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Honeycomb structure
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For other uses, see Honeycomb (disambiguation).

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Honeycomb structures are natural or man-made structures that have the geometry of a

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honeycomb to allow the minimization of the amount of used material to reach minimal weight

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and minimal material cost. The geometry of honeycomb structures can vary widely but the

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common feature of all such structures is an array of hollow cells formed between thin vertical

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walls. The cells are often columnar and hexagonal in shape. A honeycomb shaped structure

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provides a material with minimal density and relative high out-of-plane compression
properties and out-of-plane shear properties.[1]

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Man-made honeycomb structural materials are commonly made by layering a honeycomb

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material between two thin layers that provide strength in tension. This forms a plate-like

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assembly. Honeycomb materials are widely used where flat or slightly curved surfaces are

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needed and their high Specific strength is valuable. They are widely used in the aerospace

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industry for this reason, and honeycomb materials in aluminum, fibreglass and advanced

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composite materials have been featured in aircraft and rockets since the 1950s. They can

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also be found in many other fields, from packaging materials in the form of paper-based

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honeycomb cardboard, to sporting goods like skis and snowboards.

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Contents [hide]
1 Introduction
2 History

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A composite sandwich panel (A)

with honeycomb core (C) and face
sheets (B)

2 History
Print/export

3 Manufacture

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4 Applications
5 Aerodynamics
6 Properties
7 See also

Deutsch

8 References

Franais

Introduction

Nederlands

[ edit ]

Natural honeycomb structures include beehives, honeycomb weathering in rocks, tripe, and

bone.

Svenska
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An image of aluminum honeycomb

structure.

Man-made honeycomb structures include sandwich-structured composites with honeycomb

cores. Man-made honeycomb structures are manufactured by using a variety of different
materials, depending on the intended application and required characteristics, from paper or
thermoplastics, used for low strength and stiffness for low load applications, to high strength
and stiffness for high performance applications, from aluminum or fiber reinforced plastics.
The strength of laminated or sandwich panels depends on the size of the panel, facing
material used and the number or density of the honeycomb cells within it. Honeycomb
composites are used widely in many industries, from aerospace industries, automotive and

Honeycomb crash absorption

structure made of injection moulded
thermoplastic polymer on a BMW i3

furniture to packaging and logistics. The material takes its name from its visual resemblance
to a bee's honeycomb a hexagonal sheet structure.

History

[ edit ]

The hexagonal comb of the honey bee has been admired and wondered about from ancient times. The first man-made honeycomb
is said to have been manufactured by Daedalus from gold by lost wax casting more than 3000 years ago.[2] Marcus Varro reports
that the Greek geometricians Euclid and Zenodorus found that the hexagon shape makes most efficient use of space and building
materials. The interior ribbing and hidden chambers in the dome of the Pantheon in Rome is an early example of a honeycomb
structure.[3]
Galileo Galilei discusses in 1638 the resistance of hollow solids: "Art, and nature even more, makes use of these in thousands of
operations in which robustness is increased without adding weight, as is seen in the bones of birds and in many stalks that are light
and very resistant to bending and breaking.[4] Robert Hook discovers in 1665 that the natural cellular structure of cork is similar to
the hexagonal honeybee comb.[5] and Charles Darwin states in 1859 that "the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is
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absolutely perfect in economizing labour and wax.[6]

The first paper honeycomb structures might have been made by the Chinese 2000 years ago for ornaments, but no reference for
this has been found. Paper honeycombs and the expansion production process has been invented in Halle/Saale in Germany by
Hans Heilbrun in 1901[7] for decorative applications. First honeycomb structures from corrugated metal sheets had been proposed
for bee keeping in 1890.[8] For the same purpose, as foundation sheets to harvest more honey, a honeycomb moulding process
using a paper paste glue mixture had been patented in 1878.[9] The three basic techniques for honeycomb production that are still
used todayexpansion, corrugation and mouldingwere already developed by 1901 for non-sandwich applications.
Hugo Junkers first explored the idea of a honeycomb core within a laminate structure. He proposed and patented the first
honeycomb cores for aircraft application in 1915.[10] He described in detail his concept to replace the fabric covered aircraft
structures by metal sheets and reasoned that a metal sheet can also be loaded in compression if it is supported at very small
intervals by arranging side by side a series of square or rectangular cells or triangular or hexagonal hollow bodies. The problem of
bonding a continuous skin to cellular cores led Junkers later to the open corrugated structure, which could be riveted or welded
together.
The first use of honeycomb structures for structural applications had been independently proposed for building application and
published already in 1914.[11] In 1934 Edward G. Budd patented a welded steel honeycomb sandwich panel from corrugated metal
sheets and Claude Dornier aimed 1937 to solve the core-skin bonding problem by rolling or pressing a skin which is in a plastic
state into the core cell walls.[12] The first successful structural adhesive bonding of honeycomb sandwich structures was achieved by
Norman de Bruyne of Aero Research Limited, who patented an adhesive with the right viscosity to form resin fillets on the
honeycomb core in 1938.[13] The North American XB-70 Valkyrie made extensive use of stainless steel honeycomb panels using a
brazing process they developed.
A summary of the important developments in the history of honeycomb technology is
given below:[14]
60 BC Diodorus Siculus reports a golden honeycomb manufactured by Daedalus via
lost wax casting.
36 BC Marcus Varro reports most efficient use of space and building materials by
hexagonal shape.
126 The Pantheon was rebuilt in Rome using a coffer structure, sunken panel in the
shape of a square structure, to support its dome.
1638 Galileo Galilei discusses hollow solids and their increase of resistance without
adding weight.
1665 Robert Hook discovers that the natural cellular structure of cork is similar to
the hexagonal honeybee comb.

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XB-70 of Dryden Flight Research Center

in 1968

the hexagonal honeybee comb.

1859 Charles Darwin states that the comb of the hive-bee is absolutely perfect in economizing labour and wax.
1877 F. H. Kstermann invents a honeycomb moulding process using a paper paste glue mixture.
1890 Julius Steigel invents the honeycomb production process from corrugated metal sheets.
1901 Hans Heilbrun invents the hexagonal paper honeycombs and the expansion production process.
1914 R. Hfler and S. Renyi patent the first use of honeycomb structures for structural applications.
1915 Hugo Junkers patents the first honeycomb cores for aircraft application.
1931 George Thomson proposes to use decorative expended paper honeycombs for lightweight plasterboard panels.
1934 Edward G. Budd patents welded steel honeycomb sandwich panel from corrugated metal sheets.
1937 Claude Dornier patents a honeycomb sandwich panel with skins pressed in a plastic state into the core cell walls.
1938 Norman de Bruyne patents the structural adhesive bonding of honeycomb sandwich structures.
1941 John D. Lincoln proposes the use expanded paper honeycombs for aircraft radomes
1948 Roger Steele applies the expansion production process using fiber reinforced composite sheets.
1969 Boeing 747 uses extensively fire-resistant honeycombs from Hexcel Composites using DuPont's Nomex aramid fiber
paper.
1980s Thermoplastic honeycombs produced by extrusion processes are introduced.

Manufacture

[ edit ]

The three traditional honeycomb production techniques, expansion, corrugation, and moulding, were all developed by 1901 for nonsandwich applications. For decorative applications the expanded honeycomb production reached a remarkable degree of
automation in the first decade of the 20th century.
Today honeycomb cores are manufactured via the expansion process and the corrugation process from composite materials such
as glass-reinforced plastic (also known as fiberglass), carbon fiber reinforced plastic, Nomex aramide paper reinforced plastic, or
from a metal (usually aluminum).[15]
Honeycombs from metals (like aluminum) are today produced by the expansion process. Continuous processes of folding
honeycombs from a single aluminum sheet after cutting slits had been developed already around 1920.[16] Continuous in-line
production of metal honeycomb can be done from metal rolls by cutting and bending.[17]
Thermoplastic honeycomb cores (usually from polypropylene) are usually made by extrusion processed via a block of extruded
profiles[18] or extruded tubes[19][20] from which the honeycomb sheets are sliced.
Recently a new, unique process to produce thermoplastic honeycombs has been implemented, allowing a continuous production of
a honeycomb core as well as in-line production of honeycombs with direct lamination of skins into cost efficient sandwich panel.[21]
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Today, a wide variety of materials can be formed into a honeycomb composite. For example paperboard honeycomb is used in
paper pallets and package cushioning, blocking and bracing.[22]

Applications

[ edit ]

Composite honeycomb structures have been used in numerous engineering and scientific applications.
Application area

Industry

Company/Product

Racing shells

Sport

Vespoli, Janousek Racing Boats

Aerospace manufacturing

Aerospace

Hexcel, Neomet Ltd.

Gliders

Aerospace

Schleicher ASW 19, Solar Impulse Project

Helicopters

Aerospace

Kamov Ka-25, Bell 533, Westland Lynx

Jet aircraft

Aerospace

Rocket substructure

Aerospace

Saturn V Instrument Unit, Mars Exploration Rover, S-520

LED technology

Lighting

SmartSlab

Loudspeaker technology

Audio

Loudspeaker#Driver design, Woofer

Aerospace

Hubble Space Telescope

Automobile structure

Automotive

Panther Solo, Dome F105, Bluebird-Proteus CN7, BMW i3 / i8, Koenigsegg Agera

Snowboards

Sports

Snowboard

Furniture;

woodworking furniture

Telescope mirror
structure

Repulpable Exhibition
stands;

Construction

General Dynamics/Grumman F-111B, F-111 Aardvark, all commercial airlines since

the Boeing 747

Repulpable Exhibition Stands

More recent developments show that honeycomb structures are also advantageous in applications involving nanohole arrays in
anodized alumina,[23] microporous arrays in polymer thin films,[24] activated carbon honeycombs,[25] and photonic band gap
honeycomb structures.[26]

Aerodynamics

[ edit ]

A honeycomb mesh is often used in aerodynamics to reduce or to create wind turbulence. It

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A honeycomb mesh is often used in aerodynamics to reduce or to create wind turbulence. It

is also used to obtain a standard profile in a wind tunnel (temperature, flow speed). A major
factor in choosing the right mesh is the length ratio (length vs honeycomb cell diameter) L/d.
Length ratio < 1: Honeycomb meshes of low length ratio can be used on vehicles front grille.
Beside the aesthetic reasons, these meshes are used as screens to get a uniform profile
and to reduce the intensity of turbulence.[27]
Length ratio >> 1: Honeycomb meshes of large length ratio reduce lateral turbulence and
eddies of the flow. Early wind tunnels used them with no screens; unfortunately, this method
introduced high turbulence intensity in the test section. Most modern tunnels use both

Honeycomb grille used on a

computer fan to reduce noise

honeycomb and screens.

While aluminium honeycombs are common use in the industry, other materials are offered
for specific applications. People using metal structures should take care of removing burrs
as they can introduce additional turbulences. Polycarbonate structures are a low-cost
alternative.
The honeycombed, screened center of this open-circuit air intake for Langley's first wind
tunnel ensured a steady, non-turbulent flow of air. Two mechanics pose near the entrance
end of the actual tunnel, where air was pulled into the test section through a honeycomb
arrangement to smooth the flow.
Honeycomb is not the only cross-section available in order to reduce eddies in an airflow.
Square, rectangular, circular and hexagonal cross-sections are other choices available,

Honeycombed, screened center for

Langley's first wind tunnel

although honeycomb is generally the preferred choice.[28]

Properties

[ edit ]

In combination with two skins applied on the honeycomb, the structure offers a sandwich panel with excellent rigidity at minimal
weight. The behavior of the honeycomb structures is orthotropic, meaning the panels react differently depending on the orientation
of the structure. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between the directions of symmetry, the so-called L and W-direction. The Ldirection is the strongest and the stiffest direction. The weakest direction is at 60 from the L-direction (in the case of a regular
hexagon) and the most compliant direction is the W-direction.[1] Another important property of honeycomb sandwich core is its
compression strength. Due to the efficient hexagonal configuration, where walls support each other, compression strength of
honeycomb cores is typically higher (at same weight) compared to other sandwich core structures such as, for instance, foam cores
or corrugated cores.
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See also

[ edit ]

Lightening holes
Metal foam
Hollow structural section
Composite material
Sandwich structured composite
Sandwich plate system
Composite honeycomb
Timoshenko beam theory
Plate theory
Sandwich Panel

References
1. ^

a b

[ edit ]

Wahl, L.; Maas, S.; Waldmann, D.; Zurbes, A.; Freres, P. (28 May 2012). "Shear stresses in honeycomb sandwich plates:

Analytical solution, finite element method and experimental verification"

. Journal of Sandwich Structures and Materials. 14 (4): 449

468. doi:10.1177/1099636212444655 .
2. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, 1st century BC
3. ^ MacDonald 1976, p. 33 "There are openings in it [the rotunda] here and there, at various levels, that give on to some of the many
different chambers that honeycomb the rotunda structure, a honeycombing that is an integral part of a sophisticated engineering
solution..."
4. ^ Galilei, G., Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno due nuoue scienze, Leiden, Elzeviers, 1638
5. ^ Hook, R., Micrographia, London, J. Martyn and J. Allestry, 1665
6. ^ Darwin, C., On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, London, John Murray, 1859
7. ^ Heilbrun & Pinner, Papiernetz, DE133165, 1901
8. ^ Julius Steigel, Verfahren zur Herstellung von Kunstwaben, DE57655, 1890
9. ^ Kstermann, F. H., Knstliche Bienenwaben nebst den Instrumenten zur Herstellung derselben, DE7031, 1879
10. ^ Hugo Junkers, Abdeckung fr Flugzeugtragflchen und dergleichen, DE310040, 1915
11. ^ Hfler, R. and S. Renyi, Plattenfrmiger Baukrper, DE355036, 1914
12. ^ Dornier, C. Improvements in or relating to a method for the fabrication of lightweight structural members more particularly for aircraft
construction, GB515267, Dornier Metallbauten GmbH, 1937
13. ^ "Society for Adhesion and Adhesives"

. Uksaa-www.me.ic.ac.uk. 1904-11-08. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

14. ^ "EconHP Holding - History /index.php"

. Econhp.de. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

15. ^ Hexweb Attributes and Properties

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, accessed Sept 21, 2006

16. ^ [1]

, Dean, H. B. (1919). Artificial honeycomb. US1389294. USA, John D. Howe.

17. ^ "Lesjfors develops tool for Ericsson invention"

. Lesjoforsab.com. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

18. ^ Nidaplast Corporation (2013-11-08). "Nidaplast Environment and Composites, creation of polypropylene honeycomb products"

Nidaplast.com. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

19. ^ "Tubus-Waben"

. Tubus Waben. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

20. ^ "Honeycomb Cores Honeycomb Panels Products"

21. ^ "EconCore NV"

. Plascore. Retrieved 2014-02-13.

. EconCore.com. Retrieved 2014-10-03.

22. ^ Bitzer, T (1997). Honeycomb Technology: Materials, Design, Manufacturing, Applications and Testing, London: Chapman & Hall.
23. ^ Masuda, H. and Fukuda, K., (1995), Ordered metal nanohole arrays made by a two-step replication of honeycomb structures of anodic
alumina, Science, 268(5216), p. 1466.
24. ^ Yabu, H. and Takebayashi, M. and Tanaka, M. and Shimomura, M., 2005, Superhydrophobic and lipophobic properties of selforganized honeycomb and pincushion structures, Langmuir, 21(8), pp. 32353237.
25. ^ Gadkaree, KP, (1998), Carbon honeycomb structures for adsorption applications, Carbon, 36(78), pp. 981989.
26. ^ Broeng, J. and Barkou, S.E. and Bjarklev, A. and Knight, J.C. and Birks, T.A. and Russell, P.S.J., (1998), Highly increased photonic
band gaps in silica/air structures, Optics Communications, 156(46), pp. 240244.
27. ^ Honeycomb in Wind tunnel design by Bradshaw, Peter & Mehta, Peter.
28. ^ "Components of a Wind Tunnel"

. Brighthub.com

Categories: Buildings and structures by type

Composite materials

Aerospace materials

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