English dictionaries recorded hard words
exclusively, and so were mainly glossaries of unusual new words in the
language intended to help ambitious of the seventeenth century keep
up the knowledge explosion of their day. In that sense, Among the
New Words is in a very old tradition.
The aim of Among the New Words is more detached. When American Speech began publication, it had a motto on its cover: They
haif said. Quhat say they? Lat thame say. The motto (traceable to an
inscription over a door at Marshal College in Aberdeen, but with ante74
cedents going back to magical amulets of the late Classical period) has
several interpretations. But most probably it was intended as a statement
ofpolicy: The aim of American Speech was to observe and record the
language of the populace, without concern for correcting it to be descriptive, not prescriptive, in its approach to the subject, to glory in the
vernacular.
The aim of Among the New Words has always been to catchin
our vocabulary , to record it, to marvel at it, and when possible to explain it. The feature has been a dispassionate, albeit sometimes amused,
observer of the lexical and social of our society.
On the other hand, Among the New Words does not to include
words that would not usually appear in any general dictionary: words
and words.
New contributors join every year. They watch for words that strike
them as new uses in whatever material they read or listen to. Because
printed evidence is easy to gather, most of the new words arefrom
newspapers, magazines and books.
If the material is not disposable, the preferred method of collecting
is to copy the page (with source information author, title, place, publisher, date, and page number added by hand as necessary), and then to
treat the copies in the same way as tear sheets7.
III
Reformulate the sentences below using the word in bold, which
can be changed in any way (for instance, made a derivative or a compound). The word can be any part of speech. Mind that the words
and expressions can belong to any register. The rst one (o) has been
done for you.
0) The ofce was temporarily closed because they planned to change
the interior.
furbish
Possible answer: The ofce was temporarily closed because it was
being refurbished.
7
The text is an abridged excerpt from the introduction to Fifty Years among the
New Words by J. Algeo.
75
1. If you were less impulsive, you wouldnt have made that sudden
decision.
snap
2. I dont very much fancy people who are excessively polite to
someone, especially someone who is in a superior position to
them.
crawl
3. He acts so unnaturally in public, making a speech for him is an
insurmountable task.
inhibit
4. It is obvious that you have taken the wrong decision. Why are
you keeping saying you didnt?
pig
5. When the child saw an array of various toys displayed in the
shop-window, he started crying and demanding that his mother
should buy one for him.
tantrum
6. When we saw the price of the article, we had a feeling of doubt
about whether to buy it or to shop around.
reservation
7. He failed to explain to me properly what I was supposed to do,
his instructions were vague, as a result, I feel very confused.
muddle
8. The elderly man said he was no longer keen on exercising regularly.
work
9. Although he was not an athlete, he was quite interested in skating.
into
10. Sometimes he feels bitter and resentful because he is not as assertive as his brother.
chip
11. The workload I am facing now is much more than I can handle,
therefore I feel nervous and confused.
uster
76
12. He always will insist on very small differences, which are, in my

opinion, unimportant.
hairs
13. Because he stumbled over the word several times and was never
able to get it the right way, his colleagues started to make fun of
him.
mickey
14. The government is trying to make us see that the economic crisis
is less important than it really is.
play
15. We are quite well-off, although we dont have money to burn.
comfortable
16. She has a natural ability to cook things well, although she never
actually learnt how to do it.
air
17. As he was top of the class, I didnt have any doubts that he was
going to pass the exam.
foregone
IV
Choose the word which best completes each sentence.
1. He must have known the truth, but he didnt let
a) In b) on c) at d) about
2. He is wealthy, but is not very happy in his personal life. It just
goes tothat money isnt everything.
a) Tell b) mention c) show d) indicate
3. Long holidays are not the only reason why I have taken up teaching, but it has a.on it.
a) Inuence b) impact c) bearing d) affect
4. The wedding part of Bill and Joan proved to be a draw. A lot of
peopleit.
a) Stormed b) attacked c) crashed d) gatecrashed
5. I dont like to, but who presented you with such an expensive
necklace?
a) Interfere b) intervene c) investigate d) pry
77
1. If you were less impulsive, you wouldnt have made that sudden
decision.
snap
2. I dont very much fancy people who are excessively polite to
someone, especially someone who is in a superior position to
them.
crawl
3. He acts so unnaturally in public, making a speech for him is an
insurmountable task.
inhibit
4. It is obvious that you have taken the wrong decision. Why are
you keeping saying you didnt?
pig
5. When the child saw an array of various toys displayed in the
shop-window, he started crying and demanding that his mother
should buy one for him.
tantrum
6. When we saw the price of the article, we had a feeling of doubt
about whether to buy it or to shop around.
reservation
7. He failed to explain to me properly what I was supposed to do,
his instructions were vague, as a result, I feel very confused.
muddle
8. The elderly man said he was no longer keen on exercising regularly.
work
9. Although he was not an athlete, he was quite interested in skating.
into
10. Sometimes he feels bitter and resentful because he is not as assertive as his brother.
chip
11. The workload I am facing now is much more than I can handle,
therefore I feel nervous and confused.
uster
76
12. He always will insist on very small differences, which are, in my

opinion, unimportant.
hairs
13. Because he stumbled over the word several times and was never
able to get it the right way, his colleagues started to make fun of
him.
mickey
14. The government is trying to make us see that the economic crisis
is less important than it really is.
play
15. We are quite well-off, although we dont have money to burn.
comfortable
16. She has a natural ability to cook things well, although she never
actually learnt how to do it.
air
17. As he was top of the class, I didnt have any doubts that he was
going to pass the exam.
foregone
IV
Choose the word which best completes each sentence.
1. He must have known the truth, but he didnt let
a) In b) on c) at d) about
2. He is wealthy, but is not very happy in his personal life. It just
goes tothat money isnt everything.
a) Tell b) mention c) show d) indicate
3. Long holidays are not the only reason why I have taken up teaching, but it has a.on it.
a) Inuence b) impact c) bearing d) affect
4. The wedding part of Bill and Joan proved to be a draw. A lot of
peopleit.
a) Stormed b) attacked c) crashed d) gatecrashed
5. I dont like to, but who presented you with such an expensive
necklace?
a) Interfere b) intervene c) investigate d) pry
77
6. Shes terribly, she always asks impertinently personal questions.

a) foxy b) nosey c) handy d) hairy
7. He is very assertive and has a air for management, I am sure
hell go
a) places b) to heaven c) far d) straight
8. Try as I would, I couldnt book an apartment for three, I drew
aat all the hotels I phoned.
a) Ticket b) ill luck c) blank d) blanket
9. I feel that I have beenout of the position, because they preferred
to hire a younger woman.
a) done b) made c) taken d) uprooted
10. He is a real fanatic, I would even go as far as to say that he is a ,
for it is impossible to discuss politics or religion with him without
getting involved in a heated argument.
a) craze b) bigot c) madman d) lunatic
11. Thats an interesting point youve touched upon. Will you?
a) elaborate b) develop c) continue d) hang on
V
Trace the evolution of the meaning of the words below. Specify
the type of transference.
5. Redolent (adjective) 1. (archaic) Having a pleasant smell.

2. Full of a specied fragrance (e.g. air redolent of seaweed).
3. Suggesting a particular quality, evocative (e.g. a city redolent of antiquity)
6. Satellite (noun) 1. A celestial body orbiting another of larger

size. 2. Somebody or something subordinate or dependent (e.g.
a satellite nation) 3. An obsequious follower
7. Furious (adjective) 1. Exhibiting or goaded by uncontrollable

anger. 2. Having a stormy or turbulent appearance (e.g. furious
bursts of ame) 3. Intense (e.g. the furious growth of tropical
vegetation)
1. Crush (noun) 1. A crowding together, especially of many people. 2. A soft drink made from the juice of fresh fruit (e.g. an orange crush). 3. (informal) an infatuation with smb., especially
smb. unsuitable or unattainable
8. Embark (verb) 1. To go on board a ship or aircraft 2. (on,

upon) To make a start on something (e.g. He embarked on a
new career).
2. Crusade (noun) 1. Any of the medieval Christian military

expeditions to win the Holy Land from the Muslims. 2. A reforming enterprise undertaken with zeal and enthusiasm (e.g. a
moral crusade).
9. Brood (verb) 1. (of a bird) To sit on eggs in order to hatch

them 2. (on, over, about) To dwell gloomily on or worry over
or about something; to be in a state of depression. 3. To hover
or seem to hover menacingly (e.g. the brooding cliffs).
3. Invite (verb) 1. To request smth. or the presence of smb., especially formally or politely. 2. To increase the likelihood of
smth., often unintentionally (e.g. His actions invite trouble)
78
4. Invest (verb) 1. To commit money to a particular use. 2. To

devote time or effort to smth. for future advantages.
VI
What meaning do the given postpositives (postpositions) lend to
the verb-stem?
79
6. Shes terribly, she always asks impertinently personal questions.

a) foxy b) nosey c) handy d) hairy
7. He is very assertive and has a air for management, I am sure
hell go
a) places b) to heaven c) far d) straight
8. Try as I would, I couldnt book an apartment for three, I drew
aat all the hotels I phoned.
a) Ticket b) ill luck c) blank d) blanket
9. I feel that I have beenout of the position, because they preferred
to hire a younger woman.
a) done b) made c) taken d) uprooted
10. He is a real fanatic, I would even go as far as to say that he is a ,
for it is impossible to discuss politics or religion with him without
getting involved in a heated argument.
a) craze b) bigot c) madman d) lunatic
11. Thats an interesting point youve touched upon. Will you?
a) elaborate b) develop c) continue d) hang on
V
Trace the evolution of the meaning of the words below. Specify
the type of transference.
5. Redolent (adjective) 1. (archaic) Having a pleasant smell.

2. Full of a specied fragrance (e.g. air redolent of seaweed).
3. Suggesting a particular quality, evocative (e.g. a city redolent of antiquity)
6. Satellite (noun) 1. A celestial body orbiting another of larger

size. 2. Somebody or something subordinate or dependent (e.g.
a satellite nation) 3. An obsequious follower
7. Furious (adjective) 1. Exhibiting or goaded by uncontrollable

anger. 2. Having a stormy or turbulent appearance (e.g. furious
bursts of ame) 3. Intense (e.g. the furious growth of tropical
vegetation)
1. Crush (noun) 1. A crowding together, especially of many people. 2. A soft drink made from the juice of fresh fruit (e.g. an orange crush). 3. (informal) an infatuation with smb., especially
smb. unsuitable or unattainable
8. Embark (verb) 1. To go on board a ship or aircraft 2. (on,

upon) To make a start on something (e.g. He embarked on a
new career).
2. Crusade (noun) 1. Any of the medieval Christian military

expeditions to win the Holy Land from the Muslims. 2. A reforming enterprise undertaken with zeal and enthusiasm (e.g. a
moral crusade).
9. Brood (verb) 1. (of a bird) To sit on eggs in order to hatch

them 2. (on, over, about) To dwell gloomily on or worry over
or about something; to be in a state of depression. 3. To hover
or seem to hover menacingly (e.g. the brooding cliffs).
3. Invite (verb) 1. To request smth. or the presence of smb., especially formally or politely. 2. To increase the likelihood of
smth., often unintentionally (e.g. His actions invite trouble)
78
4. Invest (verb) 1. To commit money to a particular use. 2. To

devote time or effort to smth. for future advantages.
VI
What meaning do the given postpositives (postpositions) lend to
the verb-stem?
79
9. Mobile phones gradually took from pagers.

10. The meeting will last for about 15 more minutes, but I cant chair
it any longer, because Im urgently needed in the ofce, so will
you takeas my deputy?
Up - top, double, pep, wrap (e.g. a discussion)
Down - put (e.g. a dog), pin (e.g. a robber), go
(e.g. a computer).
In pitch (informal), cut, usher (e.g. a new era).
Out jut, count, lash (at smb.), draw (e.g. meetings), want.
Around switch (e.g. classrooms), potter, skirt.
Off shake (e.g. the police car), work (e.g. anger,
frustration), cut (e.g. electricity), cordon, round,
switch.
VII
Fill in the blanks with suitable postpositives:
1. He had been speaking for twenty minutes when Larry came
and he broke
2. Allergic people should not eat too many nuts or else they may
break in a rash.
3. No matter how hard he tries to control himself, his ery temper
breaks now and then and gives his true disposition
4. The peddler did me of all my salary.
5. Do not do me, its unfair to criticize me now that it turned out
that my assistance was invaluable.
6. For a child of twelve months it is an insurmountable task to do the
buttons
7. Given the chance to do it, what would you change in the preparation for the press-conference?
8. Its inadmissible to take it on somebody when you are tired,
angry or in a bad mood.
80
VIII
Find cases of metaphor in the passages below. Say what the metaphor draws on. If the metaphor is cognitive, specify its type.
1. I went to see the village again, about a year afterwards. There was
nothing there. Mounds of red mud, where the huts had been, had
long swathes of rotting thatch over them, veined with the red galleries of the white ants. The pumpkin vines rioted everywhere:
it was a festival of pumpkins. The bushes were crowding up, the
new grass sprang vivid green (D. Lessing, The Old Chief Mshlanga, 1956, P. 14).
2. The warmth of that re spread through Gwen, enveloping her in

a sweet golden aura that seemed in her mind to outshine the pale,
cold light of the moon. Laying her head down on her arms, she
began to cry again, but these tears sprang from a different well,
one deeper and purer than she had ever imagined existed. They
were tears of joy, for she knew that she had loved Joram unselfishly (M. Weis, T. Hickman, The Dark Sword Trilogy, Vol. II,
P. 228).
3. As chief librarian in charge of records for over thirty years, he

considered the entire history of British international affairs his
private domain. He made a speciality of ferreting out policy blunders and scandalous intriguesthat had been swept under the
carpet of secrecy (C. Cussler, Night Probe, 2003, P. 59).
81
9. Mobile phones gradually took from pagers.

10. The meeting will last for about 15 more minutes, but I cant chair
it any longer, because Im urgently needed in the ofce, so will
you takeas my deputy?
Up - top, double, pep, wrap (e.g. a discussion)
Down - put (e.g. a dog), pin (e.g. a robber), go
(e.g. a computer).
In pitch (informal), cut, usher (e.g. a new era).
Out jut, count, lash (at smb.), draw (e.g. meetings), want.
Around switch (e.g. classrooms), potter, skirt.
Off shake (e.g. the police car), work (e.g. anger,
frustration), cut (e.g. electricity), cordon, round,
switch.
VII
Fill in the blanks with suitable postpositives:
1. He had been speaking for twenty minutes when Larry came
and he broke
2. Allergic people should not eat too many nuts or else they may
break in a rash.
3. No matter how hard he tries to control himself, his ery temper
breaks now and then and gives his true disposition
4. The peddler did me of all my salary.
5. Do not do me, its unfair to criticize me now that it turned out
that my assistance was invaluable.
6. For a child of twelve months it is an insurmountable task to do the
buttons
7. Given the chance to do it, what would you change in the preparation for the press-conference?
8. Its inadmissible to take it on somebody when you are tired,
angry or in a bad mood.
80
VIII
Find cases of metaphor in the passages below. Say what the metaphor draws on. If the metaphor is cognitive, specify its type.
1. I went to see the village again, about a year afterwards. There was
nothing there. Mounds of red mud, where the huts had been, had
long swathes of rotting thatch over them, veined with the red galleries of the white ants. The pumpkin vines rioted everywhere:
it was a festival of pumpkins. The bushes were crowding up, the
new grass sprang vivid green (D. Lessing, The Old Chief Mshlanga, 1956, P. 14).
2. The warmth of that re spread through Gwen, enveloping her in

a sweet golden aura that seemed in her mind to outshine the pale,
cold light of the moon. Laying her head down on her arms, she
began to cry again, but these tears sprang from a different well,
one deeper and purer than she had ever imagined existed. They
were tears of joy, for she knew that she had loved Joram unselfishly (M. Weis, T. Hickman, The Dark Sword Trilogy, Vol. II,
P. 228).
3. As chief librarian in charge of records for over thirty years, he

considered the entire history of British international affairs his
private domain. He made a speciality of ferreting out policy blunders and scandalous intriguesthat had been swept under the
carpet of secrecy (C. Cussler, Night Probe, 2003, P. 59).
81
4. The third day broke, bleak and windy. At sunrise the Ents voices
rose to a great clamour and then died down again. As the morning
wore on, the wind fell and the air grew heavy with expectancy
The afternoon came, and then, going west towards the mountains,
sent out long yellow beams between the cracks and ssures of
the clouds. Suddenly they were aware that everything was quiet;
the whole forest stood in listening silence (J. R.R. Tolkien, The
Lord of the Rings, Part two, The Two Towers, 1994, P. 99).
9. Everything Ive written so far about Los Angeles is true, as far

as I know. But everything Ive written so far is also profoundly
inaccurate. If you think of LA as a room, it would be fair to say
that Ive been deliberately neglecting an elephant sitting by itself
in the corner. Lots of Angelenos choose to do the same they
behave as if the elephant werent there, or they pretend its no
bigger than a mouse. But soon I think they wont have a choice.
The elephant is not aggressive. It just keeps on growing [Mark
Abley, The Prodigal Tongue, 2009:129].
5. The Butters were a family of large, inbred, indeterminately numerous individuals who lived seasonally in a collection of shanty
homes in an area of perpetual wooded gloom known as the Bottoms along the swampy margins of the Raccoon River (B. Bryson,
The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, 2007, P. 73).
10. He leaned back. Somewhere in the house there was the sound of
rushing water. The radiator rattled and the rain knocked with soft
ngers at the window [Remarque, 1971:69].
6. Some people argue that because God is a caring deity ill health
and suffering must also have an origin in divine care. From this
proceeds the widespread understanding that disease and physical
suffering are the means by which God puries the soul (I. Mortimer, The Time Travellers Guide to Medieval England, 2007,
P. 190).
7. The glass of the kitchen window-panes rattled in their frames and
then the rumble of the guns rolled down from the north. Once
again the German guns were hunting along the ridges, clamouring and barking like wild dogs (Wilbur Smith The Burning
Shore, 1997, P. 48)
8. Centaine shivered. Death that word again. Death was all around
them. On the ridges over there where for the moment the sound
of the guns was just a low rumble, death in the sky above them
(Wilbur Smith The Burning Shore, 1997, P. 68)
82
11. A huge old chestnut tree stretched its naked arms upward toward
the wet sky [Remarque, 1971:85].
12. I am sitting here with a woman between pale chrysanthemums
and a bottle of calvados, and the shadow of love rises, trembling,
lonesome, strange and sad, it too an exile from the safe gardens
of the past, shy and wild and quick as if it had no right [Remarque, 1971:146].
13. She calls that joy! To be driven by multiple dark propellers, in a
gust of breathless desire for repossession joy? Outside there is a
moment of joy, the dew at the window, the ten minutes of silence
before the day stretches out its claws [Remarque, 1971:248].
IX
Specify the functions performed by the following cases of metonymy:
1. He looked across the room toward Albert. The feathered hat was
just explaining to him very audibly why he was such a swine, at the same
83
4. The third day broke, bleak and windy. At sunrise the Ents voices
rose to a great clamour and then died down again. As the morning
wore on, the wind fell and the air grew heavy with expectancy
The afternoon came, and then, going west towards the mountains,
sent out long yellow beams between the cracks and ssures of
the clouds. Suddenly they were aware that everything was quiet;
the whole forest stood in listening silence (J. R.R. Tolkien, The
Lord of the Rings, Part two, The Two Towers, 1994, P. 99).
9. Everything Ive written so far about Los Angeles is true, as far

as I know. But everything Ive written so far is also profoundly
inaccurate. If you think of LA as a room, it would be fair to say
that Ive been deliberately neglecting an elephant sitting by itself
in the corner. Lots of Angelenos choose to do the same they
behave as if the elephant werent there, or they pretend its no
bigger than a mouse. But soon I think they wont have a choice.
The elephant is not aggressive. It just keeps on growing [Mark
Abley, The Prodigal Tongue, 2009:129].
5. The Butters were a family of large, inbred, indeterminately numerous individuals who lived seasonally in a collection of shanty
homes in an area of perpetual wooded gloom known as the Bottoms along the swampy margins of the Raccoon River (B. Bryson,
The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, 2007, P. 73).
10. He leaned back. Somewhere in the house there was the sound of
rushing water. The radiator rattled and the rain knocked with soft
ngers at the window [Remarque, 1971:69].
6. Some people argue that because God is a caring deity ill health
and suffering must also have an origin in divine care. From this
proceeds the widespread understanding that disease and physical
suffering are the means by which God puries the soul (I. Mortimer, The Time Travellers Guide to Medieval England, 2007,
P. 190).
7. The glass of the kitchen window-panes rattled in their frames and
then the rumble of the guns rolled down from the north. Once
again the German guns were hunting along the ridges, clamouring and barking like wild dogs (Wilbur Smith The Burning
Shore, 1997, P. 48)
8. Centaine shivered. Death that word again. Death was all around
them. On the ridges over there where for the moment the sound
of the guns was just a low rumble, death in the sky above them
(Wilbur Smith The Burning Shore, 1997, P. 68)
82
11. A huge old chestnut tree stretched its naked arms upward toward
the wet sky [Remarque, 1971:85].
12. I am sitting here with a woman between pale chrysanthemums
and a bottle of calvados, and the shadow of love rises, trembling,
lonesome, strange and sad, it too an exile from the safe gardens
of the past, shy and wild and quick as if it had no right [Remarque, 1971:146].
13. She calls that joy! To be driven by multiple dark propellers, in a
gust of breathless desire for repossession joy? Outside there is a
moment of joy, the dew at the window, the ten minutes of silence
before the day stretches out its claws [Remarque, 1971:248].
IX
Specify the functions performed by the following cases of metonymy:
1. He looked across the room toward Albert. The feathered hat was
just explaining to him very audibly why he was such a swine, at the same
83
time rhythmically rapping on the table with her umbrella [Remarque,

1971:64].
2. She did not put it on. She simply hung it around her shoulders. It
was an inexpensive mink, possible an imitation but it did not look cheap
on her.
3. In Vienna ve years, it was not yet expensive, I could live cheaply; but it cost me two Renoirs and a Degas pastel. In Prague I lived on and
ate up a Sisley and ve drawings [Remarque, 1971:347].
4. Number twelve is dead, Veber. Now you call the police [Remarque,
1971:438].
X
Differentiate between cases of metaphor and metonymy.
The jacket of the book
The roof of the tongue
The cover of the night
A wedge of a melon
A lump of sugar
A lockjaw
A train of thought
A ight of fantasy
A hint of brandy
A spoiler
Fishngers
The brow of the hill
The crest of the wave
The cheek to ask for smth.
To hate smb.s guts
The eye of the storm
The heel of the sock
Euphemisms are indirect words and word combinations that are used instead of a harsher word or
expression to gloss over or conceal the notion that the
latter word or expression conveys. Euphemisms can
be classied according to various criteria: according
to their origin and current sphere of application (politics, medicine), according to their stylistic characteristics and word-building peculiarities
(idioms, slang words, blends, shortenings, terms).
XI
Match the left-hand euphemisms with their right-hand meaning
and specify the linguistic strategy that underlies each euphemism.
84
To neutralize
Pro-life
Pro-choice
John
Correction ofcer
Adult bookstore
Grass
Lived-in
Road apples
The C-word
To buy the farm
Sanitation engineers
Middlescence
Senior moment
Halitosis
toilet
horse manure
untidy
cancer
elderly
prison guard
bad breath
to die
a lapse of memory
to kill
pro-abortion
anti-abortion
pornographic bookstore
garbage collectors
marijuana
As technology develops, some words may acquire a narrower or reduced meaning, the process and
its result known as specialization. Thus, the advent
of the computer and its evolution introduced into the
language a number of specialized meanings for older
words, traditionally used in a more general sense.
XII
Study the table of computer and Internet terms below, specify
the type of transference and say what specialization resulted in.
Computer and
Meaning and Description
Internet Terms
blend
1. A drawing program command that computes the intermediate shapes between two selected objects. The blend
command is used to make the smooth highlights on a rendering of a three-dimensional object. In many ways, the
blend command is like morphing special effects seen on
television commercials. With its help, one could make the
letter C, for example, turn into a cat.
2. A photopaint program lter that smooths colours and removes texture over a selected area.
3. A piece of digital art in which several images have been
combined seamlessly into a visually interesting whole.
85
time rhythmically rapping on the table with her umbrella [Remarque,

1971:64].
2. She did not put it on. She simply hung it around her shoulders. It
was an inexpensive mink, possible an imitation but it did not look cheap
on her.
3. In Vienna ve years, it was not yet expensive, I could live cheaply; but it cost me two Renoirs and a Degas pastel. In Prague I lived on and
ate up a Sisley and ve drawings [Remarque, 1971:347].
4. Number twelve is dead, Veber. Now you call the police [Remarque,
1971:438].
X
Differentiate between cases of metaphor and metonymy.
The jacket of the book
The roof of the tongue
The cover of the night
A wedge of a melon
A lump of sugar
A lockjaw
A train of thought
A ight of fantasy
A hint of brandy
A spoiler
Fishngers
The brow of the hill
The crest of the wave
The cheek to ask for smth.
To hate smb.s guts
The eye of the storm
The heel of the sock
Euphemisms are indirect words and word combinations that are used instead of a harsher word or
expression to gloss over or conceal the notion that the
latter word or expression conveys. Euphemisms can
be classied according to various criteria: according
to their origin and current sphere of application (politics, medicine), according to their stylistic characteristics and word-building peculiarities
(idioms, slang words, blends, shortenings, terms).
XI
Match the left-hand euphemisms with their right-hand meaning
and specify the linguistic strategy that underlies each euphemism.
84
To neutralize
Pro-life
Pro-choice
John
Correction ofcer
Adult bookstore
Grass
Lived-in
Road apples
The C-word
To buy the farm
Sanitation engineers
Middlescence
Senior moment
Halitosis
toilet
horse manure
untidy
cancer
elderly
prison guard
bad breath
to die
a lapse of memory
to kill
pro-abortion
anti-abortion
pornographic bookstore
garbage collectors
marijuana
As technology develops, some words may acquire a narrower or reduced meaning, the process and
its result known as specialization. Thus, the advent
of the computer and its evolution introduced into the
language a number of specialized meanings for older
words, traditionally used in a more general sense.
XII
Study the table of computer and Internet terms below, specify
the type of transference and say what specialization resulted in.
Computer and
Internet Terms
blend
1. A drawing program command that computes the intermediate shapes between two selected objects. The blend
command is used to make the smooth highlights on a rendering of a three-dimensional object. In many ways, the
blend command is like morphing special effects seen on
television commercials. With its help, one could make the
letter C, for example, turn into a cat.
2. A photopaint program lter that smooths colours and removes texture over a selected area.
3. A piece of digital art in which several images have been
combined seamlessly into a visually interesting whole.
85
Computer and
Internet Terms
Boot
To start up a computer. The term boot (earlier bootstraps)
derives from the idea that the computer has to to pull itself
up by the bootstraps, that is, load into memory a small program that enables it to load larger programs.
Bottleneck
Cinnamon bun
Client
Ear
Efciency
Justication
Node
86
The part of a computer system that slows down its performance, such as a slow disk drive, slow modem, or overloaded
network. Finding and remedying bottlenecks is much more
worthwhile than simply speeding up parts of the computer
that are already fast.
The symbol @
1. A computer that receives services from another computer. For example, when you browse the World Wide Web,
your computer is a client of the computer that hosts the
web page.
2. An operating system component that enables a computer
to access a particular types of service.
1. The small stroke on the right side of the letter g.
2. A small box of information on either side of a headline.
In newspapers, an ear is commonly used for the weather
forecasts.
The conservation of scarce resources. In order to measure
efciency, you have to decide which resources you want to
conserve. For example, one program may be more efcient
than another if it uses less memory, and another program
may be more efcient in terms of speed; the question is
whether you would rather conserve memory or time.
The insertion of extra space between words in lines of type
so that the left and the right margins are even and smooth.
Most word processors and desktop publishing programs can
automatically do the computations necessary to justify type.
Problems arise only when the column width is too narrow
or too large. Then you will get rivers of white space running
down the column.
1. An individual computer in a network
2. A point on a curve or line that helps dene the shape of
the line
Computer and
Internet Terms
Permission
An attribute of a le that indicates who is allowed to read
or modify it
River
A series of white spaces between words that appear to ow
from line to line in a printed document. Rivers result from
trying to justify type when the columns are too narrow or the
available soft-ware or printer is not versatile enough.
Slave
The dependent unit in a pair of linked machines.
The appearance of new words is often inuenced by technological progress; when technology
advances there may appear new versions of the preexisting product or thing, in this case new words are
required to nominate the novelty. New words for
old or outmoded objects have come to be known
as retronyms. Retronyms are almost always represented by an attributive word-combination, in which the rst element is key to disclosing
the essence of an outdated object. The classical example is the retronym
acoustic guitar, which emerged when guitar was replaced by an electric
guitar, that is, by its more advanced version. Interestingly, retronyms, despite referring to old-fashioned notions, often have positive connotations,
unlike many of their more advanced counterparts (called neonyms).
XIII
Below are a number of neonyms. Study them closely and nd out
their retronym counterparts. Which of the retronyms are characterized by positive connotations?
Neonym
Retronym
Digital computer
Digital watch
Liquid soap
Colour television
Disposable diapers
87
Computer and
Internet Terms
Boot
To start up a computer. The term boot (earlier bootstraps)
derives from the idea that the computer has to to pull itself
up by the bootstraps, that is, load into memory a small program that enables it to load larger programs.
Bottleneck
Cinnamon bun
Client
Ear
Efciency
Justication
Node
86
The part of a computer system that slows down its performance, such as a slow disk drive, slow modem, or overloaded
network. Finding and remedying bottlenecks is much more
worthwhile than simply speeding up parts of the computer
that are already fast.
The symbol @
1. A computer that receives services from another computer. For example, when you browse the World Wide Web,
your computer is a client of the computer that hosts the
web page.
2. An operating system component that enables a computer
to access a particular types of service.
1. The small stroke on the right side of the letter g.
2. A small box of information on either side of a headline.
In newspapers, an ear is commonly used for the weather
forecasts.
The conservation of scarce resources. In order to measure
efciency, you have to decide which resources you want to
conserve. For example, one program may be more efcient
than another if it uses less memory, and another program
may be more efcient in terms of speed; the question is
whether you would rather conserve memory or time.
The insertion of extra space between words in lines of type
so that the left and the right margins are even and smooth.
Most word processors and desktop publishing programs can
automatically do the computations necessary to justify type.
Problems arise only when the column width is too narrow
or too large. Then you will get rivers of white space running
down the column.
1. An individual computer in a network
2. A point on a curve or line that helps dene the shape of
the line
Computer and
Internet Terms
Permission
An attribute of a le that indicates who is allowed to read
or modify it
River
A series of white spaces between words that appear to ow
from line to line in a printed document. Rivers result from
trying to justify type when the columns are too narrow or the
available soft-ware or printer is not versatile enough.
Slave
The dependent unit in a pair of linked machines.
The appearance of new words is often inuenced by technological progress; when technology
advances there may appear new versions of the preexisting product or thing, in this case new words are
required to nominate the novelty. New words for
old or outmoded objects have come to be known
as retronyms. Retronyms are almost always represented by an attributive word-combination, in which the rst element is key to disclosing
the essence of an outdated object. The classical example is the retronym
acoustic guitar, which emerged when guitar was replaced by an electric
guitar, that is, by its more advanced version. Interestingly, retronyms, despite referring to old-fashioned notions, often have positive connotations,
unlike many of their more advanced counterparts (called neonyms).
XIII
Below are a number of neonyms. Study them closely and nd out
their retronym counterparts. Which of the retronyms are characterized by positive connotations?
Neonym
Retronym
Digital computer
Digital watch
Liquid soap
Colour television
Disposable diapers
87
Cordless drill
Laptop computer
Digital camera
Ballpoint pen
Softcover book
Water polo
Machine-readable
Machine translation
Laser printer
Automatic transmission
Peroxide blonde
Articial language (machine language)
Cable television
Electron microscope
Radio telescope
E-book
Electronic journalist
Jet plane
Push-button phone
Dried egg (articial egg)
Water skiing
Single-parent family
Drive-in theatre
Skim milk
Different terms are used to refer to novel lexemes in a language, such as neologisms, lexical
innovations, neo-lexemes, etc., the prevailing being the term neologisms. Although this term is not
by all means new, there is still no unanimous opinion
among linguists and pundits as to its semantics. The noted Russian linguist N.Z. Kotelova suggests several linguistic theories that disclose its
essence. Another linguist, T.V. Popova, refers to these theories as stylistic, psycholinguistic, lexicographic, denotative, structural and
historical.
88
Let us outline them in some detail. According to the st theory (stylistic), neologisms are stylistically-marked words (that is, negatively
marked along the line of neutrality), their meanings and phraseological
units, whose usage and application entails a novelty effect. Psycholinguistic theory denes neologism as a linguistic unit that has not been
previously encountered by a native speaker in his experience [Togoeva,
1999:88]. This theory brings to the fore the subjective individual novelty
of a word. Proponents of this theory underline that most neologisms are
not represented in dictionaries. According to the lexicographical theory,
neologisms are words registered by neological dictionaries. The theory is
open to argument, since it is hardly possible to enter all new words in a
neo-dictionary, which would make it bulky and non-selective.
The denotational theory posits that neologisms are words referring
to a new notion or realia. For all its convenience, the theory disregards
purely linguistic reasons for the appearance of new words, among which
are: the penchant for expressivity, creativity and evaluative nominations,
linguistic economy and analogical extensions.
Adherents of the structural theory believe that neologisms are words
that are new from the point of view of their form, structure. This theory
does not count derived words built with the help of known afxes as neologisms, because such innovations are relatively easy to decode and
interpret if one knows the meaning of the stem and the appended afx.
Professor T.V. Popova considers the historical theory as the most appropriate, as it takes into account the period of time when a new word emerges,
consequently, it is possible to speak of neologisms of the 18th, 19th and,
indeed, any century. Within the framework of this theory, the notion of
neologisms is relative, a word can be regarded as new in one or several
aspects. The following criteria of a words novelty are taken into account:
1) Novelty for all native speakers
2) Novelty for a particular national language
3) Novelty for a particular genre of speech
4) Speech novelty or language novelty
5) Structural, semantic or stylistic novelty
A neologism, thus, can be dened as a word, its meaning, or a phraseological unit (an idiom) that exists in a particular language or its genre
and that did not exist earlier [Popova, 2005:12].
89
Cordless drill
Laptop computer
Digital camera
Ballpoint pen
Softcover book
Water polo
Machine-readable
Machine translation
Laser printer
Automatic transmission
Peroxide blonde
Articial language (machine language)
Cable television
Electron microscope
Radio telescope
E-book
Electronic journalist
Jet plane
Push-button phone
Dried egg (articial egg)
Water skiing
Single-parent family
Drive-in theatre
Skim milk
Different terms are used to refer to novel lexemes in a language, such as neologisms, lexical
innovations, neo-lexemes, etc., the prevailing being the term neologisms. Although this term is not
by all means new, there is still no unanimous opinion
among linguists and pundits as to its semantics. The noted Russian linguist N.Z. Kotelova suggests several linguistic theories that disclose its
essence. Another linguist, T.V. Popova, refers to these theories as stylistic, psycholinguistic, lexicographic, denotative, structural and
historical.
88
Let us outline them in some detail. According to the st theory (stylistic), neologisms are stylistically-marked words (that is, negatively
marked along the line of neutrality), their meanings and phraseological
units, whose usage and application entails a novelty effect. Psycholinguistic theory denes neologism as a linguistic unit that has not been
previously encountered by a native speaker in his experience [Togoeva,
1999:88]. This theory brings to the fore the subjective individual novelty
of a word. Proponents of this theory underline that most neologisms are
not represented in dictionaries. According to the lexicographical theory,
neologisms are words registered by neological dictionaries. The theory is
open to argument, since it is hardly possible to enter all new words in a
neo-dictionary, which would make it bulky and non-selective.
The denotational theory posits that neologisms are words referring
to a new notion or realia. For all its convenience, the theory disregards
purely linguistic reasons for the appearance of new words, among which
are: the penchant for expressivity, creativity and evaluative nominations,
linguistic economy and analogical extensions.
Adherents of the structural theory believe that neologisms are words
that are new from the point of view of their form, structure. This theory
does not count derived words built with the help of known afxes as neologisms, because such innovations are relatively easy to decode and
interpret if one knows the meaning of the stem and the appended afx.
Professor T.V. Popova considers the historical theory as the most appropriate, as it takes into account the period of time when a new word emerges,
consequently, it is possible to speak of neologisms of the 18th, 19th and,
indeed, any century. Within the framework of this theory, the notion of
neologisms is relative, a word can be regarded as new in one or several
aspects. The following criteria of a words novelty are taken into account:
1) Novelty for all native speakers
2) Novelty for a particular national language
3) Novelty for a particular genre of speech
4) Speech novelty or language novelty
5) Structural, semantic or stylistic novelty
A neologism, thus, can be dened as a word, its meaning, or a phraseological unit (an idiom) that exists in a particular language or its genre
and that did not exist earlier [Popova, 2005:12].
89
XIV
There are various criteria underlying the classication of neologisms,
such as the year of their emergence, the word-building pattern used in
their creation, the sphere of their application and usage, etc.
Below are a number of neologisms selected by the year of their
appearance. Comment on their meaning and word-building pattern
and speculate on their prospective longevity, going by the criteria
suggested by R. Fischer (1998):
1) Frequency of usage. After a new word is introduced, it starts to be
used more frequently. After some time, the frequency reaches its
peak, and then either levels off or goes gradually down. This is the
stage when the word has completed the process of standardization.
2) A variety of contexts in which the new word is used. If a novel
word appears in different texts and in different genres, it means
that standardization is in full swing. In case the application of the
word is conned to a social or a geographical dialect, standardization is absent.
3) Absence or presence of graphic markers, such as capitals, bold
fonts, italics, hyphen, etc. If these markers are present, standardization is either close to nil or is nascent. If the word is standardized,
these markers are either absent or only one type of marker prevails.
4) The meaning of the word. If the word becomes polysemantic
or develops a metaphorical meaning, it is on the way to standardization. If the words meaning is constantly explained and
paraphrased by means of synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms and
hyperonyms, its standardization is not completed, therefore it has
slim chances of taking root in the language.
5) If a novel word is used as a proper name, for example as a trade
mark name, it has more chances of catching on, as it facilitates the
words recognition.
6) Word-building productivity. If a novel word becomes a derivational basis for other words, it testies to the completion of
standardization.
7) Syntactic function. Standardization entails the usage of a novel
word as an attribute before a noun.
8) Topicality. The degree of standardization increases if the word is
rarely used as the theme of an article.
90
Neologism and Its Meaning
Year
bushlips:
insincere political rhetoric
interview without coffee:
a formal disciplinary meeting or ofcial reprimand; a dressing-down.
mother of all:
greatest
area boy:
a hoodlum or street thug
lilywhite:
a person without a police record; someone who does
not trigger suspicions
McJob:
An unstimulating low-paying job
Babymoon:
a planned period of calm spent together by a justborn baby and its parents;
occasionally, time spent by parents
without their baby.
Chalk:
the personnel
and equipment that
make up the load of an aircraft.
dress down day:
a workday when employees are allowed to dress casually
love-cum-arranged marriage:
matrimony between a mutually acceptable and consenting couple that has
been facilitated by the couples parents.
go postal:
to act irrationally and violently as a result of work-stress
Jesus year:
a persons 33rd year of life
1990
Word-building peculiarities
and estimated longevity
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
91
XIV
There are various criteria underlying the classication of neologisms,
such as the year of their emergence, the word-building pattern used in
their creation, the sphere of their application and usage, etc.
Below are a number of neologisms selected by the year of their
appearance. Comment on their meaning and word-building pattern
and speculate on their prospective longevity, going by the criteria
suggested by R. Fischer (1998):
1) Frequency of usage. After a new word is introduced, it starts to be
used more frequently. After some time, the frequency reaches its
peak, and then either levels off or goes gradually down. This is the
stage when the word has completed the process of standardization.
2) A variety of contexts in which the new word is used. If a novel
word appears in different texts and in different genres, it means
that standardization is in full swing. In case the application of the
word is conned to a social or a geographical dialect, standardization is absent.
3) Absence or presence of graphic markers, such as capitals, bold
fonts, italics, hyphen, etc. If these markers are present, standardization is either close to nil or is nascent. If the word is standardized,
these markers are either absent or only one type of marker prevails.
4) The meaning of the word. If the word becomes polysemantic
or develops a metaphorical meaning, it is on the way to standardization. If the words meaning is constantly explained and
paraphrased by means of synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms and
hyperonyms, its standardization is not completed, therefore it has
slim chances of taking root in the language.
5) If a novel word is used as a proper name, for example as a trade
mark name, it has more chances of catching on, as it facilitates the
words recognition.
6) Word-building productivity. If a novel word becomes a derivational basis for other words, it testies to the completion of
standardization.
7) Syntactic function. Standardization entails the usage of a novel
word as an attribute before a noun.
8) Topicality. The degree of standardization increases if the word is
rarely used as the theme of an article.
90
Year
bushlips:
insincere political rhetoric
interview without coffee:
a formal disciplinary meeting or ofcial reprimand; a dressing-down.
mother of all:
greatest
area boy:
a hoodlum or street thug
lilywhite:
a person without a police record; someone who does
not trigger suspicions
McJob:
An unstimulating low-paying job
Babymoon:
a planned period of calm spent together by a justborn baby and its parents;
occasionally, time spent by parents
without their baby.
Chalk:
the personnel
and equipment that
make up the load of an aircraft.
dress down day:
a workday when employees are allowed to dress casually
love-cum-arranged marriage:
matrimony between a mutually acceptable and consenting couple that has
been facilitated by the couples parents.
go postal:
to act irrationally and violently as a result of work-stress
Jesus year:
a persons 33rd year of life
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
91
Year
prebuttal:
1996
preemptive rebuttal
chocolate foot:
the foot favored to use or to start with
when running, biking, or kicking; ones
dominant foot.
millennium bug:
1997
the bug predicted to affect all computers at the start of the millennium
foot fault: in jurisprudence, a minor
criminal or procedural violation; a
legal misstep
senior moment:
1998
a momentary lapse of memory due to
old age
babalog:
a young, Westernized social group
or individual concerned with wealth,
pop culture fads, appearance, material
goods, or other supercialities.
eat up the camera:
in movies, to be appealing or engaging
on screen
horse blanket:
a large, complex, or comprehensive
report or chart.
cybersquat:
1999
to register a Web address with the intention to sell it at a prot
chad:
2000
a scrap of paper torn off a ballot that
invalidates it and upsets a presidential
election
dub-dub:
a restaurant server or waiter.
92
Year
second-hand speech:
overheard cell-phone conversation in
public places
Asiental:
An Asian of unknown or unspecic
nationality.
vlog:
a blog that contains video material.
feather lift:
a delicate method of cosmetic surgery
involving implanted cords that lift and
pull
gurgitator:
a person who participates in eating
competitions
exitarian:
a vegetarian who occasionally eats
meat
red state:
a state who residents favour conservative Republicans in the political map
of the United States
phish:
to induce someone to reveal private
information by means of deceptive email
wardrobe malfunction:
an unanticipated exposure of bodily
parts
mufn top:
the bulge of esh hanging over the top
of low-rider jeans
staycation:
a vacation spent at home or nearby.
vacation deprivation
foregoing vacation days because of
busyness at work.
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
93
Year
prebuttal:
1996
preemptive rebuttal
chocolate foot:
the foot favored to use or to start with
when running, biking, or kicking; ones
dominant foot.
millennium bug:
1997
the bug predicted to affect all computers at the start of the millennium
foot fault: in jurisprudence, a minor
criminal or procedural violation; a
legal misstep
senior moment:
1998
a momentary lapse of memory due to
old age
babalog:
a young, Westernized social group
or individual concerned with wealth,
pop culture fads, appearance, material
goods, or other supercialities.
eat up the camera:
in movies, to be appealing or engaging
on screen
horse blanket:
a large, complex, or comprehensive
report or chart.
cybersquat:
1999
to register a Web address with the intention to sell it at a prot
chad:
2000
a scrap of paper torn off a ballot that
invalidates it and upsets a presidential
election
dub-dub:
a restaurant server or waiter.
92
Year
second-hand speech:
overheard cell-phone conversation in
public places
Asiental:
An Asian of unknown or unspecic
nationality.
vlog:
a blog that contains video material.
feather lift:
a delicate method of cosmetic surgery
involving implanted cords that lift and
pull
gurgitator:
a person who participates in eating
competitions
exitarian:
a vegetarian who occasionally eats
meat
red state:
a state who residents favour conservative Republicans in the political map
of the United States
phish:
to induce someone to reveal private
information by means of deceptive email
wardrobe malfunction:
an unanticipated exposure of bodily
parts
mufn top:
the bulge of esh hanging over the top
of low-rider jeans
staycation:
a vacation spent at home or nearby.
vacation deprivation
foregoing vacation days because of
busyness at work.
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
93
Year
empty spam:
a spam message that contains passages
from classic literature, but no discernible advertisement, phishing attempt,
or malicious code.
sub-zero:
a dress size smaller than size 0
smexting:
sending text messages while standing
outside on a smoking break.
ninja loan:
a loan or mortgage given to a person
who has no income, no job, and no assets.
multi-dadding:
having multiple children with multiple
men.
quake lake:
a lake formed when an earthquake
causes landslides that block a large
river
Obamacon:
a conservative voter who supports
Democratic candidate Barack Obama
in the 2008 U.S. presidential election
recessionista:
a person who dresses stylishly on a
tight budget.
DDo$
a scheme where a ne or fee is paid
using a massive number of small electronic payments, particularly when
each payment generates a transaction
cost greater than the payment itself.
cookprint:
the energy and other resources used
while preparing meals.
2006
94
2007
2008
2009
Year
deather:
2009
a person who believes that U.S. health
care reform will lead to more deaths,
particularly among the elderly.
psychache:
2010
extreme psychological pain
upgradation:
the state of being upgraded; the act or
an instance of upgrading
eco-bling:
ineffective green technology, particular equipment added on to an existing
building that does little to reduce the
buildings use of natural resources.
The Pragmatic Component in the Meaning

of the Word
The classic understanding of pragmatics was
formulated by Ch. Morris who posited that pragmatics is the relationship of the sign towards its interpreters. The pragmatic component of meaning reveals itself in the process
of communication, is originally occasional and may retain an emergent
status for some time. The specic feature of the words pragmatic component is that if the word which bears it recurs in communication, this
meaning may become systematic and codied. V.I. Zabotkina points out
that all innovations, unless they are terms and have only the denotative
component, possess the pragmatic sememes of being rhematic, new from
the point of view of time and voguish.
A pragmatically-charged word may also change its function depending on the social status of the person who uses it. Thus, the usage of such
a word by a superordinate towards his/her subordinate is not deemed as
an admonition, or a reprimand, conversely, the usage of such a word by a
subordinate towards his/her superordinate is regarded as an insult.
Some of the important pragmatic sememes are those of gender, age,
ethnic and social status. These sememes are rarely registered by general95
Year
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Лаврова Н.А. - A Coursebook on English Lexicology - 2012

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A COURSEBOOK ON ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY

ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric

ally charged and/or humorously tinged. Blends are a potential metaphoric

5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native

Comment on the following denitions of the word and choose the

In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out

2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.

3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that

The notion of word is one of the central in

5. A word is one of the units of speech or writing that native

Comment on the following denitions of the word and choose the

In Western linguistic tradition it is still fashionable to single out

2. A word is an utterance conveying a single meaning.

3. A word is a speech sound or series of speech sounds that

The notion of word is one of the central in

phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9 [Jackson H., Z Amvela

phenated in COD8 (1990) but open in COD9 [Jackson H., Z Amvela

24 hours a day, 7 days a week; I have to work 24/7.

Data, information (from dial- I like my new colleague, but I

Money for the purchase of I have got 5 on that pizza.

Insane, crazy. California police Have you gone 5150 to attempt

He dropped out of school and

Ten percent of ones hair on the Chris has a 10/90.

A word for someone who be- Our school motto is Be an

used to accent victory over another person, usually said in the

While Chris was deliberately

Prototypical features Marginal features

Twenty-twenty vision (noun)

24 hours a day, 7 days a week; I have to work 24/7.

Data, information (from dial- I like my new colleague, but I

Money for the purchase of I have got 5 on that pizza.

Insane, crazy. California police Have you gone 5150 to attempt

He dropped out of school and

Ten percent of ones hair on the Chris has a 10/90.

A word for someone who be- Our school motto is Be an

used to accent victory over another person, usually said in the

While Chris was deliberately

Prototypical features Marginal features

Twenty-twenty vision (noun)

Prototypical features Marginal features

Prototypical features Marginal features

Prototypical features Marginal features

Prototypical features Marginal features

pearance. What knowledge does the speaker lack word-wise? Can

b) Consider the following nonce-words selected from the works

But if Im right, his question is of a much more omenish and

They are large women in white, tentish maid-dresses, talking

I am confused and sad as no idea if Mark still loves me or not

I looked out my window, stood in my yard sunsets with a sense

pearance. What knowledge does the speaker lack word-wise? Can

b) Consider the following nonce-words selected from the works

But if Im right, his question is of a much more omenish and

They are large women in white, tentish maid-dresses, talking

I am confused and sad as no idea if Mark still loves me or not

I looked out my window, stood in my yard sunsets with a sense

I think I know exactly what you are getting at.

Im way ahead of him emotionally. Ill have my period pretty

Why are you driving so eff-ing slow? he says. Then, in a

Her eyes snap at me. She offers me a long-toothed, savage

Consider the interjections and exclamations below and express your

Then all at once ve immense jet planes come cracking in over

Exclamation and Interjections