c


An 1890 map of Palestine as described by medieval Arab geographers, with Jund Filastin
administrative area
c
 (Greek: ȆĮȜĮȚıIJȓȞȘ, c
0 Latin: c
 0 Hebrew: ʬʠʸʹʩʚʵʸʠ,  D?


0 formerly ʵʸʠ±ʯ ʲʰ ʫ,  D?

0 also ʤʰʩʺˈʬʴ, c
 0 Arabic: ϦϴτδϠϓ 
Dù,

Dù, 
Dù is a conventional name used, among others, to describe a geographic region
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River, and various adjoining lands.[1]
As a geographic term, Palestine can refer to "ancient Palestine," an area that today includes Israel
and the Israeli-occupied [2] Palestinian territories, as well as part of Jordan, and some of both
Lebanon and Syria.[1] In classical or contemporary terms, it is also the common name for the area
west of the Jordan River. The boundaries of Palestine were segmented into two new states within
the territory of the British Mandate, Palestine, which became modern day Israel and
Transjordan.[3][4][5][6] The term Land of Israel is used to refer to the same geographic region, both
narrowly or broadly defined, by Israelis, Jews, and Christian Zionists, among others. Other terms
for the same area include Canaan, Zion, and the Holy Land.
® 
? 1 Origin of name
? 2 Boundaries
? 2.1 Additional extrabiblical references
? 2.2 Biblical texts
? 3 History
? 3.1 Paleolithic and Neolithic periods (1 mya±5000 BCE
? 3.2 Chalcolithic period (4500±3000 BCE and Bronze Age (3000±1200 BCE
? 3.3 Iron Age (1200±330 BCE
? 3.3.1 Hebrew Bible/Old Testament period
? 3.3.2 Persian rule (538 BCE
? 3.4 Classical antiquity
? 3.4.1 Hellenistic rule (333 BCE
? 3.4.2 Hasmonean dynasty (140 BCE
? 3.4.3 Roman rule (63 BCE
? 3.4.4 Byzantine (Eastern Roman rule (330±640 CE
? 3.5 Islamic period (630±1918 CE
? 3.5.1 Arab Caliphate rule (638±1099 CE
? 3.5.1.1 Umayyad rule (661±750 CE
? 3.5.1.2 Abbasid rule (750±969 CE
? 3.5.1.3 Fatimid rule (969±1099 CE
? 3.5.2 Crusader rule (1099±1187 CE
? 3.5.3 Mamluk rule (1270±1516 CE
? 3.5.4 Ottoman rule (1516±1831 CE
? 3.5.5 Egyptian rule (1831±1841
? 3.5.6 Ottoman rule (1841±1917
? 3.6 20th century
? 3.7 British Mandate (1920±1948
? 3.7.1 Infrastructure and development
? 3.7.2 1936±1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
? 3.7.3 World War II and Palestine
? 3.7.4 End of the British Mandate 1945±1948
? 3.8 UN partition and the 1948 Palestine War
? 3.9 1948 to current times
? 4 Demographics
? 4.1 Early demographics
? 4.2 Demographics in the late Ottoman and British Mandate periods
? 4.2.1 Official reports
? 4.3 Current demographics
? 5 See also
? 6 References
? 7 External links
? 8 Bibliography
Ü 
 
The name "Palestine" is the cognate of an ancient word meaning "Philistines" or "Land of the
Philistines".[7][8][9] The earliest known mention is thought to be in Ancient Egyptian texts of the
temple at Medinet Habu which record a people called the c  (conventionally c
 among
the Sea Peoples who invaded Egypt in Ramesses III's reign.[10] The Hebrew name c
  (ʺʹʬ ʴ
c
  - usually translated as c 
 in English, is used in the Bible to denote the southern
coastal region that was inhabited by the Philistines to the west of the ancient Kingdom of
Judah.[11]
The Assyrian emperor Sargon II called the same region c
  or c
 in his
Annals.[7][8][8][12] In the 5th century BCE, Herodotus wrote in Ancient Greek of a 'district of
Syria, called c
" (whence Palaestina, whence Palestine.[7][13][14][15]
According to Moshe Sharon, Palaestina was commonly used to refer to the coastal region and
shortly thereafter, the whole of the area inland to the west of the Jordan River.[7] The latter
extension occurred when the Roman authorities, following the suppression of the Bar Kokhba
rebellion in the 2nd century CE, renamed "Provincia Judea" (Iudaea Province0 originally derived
from the name "Judah" to "Syria Palaestina" (Syria Palaestina, in order to complete the
dissociation with Judaea.[16][17]
During the Byzantine period, the entire region (Syria Palestine, Samaria, and the Galilee was
named c
 , subdivided into provinces Palaestina I and II.[18] The Byzantines also renamed
an area of land including the Negev, Sinai, and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as
c
 ?
 , sometimes called c
 ?.[18]
The Arabic word for Palestine is Philistine (commonly transcribed in English as 
,

, or 
.[19] Moshe Sharon writes that when the Arabs took over Greater Syria in the
7th century, place names that were in use by the Byzantine administration before them, generally
continued to be used. Hence, he traces the emergence of the Arabic form 
 to this
adoption, with Arabic inflection, of Roman and Hebrew (Semitic names.[7] Jacob Lassner and
Selwyn Ilan Troen offer a different view, writing that ? 
, the full name for the
administrative province under the rule of the Arab caliphates, was traced by Muslim geographers
back to the Philistines of the Bible.[20]
The use of the name "Palestine" in English became more common after the European
renaissance.[21] The name was not used in Ottoman times (1517±1917. Most of Christian Europe
referred to the area as the Holy Land. It was officially revived by the British after the fall of the
Ottoman Empire and applied to the territory that was placed under British Mandate.
Some other terms that have been used to refer to all or part of this land include Canaan, Greater
Israel, Greater Syria, the Holy Land, Iudaea Province, Judea,[22] Israel, "Israel HaShlema",
Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael or Ha'aretz, Zion,
 (Ancient Egyptian, Southern Syria, and Syria Palestina.
; 

The boundaries of Palestine have varied throughout history.[23][24] Prior to its being named
Palestine, Ancient Egyptian texts (c. 14 century BCE called the entire coastal area along the
Mediterranean Sea between modern Egypt and Turkey  (conventionally . 
was subdivided into three regions and the southern region,  , shared approximately the same
boundaries as Canaan, or modern-day Israel and the Palestinian territories, though including also
Syria.[25]
Scholars disagree as to whether the archaeological evidence supports the biblical story of there
having been a Kingdom of Israel of the United Monarchy that reigned from Jerusalem, as the
archaeological evidence is both rare and disputed.[26][27] For those who do interpret the
archaeological evidence positively in this regard, it is thought to have ruled some time during
Iron Age I (1200 - 1000 BCE over an area approximating modern-day Israel and the Palestinian
territories, extending farther westward and northward to cover much (but not all of the greater
Land of Israel.[26][27]
Philistia, the Philistine confederation, emerged circa 1185 BCE and comprised five city states:
Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod on the coast and Ekron, and Gath inland.[12] Its northern border was the
Yarkon River, the southern border extending to Wadi Gaza, its western border the Mediterranean
Sea, with no fixed border to the east.[10]
By 722 BCE, Philistia had been subsumed by the Assyrian Empire, with the Philistines
becoming 'part and parcel of the local population,' prospering under Assyrian rule during the 7th
century despite occasional rebellions against their overlords.[12][28][29] In 604 BCE, when
Assyrian troops commanded by the Babylonian empire carried off significant numbers of the
population into slavery, the distinctly Philistine character of the coastal cities dwindled away,
and the history of the Philistines as a distinct people effectively ended.[12][28][30]
The boundaries of the area and the ethnic nature of the people referred to by Herodotus in the 5th
century BCE as Palaestina vary according to context. Sometimes, he uses it to refer to the coast
north of Mount Carmel. Elsewhere, distinguishing the Syrians in Palestine from the Phoenicians,
he refers to their land as extending down all the coast from Phoenicia to Egypt.[31] Josephus used
the name ȆĮȜĮȚıIJȚȞȘ only for the smaller coastal area, Philistia.[32] Pliny, writing in Latin in the
1st century CE, describes a region of Syria that was "formerly called c
 " among the
areas of the Eastern Mediterranean.[33]
Since the Byzantine Period, the Byzantine borders of c
 ( and , also known as
c
 ?c  , "First Palestine", and c
 ? , "Second Palestine", have served as
a name for the geographic area between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Under Arab
rule, 
 (or ? 
 was used administratively to refer to what was under the
Byzantines c
 ?  (comprising Judaea and Samaria, while c
 ? c 
(comprising the Galilee region was renamed   ("Jordan" or ?
 .[7]
The Zionist Organization provided their definition concerning the boundaries of Palestine in a
statement to the Paris Peace Conference in 19190 it also includes a statement about the
importance of water resources that the designated area includes.[34][35] On the basis of a League
of Nations mandate, the British administered Palestine after World War I, promising to establish
a Jewish homeland therein.[36] The original British Mandate included what is now Israel, the
West Bank (of the Jordan, and trans-Jordan (the present kingdom of Jordan,although the latter
was disattached by an administrative decision of the British in 1922.[37] To the Palestinian people
who view Palestine as their homeland, its boundaries are those of the British Mandate excluding
the Transjordan, as described in the Palestinian National Charter.[38]
m

 
 

 
  

From the Merneptah Stele "Israel is wasted, its seed is no longer".

An archaeological textual reference concerning the territory of Palestine is thought to have been
made in the Merneptah Stele, dated c. 1200 BCE, containing a recount of Egyptian king
Merneptah's victories in the land of Canaan, mentioning place-names such as Gezer, Ashkelon
and Yanoam, along with Israel, which is mentioned using a hieroglyphic determinative that
indicates a nomad people, rather than a state.[39]
Mesha Stele
Another famous inscription is that of the Mesha Stele, bearing an inscription by the 9th century
BC Moabite King Mesha, discovered in 1868 at Dhiban (biblical "Dibon," capital of Moab now
in Jordan. The Stele is notable because it is thought to be the earliest known reference to the
sacred Hebrew name of God ± YHWH. It also notable as the most extensive inscription ever
recovered that refers to ancient Israel.
;



$ ? 
?  ?  ? c
?  ? ? 
?  ? ?
?  ?  ? ?  
? ?
  ?  ?
? $ ? ? ?  ? ?
?   ? 
? ?   ?  ? ?
 ?? ?
?   Tobias Conrad Lotter, Geographer. Augsburg, Germany, 1759
In the Biblical account, the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah ruled from Jerusalem a vast
territory extending far west and north of Palestine for some 120 years. Archaeological evidence
for this period is very rare, however, and its implications much disputed.[26][27]
The Hebrew Bible calls the region   (ʯʲʰ˗ (Numbers 34:1±12, while the part of it
occupied by Israelites is designated  
(  
. The name "Land of the Hebrews" (ʵʸʠ
ʭʩ ʸʡʲʤ,  !?   is also found, as well as several poetical names: "land flowing with milk
and honey", "land that [God] swore to your fathers to assign to you", "Land of the Lord", and the
"Promised Land".
The Land of Canaan is given a precise description in (Numbers 34:1 as including all of
Lebanon, as well (Joshua 13:5. The wide area appears to have been the home of several small
nations such as the Canaanites, Hebrews, Hittites, Amorrhites, Pherezites, Hevites and Jebusites.
According to Hebrew tradition, the land of Canaan is part of the land given to the descendants of
Abraham, which extends from the "river of Egypt" to the Euphrates River (Genesis 15:18 ±
some identify the river of Egypt with the Nile, others believe it to be a wadi in northern Sinai, cf.
Numbers 34:50 Joshua 15:3-40 Joshua 15:470 1 Kings 8:650 2 Kings 24:7.
In Exodus 13:17, "And it came to pass, when Pharaoh had let the people go, that God led them
not through the way of the land of the Philistines, although that was near0 for God said, Lest
peradventure the people repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt."
The events of the Four Gospels of the Christian Bible take place almost entirely in this country,
which in Christian tradition thereafter became known as The Holy Land.
In the Qur'an, the term -
       (
 ? 
"#   , English: $
?  $ is
mentioned at least seven times, once when Moses proclaims to the Children of Israel: "O my
people! Enter the holy land which Allah hath assigned unto you, and turn not back
ignominiously, for then will ye be overthrown, to your own ruin." (Surah 5:21
^

" ? 
%? ? ?c
? ? ? ? 
?
c

  

  

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?
%?c

 ? ? 
 ?

Double burial of homo sapiens at Qafzeh cave

The earliest human remains in Palestine were found in Ubeidiya, some 3 km south of the Sea of
Galilee (Lake Tiberias, in the Jordan Rift Valley. The remains are dated to the Pleistocene, ca.
1.5 million years ago. It is traces of the earliest migration of ?  out of Africa. The site
yielded hand axes of the Acheulean type.[40]
Wadi El Amud between Safed and the Sea of Galilee was the site of the first prehistoric digging
in Palestine, in 1925. The discovery of the Palestine Man in the Zuttiyeh Cave in Wadi Al-Amud
near Safad in 1925 provided some clues to human development in the area.[41][42]
Qafzeh is a paleoanthropological site south of Nazareth where eleven significant fossilised ?
  skeletons have been found at the main rock shelter. These anatomically modern humans,
both adult and infant, are now dated to circa 90±100,000 years old, and many of the bones are
stained with red ochre which is conjectured to have been used in the burial process, a significant
indicator of ritual behavior and thereby symbolic thought and intelligence. 71 pieces of unused
red ochre also littered the site.
Mount Carmel has yielded several important findings, among them Kebara Cave that was
inhabited between 60,000 ± 48,000 BP and where the most complete Neanderthal skeleton found
to date. The Tabun cave was occupied intermittently during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic
ages (500,000 to around 40,000 years ago. Excavation suggests that it features one of the
longest sequences of human occupation in the Levant. In the nearby Es Skhul cave excavations
revealed the first evidence of the late Epipalaeolithic Natufian culture, characterized by the
presence of abundant microliths, human burials and ground stone tools. This also represents one
area where Neanderthals ± present in the region from 200,000 to 45,000 years ago ± lived
alongside modern humans dating to 100,000 years ago.[43]
In the caves of Shuqba in Ramallah and Wadi Khareitun in Bethlehem, stone, wood and animal
bone tools were found and attributed to the Natufian culture (c. 12800±10300 BCE. Other
remains from this era have been found at Tel Abu Hureura, Ein Mallaha, Beidha and Jericho.[44]

A dwelling unearthed at Tell es-Sultan.

Between 10000 and 5000 BCE, agricultural communities were established. Evidence of such
settlements were found at Tel es-Sultan in Jericho and consisted of a number of walls, a religious
shrine, and a 23-foot (7.0 m tower with an internal staircase[45][46] Jericho is believed to be one
of the oldest continuously-inhabited cities in the world, with evidence of settlement dating back
to 9000 BC, providing important information about early human habitation in the Near East.[47]
®

  
;® 
; m;®
?
%?

 ? ? !??
An 1882 rendering of Canaan, as divided among the Twelve Tribes, by the American Sunday-
School Union of Philadelphia.
Along the Jericho±Dead Sea±Bir es-Saba±Gaza±Sinai route, a culture originating in Syria,
marked by the use of copper and stone tools, brought new migrant groups to the region
contributing to an increasingly urban fabric.[48][49][50]
By the early Bronze Age (3000±2200 BCE independent Canaanite city-states situated in plains
and coastal regions and surrounded by mud-brick defensive walls were established and most of
these cities relied on nearby agricultural hamlets for their food needs.[48][51]
Archaeological finds from the early Canaanite era have been found at Tel Megiddo, Jericho, Tel
al-Far'a (Gaza, Bisan, and Ai (Deir Dibwan/Ramallah District, Tel an Nasbe (al-Bireh and Jib
(Jerusalem.
The Canaanite city-states held trade and diplomatic relations with Egypt and Syria. Parts of the
Canaanite urban civilization were destroyed around 2300 BCE, though there is no consensus as
to why. Incursions by nomads from the east of the Jordan River who settled in the hills followed
soon thereafter.[48][52]
In the Middle Bronze Age (2200±1500 BCE, Canaan was influenced by the surrounding
civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. Diverse
commercial ties and an agriculturally based economy led to the development of new pottery
forms, the cultivation of grapes, and the extensive use of bronze.[48][53] Burial customs from this
time seemed to be influenced by a belief in the afterlife.[48][54]
Political, commercial and military events during the Late Bronze Age period (1450±1350 BCE
were recorded by ambassadors and Canaanite proxy rulers for Egypt in 379 cuneiform tablets
known as the Amarna Letters.[55] The Minoan influence is apparent at Tel Kabri.[56]
By c. 1190 BCE, the Philistines arrived and mingled with the local population, losing their
separate identity over several generations.[28][57]
ß m;®
Pottery remains found in Ashkelon, Ashdod, Gath (city, Ekron and Gaza decorated with stylized
birds provided the first archaeological evidence for Philistine settlement in the region. The
Philistines are credited with introducing iron weapons and chariots to the local population.[58]
Excavations have established that the late 13th, the 12th and the early 11th centuries BCE
witnessed the foundation of perhaps hundreds of insignificant, unprotected village settlements,
many in the mountains of Palestine.[59] From around the 11th century BCE, there was a reduction
in the number of villages, though this was counterbalanced by the rise of certain settlements to
the status of fortified townships.[59]
Developments in Palestine between 1250 and 900 BCE have been the focus of debate between
those who accept the Old Testament version on the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes,
and those who reject it.[60] Niels Peter Lemche, of the Copenhagen School of Biblical Studies,
submits that the picture of ancient Israel "is contrary to any image of ancient Palestinian society
that can be established on the basis of ancient sources from Palestine or referring to Palestine and
that there is no way this image in the Bible can be reconciled with the historical past of the
region."[59]
Sites and artifacts, including the Large Stone Structure, Mount Ebal, the Menertaph, and Mesha
stelae, among others, are subject to widely varying historical interpretations: the "conservative
camp" reconstructs the history of Israel according to the biblical text and views archaeological
evidence in that context, whilst scholars in the minimalist or deconstructionist school hold that
there is no archaeological evidence supporting the idea of a United Monarchy (or Israelite
nation and the biblical account is a religious mythology created by Judean scribes in the Persian
and Hellenistic periods0 a third camp of centrist scholars acknowledges the value of some
isolated elements of the Pentateuch and of Deuteronomonistic accounts as potentially valid
history of monarchic times that can be in accord with the archaeological evidence, but argue that
nevertheless the biblical narrative should be understood as highly ideological and adapted to the
needs of the community at the time of its compilation.[61][62][63][64][65][66]
^ ;
Ü

  

Map of the southern Levant, c.830s BCE. Kingdom of Judah Kingdom of Israel Philistine
city-states Phoenician states Kingdom of Ammon Kingdom of Edom Kingdom of Aram-
Damascus Aramean tribes Arubu tribes Nabatu tribes Assyrian Empire Kingdom of
Moab
?
%?  
? ? 
? ? ? ? ? 
? ? ?
According to Biblical tradition, the United Kingdom of Israel was established by the Israelite
tribes with Saul as its first king in 1020 BCE.[67] In 1000 BCE, Jerusalem was made the capital of
King David's kingdom and it is believed that the First Temple was constructed in this period by
King Solomon.[67] By 930 BCE, the united kingdom split to form the northern Kingdom of Israel,
and the southern Kingdom of Judah.[67] These kingdoms co-existed with several more kingdoms
in the greater Palestine area, including Philistine town states on the Southwestern Mediterranean
coast, Edom, to the South of Judah, and Moab and Ammon to the East of the river Jordan.[68]
According to Jon Schiller and Hermann Austel, among others, while in the past, the Bible story
was seen historical truth, "a growing number of archaeological scholars, particularly those of the
minimalist school, are now insisting that Kings David and Solomon are 'no more real than King
Arthur,' citing the lack of archaeological evidence attesting to the existence of the United
Kingdom of Israel, and the unreliability of biblical texts, due to their being composed in a much
later period."[69][70]
There was an at least partial Egyptian withdrawal from Palestine in this period, though it is likely
that Bet Shean was an Egyptian garrison as late as the beginning of the 10th century BCE.[59] The
socio-political system was characterized by local patrons fighting other local patrons, lasting
until around the mid-9th century BCE when some local chieftains were able to create large
political structures that exceeded the boundaries of those present in the Late Bronze Age
Levant.[59]
Archaeological findings from this era include, among others, the Mesha Stele, from c. 850 BCE,
which recounts the conquering of Moab, located East of the Dead Sea, by king Omri, and the
successful revolt of Moabian king Mesha against Omri's son, presumably King Ahab (and
French scholar André Lemaire reported that line 31 of the Stele bears the phrase "the house of
David" (in 

?   
?  [May/June 1994], pp. 30±37.[71]0 and the Kurkh
Monolith, dated c. 835 BCE, describing King Shalmaneser III of Assyria's Battle of Qarqar,
where he fought alongside the contingents of several kings, among them King Ahab and King
Gindibu.
Between 722 and 720 BCE, the northern Kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the Assyrian
Empire and the Israelite tribes ± thereafter known as the Lost Tribes ± were exiled.[67] The most
important finding from the southern Kingdom of Judah is the Siloam Inscription, dated c. 700
BCE, which celebrates the successful encounter of diggers, digging from both sides of the
Jerusalem wall to create the Hezekiah water tunnel and water pool, mentioned in the Bible, in
2Kings 20:20.[ ?] In 586 BCE, Judah was conquered by the Babylonians and Jerusalem
and the First Temple destroyed.[67] Most of the surviving Jews, and much of the other local
population, were deported to Babylonia.[28][72]
c   
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After the Persian Empire was established, Jews were allowed to return to what their holy books
had termed the Land of Israel, and having been granted some autonomy by the Persian
administration, it was during this period that the Second Temple in Jerusalem was built.[28][73]
Sebastia, near Nablus, was the northernmost province of the Persian administration in Palestine,
and its southern borders were drawn at Hebron.[28][74] Some of the local population served as
soldiers and lay people in the Persian administration, while others continued to agriculture. In
400 BCE, the Nabataeans made inroads into southern Palestine and built a separate civilization
in the Negev that lasted until 160 BCE.[28][75]
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^

  
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The Persian Empire fell to Greek forces of the Macedonian general Alexander the Great.[76][77]
After his death, with the absence of heirs, his conquests were divided amongst his generals,
while the region of the Jews ("Judah" or Judea as it became known was first part of the
Ptolemaic dynasty and then part of the Seleucid Empire.[78]
The landscape during this period was markedly changed by extensive growth and development
that included urban planning and the establishment of well-built fortified cities.[74][76] Hellenistic
pottery was produced that absorbed Philistine traditions. Trade and commerce flourished,
particularly in the most Hellenized areas, such as Ascalon, Jaffa,[79] Jerusalem,[80] Gaza,[81] and
ancient Nablus (Tell Balatah.[76][82]
The Jewish population in Judea was allowed limited autonomy in religion and administration.[83]
^   

 
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The extent of the Hasmonean kingdom.

An independent Jewish kingdom under the Hasmonean Dynasty existed from 140±37 BCE. In
the second century BCE fascination in Jerusalem for Greek culture resulted in a movement to
break down the separation of Jew and Gentile and some people even tried to disguise the marks
of their circumcision.[84] Disputes between the leaders of the reform movement, Jason and
Menelaus, eventually led to civil war and the intervention of Antiochus IV Epiphanes.[84]
Subsequent persecution of the Jews led to the Maccabean Revolt under the leadership of the
Hasmoneans, and the construction of a native Jewish kingship under the Hasmonean Dynasty.[84]
After approximately a century of independence disputes between the Hasmonean rivals
Aristobulus and Hyrcanus led to control of the kingdom by the Roman army of Pompey. The
territory then became first a Roman client kingdom under Hyrcanus and then, in 70CE, a Roman
Province administered by the governor of Syria.[85]
U  
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Roman Iudaea Province in the 1st century CE as based on Robert W. Funk's $ ?? ?,
Michael Grant's's %??  
?? ? ?
 and John P. Meier's ?" 
?
.
Though General Pompey arrived in 63 BCE, Roman rule was solidified when Herod, whose
dynasty was of Idumean ancestry, was appointed as king.[76][86] Urban planning under the
Romans was characterized by cities designed around the Forum ± the central intersection of two
main streets ± the Cardo, running north-south and the Decumanus running east-west.[87] Cities
were connected by an extensive road network developed for economic and military purposes.
Among the most notable archaeological remnants from this era are Herodium (Tel al-Fureidis to
the south of Bethlehem,[88] Masada and Caesarea Maritima.[76][89] Herod arranged a renovation of
the Second Temple in Jerusalem, with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount platform and
major expansion of the Jewish Temple around 19 BCE. The Temple Mount's natural plateau was
extended by enclosing the area with four massive retaining walls and filling the voids. This
artificial expansion resulted in a large flat expanse which today forms the eastern section of the
Old City of Jerusalem.
Around the time associated with the birth of Jesus, Roman Palestine was in a state of disarray
and direct Roman rule was re-established.[76][90] The early Christians were oppressed and while
most inhabitants became Romanized, others, particularly Jews, found Roman rule to be
unbearable.[76][90]
First Jewish revolt shekel issued in 68. Obverse: "Shekel Israel, year 3". Reverse: "Jerusalem the
Holy"
As a result of the First Jewish-Roman War (66±73, Titus sacked Jerusalem destroying the
Second Temple, leaving only supporting walls, including the Western Wall.

Bar Kochba revolt silver Shekel. Obverse: the Jewish Temple facade with the rising star,
surrounded by "Shimon". Reverse: A lulav, the text reads: "To the freedom of Jerusalem"
In 135, following the fall of a Jewish revolt led by Bar Kokhba in 132±135, the Roman emperor
Hadrian attempted the expulsion of Jews from Judea. His attempt was as unsuccessful as were
most of Rome's many attempts to alter the demography of the Empire0 this is demonstrated by
the continued existence of the rabbinical academy of Lydda in Judea, and in any case large
Jewish populations remained in Samaria and the Galilee.[16] Tiberias became the headquarters of
exiled Jewish patriarchs. The Romans joined the province of Judea (which already included
Samaria together with Galilee to form a new province, called Syria Palaestina, to complete the
disassociation with Judaea.[16] Notwithstanding the oppression, some two hundred Jewish
communities remained. Gradually, certain religious freedoms were restored to the Jewish
population, such as exemption from the imperial cult and internal self-administration. The
Romans made no such concession to the Samaritans, to whom religious liberties were denied,
while their sanctuary on Mt.Gerizim was defiled by a pagan temple, as part of measures were
taken to suppress the resurgence of Samaritan nationalism.[16]
In 132 CE, the Emperor Hadrian changed the name of the province from Iudaea to Syria
Palaestina and renamed Jerusalem "Aelia Capitolina" and built temples there to honor Jupiter.
Christianity was practiced in secret and the Hellenization of Palestine continued under Septimius
Severus (193±211 CE.[76] New pagan cities were founded in Judea at Eleutheropolis (Bayt
Jibrin, Diopolis (Lydd, and Nicopolis (Emmaus.[74][76]
;
   U  
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5th century CE: Byzantine provinces of c
 ?  (Philistia, Judea and Samaria and
c
 ? (Galilee and Perea.
Emperor Constantine I's conversion to Christianity around 330 CE made Christianity the official
religion of Palaestina.[91][92] After his mother Empress Helena identified the spot she believed to
be where Christ was crucified, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher was built in Jerusalem.[91] The
Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Ascension in Jerusalem were also
built during Constantine's reign.[91] This was the period of its greatest prosperity in antiquity.
Urbanization increased, large new areas were put under cultivation, monasteries proliferated,
synagogues were restored, and the population West of the Jordan may have reached as many as
one million.[16]
Palestine thus became a center for pilgrims and ascetic life for men and women from all over the
world.[74][91] Many monasteries were built including the St. George's Monastery in Wadi al-Qelt,
the Monastery of the Temptation and Deir Hajla near Jericho, and Deir Mar Saba and Deir
Theodosius east of Bethlehem.[91]
In 351-352, a Jews revolted against Byzantine rule in Tiberias and other parts of the Galilee was
brutally suppressed. Imperial patronage for Christian cults and immigration was strong, and a
significant wave of immigration from Rome, especially to the area about Aelia Capitolina and
Bethlehem, took place after that city was sacked in 410.[16]
In approximately 390 CE, Palaestina was further organised into three units: c
 ? c  ,
 , and $  (First, Second, and Third Palestine, part of the Diocese of the East.[93][91]
c
 ?c  consisted of Judea, Samaria, the coast, and Peraea with the governor residing
in Caesarea. c
 ? consisted of the Galilee, the lower Jezreel Valley, the regions
east of Galilee, and the western part of the former Decapolis with the seat of government at
Scythopolis. c
 ?$  included the Negev, southern Jordan²once part of Arabia²and
most of Sinai with Petra as the usual residence of the governor. Palestina Tertia was also known
as Palaestina Salutaris.[91][94]
In 536 CE, Justinian I promoted the governor at Caesarea to proconsul (   , giving him
authority over the two remaining consulars. Justinian believed that the elevation of the governor
was appropriate because he was responsible for "the province in which our Lord Jesus Christ...
appeared on earth".[95] This was also the principal factor explaining why Palestine prospered
under the Christian Empire. The cities of Palestine, such as Caesarea Maritima, Jerusalem,
Scythopolis, Neapolis, and Gaza reached their peak population in the late Roman period and
produced notable Christian scholars in the disciplines of rhetoric, historiography, Eusebian
ecclesiastical history, classicizing history and hagiography.[95]
Byzantine administration of Palestine was temporarily suspended during the Persian occupation
of 614±28, and then permanently after the Muslims arrived in 634 CE, defeating the empire's
forces decisively at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 CE. Jerusalem capitulated in 638 CE and
Caesarea between 640 CE and 642 CE.[95]
ß
  
"# ®
The Islamic prophet Muhammad established a new unified political polity in the Arabian
peninsula at the beginning of the seventh century. The subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad
Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in
the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire. In the 630s this empire conquered Palestine and it
remained under the control of Islamic Empires for most of the next 1300 years.
m ®
  
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In 638 CE, following the Siege of Jerusalem, the Caliph Omar Ibn al-Khattab and Safforonius,
the Patriarch of Jerusalem, signed 
  ?

&  (The Umariyya Covenant, an
agreement that stipulated the rights and obligations of all non-Muslims in Palestine.[91] Christians
and Jews where considered People of the Book, enjoyed some protection but had to pay a special
poll tax called jizyah ("tribute". During the early years of Muslim control of the city, a small
permanent Jewish population returned to Jerusalem after a 500-year absence.[96]
Omar Ibn al-Khattab was the first conqueror of Jerusalem to enter the city on foot, and when
visiting the site that now houses the Haram al-Sharif, he declared it a sacred place of
prayer.[97][98] Cities that accepted the new rulers, as recorded in registrars from the time, were:
Jerusalem, Nablus, Jenin, Acre, Tiberias, Bisan, Caesarea, Lajjun, Lydd, Jaffa, Imwas, Beit
Jibrin, Gaza, Rafah, Hebron, Yubna, Haifa, Safad and Ashkelon.[99]
6


 
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Under Umayyad rule, the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima became the administrative and
military sub-province ( of Filastin ± the Arabic name for Palestine from that point
forward.[100] It formed part of the larger province of    (Arabic for Greater Syria.[101]
? 
 (Arabic ϥϱραϝ ϑ Ω ϥ Ν, literally "the army of Palestine" was a region extending
from the Sinai to the plain of Acre. Major towns included Rafah, Caesarea, Gaza, Jaffa, Nablus
and Jericho.[102] Lod served as the headquarters of the province of Filastin and the capital later
moved to Ramla. ?
  (literally "the army of Jordan" was a region to the north and
east of Filastin which included the cities of Acre, Bisan and Tiberias.[102]
The Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount
In 691, Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ordered that the Dome of the Rock be built on the site
where the Islamic prophet Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have begun his nocturnal
journey to heaven, on the Temple Mount. About a decade afterward, Caliph Al-Walid I had the
Al-Aqsa Mosque built.[103]
It was under Umayyad rule that Christians and Jews were granted the official title of "Peoples of
the Book" to underline the common monotheistic roots they shared with Islam.[99][104]
m 
 
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The Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphs renovated and visited the holy shrines and sanctuaries in
Jerusalem[105] and continued to build up Ramle.[99][106] Coastal areas were fortified and developed
and port cities like Acre, Haifa, Caesarea, Arsuf, Jaffa and Ashkelon received monies from the
state treasury.[107]
A trade fair took place in Jerusalem every year on September 15 where merchants from Pisa,
Genoa, Venice and Marseilles converged to acquire spices, soaps, silks, olive oil, sugar and
glassware in exchange for European products.[107] European Christian pilgrims visited and made
generous donations to Christian holy places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem.[107] During Harun al-
Rashid's (786±809 reign the first contacts with the Frankish Kingdom of Charlemagne occurred,
though the actual extent of these contacts is not known. As a result, Charlemagne sent money for
construction of churches and a Latin Pilgrims' Inn in Jerusalem.[108] The establishment of the
Pilgrims' Inn in Jerusalem is seen as a fulfillment of Umar's pledge to Bishop Sophronious to
allow freedom of religion and access to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims.[109]
The influence of the Arab tribes declined and the only context where they are reported is in
uprising against the central authority.[110] I 796, a civil war between the Mudhar and Yamani
tribes occurred, resulting in widespread destruction in Palestine.[111] The Abbasids visited the
country less frequently than the Ummayads, but ordered some significant constructions in
Jerusalem. Thus, Al-Mansur Ordered in 758 the renovation of the Dome of the Rock that had
collapsed in an earthquake.[112]
During that time a dress code was instituted, requiring Christians and Jews to wear a Yellow
dress.[ ?] It is not known how much the code was enforced in Palestine.
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From their base in Tunisia, the Shi'ite Fatimids, who claimed to be descendants of Muhammad
through his daughter Fatimah, conquered Palestine by way of Egypt in 969 CE.[113] Their capital
was Cairo. Jerusalem, Nablus, and Askalan were expanded and renovated under their rule.[107]
After the 10th century, the division into  began to break down.[107] In the second half of the
11th Century the Fatimids empire suffered setback from fighting with the Seljuk Turks. Warfare
between the Fatimids and Seljuks caused great disruption for the local Christians and for western
pilgrims. The Fatimids had lost Jerusalem to the Seljuks in 1073,[114] but recaptured it from the
Ortoqids, a smaller Turkic tribe associated with the Seljuks, in 1098, just before the arrival of the
crusaders.[115]
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The kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states in 1135.

The Kingdom of Jerusalem was a Christian kingdom established in the Levant in 1099 after the
First Crusade. It lasted nearly two hundred years, from 1099 until 1291 when the last remaining
possession, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks.
At first the kingdom was little more than a loose collection of towns and cities captured during
the crusade. At its height, the kingdom roughly encompassed the territory of modern-day Israel
and the Palestinian territories. It extended from modern Lebanon in the north to the Sinai Desert
in the south, and into modern Jordan and Syria in the east. There were also attempts to expand
the kingdom into Fatimid Egypt. Its kings also held a certain amount of authority over the other
crusader states, Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa.
Many customs and institutions were imported from the territories of Western Europe from which
the crusaders came, and there were close familial and political connections with the West
throughout the kingdom's existence. It was, however, a relatively minor kingdom in comparison
and often lacked financial and military support from Europe. The kingdom had closer ties to the
neighbouring Kingdom of Armenia and the Byzantine Empire, from which it inherited "oriental"
qualities, and the kingdom was also influenced by pre-existing Muslim institutions. Socially,
however, the "Latin" inhabitants from Western Europe had almost no contact with the Muslims
and native Christians whom they ruled.
Under the European rule, fortifications, castles, towers and fortified villages were built, rebuilt
and renovated across Palestine largely in rural areas.[107][116] A notable urban remnant of the
Crusader architecture of this era is found in Acre's old city.[107][117]
During the period of Crusader control, it has been estimated that Palestine had only 1,000 poor
Jewish families.[118] Jews fought alongside the Muslims in Jerusalem in 1099 and Haifa in 1100
against the Crusaders. They were not allowed to live in Jerusalem and initially most of cities saw
the destruction of the Jewish communities, but communities did continue in the rural areas. For
instance, it is known about at least 24 villages in the Galilee were Jews lived.[ ?] Later in
the history of the Crusaders state Jews settled in the Coastal cities. Unlike the treatment of Jews
by the Crusaders Europe, where many Massacres occurred, in Palestine no distinction was made
between Jews and other non Christians and there were no laws specifically against Jews.[
  ?
]
Some Jews from Europe visited the country, like Benjamin of Tudela who wrote about
[119]
it. Maimonides escaped to Palestine from the Almohads in 1165 and visited Acre, Jerusalem
and Hebron, finally settling in Fostat in Egypt.[120]
In July 1187, the Cairo-based Kurdish General Saladin commanded his troops to victory in the
Battle of Hattin.[121][122] Saladin went on to take Jerusalem. An agreement granting special status
to the Crusaders allowed them to continue to stay in Palestine and In 1229, Frederick II
negotiated a 10-year treaty that placed Jerusalem, Nazareth and Bethlehem once again under
Crusader rule.[121]
In 1270, Sultan Baibars expelled the Crusaders from most of the country, though they maintained
a base at Acre until 1291.[121] Thereafter, any remaining Europeans either went home or merged
with the local population.[122]
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Tower of Ramla, constructed in 1318

Palestine formed a part of the Damascus Wilayah (district under the rule of the Mamluk
Sultanate of Egypt and was divided into three smaller Sanjaks (subdivisions with capitals in
Jerusalem, Gaza, and Safad.[122] Celebrated by Arab and Muslim writers of the time as the
"blessed land of the Prophets and Islam's revered leaders,"[122] Muslim sanctuaries were
"rediscovered" and received many pilgrims.[123]
During the end of the 13th century the Mamluks fought against the Mongols, and a decisive
battle took place in Ain Jalut in the Jezreel Valley on 3 September 1260. The Mamluks achieved
a decisive victory, and the battle established a highwater mark for the Mongol conquests.
The Mamluks, continuing the policy of the Ayyubids, made the strategic decision to destroy the
coastal area and to bring desolation to many of its cities, from Tyre in the north to Gaza in the
south. Ports were destroyed and various materials were dumped to make them inoperable. The
goal was to prevent attacks from the sea, given the fear of the return of the crusaders. This had a
long term affect on those areas, that remained sparsely populated for centuries. In Jerusalem, the
walls, gates and fortifications were destroyed as well, for similar reasons. The activity in that
time concentrated more inland.[124] The Mamluks constructed a "postal road" from Cairo to
Damascus, that included lodgings for travelers (khans and bridges, some of which survive to
this day (Jisr Jindas, near Lod. The also saw the construction of many schools and the
renovation of mosques neglected or destroyed during the Crusader period.[123]
In 1267 the Catalan Rabbi Nahmanides left Europe, seeking refuge in Muslim lands from
Christian persecution,[125] he made aliyah to Jerusalem. There he established a synagogue in the
Old City that exists until present day, known as the Ramban Synagogue and re-established
Jewish communal life in Jerusalem.
In 1486, hostilities broke out between the Mamluks and the Ottoman Turks in a battle for control
over western Asia. The Mamluk armies were eventually defeated by the forces of the Ottoman
Sultan, Selim I, and lost control of Palestine after the 1516 battle of Marj Dabiq.[122][126]
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Territory of the Ottoman Empire in 1683

After the Ottoman conquest, the name "Palestine" disappeared as the official name of an
administrative unit, as the Turks often called their (subprovinces after the capital. Following its
1516 incorporation in the Ottoman Empire, it was part of the 
 (province of Damascus-
Syria until 1660. It then became part of the 
 of Saida (Sidon, briefly interrupted by the 7
March 1799 ± July 1799 French occupation of Jaffa, Haifa, and Caesarea. During the Siege of
Acre in 1799, Napoleon prepared a proclamation declaring a Jewish state in Palestine.
The remains of Dhaher al-Omar's castle in Deir Hanna (18th Century

  
  
On 10 May 1832 the territories of Bilad ash-Sham, which include modern Syria, Jordan,
Lebanon, and Palestine were conquered and annexed by Muhammad Ali's expansionist Egypt
(nominally still Ottoman in the 1831 Egyptian-Ottoman War. Britain sent the navy to shell
Beirut and an Anglo-Ottoman expeditionary force landed, causing local uprisings against the
Egyptian occupiers. A British naval squadron anchored off Alexandria. The Egyptian army
retreated to Egypt. Muhammad Ali signed the Treaty of 1841. Britain returned control of the
Levant to the Ottomans.
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In the reorganisation of 1873, which established the administrative boundaries that remained in
place until 1914, Palestine was split between three major administrative units. The northern part,
above a line connecting Jaffa to north Jericho and the Jordan, was assigned to the 
 of
Beirut, subdivided into the   ( (districts of Acre, Beirut and Nablus. The southern part,
from Jaffa downwards, was part of the special district of Jerusalem. Its southern boundaries were
unclear but petered out in the eastern Sinai Peninsula and northern Negev Desert. Most of the
central and southern Negev was assigned to the 
 of Hijaz, which also included the Sinai
Peninsula and the western part of Arabia.[127]
Nonetheless, the old name remained in popular and semi-official use. Many examples of its
usage in the 16th and 17th centuries have survived.[128] During the 19th century, the Ottoman
Government employed the term   ? 
 (the 'Land of Palestine' in official
correspondence, meaning for all intents and purposes the area to the west of the River Jordan
which became 'Palestine' under the British in 1922".[129] However, the Ottomans regarded
"Palestine" as an abstract description of a general region but not as a specific administrative unit
with clearly defined borders. This meant that they did not consistently apply the name to a
clearly defined area.[127] Ottoman court records, for instance, used the term to describe a
geographical area that did not include the   ( of Jerusalem, Hebron and Nablus, although
these had certainly been part of historical Palestine.[130][131] Amongst the educated Arab public,

 was a common concept, referring either to the whole of Palestine or to the Jerusalem
  ( alone[132] or just to the area around Ramle.[133]
The end of the 19th century saw the beginning of Zionist immigration. The "First Aliyah" was
the first modern widespread wave of Zionist aliyah. Jews who migrated to Palestine in this wave
came mostly from Eastern Europe and from Yemen. This wave of aliyah began in 1881±82 and
lasted until 1903.[134] An estimated 25,000[135]±35,000[136] Jews immigrated during the First
Aliyah. The First Aliyah laid the cornerstone for Jewish settlement in Israel and created several
settlements such as Rishon LeZion, Rosh Pina, Zikhron Ya'aqov and Gedera.

Tel Aviv was founded on land purchased from Bedouins north of Jaffa. This is the 1909 auction
of the first lots
The "Second Aliyah" took place between 1904 and 1914, during which approximately 40,000
Jews immigrated, mostly from Russia and Poland,[137] and some from Yemen. The Second
Aliyah immigrants were primarily idealists, inspired by the revolutionary ideals then sweeping
the Russian Empire who sought to create a communal agricultural settlement system in Palestine.
They thus founded the kibbutz movement. The first kibbutz, Degania, was founded in 1909. Tel
Aviv was founded at that time, though its founders were not necessarily from the new
immigrants. The Second Aliyah is largely credited with the Revival of the Hebrew language and
establishing it as the standard language for Jews in Israel. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda contributed to the
creation of the first modern Hebrew dictionary. Although he was an immigrant of the First
Aliyah, his work mostly bore fruit during the second.
Ottoman rule over the eastern Mediterranean lasted until World War I when the Ottomans sided
with the German Empire and the Central Powers. During World War I, the Ottomans were
driven from much of the region by the British Empire during the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire.
 


Palestine in British map 1924 the map now in the National Library of Scotland
In common usage up to World War I, "Palestine" was used either to describe the Consular
jurisdictions of the Western Powers[138] or for a region that extended in the north-south direction
typically from Rafah (south-east of Gaza to the Litani River (now in Lebanon. The western
boundary was the sea, and the eastern boundary was the poorly-defined place where the Syrian
desert began. In various European sources, the eastern boundary was placed anywhere from the
Jordan River to slightly east of Amman. The Negev Desert was not included.[139]
For 400 years foreigners enjoyed extraterritorial rights under the terms of the Capitulations of the
Ottoman Empire. One American diplomat wrote that "Extraordinary privileges and immunities
had become so embodied in successive treaties between the great Christian Powers and the
Sublime Porte that for most intents and purposes many nationalities in the Ottoman empire
formed a state within the state".[140]
The Consuls were originally magistrates who tried cases involving their own citizens in foreign
territories. While the jurisdictions in the secular states of Europe had become territorial, the
Ottomans perpetuated the legal system they inherited from the Byzantine Empire. The law in
many matters was personal, not territorial, and the individual citizen carried his nation's law with
him wherever he went.[141] Capitulatory law applied to foreigners in Palestine. Only Consular
Courts of the State of the foreigners concerned were competent to try them. That was true, not
only in cases involving personal status, but also in criminal and commercial matters.[142]
According to American Ambassador Morgenthau, Turkey had never been an independent
sovereignty.[143] The Western Powers had their own courts, marshals, colonies, schools, postal
systems, religious institutions, and prisons. The Consuls also extended protections to large
communities of Jewish protégés who had settled in Palestine.[144]
The Moslem, Christian, and Jewish communities of Palestine were allowed to exercise
jurisdiction over their own members according to charters granted to them. For centuries the
Jews and Christians had enjoyed a large degree of communal autonomy in matters of worship,
jurisdiction over personal status, taxes, and in managing their schools and charitable institutions.
In the 19th century those rights were formally recognized as part of the Tanzimat reforms and
when the communities were placed under the protection of European public law.[145][146]
Under the Sykes±Picot Agreement of 1916, it was envisioned that most of Palestine, when freed
from Ottoman control, would become an international zone not under direct French or British
colonial control. Shortly thereafter, British foreign minister Arthur Balfour issued the Balfour
Declaration of 1917, which promised to establish a Jewish national home in Palestine.[147]
The British-led Egyptian Expeditionary Force, commanded by Edmund Allenby, captured
Jerusalem on 9 December 1917 and occupied the whole of the Levant following the defeat of
Turkish forces in Palestine at the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918 and the capitulation of
Turkey on 31 October.[148]
; ' 
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Palestine and Transjordan were incorporated (under different legal and administrative
arrangements into the Mandate for Palestine issued by the League of Nations to Great Britain on
29 September 1923

The new era in Palestine. The arrival of Sir Herbert Samuel, H.B.M. high commissioner, etc.
with Col. Lawrence, Emir Abdullah, Air Marshal Salmond and Sir Wyndham Deedes.
Following the First World War and the occupation of the region by the British, the principal
Allied and associated powers drafted the Mandate which was formally approved by the League
of Nations in 1922. Great Britain administered Palestine on behalf of the League of Nations
between 1920 and 1948, a period referred to as the "British Mandate." Two states were
established within the boundaries of the Mandate territory, Palestine and Transjordan.[149][150] -
The preamble of the mandate declared:
"Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible
for putting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917, by the
Government of His Britannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers, in favor of the
establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood
that nothing should be done which might prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-
Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other
country."[151]
Not all were satisfied with the mandate. Some of the Arabs felt that Britain was violating the
McMahon-Hussein Correspondence and the understanding of the Arab Revolt. Some wanted a
unification with Syria: In February 1919 several Moslem and Christian groups from Jaffa and
Jerusalem met and adopted a platform which endorsed unity with Syria and opposition to
Zionism (this is sometime called the First Palestinian National Congress. A letter was sent to
Damascus authorizing Faisal to represent the Arabs of Palestine at the Paris Peace Conference.
In May 1919 a Syrian National Congress was held in Damascus, and a Palestinian delegation
attended its sessions.[152] In April 1920 violent Arab disturbances against the Jews in Jerusalem
occurred which became to be known as the 1920 Palestine riots. The riots followed rising
tensions in Arab-Jewish relations over the implications of Zionist immigration. The British
military administration's erratic response failed to contain the rioting, which continued for four
days. As a result of the events, trust between the British, Jews, and Arabs eroded. One
consequence was that the Jewish community increased moves towards an autonomous
infrastructure and security apparatus parallel to that of the British administration.
In April 1920 the Allied Supreme Council (the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and
Japan met at Sanremo and formal decisions were taken on the allocation of mandate territories.
The United Kingdom obtained a mandate for Palestine and France obtained a mandate for Syria.
The boundaries of the mandates and the conditions under which they were to be held were not
decided. The Zionist Organization's representative at Sanremo, Chaim Weizmann, subsequently
reported to his colleagues in London:
There are still important details outstanding, such as the actual terms of the mandate and the
question of the boundaries in Palestine. There is the delimitation of the boundary between French
Syria and Palestine, which will constitute the northern frontier and the eastern line of
demarcation, adjoining Arab Syria. The latter is not likely to be fixed until the Emir Feisal
attends the Peace Conference, probably in Paris.[153]

Churchill and Abdullah (with Herbert Samuel during their negotiations in Jerusalem, March
1921.
The purported objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the
defunct Ottoman Empire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century,
"until such time as they are able to stand alone."[154]
In July 1920, the French drove Faisal bin Husayn from Damascus ending his already negligible
control over the region of Transjordan, where local chiefs traditionally resisted any central
authority. The sheikhs, who had earlier pledged their loyalty to the Sharif of Mecca, asked the
British to undertake the region's administration. Herbert Samuel asked for the extension of the
Palestine government's authority to Transjordan, but at meetings in Cairo and Jerusalem between
Winston Churchill and Emir Abdullah in March 1921 it was agreed that Abdullah would
administer the territory (initially for six months only on behalf of the Palestine administration.
In the summer of 1921 Transjordan was included within the Mandate, but excluded from the
provisions for a Jewish National Home.[155] On 24 July 1922 the League of Nations approved the
terms of the British Mandate over Palestine and Transjordan. On 16 September the League
formally approved a memorandum from Lord Balfour confirming the exemption of Transjordan
from the clauses of the mandate concerning the creation of a Jewish national home and from the
mandate's responsibility to 
  Jewish immigration and land settlement.[156] With
Transjordan coming under the administration of the British Mandate, the mandate's collective
territory became constituted of 23% Palestine and 77% Transjordan. The Mandate for Palestine,
while specifying actions in support of Jewish immigration and political status, stated, in Article
25, that in the territory to the east of the Jordan River, Britain could 'postpone or withhold' those
articles of the Mandate concerning a Jewish National Home. Transjordan was a very sparsely
populated region (especially in comparison with Palestine proper due to its relatively limited
resources and largely desert environment.
In 1923 an agreement between the United Kingdom and France established the border between
the British Mandate of Palestine and the French Mandate of Syria. The British handed over the
southern Golan Heights to the French in return for the northern Jordan Valley. The border was
re-drawn so that both sides of the Jordan River and the whole of the Sea of Galilee, including a
10-metre wide strip along the northeastern shore, were made a part of Palestine[157] with the
provisons that Syria have fishing and navigation rights in the Lake.[158]
The Palestine Exploration Fund published surveys and maps of ë  c
 (aka
Cisjordan starting in the mid-19th century. Even before the Mandate came into legal effect in
1923 (text, British terminology sometimes used '"Palestine" for the part west of the Jordan River
and "Trans-Jordan" (or $     for the part east of the Jordan River.[159][160]

Rachel's Tomb on a 1927 British Mandate stamp. "Palestine" is shown in English, Arabic and
Hebrew, the latter includes the acronym ʩ ʿʠ for  !?  

The first reference to the Palestinians, without qualifying them as Arabs, is to be found in a
document of the Permanent Executive Committee, composed of Muslims and Christians,
presenting a series of formal complaints to the British authorities on 26 July 1928.[161]
ß
    

%
 
Between 1922 and 1947, the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector of the economy was 13.2%,
mainly due to immigration and foreign capital, while that of the Arab was 6.5%. Per capita, these
figures were 4.8% and 3.6% respectively. By 1936, the Jewish sector had eclipsed the Arab one,
and Jewish individuals earned 2.6 times as much as Arabs. In terms of human capital, there was a
huge difference. For instance, the literacy rates in 1932 were 86% for the Jews against 22% for
the Arabs, but Arab literacy was steadily increasing.[162]
Under the British Mandate, the country developed economically and culturally. In 1919 the
Jewish community founded a centralized Hebrew school system, and the following year
established the Assembly of Representatives, the Jewish National Council and the Histadrut
labor federation. The Technion university was founded in 1924, and the Hebrew University of
Jerusalem in 1925.[163]
As for Arab institutions, the office of ³Mufti of Jerusalem´, traditionally limited in authority and
geographical scope, was refashioned by the British into that of ³Grand Mufti of Palestine´.
Furthermore, a Supreme Muslim Council (SMC was established and given various duties, such
as the administration of religious endowments and the appointment of religious judges and local
muftis. During the revolt (see below the Arab Higher Committee was established as the central
political organ of the Arab community of Palestine.
During the Mandate period, Many factories were established and roads and railroads were built
throughout the country. The Jordan River was harnessed for production of electric power and the
Dead Sea was tapped for minerals ± potash and bromine.
#"##m  %
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%?

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?
Sparked off by the death of Shaykh Izz ad-Din al-Qassam at the hands of the British police near
Jenin in November 1935, in the years 1936±1939 the Arabs participated in an uprising and
protest against British rule and against mass Jewish Immigration. The revolt manifested in a
strike and armed insurrection started sporadically, becoming more organized with time. Attacks
were mainly directed at British strategic installation such as the Trans Arabian Pipeline (TAP
and railways, and to a lesser extent against Jewish settlements, secluded Jewish neighborhoods in
the mixed cities, and Jews, both individually and in groups.
Violence abated for about a year while the Peel Commission deliberated and eventually
recommended partition of Palestine. With the rejection of this proposal, the revolt resumed
during the autumn of 1937. Violence continued throughout 1938 and eventually petered out in
1939.
The British responded to the violence by greatly expanding their military forces and clamping
down on Arab dissent. "Administrative detention" (imprisonment without charges or trial,
curfews, and house demolitions were among British practices during this period. More than 120
Arabs were sentenced to death and about 40 hanged. The main Arab leaders were arrested or
expelled.
The    (Hebrew for "defense", an illegal Jewish paramilitary organization, actively
supported British efforts to quell the insurgency, which reached 10,000 Arab fighters at their
peak during the summer and fall of 1938. Although the British administration didn't officially
recognize the    , the British security forces cooperated with it by forming the Jewish
Settlement Police and Special Night Squads.[164] A terrorist splinter group of the Haganah, called
the   (or !
[165] adopted a policy of violent retaliation against Arabs for attacks on
Jews.[166] At a meeting in Alexandria in July 1937 between Jabotinsky and Irgun commander
Col. Robert Bitker and chief-of-staff Moshe Rosenberg, the need for indiscriminate retaliation
due to the difficulty of limiting operations to only the "guilty" was explained. The Irgun
launched attacks against public gathering places such as markets and cafes.[167]

The Arab revolt of 1936±39 in Palestine. A Jewish bus equipped with wire screens to protect
civilian riders against rocks and grenades[ ?] thrown by militants.
The revolt did not achieve its goals, although it is "credited with signifying the birth of the Arab
Palestinian identity.".[168] It is generally credited with forcing the issuance of the White Paper of
1939 which renounced Britain's intent of creating a Jewish National Home in Palestine, as
proclaimed in the 1917 Balfour Declaration.
Another outcome of the hostilities was the partial disengagement of the Jewish and Arab
economies in Palestine, which were more or less intertwined until that time. For example,
whereas the Jewish city of Tel Aviv previously relied on the nearby Arab seaport of Jaffa,
hostilities dictated the construction of a separate Jewish-run seaport for Tel-Aviv.
ë

ë ßß 
c

When the Second World War broke out, the Jewish population sided with Britain. David Ben
Gurion, head of the Jewish Agency, defined the policy with what became a famous motto: "We
will fight the war as if there were no White Paper, and we will fight the White Paper as if there
were no war." While this represented the Jewish population as a whole, there were exceptions
(see below.
As in most of the Arab world, there was no unanimity amongst the Palestinian Arabs as to their
position regarding the combatants in World War II. A number of leaders and public figures saw
an Axis victory as the likely outcome and a way of securing Palestine back from the Zionists and
the British. Mohammad Amin al-Husayni, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, spent the rest of the war in
Nazi Germany and the occupied areas, in particular encouraging Muslim Bosniaks to join the
Waffen SS in German-conquered Bosnia. About 6,000 Palestinian Arabs and 30,000 Palestinian
Jews joined the British forces.
On 10 June 1940, Italy declared war on the British Commonwealth and sided with Germany.
Within a month, the Italians attacked Palestine from the air, bombing Tel Aviv and Haifa.[169]
In 1942, there was a period of anxiety for the Yishuv, when the forces of German General Erwin
Rommel advanced east in North Africa towards the Suez Canal and there was fear that they
would conquer Palestine. This period was referred to as the two hundred days of anxiety. This
event was the direct cause for the founding, with British support, of the Palmach[170]²a highly-
trained regular unit belonging to Haganah (which was mostly made up of reserve troops.
Jewish Brigade headquarters under both Union Flag and Jewish flag
On 3 July 1944, the British government consented to the establishment of a Jewish Brigade with
hand-picked Jewish and also non-Jewish senior officers. The brigade fought in Europe, most
notably against the Germans in Italy from March 1945 until the end of the war in May 1945.
Members of the Brigade played a key role in the Berihah's efforts to help Jews escape Europe for
Palestine. Later, veterans of the Jewish Brigade became key participants of the new State of
Israel's Israel Defense Force.
Starting in 1939 and throughout the war and the Holocaust, the British reduced the number of
immigrants allowed into Palestine, following the publication of the MacDonald White Paper.
Once the 15,000 annual quota was exceeded, Jews fleeing Nazi persecution were placed in
detention camps or deported to places such as Mauritius.[171]
In 1944 Menachem Begin assumed the Irgun's leadership, determined to force the British
government to remove its troops entirely from Palestine. Citing that the British had reneged on
their original promise of the Balfour Declaration, and that the White Paper of 1939 restricting
Jewish immigration was an escalation of their pro-Arab policy, he decided to break with the
Haganah. Soon after he assumed command, a formal 'Declaration of Revolt' was publicized, and
armed attacks against British forces were initiated. Lehi, another splinter group, opposed
cessation of operations against the British authorities all along. The Jewish Agency which
opposed those actions and the challenge to its role as government in preparation responded with
"The Hunting Season" ± severe actions against supporters of the Irgun and Lehi, including
turning them over to the British.
The country developed economically during the war, with increased industrial and agricultural
outputs and the period was considered an `economic Boom'. In terms of Arab-Jewish relations,
these were relatively quiet times.[172]


; ' 
## 
" ? 
%?  ?
?

Arab autobus after an attack by Irgun, 29 December 1947

 In the years following World War II, Britain's control over Palestine became increasingly
tenuous. This was caused by a combination of factors, including:
@? World public opinion turned against Britain as a result of the British policy of preventing
Holocaust survivors from reaching Palestine, sending them instead to Cyprus internment camps,
or even back to Germany, as in the case of Exodus 1947.
@? The costs of maintaining an army of over 100,000 men in Palestine weighed heavily on a British
economy suffering from post-war depression, and was another cause for British public opinion to
demand an end to the Mandate.[173]
@? Rapid deterioration due to the actions of the Jewish paramilitary organizations (Hagana, Irgun
and Lehi, involving attacks on strategic installations (by all three as well as on British forces
and officials (by the Irgun and Lehi. This caused severe damage to British morale and prestige,
as well as increasing opposition to the mandate in Britain itself, public opinion demanding to
"bring the boys home".[174]
@? US Congress was delaying a loan necessary to prevent British bankruptcy. The delays were in
response to the British refusal to fulfill a promise given to Truman that 100,000 Holocaust
survivors would be allowed to emigrate to Palestine.
In early 1947 the British Government announced their desire to terminate the Mandate, and
asked the United Nations General Assembly to make recommendations regarding the future of
the country.[175] The British Administration declined to accept the responsibility for
implementing any solution that wasn't acceptable to both the Jewish and the Arab communities,
or to allow other authorities to take over responsibility for public security prior to the termination
of its mandate on 15 May 1948.[176]
6   
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1947-48 civil war

1948 Arab-Israeli War
1948 Palestine War
Causes of the exodus
Depopulated areas
Nakba Day
Palestine refugee camps
Palestinian refugee
Palestinian right of return
Present absentee
Transfer Committee
Resolution 194
;  

British Mandate of Palestine

Israel's declaration
of independence
Israeli-Palestinian conflict history
New Historians
c
& Plan Dalet
1947 partition plan& UNRWA
 ü
  

Battle of Haifa
Deir Yassin massacre
Exodus from Lydda
  
   
Aref al-Aref& Yoav Gelber
Efraim Karsh& Walid Khalidi
Nur Masalha& Benny Morris
Ilan Pappe& Tom Segev
Avraham Sela& Avi Shlaim
U

  

Villages depopulated
before 1948 Arab-Israeli War
Villages depopulated
during 1948 Arab±Israeli War
U

  

Palestinians

This box: view ‡ talk ‡ edit

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%?? ?c ?c
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UN partition plan, 1947

On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly voted 33 to 13 with 10
abstentions, in favour of a plan to partition the territory into separate Jewish and Arab states,
under economic union, with the Greater Jerusalem area (encompassing Bethlehem coming
under international control. Zionist leaders (including the Jewish Agency, accepted the plan,
while Palestinian Arab leaders rejected it and all independent Muslim and Arab states voted
against it.[177][178][179] Almost immediately, sectarian violence erupted and spread, killing
hundreds of Arabs, Jews and British over the ensuing months.
The rapid evolution of events precipitated into a Civil War. Arab volunteers of the Arab
Liberation Army entered Palestine to fight with the Palestinians, but the April-May offensive of
Yishuv's forces crushed the Arabs and Palestinian society collapsed. Some 300,000 to 350,000
Palestinians caught up in the turmoil fled or were driven from their homes.
David Ben-Gurion proclaiming independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl, founder
of modern Zionism
On 14 May, the Jewish Agency declared the independence of the state of Israel. The
neighbouring Arab state intervened to prevent the partition and support the Palestinian Arab
population. While Transjordan took control of territory designated for the future Arab State,
Syrian, Iraqi and Egyptian expeditionary forces attacked Israel without success. The most
intensive battles were waged between the Jordanian and Israeli forces over the control of
Jerusalem.
On June 11, a truce was accepted by all parties. Israel used the lull to undertake a large-scale
reinforcement of its army. In a series of military operations, it then conquered the whole of the
Galilee region, both the Lydda and Ramle areas, and the Negev. It also managed to secure, in the
Battles of Latrun, a road linking Jerusalem to Israel. In this phase, 350,000 more Arab
Palestinians fled or were expelled from the conquered areas.
During the first 6 months of 1949, negotiations between the belligerents came to terms over
armistice lines that delimited Israel's borders. On the other side, no Palestinian Arab state was
founded: Jordan annexed the Arab territories of the Mandatory regions of Samaria and Judea
(today known as the West Bank, as well as East Jerusalem, while the Gaza strip came under
Egyptian administration.
The New Historians, like Avi Shlaim, hold that there was an unwritten secret agreement between
King Abdullah of Transjordan and Israeli authorities to partition the territory between
themselves, and that this translated into each side limiting their objectives and exercising mutual
restraint during the 1948 war.[180]
#     
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    (
Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
m )ß 
 

  
 Israel and members of the Arab League

w  Early 20th century-present

*   Middle East
U
 Ongoing
;

 

Arab nations Israel

m )ß 
 

  
? History of the Arab-Israeli conflict
? Views of the Arab-Israeli conflict
? Media coverage of the Arab±Israeli conflict
? International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict
c   
Israeli-Palestinian conflict · Israel-Lebanon
conflict · Arab League · Soviet Union / Russia
· Israel, Palestinians and the United Nations ·
Iran-Israel relations · Israel-United States
relations · Boycott of Israel
c    
  

Israel-Egypt · Israel-Jordan
On the same day that the State of Israel was announced, the Arab League announced that it
would set up a single Arab civil administration throughout Palestine,[181][182] and launched an
attack on the new Israeli state. The All-Palestine government was declared in Gaza on 1 October
1948,[183] partly as an Arab League move to limit the influence of Transjordan over the
Palestinian issue. The former mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, was appointed as
president. The government was recognised by Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and
Yemen, but not by Transjordan (later known as Jordan or any non-Arab country. It was little
more than an Egyptian protectorate and had negligible influence or funding. Following the 1948
Arab-Israeli War, the area allocated to the Palestinian Arabs and the international zone of
Jerusalem were occupied by Israel and the neighboring Arab states in accordance with the terms
of the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Palestinian Arabs living in the Gaza Strip or Egypt were
issued with All-Palestine passports until 1959, when Gamal Abdul Nasser, president of Egypt,
issued a decree that annulled the All-Palestine government.
In addition to the UN-partitioned area allotted to the Jewish state, Israel captured and
incorporated[ ? ]a further 26% of the Mandate territory (namely of the territory to the
west of the Jordan river. Jordan captured and annexed about 21% of the Mandate territory,
which it referred to as the West Bank (to differentiate it from the newly-named East Bank ± the
original Transjordan. Jerusalem was divided, with Jordan taking the eastern parts, including the
Old City, and Israel taking the western parts. The Gaza Strip was captured by Egypt. In addition,
Syria held on to small slivers of Mandate territory to the south and east of the Sea of Galilee,
which had been allocated in the UN partition plan to the Jewish state.
For a description of the massive population movements, Arab and Jewish, at the time of the 1948
war and over the following decades, see Palestinian exodus and Jewish exodus from Arab lands.
In the course of the Six Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the West Bank (including East
Jerusalem from Jordan and the Gaza Strip from Egypt.

The region as of today: Israel, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights
From the 1960s onward, the term "Palestine" was regularly used in political contexts. The
Palestine Liberation Organization has enjoyed status as a non-member observer at the United
Nations since 1974, and continues to represent "Palestine" there.[184] According to the CIA
World Factbook,[185][186][187] of the ten million people living between Jordan and the
Mediterranean Sea, about five million (49% identify as Palestinian, Arab, Bedouin and/or
Druze. One million of those are citizens of Israel. The other four million are residents of the
West Bank and Gaza, which are under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority,
which was formed in 1994, pursuant to the Oslo Accords.
In the West Bank, 360,000[ ?] Israelis have settled in a hundred scattered new towns and
settlements with connecting corridors. The 2.5 million[ ? ] West Bank Palestinians live
primarily in four blocs centered in Hebron, Ramallah, Nablus, and Jericho. In 2005, Israel
withdrew its army and all the Israeli settlers were evacuated from the Gaza Strip, in keeping with
Ariel Sharon's plan for unilateral disengagement, and control over the area was transferred to the
Palestinian Authority. However, due to the Hamas-Fatah conflict, the Gaza Strip has been in
control of Hamas since 2006.
[hide]
v‡d‡e

m ß 
 

 

Jerusalem riots (1920 ± Jaffa riots (1921 ± Palestine riots (1929 ± Arab revolt (1936±1939 ± Civil
War (1947±1948 ± Arab-Israeli War (1948±1949 ± Retribution operations (1951-1966 ± Suez Crisis
(1956 ± War over Water (1964±1967 ± Six-Day War (1967 ± War of Attrition (1967±1970 ± Wrath
of God (1972±1979 ± Yom Kippur War (1973 ± South Lebanon conflict (1978 ± Lebanon War
(1982 ± South Lebanon conflict (1982±2000 ± First Intifada (1987±1993 ± Second Intifada (2000±
2005 ± Shebaa Farms conflict (2000-2006 ± Lebanon War (2006 ± Gaza War (2008±2009

w   
" ? 
%?  ? ?c
?



   
Estimating the population of Palestine in antiquity relies on two methods ± censuses and writings
made at the times, and the scientific method based on excavations and statistical methods that
consider the number of settlements at the particular age, area of each settlement, density factor
for each settlement.
According to Magen Broshi, an Israeli archaeologist "... the population of Palestine in antiquity
did not exceed a million persons. It can also be shown, moreover, that this was more or less the
size of the population in the peak period²the late Byzantine period, around AD 600"[188]
Similarly, a study by Yigal Shiloh of The Hebrew University suggests that the population of
Palestine in the Iron Age could have never exceeded a million. He writes: "... the population of
the country in the Roman-Byzantine period greatly exceeded that in the Iron Age...If we accept
Broshi's population estimates, which appear to be confirmed by the results of recent research, it
follows that the estimates for the population during the Iron Age must be set at a lower
figure."[189]
w   
Ü  
; ' 
 

In the middle of the first century of the Ottoman rule, i.e. 1550 CE, Bernard Lewis in a study of
Ottoman registers of the early Ottoman Rule of Palestine reports:[190]
From the mass of detail in the registers, it is possible to extract something like a general picture
of the economic life of the country in that period. Out of a total population of about 300,000
souls, between a fifth and a quarter lived in the six towns of Jerusalem, Gaza, Safed, Nablus,
Ramle, and Hebron. The remainder consisted mainly of peasants, living in villages of varying
size, and engaged in agriculture. Their main food-crops were wheat and barley in that order,
supplemented by leguminous pulses, olives, fruit, and vegetables. In and around most of the
towns there was a considerable number of vineyards, orchards, and vegetable gardens.
By Volney's estimates in 1785, there were no more than 200,000 people in the country.[191]
According to Alexander Scholch, the population of Palestine in 1850 had about 350,000
inhabitants, 30% of whom lived in 13 towns0 roughly 85% were Muslims, 11% were Christians
and 4% Jews[192]
According to Ottoman statistics studied by Justin McCarthy,[193] the population of Palestine in
the early 19th century was 350,000, in 1860 it was 411,000 and in 1900 about 600,000 of which
94% were Arabs. In 1914 Palestine had a population of 657,000 Muslim Arabs, 81,000 Christian
Arabs, and 59,000 Jews.[194] McCarthy estimates the non-Jewish population of Palestine at
452,789 in 1882, 737,389 in 1914, 725,507 in 1922, 880,746 in 1931 and 1,339,763 in 1946.[195]
Ü

 
  
In 1920, the League of Nations'  ?  ? ?  ? 
?  ?  ? c
 stated
that there were 700,000 people living in Palestine:
Of these 235,000 live in the larger towns, 465,000 in the smaller towns and villages. Four-fifths
of the whole population are Moslems. A small proportion of these are Bedouin Arabs0 the
remainder, although they speak Arabic and are termed Arabs, are largely of mixed race. Some
77,000 of the population are Christians, in large majority belonging to the Orthodox Church, and
speaking Arabic. The minority are members of the Latin or of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church,
or²a small number²are Protestants. The Jewish element of the population numbers 76,000.
Almost all have entered Palestine during the last 40 years. Prior to 1850 there were in the country
only a handful of Jews. In the following 30 years a few hundreds came to Palestine. Most of
them were animated by religious motives0 they came to pray and to die in the Holy Land, and to
be buried in its soil. After the persecutions in Russia forty years ago, the movement of the Jews
to Palestine assumed larger proportions.[196]
By 1948, the population had risen to 1,900,000, of whom 68% were Arabs, and 32% were Jews
(UNSCOP report, including bedouin.
® 
   
?
%?   ?  ?  
?   ?  ?  ? c
 ?   ? ?
  ? ?  ?
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, as of May 2006, of Israel's 7 million people,
77% were Jews, 18.5% Arabs, and 4.3% "others".[197] Among Jews, 68% were Sabras (Israeli-
born, mostly second- or third-generation Israelis, and the rest are olim ² 22% from Europe and
the Americas, and 10% from Asia and Africa, including the Arab countries.[198]
According to Palestinian evaluations, The West Bank is inhabited by approximately 2.4 million
Palestinians and the Gaza Strip by another 1.4 million. According to a study presented at The
Sixth Herzliya Conference on The Balance of Israel's National Security[199] there are 1.4 million
Palestinians in the West Bank. This study was criticised by demographer Sergio DellaPergola,
who estimated 3.33 million Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza Strip combined at the end of
2005.[200]
According to these Israeli and Palestinian estimates, the population in Israel and the Palestinian
Territories stands at 9.8±10.8 million.
Jordan has a population of around 6,000,000 (2007 estimate.[201][202] Palestinians constitute
approximately half of this number.[203]
>
 
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'   
 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: c  

@? History of Palestine
@? British Mandate of Palestine
@? Land of Israel
@? Greater Israel
@? Greater Syria
@? History of ancient Israel and Judah
@? Province of Judah ("Yehud Medinata"
@? Iudaea Province
@? Jewish people
@? State of Israel
@? Arab-Israeli conflict
@? Israeli-Palestinian conflict
@? Names of the Levant
@? Palestinian Authority
@? Palestinian people
@? Place names in Palestine
@? Outline of Palestine
@? State of Palestine
@? Jund Filastin
U
  
Notes

1.? ¼ "The Palestine Exploration Fund". The Palestine Exploration Fund.
http://www.pef.org.uk/oldsite/Paldef.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
2.? ¼ "Legal Consequence of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory"
3.? ¼ Boundaries Delimitation: Palestine and Trans-Jordan, Yitzhak Gil-Har, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.
36, No. 1 (Jan., 2000, pp. 68-81: "Palestine and Transjordan emerged as states0 This was in consequence
of British War commitments to its allies during the First World War.
4.? ¼ Marjorie M. Whiteman, ? ?  
? , vol. 1, US State Department (Washington, DC:
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963 pp 650-652
5.? ¼ Forji Amin George (June 2004. "Is Palestine a State?". Expert Law.
http://www.expertlaw.com/library/international_law/palestine.html. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
6.? ¼ Fahlbasch and Bromiley, 2005, p. 14.
7.? ¼      Sharon, 1988, p. 4.
8.? ¼   Room, 1997, p. 285.
9.? ¼ Greek ȆĮȜĮȚıIJȚȞȘ from ĭȣȜȚıIJȚȞȠȢ/ĭȣȜȚıIJȚİȚȝ, see e.g. Josephus, # I.1360 cf. First Book of
Moses (Genesis X.13.
10.? ¼  Fahlbusch et al., 2005, p. 185.
11.? ¼ Lewis, 1993, p. 153.
12.? ¼    Carl S. Ehrlich "Philistines" $ ?&'  ???c
? ?c
? ? ?
. Ed. Bruce M.
Metzger and Michael D. Coogan. Oxford University Press, 2001.
13.? ¼ Palestine and Israel David M. Jacobson Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 313
(Feb., 1999, pp. 65±74
14.? ¼ The Southern and Eastern Borders of Abar-Nahara Steven S. Tuell Bulletin of the American Schools of
Oriental Research, No. 284 (Nov., 1991, pp. 51±57
15.? ¼ Herodotus' Description of the East Mediterranean Coast Anson F. Rainey Bulletin of the American
Schools of Oriental Research, No. 321 (Feb., 2001, pp. 57±63
16.? ¼      Lehmann, Clayton Miles (Summer 1998. "Palestine: History: 135±337: Syria Palaestina and
the Tetrarchy". $ ? &
? 
 ?  ?  ?  ? c . University of South Dakota.
http://www.usd.edu/~clehmann/erp/Palestine/history.htm#135-337. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
17.? ¼ Sharon, 1998, p. 4. According to Moshe Sharon: "Eager to obliterate the name of the rebellious
Judaea", the Roman authorities renamed it c
 or   ?c
 .
18.? ¼  Kaegi, 1995, p. 41.
19.? ¼ Marshall Cavendish, 2007, p. 559.
20.? ¼ Lassner and Troen, 2007, pp. 54±55.
21.? ¼ Gudrun Krämer (2008 ?  ?  ? c
%?  ?  ? & ? #? ?  ? ?  ?  ?
 ?  ?  
Translated by Gudrun Krämer and Graham Harman Princeton University Press, ISBN
0691118973 p 16
22.? ¼ Judea
23.? ¼ According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published between 1901 and 1906: "Palestine extends, from 31°
to 33° 20ƍ N. latitude. Its southwest point (at Raphia = Tell RifaD, southwest of Gaza is about 34° 15ƍ E.
longitude, and its northwest point (mouth of the LiDani is at 35° 15ƍ E. longitude, while the course of
the Jordan reaches 35° 35ƍ to the east. The west-Jordan country has, consequently, a length of about 150
English miles from north to south, and a breadth of about 23 miles at the north and 80 miles at the south.
The area of this region, as measured by the surveyors of the English Palestine Exploration Fund, is about
6,040 square miles. The east-Jordan district is now being surveyed by the German Palästina-Verein, and
although the work is not yet completed, its area may be estimated at 4,000 square miles. This entire
region, as stated above, was not occupied exclusively by the Israelites, for the plain along the coast in the
south belonged to the Philistines, and that in the north to the Phoenicians, while in the east-Jordan country
the Israelitic possessions never extended farther than the Arnon (Wadi al-Mujib in the south, nor did the
Israelites ever settle in the most northerly and easterly portions of the plain of Bashan. To-day the number
of inhabitants does not exceed 650,000. Palestine, and especially the Israelitic state, covered, therefore, a
very small area, approximating that of the state of Vermont." From the Jewish Encyclopedia Boundaries
and Extent
24.? ¼ According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911, [1] Palestine is:
"[A] geographical name of rather loose application. Etymological strictness would require it to denote
exclusively the narrow strip of coast-land once occupied by the Philistines, from whose name it is
derived. It is, however, conventionally used as a name for the territory which, in the Old Testament, is
claimed as the inheritance of the pre-exilic Hebrews0 thus it may be said generally to denote the southern
third of the province of Syria.
Except in the west, where the country is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea, the limit of this territory
cannot be laid down on the map as a definite line. The modern subdivisions under the jurisdiction of the
Ottoman Empire are in no sense conterminous with those of antiquity, and hence do not afford a boundary
by which Palestine can be separated exactly from the rest of Syria in the north, or from the Sinaitic and
Arabian deserts in the south and east0 nor are the records of ancient boundaries sufficiently full and
definite to make possible the complete demarcation of the country. Even the convention above referred to
is inexact: it includes the Philistine territory, claimed but never settled by the Hebrews, and excludes the
outlying parts of the large area claimed in Num. xxxiv. as the Hebrew possession (from the " River of
Egypt " to Hamath. However, the Hebrews themselves have preserved, in the proverbial expression "
from Dan to Beersheba " (Judg. xx.i, &c., an indication of the normal north-and-south limits of their
land0 and in defining the area of the country under discussion it is this indication which is generally
followed.
Taking as a guide the natural features most nearly corresponding to these outlying points, we may
describe Palestine as the strip of land extending along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea from the
mouth of the Litany or Kasimiya River (33° 20' N. southward to the mouth of the Wadi Ghuzza0 the
latter joins the sea in 31° 28' N., a short distance south of Gaza, and runs thence in a south-easterly
 direction so as to include on its northern side the site of Beersheba. Eastward there is no such definite
border. The River Jordan, it is true, marks a line of delimitation between Western and Eastern Palestine0
but it is practically impossible to say where the latter ends and the Arabian desert begins. Perhaps the line
of the pilgrim road from Damascus to Mecca is the most convenient possible boundary. The total length
of the region is about 140 m (459.32 ft0 its breadth west of the Jordan ranges from about 23 m (75.46 ft
in the north to about 80 m (262.47 ft in the south."
25.? ¼ Sir Alan Gardiner, ? ? ?c  , Clarendon Press, Oxford (1961 1964 pp.131, 199, 285, n.1.
26.? ¼   Thomas L. Thompson (1999. $ ? " ? c %? ?   ?  ?  ? c . Basic Books.
ISBN 0465006493. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QzOJ9nMlUJcC&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-
PR11&dq=archaeological+evidence+israel+kingdom&ots=_oKqm0jKLs&sig=YC3ODVfVBBI2A4J69_l
6wp4iy2g.
27.? ¼   Israel Finkelstein and Neil Ascher Silberman (2000. "The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology¶s New
Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts". Bible and Interpretation.
http://www.bibleinterp.om/commentary/Finkelstein_Silberman022001.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-14.
28.? ¼       Shahin (2005, page 6
29.? ¼ "The Philistines". Jewish Virtual Library.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Philistines.html. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
30.? ¼ "Philistines" ?  ?  ?  ? 
. W. R. F. Browning. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford
Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
31.? ¼ Herodotus, $ ?  Bk.7.89
32.? ¼ e.g. Antiquities 1.136.
33.? ¼ cf. Pliny, 
?  V.66 and 68.
34.? ¼ Zionist Organization Statement on Palestine, Paris Peace Conference, (February 3, 1919 The
Boundaries of Palestine
35.? ¼ Statement of the Zionist Organization Regarding Palestine Presented to the Paris Peace Conference
(with proposed map of Zionist borders February 3, 1919
36.? ¼ "Middle East Documents Balfour Declaration". Mideastweb.org.
http://www.mideastweb.org/mebalfour.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
37.? ¼ "The British Mandate for Palestine". Mideastweb.org. http://www.mideastweb.org/mandate.htm.
Retrieved 2009-06-16.
38.? ¼ Said and Hitchens, 2001, p. 199.
39.? ¼ Carol A. Redmount, 'Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in The Oxford History of the Biblical
Word, ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999, p. 97
40.? ¼ Galilee, Sea of. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online
41.? ¼ "Human Evolution and Neanderthal Man" (PDF. Antiquity Journal.
http://antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/034/0090/Ant0340090.pdf.
42.? ¼ Amud. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica
Online
43.? ¼ Olson, S. Mapping Human History. Houghton Mifflin, New York (2003. p.74±75.
44.? ¼ Belfer-Cohen and Bar-Yosef, 2000, pp. 19±38.
45.? ¼ Stearns, 2001, p. 13.
46.? ¼ Harris, 1996, p. 253.
47.? ¼ Gates, 2003, p. 18.
48.? ¼     Shahin (2005, page 4
49.? ¼ Rosen, 1997, pp. 159±161.
50.? ¼ Neil Asher Silberman, Thomas E. Levy, Bonnie L. Wisthoff, Ron E. Tappy, John L. Meloy "Near East"
$ ?&'  ?  ??  
. Brian M. Fagan, ed., Oxford University Press 1996.
51.? ¼ Canaan. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia
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52.? ¼ Mills, 1990, p. 439.
53.? ¼ "Palestine: Middle Bronze Age". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45048/Palestine. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
54.? ¼ Ember & Peregrine, 2002, p. 103.
55.? ¼ William H. Propp "Amarna Letters" $ ? &'  ?  ? ?  ? 
. Bruce M. Metzger and
Michael D. Coogan, eds. Oxford University Press Inc. 1993. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University
Press.
56.? ¼ Remains Of Minoan-Style Painting Discovered During Excavations Of Canaanite Palace, ScienceDaily
(Dec. 7, 2009 [2]
57.? ¼ Carl S. Ehrlich "Philistines" $ ? &'  ? ? ? c
? ? c
?  ?  ? 
. Ed. Bruce M.
Metzger and Michael D. Coogan. Oxford University Press, 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford
University Press.
58.? ¼ Philistine. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia
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59.? ¼     Niels Peter Lemche. "On the Problems of Reconstructing Pre-Hellenistic Israelite (Palestinian
History". Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/JHS/Articles/article_13.htm.
Retrieved 2007-05-10.
60.? ¼ Gyémánt, Ladislau (2003.    ??? ?
? ? ?  ?$ ??  .
. Sacra Scripta. pp. 26±30. http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ed58f96d-8032-
41bb-8d65-f34a8b8f2a36&articleId=835a199a-72a0-4b2d-ba9c-32b1347129f5.
61.? ¼ Finkelstein, Mazar and Schmidt, 2007, pp. 10±20
62.? ¼ Erlanger, Steven (2005-08-05. "King David's Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says". The New York
Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?ex=1280894400&en=3c
435bc7bd0cd531&ei=5088. Retrieved 2007-05-24.
63.? ¼ Matthew Sturgis, ? 
? 
?, ISBN 0-7472-4510-X
64.? ¼ Carol A. Redmount, 'Bitter Lives: Israel in and out of Egypt' in The Oxford History of the Biblical
Word, ed: Michael D. Coogan, (Oxford University Press: 1999
65.? ¼ Stager, Lawrence E., "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel" in Michael Coogan ed.
The Oxford History of the Biblical World, Oxford University Press, 2001. p.92
66.? ¼ M. G. Hasel, "Israel in the Merneptah Stela", BASOR 296, 1994, pp.54 & 56, n.12.
   
67.? ¼ "Facts about Israel:History". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affaits.
http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/History+of+Israel/Facts%20About%20Israel-%20History. Retrieved
2007-05-10.
68.? ¼ Bienkowski, 
69.? ¼ Austel in Grisanti and Howard, 2003, p. 160.
70.? ¼ Schiller, 2009, p. 98.
71.? ¼ "House of David" Restored in Moabite Inscription: A new restoration of a famous inscription reveals
another mention of the "House of David" in the ninth century B.C.E.
72.? ¼ "Babylon" ?  ?  ?  ? 
. W. R. F. Browning. Oxford University Press, 1997. Oxford
Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
73.? ¼ Diana Edelman (November 2005. "Redating the Building of the Second Temple".
http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Edelman_Redating_Second_Temple.htm.
74.? ¼    Palestine. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online.
75.? ¼ "Avdat: A Nabatean City in the Negev". Jewish Virtual Library.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/Avdat.html. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
76.? ¼        Shahin (2005, p. 7
77.? ¼ "Hellenistic Greece:Alexander the Great". Washington State University. 1996.
http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/ALEX.HTM. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
78.? ¼ Pastor, 1997, p. 41.
79.? ¼ "Palestine". Britannica.
http://www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=108522&fullArticle=true&tocId=45078. Retrieved
2007-08-14.
80.? ¼ Julie Galambush (2006. "$ ?
 ?c %?? ? ?$ 
? ?  ?  ? ?
 ? (". HarperCollins.ca.
http://www.harpercollins.ca/global_scripts/product_catalog/book_xml.asp?isbn=0060872012&tc=cx.
Retrieved 2007-08-20.
81.? ¼ Dick Doughty (September-October 1994. "Gaza:Contested Crossroads". SaudiAramcoWorld.
http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199405/gaza-contested.crossroads.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
82.? ¼ "Tell Balatah (Shechem or Ancient Nablus". World Monuments Watch:100 Most Endangered Sites
2006. http://wmf.org/resources/sitepages/palestinian_territories_tell_balatah.html. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
83.? ¼ Hayes & Mandell, 1998, p. 41.
84.? ¼   Johnston, 2004, p. 186.
85.? ¼ Chancey, 2005, p. 44.
86.? ¼ "Herod". Concise Encyclopedia Britannica. http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9040191/Herod.
Retrieved 2007-08-11.
87.? ¼ "Introducing Young People to the Protection of Heritage Sites and Historic Cities" (PDF. UNESCO.
2003. http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:2NfvwatBy4oJ:www.iccrom.org/eng/02info_en/02_04pdf-
pubs_en/ICCROM_doc09_ManualSchoolTeachers_en.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-14.
88.? ¼ "HERODIUM (Jebel Fureidis Jordan/Israel". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites.
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.1979.a.php. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
89.? ¼ "publisher=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites".
http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.887.a.php. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
90.? ¼  "Judaea-Palestine". UNRV History: Roman Empire. http://www.unrv.com/provinces/judaea.php.
Retrieved 2007-08-14.
91.? ¼        Shahin (2005, page 8
92.? ¼ Shaye I.D. Cohen. "Legitimization Under Constantine". PBS.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/why/legitimization.html. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
93.? ¼ Thomas A. Idniopulos (1998. "Weathered by Miracles: A History of Palestine From Bonaparte and
Muhammad Ali to Ben-Gurion and the Mufti". http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/i/idinopulos-
miracles.html. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
94.? ¼ "Roman Arabia". Encyclopedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-439113/Palaestina-
Salutaris. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
95.? ¼   Kenneth G. Holum "Palestine" $ ?&'  ? ? ?!  Ed. Alexander P. Kazhdan.
Oxford University Press 1991.
96.? ¼ Gil, Moshe (February 1997. A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press. pp. 68±71.
ISBN 0521599849.
97.? ¼ CALIPH UMAR'S ADDRESS AFTER JERUSALEM
98.? ¼ The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, the West, and the Future of the Holy City By Dore Gold, pg. 97
99.? ¼   Shahin, 2005, p. 10.
100.? ¼ Walid Khalidi (1984.   ?$  ?  . Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington DC.
pp. 27±28.
101.? ¼ Haim Gerber (Fall 2003. ""Zionism, Orientalism, and the Palestinians"".  
? ?c
?
 (Journal of Palestine Studies  (1: 23±41. doi:10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.23.
http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.23?cookieSet=1&journalCode=jps.

102.? ¼ James Parkes. "Palestine Under the Caliphs". MidEastWeb.
http://www.mideastweb.org/palcaliph1.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
103.? ¼ Rizwi Faizer (1998. "The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem". Rizwi's Bibliography
for Medieval Islam. http://us.geocities.com/rfaizer/reviews/book9.html. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
104.? ¼ Ahl al-Kitab. (2007. In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved August 12, 2007, from
Encyclopædia Britannica Online
105.? ¼ Ghada Hashem Talhami (February 2000. $ ?" ? ? ?
? 
%? ?
" ? ? c    . 5ßß. Middle East Policy Council.
http://www.mepc.org/journal_vol7/0002_talhami.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
106.? ¼ Yaacov Lev (2007. $ ? ? ?c ? ?
?"
? . . History Compass.
pp. 603±618.
107.? ¼       Shahin (2005, p. 11
108.? ¼ Gil, Moshe (February 1997. A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 159 and 285±289. ISBN 0521599849.
109.? ¼ M. Cherif Bassiouni (2004. "Islamic Civilization: An Overview". Middle East Institute: The
George Camp Keiser Library. http://www.mideasti.org/indepth/islam/civilization.html. Retrieved 2007-
08-14.
110.? ¼ Gil, Moshe (February 1997. A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 279±281. ISBN 0521599849.
111.? ¼ Gil, Moshe (February 1997. A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press.
283±284. ISBN 0521599849.
112.? ¼ Gil, Moshe (February 1997. A History of Palestine, 634-1099. Cambridge University Press.
pp. 297±298. ISBN 0521599849.
113.? ¼ "Egypt: The Fatimid Period 969 - 1771". Arab Net. 2002.
http://www.arab.net/egypt/et_fatimid.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-14.
114.? ¼ Moshe Gil, ? ? ?c
 (Cambridge, 1992 p. 4100 p. 411 n. 61
115.? ¼ Holt, pp. 11±14.
116.? ¼ David Nicolle (July 2005.   ? 
? ?  ? 
?  ?


. Osprey.
ISBN 9781841768274. http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S8278~per=41.
117.? ¼ "Projects:The Old City of Akko (Acre". Israeli Antiquities Authority. http://www.iaa-
conservation.org.il/Projects_Item_eng.asp?subject_id=11&site_id=5&id=22. Retrieved 2007-08-14.
118.? ¼ Frank Heynick, ? ????   KTAV Publishing House, Inc., 2002 p.103,
commenting on Maimonidies' decision not to settle there a century later.
119.? ¼ A History of the Crusades: The Impact of the Crusades on the Near East (vol 5, By Kenneth
M. Setton, Norman P. Zacour, Harry W. Hazard, Marshall Whithed Baldwin, Robert Lee Wolff, Univ of
Wisconsin Press, 1985, ISBN 0299091449, 9780299091446, pp. 96.
120.? ¼ Sefer HaCharedim Mitzvat Tshuva Chapter 3
121.? ¼   Kenneth Setton, ed. ? ? ? ?  ?
? University of Pennsylvania Press,
1958
122.? ¼     Shahin (2005, page 12.
123.? ¼  Walid Khalidi (1984.   ? $  ?   . Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington
DC. pp. 28±29.
124.? ¼ Myriam Rosen-Ayalon, ``Between Cairo and Damascus: Rural Life and Urban Economics in
the Holy Land During the Ayyuid, Maluk and Ottoman Periods ? $ 
       
   edited Thomas Evan Levy, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1998
125.? ¼ p. 73 in Jonathan Sachs (2005 To heal a fractured world: the ethics of responsibility. London:
Continuum (ISBN 9780826480392
126.? ¼ Chase, 2003, pp. 104±105.
127.? ¼  Gideon Biger, $ ? ? ?" ?c
?

, pp. 13±15. Routledge, 2004.
ISBN 0714656542
128.? ¼ Gerber, 1998.
129.? ¼ Mandel, 1976, p. ''.
130.? ¼ Judith Mendelsohn Rood,   ? ?? ?
? , p. 46. Brill Publishers, 2004.
131.? ¼ Bernard Lewis, "Palestine: On the History and Geography of a Name",   
? ?
 11 (1980: 1±12
132.? ¼ Porath, 1974, pp. 8±9.
133.? ¼ Haim Gerber (1998 referring to fatwas by two Hanafite Syrian jurists.
134.? ¼ Scharfstein, Sol, 
? ? ? %? ? ?c    ?? ?
?  , p.231,
KTAV Publishing House (1997, ISBN 0-88125-545-9
135.? ¼ "New Aliyah - Modern Zionist Aliyot (1882 - 1948". Jewish Agency for Israel.
http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/concepts/aliyah3.html. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
136.? ¼ "The First Aliyah". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/First_Aliyah.html. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
137.? ¼ Israeli government site on the Second Aliyah
138.? ¼ e.g. American Consuls in the Holy Land, 1832-1914 By Ruth Kark, Hebrew University Magnes
Press, 1994, ISBN 0814325238, page 139 [3]
139.? ¼ Biger, Gideon (1981. Where was Palestine? Pre-World War I perception, AREA (Journal of
the Institute of British Geographers Vol 13, No. 2, pp. 153±160.
140.? ¼ The Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire and the Question of their Abrogation as it Affects the
United States, Lucius Ellsworth Thayer, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 17, No. 2
(Apr., 1923, pp. 207-233 [4]
141.? ¼ The Abrogation of the Turkish Capitulations, Norman Bentwich, Journal of Comparative
Legislation and International Law, Third Series, Vol. 5, No. 4 (1923, pp. 182-188 [5]
142.? ¼ From Occupation to Interim Accords, Israel and the Palestinian Territories. Raja Shehadeh,
Kluwer Law International, 1997, ISBN 9041106189, page 75
143.? ¼ Ambassador Morgenthau¶s Story, Henry Morgenthau, Cornell University Library 2009, ISBN
1112306382, Chapter 10, page 70 [6]
144.? ¼ The Habsburgs and the Jewish Philanthropy in Jerusalem during the Crimean War (1853-6,
Yochai Ben-Ghedalia, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2009
[huji.ac.il/publications/BenGhedalia.pdf
145.? ¼ See Jews, Turks, Ottomans, Avigdor Levy (Editor Syracuse University Press, 2003, ISBN
0815629419, page 1090 Christian communities in Jerusalem and the West Bank since 1948, By Daphne
Tsimhoni, Praeger, 1993, ISBN 0275939219, Page xv
146.? ¼ See International law: achievements and prospects, UNESCO, editor Mohammed Bedjaoui,
Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1991, ISBN 9231027166, page 7
147.? ¼ Baylis Thomas,? 
? ? (1999 p.19
148.? ¼ Hughes, 1999, p. 170 p. 97.
149.? ¼ Boundaries Delimitation: Palestine and Trans-Jordan, Yitzhak Gil-Har, Middle Eastern Studies,
Vol. 36, No. 1 (Jan., 2000, pp. 68-81
150.? ¼ See Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1, US State Department
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963 pp 650-652
151.? ¼ The Palestine Mandate
152.? ¼ see A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, By Mark A. Tessler, Indiana University Press,
1994, ISBN 0253208734, pages 155±156
153.? ¼ 'Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine', $ ? $, Saturday, 8 May
19200 p. 15.
154.? ¼ Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations and "Mandate for Palestine," Encyclopedia
Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972
155.? ¼ Gelber, 1997, pp. 6±15.
156.? ¼ Sicker, 1999, p. 164.
157.? ¼ "The Council for Arab-British Understanding". CAABU.
http://www.caabu.org/press/focus/gee.html. Retrieved 2009-06-16.
158.? ¼ No. 565. ² EXCHANGE OF NOTES * CONSTITUTING AN AGREEMENT BETWEEN
THE BRITISH AND FRENCH GOVERNMENTS RESPECTING THE BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN
SYRIA AND PALESTINE FROM THE MEDITERRANEAN TO EL HAMMÉ, PARIS MARCH 7,
1923, Page 7 Border Treaty
159.? ¼ Ingrams, 1972
160.? ¼ "Mandate for Palestine - Interim report of the Mandatory to the LoN/Balfour Declaration text".
League of Nations. 1921-07-30.
http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/349b02280a930813052565e9004
8ed1c. Retrieved 2007-03-08.
161.? ¼ Henry Laurens,  ???c
, Fayard, Paris 2002 vol.2 p.101
162.? ¼ Rashid Khalidi, The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood, 2006.
Beacon Press. [7].
163.? ¼ The Jewish Community under the Mandate
164.? ¼ see see Uniform and History of the Palestine Police
165.? ¼ Etzel - The Establishment of Irgun.
166.? ¼ Etzel - Restraint and Retaliation
167.? ¼ see for example the incident on 14 March 1937 when Arieh Yitzhaki and Benjamin Zeroni
tossed a bomb into the Azur coffee house outside Tel Aviv in Terror Out of Zion, by J. Bowyer Bell,
Transaction Publishers, , 1996, ISBN 1560008709, pages 35±36.
168.? ¼ Aljazeera: The history of Palestinian revolts
169.? ¼ Why Italian Planes Bombed Tel-Aviv?
170.? ¼ How the Palmach was formed (History Central
171.? ¼ Karl Lenk, $ ?"  ?  ?$ ? ?c
? ?

, London 1991
172.? ¼ James L. Gelvin, ß 
)c
 

 , Cambridge University Press, 2007, page 120.
173.? ¼ The Rise and fall of the British Empire, By Lawrence James, Macmillan, 1997, ISBN
031216985X, page 562
174.? ¼ For instance, in his memoir $ ? 
, Menachem Begin cites Colonel Archer-Cust, Chief
Secretary of the British Government in Palestine, as saying in a lecture to the Royal Empire Society that
"The hanging of the two British Sergeants [an Irgun retaliation to British executions] did more than
anything to get us out [of Palestine]".
175.? ¼ see Request for a Special Session of the General Assembly on Palestine
176.? ¼ see Rabbi Silver's request regarding the formation of a Jewish militia and the dissolution of the
mandate in S/PV.262, Minutes 262nd Meeting of the UN Security Council,5 March 1948
177.? ¼ Plascov, Avi (2008. $ ? c
 ?  ? ?   ?

. Routledge. p. 2.
ISBN 978-0714631202.
http://books.google.com/books?id=daLPXTYcoewC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=on
epage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
178.? ¼ Bovis, H. Eugene (1971. $ ? 
?#?


. Hoover Institution Press,U.S..
p. 40. ISBN 978-0817932916.
http://books.google.com/books?id=1L49R1xKA6QC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
179.? ¼ 6 Arab states, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen: 4 Moslem states,
Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey: Greece, Cuba and India also voted against. See Henry Cattan, $ ?
c
?#, Routledge, London 1988 p.36
180.? ¼ Avi Shlaim in Pappe's The Israel/Palestine question, p. 187.
181.? ¼ Truman, the Jewish Vote, and the Creation of Israel, John Snetsinger, Hoover Press, 1974,
ISBN 0817933913, page 107
182.? ¼ see The Middle East Journal, Middle East Institute (Washington, D.C., 1949 ± Page 78,
October 1: Robert A. Lovett, Acting Secretary of State, announced the US would not recognize the new
Arab Government in Palestine, and Foreign relations of the United States, 1948. The Near East, South
Asia, and Africa, Volume V, Part 2, page 1448
183.? ¼ First Declaration of Independence of the State of Palestine
184.? ¼ Rupert Cornwell (July 8, 1998. "UN upgrades Palestine status". Independent, The (London.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_19980708/ai_n14176782.
185.? ¼ [8][ ?
(]
186.? ¼ [9][ ?
(]
187.? ¼ [10][ ?
(]
188.? ¼ Magen Broshi, The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period, 

? ?
 ?  ? 
? ?& 
?  , No. 236, p.7, 1979.
189.? ¼ Yigal Shiloh, The Population of Iron Age Palestine in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban
Plans, Areas, and Population Density, 

? ? ?  ? 
? ?& 
?  , No. 239,
p.33, 1980.
190.? ¼ Bernard Lewis, Studies in the Ottoman Archives²I, 

?  ?  ?  
?  ? & 
? ?
  ?, University of London, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 469±501, 1954
191.? ¼ Katz, 115 citing C.F.C Conte de Volney: Travels through Syria & Egypt in the years 1783,
1784, 1785 (London, 1798. Vol II p. 219
192.? ¼ Scholch, 1985, p. 503.
193.? ¼ McCarthy, 1990, p.26.
194.? ¼ McCarthy, 1990.
195.? ¼ McCarthy, 1990, pp. 37±38.
196.? ¼ Interim Report on the Civil Administration of Palestine
197.? ¼ Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Israel. "Population, by religion and population
group" (PDF. http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
198.? ¼ Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Israel. "Jews and others, by origin, continent of
birth and period of immigration" (PDF. http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf. Retrieved 2006-
04-08.
199.? ¼ Bennett Zimmerman & Roberta Seid (January 23, 2006. "Arab Population in the West Bank &
Gaza: The Million Person Gap". American-Israel Demographic Research Group.
http://web.archive.org/web/20080416015924/www.thefourthwayisrael.com/demographicadvantage.html.
Retrieved 2006-09-27.
200.? ¼ Sergio DellaPergola (Winter 2007, No. 27. "Letter to the Editor". Azure.
http://www.azure.org.il/magazine/magazine.asp?id=356. Retrieved 2007-01-11.[ ?
(]
201.? ¼ Jordan: Facts & Figures, accessed 22 May 2007.
202.? ¼ CIA World Factbook, accessed 22 May 2007.
203.? ¼ Assessment for Palestinians in Jordan, Minorities at Risk, accessed 22 May 2007.
 


@? www.palestinecenter.org - A website with current and historical information about Palestine
@? The Hope Simpson Report (London, 1930 [11]
@? Palestine Royal Commission Report (the Peel Report (London, 1937 [12]
@? Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1928 [13]
@? Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1929 [14]
@? Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1934 [15]
@? Report to the Council of the League of Nations (1935 [16]
@? www.mideastweb.org - A website with a wealth of statistics regarding population in Palestine
@? Coins and Banknotes of Palestine under the British Mandate
@? WorldStatesmen- Maps, flags, chronology, see Israel and Palestinian National Authority
@? hWeb - Israel-Palestine in Maps
@? Palestine Fact Sheet from the Common Language Project
@? 1911 Encyclopedia description of Palestine
@? Liberal Democrat Friends of Palestine
@? History of the Palestine Problem, UN website
Maps
@? Sykes-Picot Agreement, 1916
@? 1947 UN Partition Plan
@? 1949 Armisitice Lines
@? Israel After 1949 Armistice Agreements
@? Liberal Democrat Friends of Palestine[ ?
(]
@? A documentary about the Palestine war in 1948
;
  

Works written or compiled since 1945 ? Köchler, Hans (1981 $ ? 
? ?  ?
? Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim (1971 (ed. $ ? ? c
? c 
?  ? 
?  ?
$    ?  ? c
. Evanston, Illinois:?  ? ?  ?  
. Vienna:
Northwestern Press Braumüller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9
? Avneri, Arieh (1984 $ ?
?  ? . ? Kurz, Anat N. (2005   ? ? ?c
?
Tel Aviv: Hidekel Press  ? 
%?  ? 
! ?  ? ?
? Bachi, Roberto (1974 $ ? c
?  ?  
.
?  
. Brighton: Sussex
Jerusalem: Institute of Contemporary Jewry,Academic Press ISBN 1845190327, ISBN
Hebrew University 9781845190323
? Belfer-Cohen, Anna & Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2000 ? Lassner, Jacob0 Troen, Selwyn Ilan (2007,
"Early Sedentism in the Near East: a bumpy ride to? ? "
? ?  ?  ? 
%?
village life". In: Ian Kuijt (Ed.  ? ? 
 ? ? ?  ? 
? ?  
 ? %? 
?   ! ?(Illustrated ed., Rowman & Littlefield,
? ?    . New York: KluwerISBN 0742558428, 9780742558427,
Academic/Plenum Publishers ISBN 0306461226 http://books.google.ca/books?id=NYNCUX
? Biger, Gideon (1981 "Where was Palestine? pre-GoFWMC&pg=PA55&dq=arabic+palestine
World War I perception", in: ? 
? ? ?+philistine+filastin&lr=&as_brr=3#v=onepa
?  ?   ?    )0 Vol. 13, No. 2,ge&q=&f=false
pp. 153±160 ? Lewis, Bernard (1993 
? ?  %?
? Broshi, Magen (1979 "The Population of Western ?
? ??? ?"
? .
Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period", in:Chicago: Open Court Publishing ISBN 0-


?  ?  ?   ?  
?  ? & 
?8126-9518-6
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? Byatt, Anthony (1973 "Josephus and Populationdemography of Palestine, Population
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?Studies, Vol 2
'
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, 105, pp. 51±60. ? Louis, Wm. Roger (1969 "The United
? Chancey, Mark A. (2005   ? 
 ?Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates
?  ? 

?  ? . Cambridge UniversitySystem, 1919-1922", in:   
?
Press ISBN 0521846471 &  ! , 23 (1, pp. 73±96.
? Chase, Kenneth (2003   %? ?

? ? ? McCarthy, Justin (1990 $ ? c
?  ?
?
. Cambridge University Press ISBNc
. Columbia University Press. ISBN
0521822742 0-231-07110-8.
? Doumani, Beshara (1995  ?c
%? ? Mandel, Neville J. (1976 $ ?  ? ?
  ? ?   ? ?  
? 
?
?   ? 
?  ? . University of

. Berkeley: University of California PressCalifornia Press. ISBN 0-520-02466-4
ISBN 0-520-20370-4 ? Maniscalco, Fabio (2005 c ?
? Ember, Melvin & Peregrine, Peter N. (2002  ? ?
  ? ?c
 ?

 ?  ? c   *? 
? ?  ? ? 

? c   Massa Publisher. ISBN
 ? . New York, N.Y.0 London: Kluwer88-87835-62-4.
Academic/Plenum ISBN 0306462621 ? Marshall Cavendish (2007, c
?  ?
? Fahlbusch, Erwin0 Lochman, Jan Milic0 Bromiley, ?  (Illustrated ed., Marshall
 Geoffrey William0 Barrett, David B.0 Mbiti, JohnCavendish Corporation, ISBN 0761476776,
(2005, $ ? 
 ?  ?  , Grand9780761476771,
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing,http://books.google.ca/books?id=qA5LnP1p
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r=&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false ? Metzer, Jacob (1988 $ ? ? ?
? Farsoun, Samih K. & Naseer Aruri (2006 ? "   ? c
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CO: Westview Press ISBN 0-8133-4336-4 ? Mills, Watson E. (1990 "  ?  ?
? Finkelstein, I., Mazar, A. & Schmidt, B. (2007 $ ? ?  ? 
. Mercer University Press ISBN
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277-0 ? c
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Territorial Concepts in the 17th Century", in:7146-2939-1
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?  ? , Vol
30, pp. 563±572. Israel in and out of Egypt" in: $ ? &'  ?
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Involvement of Palestine with the West, 1865-Coogan. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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ISBN 0-7146-4920-1 ? Schlor, Joachim (1999 $
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? Kaegi, Walter Emil (1995, ! ? ?  ? ? Scholch, Alexander (1985 "The

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Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521484553,1850-1882", in:   
?  
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http://books.google.ca/books?id=YSULouFrzx4C& pp. 485±505
pg=PA41&dq=byzantine+palestine+I+and+II&lr= ? Schmelz, Uziel O. (1990 "Population
&as_brr=3#v=onepage&q=&f=false Characteristics of Jerusalem and Hebron
? Khalidi, Rashid (1997 c
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? .1905", in Gar G. Gilbar, ed., & ?
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%? ? . Cambridge, MA: Harvard ? Sharon, Moshe (1988, $ ? 
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University Press ISBN 0674015177  ? ? $  %?   ? ? ?
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90-04-12101-3 
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? Katz, Shemu'el (1972  ?   %? +?Archive, ISBN 9004088555,
D ?  ? , +
. Tel-Aviv:9789004088559,
Hotsa at sefarim Darni ʤʡʩ ʸʮ ʺʮʣʠ : ʯ ʥ ʩʮʣʥ ʺʥ ʠʩʶʮhttp://books.google.ca/books?id=Ec4UAAA
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? Katz, Shmuel (1973  
 %?  ? ?%20filastin%20philistines&f=false
  ? ? c
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Allen ISBN 0-933503-03-2 (Translation of  ?Age Palestine in the Light of a Sample
   Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas, and
? ---do.---(1985 New updated ed. New York:Population Density", in: 

?  ?  ?
Steimatzky/Shapolsky ISBN 0933503032   ? 
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  . Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN


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MA: Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-65223-Peter N. Stearns (general editor, © 2001
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Bartleby.com.
? UNSCOP Report to the General Assembly
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Braunschweig: Westermann ISBN 3-07-
509520-6
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Works written before 1918

? Le Strange, Guy (1890 c
?  ?  ?
"
%? ? ? ?  ? ? ?
?
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0 translated from
the works of the mediaeval Arab
geographers. [London] : Alexander P. Watt
for the Committee of the Palestine
Exploration Fund0 Boston MA: Houghton
Mifflin (Reprinted by Khayats, Beirut, 1965,
with a new introd. by Walid Khalidy.0 AMS
Press, New York, 1975 ISBN 0-404-56288-
4
? Twain, Mark (1867 ?   .
London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-
243708-5
?