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This wide range of applications and products is all the more important given the
current technological and political developments in Europe. The last few decades
have been characterised by the exponential spread and implementation of the concept
of "globalisation". Although international activities and multinational trade existed
well before this date, a new quality has recently emerged. Not only are raw materials
sourced, and products sold, on a supranational scale, they are now increasingly
developed, manufactured, marketed and sold for a global audience. Global
competition and global co-operation - both of which presuppose global
communication - are now common concepts. In the cultural arena, too, we can trace
the development of what is often called the "global village", with greatly increased
social and cultural contact, both active and passive(3).
At the same time, rapid technological development in general, and the rise of whole
new fields and industries in particular, has led to shorter and shorter innovation cycles
and to an exponential growth in knowledge and the need for its rapid and effective
communication. Thus the total amount of specialist knowledge is currently thought to
be doubling every five to fifteen years, depending on the area concerned(4).
This explosion in communication has been facilitated and driven by the computing
and telecommunications revolutions, which have provided cheap processing power
and new technologies for document processing. Vast databases can now be processed
efficiently, and their contents transported effortlessly across national and
geographical boundaries. Information is now commonly regarded as a fourth
production factor alongside property, labour and capital. The number of intangible
products is increasing rapidly, in contrast to the number of tangible ones. The
practical effects of this can be seen, among other things, in the vast increase in the
creation, capture, processing, storage, archiving, retrieval and subsequent evaluation
of documents. For example, the Danzin Report [Danz 92] estimated that the
European economies (calculated before the latest enlargement of the European Union
in January 1995) would spend 650 million ECU on this in 1994. Equally, the number
of major different subject fields (or "domains") for which terminology exists is
estimated at several hundred or many thousand, depending on the degree of detail of
the classification system used(5). In turn, each of these domains contains between
several hundred and over ten million (e.g. chemistry) terms, again depending on the
granularity of the system. The number of terms in each of the highly developed
languages is commonly estimated at 50 million, excluding product names, which
account for roughly another 100 million terms.
A point to be remembered here is that specialist (and indeed general) communication
is normally an iterative and multilinear process, since knowledge is generally created
in an evolutionary process and in several different places at once. Thus potential
sources of uncertainty and misunderstanding arise in the form of homonyms (i.e.
words that are used to denote more than one concept) and synonyms (i.e. more than
one word for the same concept). This problem is becoming particularly acute with the
strong tendency to interdisciplinarity in important modern scientific disciplines such
as biotechnology, environmental science and materials science (it is a paradox that in
this age of increasing specialisation science is becoming more and more
interdisciplinary). At the same time, the risks involved in failing to communicate
unambiguously and in a timely manner have often increased dramatically (two classic
examples of this are the aerospace and environmental industries).
For all these reasons, contents-based information management is a prerequisite for
improving the efficiency of communication. In addition, it should be borne in mind
that communication is not solely monolingual, especially not within Europe. In fact,
there is a clear trend at the moment towards an increased awareness of multilingual
issues, despite the predominance or at least lead function of English in the technical,
business, economic, political and - to a lesser extent - cultural fields.
One factor influencing this trend is the concern of a number of national and regional
governments to ensure the long-term viability of their official languages in the face of
competition from English and to ensure equal access for all citizens and social and
economic groupings to new ideas and other information. Other significant factors are
product liability and similar consumer protection legislation, as well as a more
general wish among enterprises in particular to increase efficiency by improving
internal and external communication and information flows. In addition, consumer
goods manufacturers in particular are discovering the competitive advantage which
products can achieve (especially in saturated or highly competitive markets) when
localised into the languages spoken by their target groups.
3.
Primeri:
tiskalnik, prestavna ro?ica, serumski gonadotropin (G03GA03),
Dopplerjev pojav
glava, krma
H2SO4, x
6. Vrste reprezentacije
Pojem lahko predstavimo na ve nainov:
poimenovanje: termin (eno- ali vebesedni, okrajava),
alfanumerini simbol, grafini simbol
opis: definicija, umestitev v razmerje del-celota
razlaga
"opisna" nejezikovna reprezentacija (npr. kompleksna formula
ali graf)
7. O terminoloki problematiki
Hiter razvoj tehnologij povzroa naglo nastajanje in
spreminjanje izrazja. Posledica tega je, da terminologi in
terminografi ne uspejo dovolj hitro spremljati jezikovnega
razvoja, zato so terminoloki slovarji za tevilna podroja
nepopolni in zastareli.
Novi pojmi praviloma nastanejo znotraj doloenega podroja
in doloene kulture, zato se pri prevajanju pojavijo tudi teave
z njihovim prenaanjem v ciljno kulturo.
concept)
podrejeni pojmi / podpomenskost (angl. subordinate concept)
pojmi istega reda / istorednost (angl. co-ordinate concept)
_______________________
posledi?no razmerje (npr. vzrok uinek, proizvajalec
proizvod ipd.)
pragmatsko / tematsko razmerje (npr. pravna podlaga za
loitev iz medicinskih razlogov: spolna bolezen neozdravljiva
duevna bolezen)
_______________________
Razmerja med pojmi niso razmerja med termini. Ker so pojmi
abstraktne miselne enote, na ravni pojmovnega sistema
sopomenskost (sinonimija) ne obstaja; to je razmerje, ki se lahko
pojavi na ravni poimenovanj oz. Terminov.
III. Termini
1. Poimenovanje
enobesedni
enostavni: celica, klon
sestavljeni: podstava + obrazila: aciklien, polisemija,
nadzvoni
podstava + podstava (+ obrazila): avtocesta,
ogljikovodik, fotosinteza
vebesedni
Problematika gnezdenja:
intraruminalna naprava s pulzirajoim
3. Prevzemanje terminov
Zakaj prevzemanje?
potreba po poimenovanju novih pojmov, predmetov itd.
potreba po stilni druganosti
Based on this, and according to Cabr (ibid), the lexical unit could neither be
considered general nor terminological. It is basically general by default but
through both pragmatic characteristics and discourse it adopts either a special or a
terminological meaning. In the theory of language again Cabr (ibid) argues that
units of special meaning refer to terminological units and therefore any lexical
unit would be in the position of being considered a terminological unit.
Ultimately, such an overview shows the inter-related nature of terminology
and lexicology and even though they are different disciplines, still in linguistics
they are complementary to each other. And that is why most, if not all,
terminological works rely heavily on the lexical approach and could hardly do
without it. In this sense, Steffens (1993:73) says that terminology can benefit
from being viewed and treated in the context of pragmatics, corpus linguistics and
other paradigms in linguistics and in philosophy dedicated to the study of text for
investigating problems related to knowledge of language and knowledge of
matters scientific and technological.
Sources:
, , Terminology,,
Steffens, P 1993, Machine Translation and the Lexicon, Springer, Berlin. pp 65-73.
to. According to David Crystal, whose book is reviewed in Sansom's article) it is this boxing-in
of the English language and non-embracing of the fact that languages are constantly changing
that are the main flaws: "Language change is inevitable, continuous, universal and
multidirectional. Languages do not get better or worse when they change. They just - change."
Personally, I don't deny that languages are changing, but surely, as a translator, it's a good
thing to have a set of rules to tell you how to write correctly (although Truss' chapter on
commas doesn't really make it much clearer).
With that in mind, the following topics will hopefully clear up any problem areas that you may
have been unsure about when translating (they may, however, become obsolete in a few years,
who knows?)
Abbreviations and Acronyms - What are the standards?
US
Use full stops with abbreviations
Do not use full stops in abbreviations, or spaces between initials:
US, 10 am, No 1, EJ Hoover
Exceptions: e.g./ etc. / i.e. / col. / p. / pp. / no.
UK
Use full stops between initials:
U.S, 10 a.m., E.J Hoover
Exceptions: Do not use full stops if e.g., the company you are referring to does not
- 'BBC' remains 'BBC'.
Capitalisation - When and when not to capitalise
After Colons
If introducing a list with a colon, it is followed by a lower case character:
He had to buy the following: milk, bread, cheese.
If introducing a sentence, an upper case character follows:
We have already touched on this point: Electricity is not something you want to mess with.
North...south
North, South, East and West are capitalised if they make up part of a title of an area or
political division but not if they are used in a descriptive sense:
East Germany, South-east Asia, Northern Ireland, but not: northern Germany, eastern France
Peoples' titles
When a title appears as part of a person's name, it is capitalised:
US Secretary of State Colin Powell
4.50 (preferred), EUR 4.50 (if the font does not support the symbol)
Italics - When to use them
Should be avoided, but are acceptable for:
Non-English
The titles of books, periodicals, newspapers, films, plays and television
programmes etc.
The names of vessels and aeroplanes (but not the names and numbers of
types of aircraft such as Boeing 707 or Hercules carriers)
ratios
times of day
statistics
degrees
dimensions
Millions
Numbers in millions should be written as follows: 1 million, 3.4 million
Exception: 3,432,000 (if there is more than one digit to the right of the decimal
point).
Billions and trillions
In strict British English usage 'billion' is equivalent to a million million;
in American usage, it is equivalent to a thousand million.
Time of day
UK
9 am, 3:15 pm
US
9 a.m., 3:15 p.m.
Dates
To avoid international confusion, it is preferable to write the date in
full:
Friday, 15 January 2004
Decades
Reference to decades should be expressed in figures
the 1990s, the mid-1990s
(not the nineteen-nineties, the 90s or the 1990's).
Fractions
Fractions should be spelled out:
three quarters of the amount
However, numbers with fractions should be written in figures:
1 3/4 km
Fractions should only be hyphenated when used as an adjective
three quarters of the amount
three-quarters full
Place Names and Addresses - Do I add the country?
When translating you should bear in mind that your target audience may not be familiar with
the places. When referring to somewhere for the first time you should always give its country,
even if the original text does not. For example:
Source Text: Der in KFln regierende BLrgermeister...
Translation: The mayor of Cologne (Germany)...
Punctuation
Apostrophes
Some plural nouns take an apostrophe before the 's':
children's games, gentlemen's outfitter, old folk's home.
Apostrophes should be used in phrases such as 12 years' imprisonment and 200
hours' community service.
A common mistake is often made with it's and its. The difference: 'Its' is the third
person possessive form of 'it'. 'It's' is the contracted form of 'it is' and should only
be used in speech:
The car is blue. Its wheels are black.
"It's very sunny today".
Colons
You should not overuse the colon. This is very popular in German texts, where a
simple full point and new sentence would suffice in English.
Commas
UK
In a series of three or more items with a conjunction, use a comma after each item
except the one preceding the conjunction and the last item:
This machine offers a number of advantages: ease-of-use, economy, speed and
flexibility
US
Use the commas after each item, including the one preceding the conjunction and
the last item:
This machine offers a number of advantages: ease-of-use, economy, speed, and
flexibility
Types of English
Clients can ask for three kinds of English:
1.
US English
2.
UK English
3.
International English
The third category is a little vague, but generally it means the client wants a text that will be
understood by all kinds of English speakers. The text should therefore be easy to read and not
be 'obviously' British or American in style. It is up to the client to decide whether 'international
English' uses UK or US spelling, so you should probably check this before beginning.
The Latin prefix trans (which means: from one side to another) with results such
as transmutation, translatology or transgender (the latter term used by Esther
Monz).
Words that acquire an additional meaning such as identity, target language,
communicative dimension (the latter term is by Hatim and Mason).As usual, the
most adapted terminology originates from English where we stumble upon cases
such as mapping, shifts or unique terms amongst many others. We can see how
this type of Anglo-Saxon terminology is used with different techniques that are
emphasized in literal translation, borrowed words and even phonetic adaptations.
It mustnt be forgotten that in many cases we find ourselves with already existing
concepts that gain a complementary meaning in reference to translation studies.
All of us have heard of concepts such as target language or source language. It is
when we encounter authors such as Nida who speaks about translation patterns
and more specifically about the translation process where terms should be used
according to their practical usefulness and their explanatory power (Nida 1969:
489). However, we must keep in mind that terminology originating from languages
such as French and German is also found in translation studies. Therefore, we
mustnt limit ourselves to only consider new vocabulary and concepts with English
origins. At this stage, the importance of terminology is emphasized, not only in
regards to translation studies but in any science and field. As language evolves
and is alive, so is terminology therefore we must take into account these new
horizons for analysis and use them correctly.