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It
discusses
the
variety
of
technologies
that
have
been
employed
by
community
groups
across
Scotland.
The
principles
of
how
the
technology
works
is
provided
along
with
the
key
issues
regarding
installation
and
operation
as
well
as
environmental
impacts.
The
Hydro
Energy
handbook
includes
the
following
sections:
Technology
description.
Technologies
available
on
the
market.
System
requirements.
Is
the
renewables
technology
suitable
for
your
community
group?
Introduction
to
available
schemes
and
grants.
Tips
for
project
development.
Environmental
aspects.
Case
study.
This
Handbook
is
intended
as
an
introductory
text,
covering
the
main
aspects
and
issues
that
need
to
be
considered
for
each
of
the
technologies
listed
above.
A
separate
set
of
Toolkits,
(available
Autumn
2013)
will
provide
more
detailed
guidance
and
tools
to
assist
community
groups
and
rural
businesses
to
develop
a
renewable
energy
project.
Like
the
Handbook
the
Toolkits
will
be
available
on
the
CARES
web
site:
localenergyscotland.org.uk
Hydro
Technology description
Hydroelectricity
involves
the
conversion
of
potential
energy
stored
in
water
held
at
a
height
to
kinetic
energy
to
drive
a
mechanical
shaft
which
then
drives
an
electric
generator.
There
is
a
long
history
of
hydro
in
Scotland,
with
one
of
the
first
schemes
built
in
the
1890s
at
Fort
Augustus
Abbey
which
was
an
18kW
system
and
used
to
provide
electricity
for
the
village
and
the
electric
organ
at
the
abbey.
More
recently,
in
June
2010,
with
support
through
the
CARES
program,
the
Abernethy
Trust
has
installed
an
89kW
run-of-river
hydro
scheme
to
provide
onsite
generation
for
their
facilities.
Hydro
power
makes
a
significant
contribution
to
Scotlands
renewable
energy
generation,
with
around
1,500kW
of
installed
hydropower
capacity,
which
is
enough
to
power
the
equivalent
of
more
than
900,000
homes1.
Much
of
this
capacity
is
large-scale
hydropower.
However,
about
10%
(161MW)
is
smaller-scale
hydro,
which
may
be
suitable
for
a
community
or
rural
business
development.
A
report
published
in
2008
by
the
Forum
for
Renewable
Development
in
Scotland
(FREDS),
a
Government-chaired
body
with
industry
representatives
on
the
opportunity
for
new
hydro
in
Scotland,
identified
that
there
was
about
650MW
of
unexploited
hydro
resource
in
Scotland,
with
an
annual
potential
generation
of
2.77TWh.
A
further
study
suggested
that
Scotlands
hydro
resource
could
be
up
to
twice
this
level.
Interest
in
smaller
hydro
power
plants
is
growing
and
some
communities,
estates,
and
rural
businesses
now
have
operating
systems,
or
are
looking
to
re-instate
old
hydropower
schemes.
Hydro
offers
a
great
opportunity
to
develop
a
resource
that
is
local
and
has
a
long
operating
life
(typically
50
years+).
Other
benefits
of
hydro
are
that
it
is
a
largely
predictable
resource
of
renewable
energy
(the
annual
generation
can
be
predicted
using
historical
rainfall
data/catchment
flow
data).
Depending
on
the
watercourse,
hydro
schemes
can
have
a
high
capacity
factor
of
about
50%
(this
would
equivalent
to
the
turbine
operating
at
maximum
output
for
50%
of
the
year),
and
typically
has
a
conversion
efficiency
rate
of
60%
to
80%
for
smaller
hydro
schemes
(<100kW).
There
a
wide
range
of
different
configurations
of
hydro
scheme,
two
types
are
relevant:
Run
of
river
in
these
schemes
the
water
is
taken
directly
from
the
river,
passed
through
the
turbine,
and
then
returned
to
the
watercourse.
The
hydro
scheme
generates
electricity
as
and
when
water
is
available
in
the
watercourse.
When
the
river
dries
up
and
the
flow
falls
below
a
predetermined
level
then
electricity
generation
will
halt.
A
range
of
high-head,
medium-head
and
low-head
examples
are
shown
in
Figure
2.
The
head
is
relatively
easy
to
assess,
from
the
proposed
positions
of
the
intake
and
the
powerhouse.
Though
some
allowance
is
needed
for
the
pressure
loss
in
pipes,
screens
and
other
elements
of
the
system.
The
annual
energy
output
(kWh)
depends
on
how
much
water
is
available
over
the
course
of
the
year
this
will
vary
with
rainfall.
It
is
typical
for
the
water
resource
in
a
catchment
to
be
expressed
using
a
flow
duration
curve
(FDC);
this
shows
how
much
water
is
available
in
the
watercourse
and
for
what
percentage
of
the
time.
The
FDC
is
important
for
both
sizing
the
hydro
turbine
and
also
estimating
the
annual
energy
yield
from
the
scheme.
Determining
the
flow
pattern
is
a
more
complex
exercise,
normally
undertaken
using
a
software
program.
Because
the
annual
output
is
the
product
of
both
variables,
the
ideal
scheme
is
one
with
high
head
and
high
flow.
The
nature
of
river
geography
is
that
large
rivers
with
high
flow
rates
tend
to
run
in
valleys
with
modest
or
low
head,
while
streams
that
have
a
high
head
tend
to
be
in
upland
areas
and
have
a
lower
low
rate.
So
a
realistic
compromise
in
needed.
High
head
schemes
are
easier
to
identify,
but
many
burns
in
upland
Scotland
only
have
significant
flow
in
spate
conditions,
whereas
a
hydro
scheme
needs
flow
for
as
much
as
the
year
as
possible.
So
burns
that
drain
a
catchment
area
at
high
level,
and
then
run
down
a
steep
slope
have
potential.
Due
to
the
variable
nature
of
the
hydro
sites,
there
is
a
wide
range
of
different
scheme
configurations
that
can
be
used;
the
key
components
that
comprise
a
hydro
scheme
can
therefore
vary
depending
on
the
site.
Figure
1:
Key
components
in
high-head
hydro
run-of-river
scheme.
Source:
British
Hydro
Association
As
shown
in
Figure
3,
the
major
common
components
of
any
hydro
installation
are:
The
water
intake
system
this
can
be
a
system
of
weirs,
dams
and
screens
that
extract
the
water
from
its
normal
flow,
whilst
screening
out
debris
and
not
allowing
aquatic
life
to
enter
the
water
way
to
the
hydro
plant.
Penstock
The
main
pressure
pipe
that
supplies
the
water
to
the
turbine
is
the
called
penstock.
In
some
schemes,
the
penstock
will
take
the
water
directly
from
the
intake
to
the
powerhouse
or
in
other
cases
there
will
be
a
leat.
Leat
some
schemes
may
use
a
leat,
an
open
channel,
to
convey
the
water
horizontally
with
minimum
loss
of
head
closer
to
the
power
house,
this
results
in
a
shorter
length
of
penstock
(as
depicted).
Forebay
tank
where
a
leat
is
used
it
would
be
typical
to
have
a
forebay
tank
to
allow
suspended
particles
to
settle
out
and
smaller
debris
to
be
screened
out
before
entering
the
penstock.
Spillways
systems
with
a
leat
will
also
typically
have
spillways
to
allow
excess
water
to
be
discharged
in
a
controlled
manor
from
the
leat.
Power
generation
system
located
within
the
powerhouse,
this
includes
the
hydro
turbine,
electrical
generator,
turbine
control
equipment,
cabling,
grid
connection
equipment
and
generation
meter
(i.e.
the
infrastructure
that
converts
the
potential
energy
into
kinetic
energy
to
generate
electricity).
Powerhouse
unless
the
hydro
plant
is
located
in
a
dam
or
other
structure
in
the
water
course,
the
hydro
machinery
will
all
be
located
in
a
powerhouse
where
protected
from
the
outdoor
elements
and
flooding.
Tail
race
this
is
the
channel
that
takes
water,
once
it
has
left
the
turbine
and
returns
it
to
the
watercourse.
Grid
connection
most
hydro
schemes
are
grid
connected
as
there
may
be
no
immediate
electricity
demand
in
the
vicinity
of
the
powerhouse,
all
but
the
very
smallest
hydro
schemes
will
require
a
3-phase
grid
connection.
Hydro power technologies
Hydro
projects
can
be
broadly
classified
into
three
categories
according
to
the
available
head,
these
are:
Low
head
up
to
10m.
Medium
head
10m
to
50m.
High
head
greater
than
50m.
Some
of
the
possible
arrangements
of
different
small-scale,
high/medium/low-head,
run-
of-hydro
schemes
are
shown
in
Figure
4.
The
canal
and
penstock
and
penstock
only
schemes
are
both
high/medium-head
configurations,
with
the
mill
leat
and
barrage
schemes
representing
low-head
configurations.
Figure
2:
Examples
of
high/medium-head
and
low-head
hydro
scheme
configurations.
Source:
British
Hydro
Association.
The
design
requirements
for
high-
and
low-head
hydro
schemes
are
substantially
different.
High-head
hydro
schemes
will
typically
have
a
lower
flow
of
water,
although
this
water
may
need
to
be
transported
further,
while
low-head
schemes
rely
on
larger
volumes
of
water
to
achieve
the
same
power
output.
This
is
reflected
largely
on
the
civil
engineering
requirements
of
the
scheme
and
also
turbine
design/type.
Archimedes
screw
Source:
Community
Energy
Scotland
Turbines
that
are
suitable
for
low-head
applications
are
typically,
Kaplan,
propeller,
cross-
flow
turbines
and
siphonic
turbines.
While
Pelton
wheels,
Turgo
and
Francis
turbines
are
all
suited
to
medium/high-head
applications.
An
alternative
low-head
turbine
is
the
Archimedes
screw
turbine
which
is
seen
by
some
as
a
turbine
with
lower
environmental
and
fish
risks,
and
lower
costs.
This
type
of
turbine
is
relatively
new
to
the
UK,
but
the
number
of
installations
is
increasing.
There
are
also
a
number
of
mill
sites
where
waterwheels
have
been
used
for
electricity
generation
at
low-
head
sites.
Is a hydro scheme suitable for my community group or rural business?
Your
community
group
or
rural
business
could
consider
installing
a
hydro
scheme
if:
You
have
a
medium/high-head
site
(with
a
significant
change
in
watercourse
elevation)
and
a
flow
all
year
round.
Sites
with
a
short
horizontal
distance
between
intake
and
tail
race,
and
large
change
in
elevation
are
ideal.
You
have
a
low-head
site
(2m
+)
where
there
is
a
substantial
flow
of
water
all
year
round.
You
have
an
old
mill
site
and
existing
infrastructure
that
can
be
used.
You
have
a
nearby
grid
connection
point.
You
have
the
agreement
of
all
the
landowners
that
scheme
would
impact
on.
You
have
community
members
or
a
rural
business
that
are
willing
to
invest
in
the
scheme.
Further
information
is
available
by
contacting
Local
Energy
Scotland
on
0808
808
2288
Introduction to available schemes and grants
Communities
or
companies
who
decide
to
install
a
hydro
system
can
take
advantage
of
different
supporting
schemes.
These
schemes
are
subject
to
significant
change,
so
they
are
covered
in
full
detail
in
the
accompanying
Handbooks.
This
section
is
intended
to
provide
a
high-level
overview
of
the
two
main
support
schemes.
FITs up to 5MW
FITs
were
introduced
on
1
April
2010
and
replaced
UK
Government
grants
as
the
main
financial
incentive
to
encourage
uptake
of
small-scale
renewable
electricity
generating
technologies.
This
incentive
supports
hydropower
installations
with
a
total
installed
capacity
up
to
5MW.
The
FIT
rates
are
highest
for
small-scale
hydropower
systems
and
reduce
for
larger
systems.
The
EU
clearance
for
the
FIT
scheme
prevents
a
scheme
from
claiming
the
FIT
if
a
public-
sector
grant
has
been
claimed.
FIT
rates
are
now
revised
downwards
annually
for
hydro
and
the
level
of
adjustment
is
calculated
based
on
deployment
rates
in
the
previous
year.
The
full
list
of
tariff
rates
can
be
found
in
the
Ofgem
website.
Renewables
Obligation
(RO)
The
Renewables
Obligation
(RO)
is
the
support
scheme
intended
for
large-scale
renewable
energy
projects.
Most
community
hydro
schemes
will
use
the
FIT,
as
this
is
a
simpler
option
to
register
for
and
it
provides
higher
levels
of
incentive
for
smaller
schemes.
However,
it
is
possible
to
claim
the
RO
and
to
claim
a
public-
sector
grant.
Hydro
generating
stations
that
share
civil
works
are
regarded
as
the
same
generating
station.
Therefore,
their
capacity
is
combined
and
this
can
alter
the
tariff
level
received.
Tips for project development
The
British
Hydropower
Association
provides
information
on
turbine
types
and
manufacturers,
and
a
useful
step
by
step
guide
to
mini
hydro
developments.
This
section
provides
a
selection
of
tips
for
installing
hydro
systems.
It
should
be
noted
this
is
not
an
exhaustive
list
and
all
projects
present
individual
circumstances
to
consider.
Contact
the
CARES
program
to
identify
what
support
is
available
in
developing
your
hydro
project.
1. Establish
the
head
and
flow
rates
available
at
your
site;
this
should
include
any
changes
to
head
and
water
levels
that
might
occur
at
low-head
sites
when
there
is
increased
flow
conditions
in
the
watercourse
(this
can
often
reduce
the
available
head).
2. Establish
the
simple
payback
and
financial
returns
based
on
the
energy
yield
from
the
scheme
using
the
flow
duration
curve
or
similar
long-term
data.
This
should
also
factor
in
the
hands-off
flow
that
must
remain
in
the
water
course
at
all
times.
It
should
also
consider
the
minimum
flow
at
which
the
proposed
hydro
turbine
will
operate.
3. Consider
construction
access
for
all
of
the
main
components
of
scheme
including
the
intake,
penstock
and/or
leat
and
powerhouse.
4. Consider
the
nearest
location
for
a
suitable
grid
connection
for
the
scheme,
the
cost
of
grid
connection
can
have
significant
cost
impact
if
there
is
not
a
connection
point
nearby.
5. Review
the
Scottish
Environment
Protection
Agency
(SEPA)
guidance
for
the
hydro
site
and
review
the
Part
A
checklists,
these
can
be
found
in
the
SEPA
Guidance
for
developers
of
run-of-
river
hydropower
schemes.
6. Check
land
ownership
along
the
proposed
route
of
the
hydro
installation,
you
will
need
agreement
from,
and
potentially
pay
rent
to,
all
parties
over
which
any
penstocks
or
leats
cross.
7. Ensure
that
the
installer
has
correctly
sized
turbine
and
adequately
meets
the
sites
head
and
flow
characteristics.
8. Check
the
level
of
automation
proposed
for
screens
and
trash
racks
(that
screen
out
debris),
and
consider
using
intakes
that
do
not
require
cleaning
(where
debris
flows
over
them
)
or
have
automatic
cleaning
mechanism.
As
these
reduce
manual
intervention,
this
is
especially
important
where
the
intake
is
in
a
remote
location.
9. Typically,
a
hydro
scheme
will
be
connected
to
the
local
grid;
in
this
case
you
will
need
an
agreement
with
the
local
electricity
Distribution
Network
Operator
(DNO)
and
an
agreement
with
an
electricity
supplier
to
purchase
your
export
electricity.
10. Check
if
the
system
you
choose
is
eligible
for
FITs
or
ROCs.
11. Review
the
SEPA
Guidance
for
applicants
on
supporting
information
requirements
for
hydropower
applications,
this
may
require
fish
and
habitat
studies
as
part
of
the
application
for
the
schemes
abstraction
licence.
Planning
permission
is
also
likely
to
require
some
form
of
environmental
statement.
12. Obtain
planning
permission,
abstraction
licences
and
impoundment
licences
(if
required).
13. Although
Hydro
technology
is
currently
covered
under
MCS,
the
installation
company
and
product
manufacturers
do
not
need
to
be
approved
in
order
for
the
customer
to
be
able
to
claim
FITs.
It
is
recommended
that
references,
qualifications
and
experience
are
sought
from
any
supplier
or
installers
before
engaging
with
them
in
the
project.
Environmental aspects
Run
of
river
hydro
schemes
generally
have
very
few
environmental
impacts
provided
they
are
well
designed
and
the
implementation
of
the
schemes
are
carefully
planned.
The
main
impact
is
on
aquatic
life
and
the
habitat
that
is
affected
by
the
removal
of
the
water
from
the
watercourse.
SEPA
has
set
out
specific
guidance
(see
below)
for
hydro
schemes
to
ensure
that
suitable
provision
is
made
for
aquatic
life
and
habitat;
this
includes
some
of
the
following:
Adequate
provision
of
fish
screens
to
prevent
fish
entering
the
hydro
plant
and
fish
passes
that
allow
fish
to
pass
upstream
of
any
structures
put
in
place
by
the
hydro
plant,
such
as
inlet
screens.
There
are
particular
requirements
where
salmon
and
trout
are
present
in
watercourses
where
hydro
schemes
are
situated.
Fish
screens
do
not
apply
to
Archimedean
screws
provided
there
is
no
screen
on
the
tail
race.
Protection
of
low
flows
in
the
water
course
to
ensure
that
the
watercourse
does
not
run
dry,
so
a
hands-off
flow
must
always
remain
in
the
watercourse.
The
hydro
scheme
intake
must
be
designed
so
the
hands-off
flow
is
always
preserved.
Protection
of
flow
variability
to
ensure
that
the
watercourse
does
not
have
only
the
hands
of
flow
for
extended
periods
of
time.
Protection
of
high
flows
ensures
that
the
maximum
flows
in
the
watercourse
are
not
curtailed
to
significantly
by
the
water
abstraction.
Protection
of
downstream
transport
of
sediment
ensures
that
any
sediment
captured
by
the
scheme
is
returned
downstream.
Protection
of
river
banks
and
river
bed
from
erosion
to
ensure
that
the
hydro
scheme
does
no
accelerate
any
erosion
in
the
vicinity.
The
turbine
and
generator,
like
all
electro-mechanical
equipment,
hydro
schemes
produce
sound
when
in
operation.
This
is
not
typically
an
issue
especially
as
this
equipment
is
located
in
the
powerhouse,
normally
be
of
a
stone
or
brick
construction,
so
this
will
provide
some
noise
reduction.
Consideration
to
further
noise
reduction
methods
should
be
given
where
there
are
likely
to
be
specific
sensitivities
to
noise
being
introduced
into
the
local
environment.
Hydro
schemes
normally
have
very
limited
visual
impact
on
the
landscape
once
operational,
with
only
the
powerhouse
and
intake
visible
in
cases
where
the
penstock
has
been
buried.
Both
the
powerhouse
and
intake
are
relatively
small
structures
and
can
be
designed
sympathetically
with
the
local
environment.
SEPA
has
produced
guidance
for
developers
of
run-of-river
hydropower
schemes
these
should
be
reviewed
at
an
early
stage
of
developing
a
hydro
project
to
ensure
that
the
scheme
is
likely
to
be
acceptable
to
SEPA,
this
guidance
is
separated
into:
Part
A
which
provides
a
set
of
simple
checklists
that
can
be
used
at
a
very
early
stage
in
the
planning
of
a
scheme
to
assess
the
likelihood
that
the
scheme
will
be
able
to
obtain
a
water
use
licence
from
SEPA.
It
is
particularly
aimed
at
schemes
with
an
installed
capacity
of
less
than
about
100kW.
Part
B
is
intended
to
help
developers
planning
any
size
of
run-of-river
scheme.
It
sets
out
the
mitigation
measures
that
SEPA
will
require
to
be
incorporated
into
hydro
developments
for
the
purpose
of
protecting
the
water
environment.
Case studies
The
Abernethy
Trust
has
installed
an
89kW
run-of-river
hydro
scheme
as
part
of
an
energy
generation
scheme.
This
is
principally
for
on-site
electricity
use
at
its
School
of
Adventure
Leadership
at
Ardgour.
The
energy
savings
and
additional
electricity
sales
from
the
surplus
electricity
generation
are
to
be
directly
reinvested
into
and
for
the
good
of
the
Ardgour
centre.