Module: 6

Lecture: 2
Next, let us reproduce the above results by working with complex vectors. Hence, we consider
m x(t ) c x (t ) kx F0 ei t
Then, letting the steady state response have the form
x(t ) X 0 ei ( t ) X 0 e i ei t X 0 ei t
Substituting the above equation we can write

m 2 k i C X 0 F0
F0

X0
k m2 i C

X0
X st

X0
X st

H ( )

tan

where,

X0
X st

F0 k
where
m 2
C
i
k
k

F0 k
2

i 2
n
n

F0 k X st

1 i 2
n
n

1
2 2

2
n

1
1 r 2 2 2 r 2 2

X0
X st

1
n

2 r
1 r2

and are magnifucation factor and phase angle respectively

To find the value at which the peaks of the curve occur, we use the standard technique of
calculus, i.e., we differentiate the equation of magnification factor with respect to and set the
result equal to zero.
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2
2

Let M 1 2
n

n
2

M

1 4
2
2 0
2

n
n
n n

2 1 2 2 2 0
n
n
n

2


2
2 1 2
0
n
n

0
either
n 2

or

0
n 2

or,

1 2 2

n 1 2 2

Indicating that the maxima do not occur at the undamped natural frequency n but for

n 1

depending on the amount of damping.

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A
Ast

or
2
X0
X st
1

0.5

1.0
r

X
X st

X
X st
X
X st

2.0

2.5

3.0

1
2 2
2

1 2

at
max

max

1 1 2

2 2

4 1

4 2 8 4
1

2 1 2

4 2 1 2 2

1
4

1 2 2

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We notice that for light damping, such as when 0.05 , the maximum of
immediate neighborhood of n 1 introducing the notation

X
X st

X
occurs in the
X st

Q , we obtain for
max

small values of
Q

1
2

The symbol Q is known as the quality factor because many electrical applications, such as the
tuning circuit of a radio, the interest lies in an amplitude at resonance that is as large as possible
the symbol is often referred to as the Q of the circuit.

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