Adaptive Cruise Control System: Department of Civil Engineering, BJI, Kollam 1

ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Every day the media brings us the horrible news on road accidents. Once a report
said that the damaged property and other costs may equal 3% of the worlds gross
domestic product.The concept of assisting driver in longitudinal vehicle control to avoid
collisions has been a major focal point of research at many automobile companies and
research organizations. The idea of driver assistance was started with the cruise control
devices first appeared in 1970s in USA. When switched on, this device takes up the task
of accelerating or braking to maintain a constant speed. But it could not consider the other
vehicles on the road. An Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system developed as the next
generation assisted the driver to keep a safe distance from the vehicle in front.
Conventional cruise control was capable only to maintain a set speed by accelerating or
decelerating the vehicle. Adaptive cruise control devices are capable of assisting the
driver to keep a safe distance from the preceding vehicle by controlling the engine throttle
and brake according to the sensor data about the vehicle. This system is now available
only in some luxury cars like Mercedes S-class, Jaguar and Volvo trucks the U.S.
Department of transportation and Japans ACAHSR have started developing Intelligent
Vehicles that can communicate with each other with the help of a system called Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control.
Department of Civil Engineering, BJI, Kollam 1

CHAPTER 2
PRINCIPLES AND SENSOR OPTIONS OF ACC
2.1 PRINCIPLE OF ACC

ACC works by detecting the distance and speed of the vehicles ahead by using
either a Lidar system or a Radar system .The time taken by the transmission and reception
is the key of the distance measurement while the shift in frequency of the reflected beam
by Doppler Effect is measured to know the speed. According to this, the brake and
throttle controls are done to keep the vehicle the vehicle in a safe position with respect to
the other. These systems are characterized by a moderately low level of brake and throttle
authority. Adaptive cruise control devices are capable of assisting the driver to keep a safe
distance from the preceding vehicle by controlling the engine throttle and brake according
to the sensor data about the vehicle. Most of the systems use RADAR as the sensor .a few
use LIDAR also. Controller includes the digital signal processing modules and
microcontroller chips specially designed for actuating throttle and brake. These are
predominantly designed for highway applications with rather homogenous traffic
behavior. The second generation of ACC is the Stop and Go Cruise Control (SACC)
whose objective is to offer the customer longitudinal support on cruise control at lower
speeds down to zero velocity. The SACC can help a driver in situations where all lanes
are occupied by vehicles or where it is not possible to set a constant speed or in a
frequently stopped and congested traffic. There is a clear distinction between ACC and
SACC with respect to stationary targets. The ACC philosophy is that it will be operated in
well structured roads with an orderly traffic flow with speed of vehicles around
40km/hour. While SACC system should be able to deal with stationary targets because
within its area of operation the system will encounter such objects very frequently.
The red car automatically follows the blue car

Fig 2.1 Schematic Diagram of Intelligent Cruise Control
.
2.2 CONSTITUENTS OF AN ACC SYSTEM
A sensor (LIDAR or RADAR) usually kept behind the grill of the vehicle to
obtain the information regarding the vehicle ahead. The relevant target data may be
velocity, distance, angular position and lateral acceleration.
2.3 TYPES OF ACC

Laser-based systems and radar-based systems compete in quality and price.
Laser-based ACC systems do not detect and track vehicles in adverse weather
conditions nor do they reliably track extremely dirty (non-reflective) vehicles. Laserbased sensors must be exposed, the sensor (a fairly large black box) is typically found in
the lower grille offset to one side of the vehicle.
Radar-based sensors can be hidden behind plastic fascias, however the fascias
may look different from a vehicle without the feature. For example, Mercedes packages
the radar behind the upper grille in the center, and behind a solid plastic panel that has
painted slats to simulate the look of the rest of the grille.
Single radar systems are the most common. Systems involving multiple sensors
use either two similar hardware sensors likethe 2010 Audi A8[1] or the 2010 Volkswagen
Touareg,[2] or one central long range radar coupled with two short radar sensors placed
on the corners of the vehicle like the BMW 5 and 6 series.

2.3.1 Assisting Systems
Radar-based ACC often feature a precrash system, which warns the driver or
provides brake support if there is a high risk of a collision. Also in certain cars it is
incorporated with a lane maintaining system which provides power steering assist to
reduce steering input burden in corners when the cruise control system is activated.
2.3.2 Multi-Sensor Systems
GPS-aided ACC: the GPS navigation system provides guidance input to the ACC.
On the motorway, the car in the front is slowing down, but with turn signal on and it is
actually heading for a highway off-ramp. A conventional ACC would sense the car in
front was decelerating and it would simply apply brakes accordingly. But with GPSguided ACC takes into account the approaching highway exit and it simultaneously
receives images from a camera attached e.g. behind the front pane to the rearview mirror.
The camera may detect the turn signal from the car ahead. So instead of braking, this new
system continues uninterrupted, because it knows that the car in front will exit the lane.
2.4 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)

It is an optical remote sensing technology that measures properties of scattered
light to find range and/or other information of a distant target. The prevalent method to
determine distance to an object or surface is to use laser pulses. Like the similar radar
technology, which uses radio waves instead of light, the range to an object is determined
by measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and detection of the
reflected signal. LIDAR The first ACC system introduced by Toyota used this method. By
measuring the beat frequency difference between a Frequency Modulated Continuous
light Wave (FMCW) and its reflection.
There are several major components to a LIDAR system:
2.4.1. Laser
600-1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. They are
inexpensive but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the maximum
power is limited by the need to make them eye-safe.

2.4.2 Scanner & Optics
How fast images can be developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be
scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the azimuth and elevation,
including dual oscillating plane mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis
scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution and range that can be detected. A
holemirror or a beam splitter are options to collect a return signal.
2.4.3 Receiver and Receiver Electronics
Receivers are made out of several materials. Two common ones are Si and In ,Ga and Al
Fig 2.2 Image of 3D LIDAR Sensing Mounted in Vehicle and Map Data Creation
Using 3D LIDAR
2.5 RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

RADAR is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting
objects like air crafts, ships, space crafts or vehicles. It is operated by radiating energy
into space and detecting the echo signal reflected from an object (target) the reflected
energy is not only indicative of the presence but on comparison with the transmitted
signal, other information of the target can be obtained. The currently used Pulse Doppler

RADAR which uses the principle of Doppler effect in determining the velocity of the
target.
Fig 2.3 Radar Sensor in Vehicles

CHAPTER 3
DEFINITIONS IN ACC SYSTEM
3.1 ACC VEHICLE

The subject vehicle equipped with the ACC system.
3.2 ACTIVE BRAKE CONTROL
A function which causes application of the brakes without driver application of the brake
pedal.
3.3 CLEARANCE
The distance from the forward vehicle's trailing surface to the ACC vehicle's leading
surface.
3.4 FORWARD VEHICLE
Any one of the vehicles in front of and moving in the same direction and travelling on the
same roadway as the ACC vehicle.
3.5 SET SPEED
The desired cruise control travel speed set by the driver and is the maximum desired
speed of the vehicle.
3.6 TARGET VEHICLE
One of the forward vehicles in the path of the ACC vehicle that is closest to the ACC
vehicle.
3.7 TIME GAP
The time interval between the ACC vehicle and the target vehicle. The 'time gap' is
related to the 'clearance' and vehicle speed by:
Time gap = clearance / ACC vehicle speed
Fig 3.1 Definitions

CHAPTER 4
PHYSICAL LAYOUT OF ACC SYSTEM
The ACC system consists of a series of interconnecting components and systems.

The method of communication between the different modules is via a serial
communication network known as the Controller Area Network (CAN).
4.1 ACC MODULE
The primary function of the ACC module is to process the radar information and
determine if a forward vehicle is present. When the ACC system is in 'time gap control', it
sends information to the Engine Control and Brake Control modules to control the
clearance between the ACC Vehicle and the Target Vehicle.
4.2 ENGINE CONTROL MODULE
The primary function of the Engine Control Module is to receive information from
the ACC module and Instrument Cluster and control the vehicle's speed based on this
information. The Engine Control Module controls vehicle speed by controlling the
engine's throttle.
4.3 BRAKE CONTROL MODULE
The primary function of the Brake Control Module is to determine vehicle speed
via each wheel and to decelerate the vehicle by applying the brakes when requested by
the ACC Module. The braking system is hydraulic with electronic enhancement, such as
an ABS brake system, and is not full authority brake by wire.
4.4 INSTRUMENT CLUSTER
The primary function of the Instrument Cluster is to process the Cruise Switches
and send their information to the ACC and Engine Control Modules. The Instrument
Cluster also displays text messages and telltales for the driver so that the driver has
information regarding the state of the ACC system.
4.5 CAN THE CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK
(CAN) is an automotive standard network that utilizes a 2 wire bus to transmit and
receive data. Each node on the network has the capability to transmit 0 to 8 bytes of data

in a message frame. A message frame consists of a message header, followed by 0 to 8
data bytes, and then a checksum [2]. The message header is a unique identifier that
determines the message priority. Any node on the network can transmit data if the bus is
free. If multiple nodes attempt to transmit at the same time, an arbitration scheme is used
to determine which node will control the bus. The message with the highest priority, as
defined in its header, will win the arbitration and its message will be transmitted. The
losing message will retry to send its message as soon as it detects a bus free state.
4.6 CRUISE SWITCHES
The Cruise Switches are mounted on the steering wheel and have several buttons
which allow the driver to command operation of the ACC system. The switches include
ON: place system in the 'ACC standby' state
OFF: cancel ACC operation and place system in the 'ACC off' state
SET+: activate ACC and establish set speed or accelerate
COAST: decelerate
RESUME: resume to set speed
TIME GAP+: increase gap
TIME GAP -: decrease gap
Fig 4.1 Operating Stalk

4.7 BRAKE SWITCHES
There are two brake switches, Brake Switch 1 (BS1) and Brake Switch 2(BS2).
When either brake switch is activated, Cruise Control operation is deactivated and the
system enters 'ACC standby' state.
4.8 BRAKE LIGHTS
When the Brake Control Module applies the brakes in response to an ACC
request, it will illuminate the brake lights to warn vehicles behind the ACC vehicle that it
is decelerating.
Fig 4.2 Physical Layout of an ACC System

CHAPTER 5
STATES AND AVAILABLE MODES OF ACC SYSTEM
5.1 ACC OFF STATE

The direct access to the 'ACC active' state is disabled.
5.2 ACC STANDBY STATE
The system is ready for activation by the driver.
5.3 ACC ACTIVE STATE
The ACC system is in active control of the vehicle's speed.
5.4 ACC SPEED CONTROL STATE
A substate of ACC ACTIVE STATE in which no forwardvehicles are present such that the
ACC system is controlling vehicle speed to the'set speed' as is typical with conventional
cruise control systems.
5.5 ACC TIME GAP CONTROL STATE
A sub state of ACC ACTIVE STATE in which timegap, or headway, between the ACC
vehicle and the target vehicle is beingcontrolled.
5.6 SPACE OF MANEUVERABILITY AND STOPPING DISTANCE
The space of maneuverability is the space required by the driver to maneuver a
vehicle.An average driver uses larger sideways acceleration while vehicle speed is low. If
the curve radius of a possible trajectory is r for a given velocity v and sideways
acceleration ay, then r= / ay [2].so to get the required r,when v is low, a y is also to be low
correspondingly. The stopping distance is given by, Ds = 0.5 u /a x+ td u, where u is the
initial speed tdis the time taken by the system to receive and process the sensor data and a x
is the acceleration of the vehicle.
Fig 5.1 Detection of Vehicle Edges by Fusion Sensor
5.7 CONTROLLER
The controller translates the situation into appropriate actions through brake and
pedal and throttle control actions. Depending on the present traffic situation, two types of
controls are possible.
1. Speed control
2. Headway control
If there is no vehicle presently in front, then the speed is controlled about a set
point just as in conventional cruise control. But in order to keep a safe distance between
the vehicles, the headway control is required.
5.8 ARTIFICIAL COGNITION

The conversion of raw information from sensors to control actions by the two stepS
1. Analyzing the traffic conditions
2. Deciding on a particular situation
The controller translates the desired situation into appropriate control action through
brake and throttle actuation. The controller concept is simplified in the flow-diagram:
Fig 5.2 Flow Diagram
of Controlling Process
5.9 AVAILABLE
MODELS FOR ACC-
EQUIPPED VEHICLES
5.9.1 Control Approach and Objectives
Regarding the control structure, a two-level (higher/ lower) approach is a common
choice.
The
higher
level
deals
with
calculating
the
necessary
or
desired
acceleration,depending on the vehicles distance to the leading vehicle and the difference
in the corresponding velocities. The lower level deals with transforming the acceleration,
computed at the higher level, into throttle orbraking commands. The control objectives
should be the following:
i. To travel with the maximum speed set by the driver in cases where there are no leading
vehicles in the range covered by the sensors, or leading vehicles exist within that range
but their velocities are higher than themaximum speed set by the user. This is also
referred as speed control mode.

ii. To maintain vehicle speed equal to the speed of the leading vehicle at a specified
distance, when the leading vehicle is in range and its speed is lower than the maximum
speed set by the driver. This is alsoreferred to as gap control mode.
iii. The transitions between the two objectives mentioned should be as smooth as
possible, in order to avoid cause discomfort to the passengers, e.g. due to abrupt
accelerations or decelerations. Clearly, during lane-changing orcut-in maneuvers, a
sudden change to the distance from the leading vehicle may occur which may cause
strongreactions from the system.
5.9.2 Spacing Policy
The spacing policy of ACC systems belongs to the most important factors,
determining not only traffic flow characteristics but also vehicle safety. Three main
headway selection policies have been proposed:
Constant Space-Headway (CSH)
Constant Time-Headway (CTH) (space-headway is a linear function of speed)
Variable Time-Headway (VTH) (space-headway is a nonlinear function of speed.

Although the first two policies are the simplest ones, the third is the subject of
ongoing research and seems to offer plenty of room for further developments.
In order to avoid confusion, we need at this point to clarify the terms headway and
time-gap; time/space headway is the time/space distance between the front bumper of the
preceding vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle, while time/space-gap is
the time/space distance between the rear bumper of the preceding vehicle and the front
bumper of the following one. These definitions are not always properly observed in the
technical literature.
The CSH policy suggests that the inter-vehicle spacing should be constant for the
whole speed range. However, it has been proven that this type of spacing policy is not
string stable, unless additional information is received than the mere sensor data from the
preceding vehicle. Therefore, it is not suitable for non-interconnected ACC systems and
autonomous systems in general .The CTH policy suggests that the inter-vehicle spacing
should be a linear function of the vehicle's speed. Compared to the previously mentioned
CSH policy, it feels more natural for the driver and the passengers, since the gap from the
leading vehicle is proportional to its speed. Although the results presented in

demonstrated that this policy can cause instabilities in an open stretch of highway with
entries and exits, it has been shown through the use of a microscopic and two
macroscopic approaches, applied both in a circular highway and in an open-stretch
highway, that the string stability can be also guaranteed as long as a consistent
downstream biasing strategy is applied. This spacing policy can be simply described as
follows:
Ldes= so+ hd v
where
so is the jam distance in meters (gap between vehicles when completely stopped),
hdis the desired time-gap setting in seconds and
v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s.
The third headway policy suggests that the inter-vehicle spacing should be a nonlinear function of speed. The motivation to develop more complex spacing policies than
the simple CTH one is to improve the dynamics and steady-state conditions of the system,
in order to maximize the stability region, while increasing the capacity. Quite a few
attempts to develop such policies have been reported so far. The authors suggest a nonlinear spacing policy, along with the related sliding mode controller; in their conducted
simulations they realized that, in the presence of an on-ramp, CTH policy may become
unstable, whereas their quadratic range policy ensures stability, despite the continuous
disturbances from merging vehicles.
5.9.3 Limiting Values and Constraints of ACC Systems
The correct modelling of an ACC system necessitates the limits and constraints of
its various parameters and variables to be taken into account in a rational way. Firstly, the
maximum acceleration and deceleration should be bounded, according to the vehicle's
actual capabilities. Typical values for acceleration are 2-3 m/s 2 whereas for deceleration
3-5 m/s2. In (ISO 15622, 2010) it is recommended that for ACC systems the average
automatic acceleration should not exceed 2m/s 2whereas the deceleration should not
exceed 3.5 m/s2. The previous values should possibly be additionally bounded by
constraints, in order to prevent the driver from feeling uncomfortable (i.e. too strong
accelerations or decelerations). Regarding speed, it should be bounded by the minimum
of the following values: maximum speed of the vehicle, maximum acceptable speed by

the driver, and maximum allowed speed of the highway section (possibly multiplied by a
speed acceptance coefficient in order to model various types of drivers). The range of
vehicle sensors is another critical parameter of ACC systems; typical values for statement
of the art sensors range are between 150 m and 200 m.
Safety is a critical factor that should be taken into account in the design process of
such a system. The most critical situation an ACC-vehicle can encounter is to approach a
stopped vehicle at free flow speed. This means that the range of the sensors must be
sufficient in order to be able to come to a safe full stop by applying the maximum
deceleration, once the obstacle is detected. This constraint however is not included in
most of the design efforts. The transition mechanism between speed and gap control
modes is also quite significant regarding comfort. This means that during the transition
phase the acceleration or deceleration should remain as smooth as possible. In most of the
design efforts in the literature, the transition mechanism is absent or not reported; there
are however some studies that include a transition mechanism.
5.9.4 ACC Control Laws
The existing control laws, used to control the velocities of ACC-equipped vehicles
by implementing the CTHpolicy will be discussed in brief; although differences exist
between them, they share common basic ideas. Thecontrol objective is to eliminate the
range error (error between actual and desired inter-vehicle distance) and the velocity error
(difference between the speeds of leader and follower).
CHAPTER 6
CASE STUDY
As on the 2010 Audi A8, the Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system is an option
on the new A8, and is available for all engine/transmission configurations. A new
generation of Bosch ACC is used in the 2011 Audi A8. For the first time, two ACC
sensors are installed on the front right and left of the vehicle. With corresponding vehicle
equipment, including the video camera for Audi lane assist, rear radar sensors for Audi
side assist, and ultrasonic sensors for the Audi Parking System, it is now possible to view
vehicles ahead and behind.
6.1 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Left Adaptive Cruise Control Sensor G258
Distance Regulation Control Module 2 J850
Right Adaptive Cruise Control Sensor G259
Distance Regulation Control Module J428 [5]
Fig 6.1 Front View of Vehicle with ACC Sensor
6.2 DESIGN

The main innovation is the communication between the control modules using the
Flex Ray data bus. A more powerful processor is capable of processing sensor data (from
the camera, rear radar, parking aid sensors, and navigation data). Sensor heating makes
the system suitable for winter driving conditions. The sensors and control modules are
installed in a common enclosure. The sensors are adjustable along their x- and y-axes.
6.3 FUNCTION
The function of the radar sensor remains unchanged from the previous A8 model.
However, greater operational performance is achieved by including video data, navigation
data, and other data in the control procedures.The two control modules have master/slave
architecture. Distance Regulation Control Module J428 (installed on the right) acts as the
master while Distance Regulation Control Module 2 J850 (installed on the left) acts as the
slave. Radar range has been increased compared to previous ACC systems. The
measuring range begins approximately 1.6 ft (0.5 m) in front of the vehicle and extends to
approximately 820 ft (250 m). The functional scope for the new ACC system has been
extended, with the speed range increased to 0 mph (0 km/h) 155.3 mph (250 km/h). The
functions of distance and speed maintenance, as individually set by the driver, remain the
same as on the 2010 Audi A8. The ACC observes the traffic situation even when the ACC
is switched OFF at the operating stalk.
Fig 6.2 Area Covered by the Radar
6.4 STOP AND GO FUNCTION


With the ACC activated, the vehicle will automatically brake to a standstill if
required. The pre-condition is that the vehicle ahead is moving before it comes to a
standstill. Targets that are stationary at the moment of detection are not included in the
control function (for example, in a traffic jam). ESP initiates braking operations by active
pressure build-up. The resulting deceleration is dependent on vehicle speed. At speeds
lower than 31.0 mph (50 km/h), maximum deceleration is approx. 8.9 miles/second (4
m/s ) the last 6.5 to 9.8 ft (2 3 m) before the vehicle comes to a standstill are covered at
a crawling speed of approx. 1.2 1.8 mph (2 3 km/h) [5]. Stopping distance to the
vehicle ahead is approximately 11.4 13.1 ft (3 4 m) [5]. After the ACC-equipped
vehicle has braked to a standstill, the Go function is initiated by the driver. It does not
occur automatically. The driver must pull the cruise control stalk or touch the gas pedal to
activate Go. When the ACC is ready for operation, notification is displayed in the
Driver Information System of the instrument cluster. The ACC system can be activated
when the brake pedal is depressed. However, the driver seatbelt must be fastened.
Automatic start-off can be deactivated using the VAS Scan Tool.
6.5 START OFF MONITORING
ACC automatically scans the area directly in front of the vehicle before the
vehicle starts moving. Detection takes place in three ways: by radar sensors, video
camera, and by the four ultrasonic sensors of the Audi Parking System. Through a
different configuration, ACC ultrasonic sensors are operated in a different mode so that
objects are still detected at a distance of approximately 13.1 ft (4 m) [5]. A visual warning
is shown in the instrument cluster and an acoustic warning (gong) sounds if an obstacle is
detected. The vehicle starts moving, but very slowly so that the driver has sufficient time
to respond (braking, evading). If a signal from the video camera or the ultrasonic sensors
is not available, the vehicle will always start moving automatically at reduced
acceleration. Automatic start-off will not take place if both signals are not available. The
system is deactivated and the driver is requested to take over.
6.6 NETWORKING/CAN DATA EXCHANGE
The ACC control module reads approximately 1,700 different signals from other
control modules and sensors.
CHAPTER 7

COOPERATIVE ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL [CACC]
Though conventional ACC and SACC are still expensive novelties, the next
generation called Cooperative ACC is already being tested. While ACC can respond to
the difference between its own behavior and that of the preceding vehicle, the CACC
system allows the vehicles tocommunicate and to work together to avoid collision.
Partners of Advanced Transit Highways (PATH) a program of California
Department of Transportation and University of California with companies like Honda
conducted an experiment in which three test vehicles used a communication protocol in
which the lead carcan broadcast information about its speed, acceleration, breaking
capacity to the rest of the groups in every 20ms.
PATH is dedicated to develop systems that allow cars to set up platoons of
vehicles in which the cars communicate with each other by exchanging signals using
protocols like Bluetooth.
7.1 MAIN POSTULATIONS ABOUT CACC
1. In CACC mode, the preceding vehicles can communicate actively with the following
vehicle so that their speed can be coordinated with each other.
2. Because communication is quicker, more reliable and responsive compared to
autonomous sensing as in ACC.
3. Because braking rates, breaking capacity and other important information about the
vehicles can be exchanged safer and closer vehicle traffic is possible.
Fig 7.1 Schematic Diagram of CACC
7.2 ADVANTAGES
1. The driver is relieved from the task of careful acceleration, deceleration and braking in
congested traffics.
2. A highly responsive traffic system that adjusts itself to avoid accidents can be
developed.
3. Since the breaking and acceleration are done in a systematic way, the fuel efficiency of
the vehicle is increased.
7.3 DISADVANTAGES
1. A cheap version is not yet realized.
2. A high market penetration is required if a society of intelligent vehicles is to be formed.
3. Encourages the driver to become careless. It can lead to severe accidents if the system
is malfunctioning.
4. The ACC systems yet evolved enable vehicles to cooperate with the other vehicles and
hence do not respond directly to the traffic signals.
5. A highly responsive traffic system that adjusts itself to avoid accidents can be develop.
6. Since the breaking and acceleration are done in a systematic way, the fuel efficiency of
the vehicle is high.
CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
The accidents caused by automobiles are injuring lakhs of people every year. The
safety measures starting from air bags and seat belts have now reached to ACC, SACC
and CACC systems. The researchers of Intelligent Vehicles Initiative in USA and the
Ertico program of Europe are working on technologies that may ultimately lead to
vehicles that are wrapped in a cocoon of sensors with a 360 degree view of their
surroundings. It will probably take decades,but car accidents may eventually become as
rare as plane accidents are now, even though the road laws will have to be changed, upto
an extent since the non-human part of the vehicle controlling will become predominant.
REFERENCES

Adaptive Cruise Control System: Department of Civil Engineering, BJI, Kollam 1

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ADAPTIVE CRUISE CONTROL SYSTEM

Department of Civil Engineering, BJI, Kollam 1