Theories of Mo紁瘁va紁瘁on: Chapter 5

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TheoriesofMotivation
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Chapter5
TheoriesofMovaon
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
Aerreadingthischapter,youshouldbeabletodothefollowing:
1.Understandtheroleofmovaonindeterminingemployeeperformance.
2.Classifythebasicneedsofemployees.
3.Describehowfairnessperceponsaredeterminedandconsequencesofthesepercepons.
4.Understandtheimportanceofrewardsandpunishments.
5.Applymovaontheoriestoanalyzeperformanceproblems.
MovaonatTraderJoes
Figure5.1
TraderJoes,theCaliforniabasedgrocerystore,usesauniqueblendofpay,recognition,autonomy,and
supportiveworkenvironmenttomotivateitsemployees.
PeopleinHawaiianTshirts.Deliciousfreshfruitsandvegetables.Aplacewhereparkingistight
andaislesaretiny.Aplacewhereyouwillbeunabletofindhalfthethingsonyourlistbutwillgo
homesatisfied.Weare,ofcourse,talkingaboutTraderJoes,auniquegrocerystore
headquarteredinCaliforniaandlocatedin22states.Bysellingstorebrandandgourmetfoodsat
affordableprices,thischaincreatedaspecialnicheforitself.Yetthehelpfulemployeeswhostock
theshelvesandanswerquestionsaredefinitelyakeypartofwhatmakesthisstoreuniqueand
helpsitachievetwicethesalesoftraditionalsupermarkets.
Shoppinghereisfun,andchattingwithemployeesisaroutinepartofthisexperience.Employees
areupbeatandfriendlytoeachotherandtocustomers.Ifyoulooklost,thereisthedefiniteoffer
ofhelp.Butsomehowthefriendlinessdoesnotseemscripted.Instead,iftheyseeyoushoppingfor
bigtraysofcheese,theymightcasuallyinquireifyouarehavingapartyandthenpointtoother
selections.Iftheyseeyouchasingyourtoddler,theyarequicktotieaballoontohiswrist.When
youaskthemiftheyhaveanycumin,theygetdownontheirkneestocheckthebackoftheaisle,
withtheattitudeofhelpingaguestthatisvisitingtheirhome.Howdoesacompanymakesureits
employeeslookliketheyenjoybeingtheretohelpothers?
Oneofthekeystothispuzzleispay.TraderJoessellscheaporganicfood,buttheyarenotcheap
whenitcomestopayingtheiremployees.Employees,includingparttimers,areamongthebest
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/anintroductiontoorganizationalbehaviorv1.0/s09theoriesofmotivation.html
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paidintheretailindustry.Fulltimeemployeesearnanaverageof$40,150intheirfirstyearand
alsoearnaverageannualbonusesof$950with$6,300inretirementcontributions.Store
managersaveragecompensationis$132,000.Withthesegenerousbenefitsandabovemarket
wagesandsalaries,thecompanyhasnodifficultyattractingqualifiedcandidates.
ButmoneyonlypartiallyexplainswhatenergizesTraderJoesemployees.Theyworkwithpeople
whoarefriendlyandupbeat.Theenvironmentiscollaborative,sothatpeoplefillinforeachother
andmanagerspickuptheslackwhentheneedarises,includingtaskslikesweepingthefloors.Plus,
thecompanypromotessolelyfromwithin,makingTraderJoesoneoffewplacesintheretail
industrywhereemployeescansatisfytheircareeraspirations.Employeesareevaluatedevery3
monthsandreceivefeedbackabouttheirperformance.
Employeesarealsogivenautonomyonthejob.Theycanopenaproducttohavethecustomerstry
itandcanbehonestabouttheirfeelingstowarddifferentproducts.Theyreceiveonandoffthejob
trainingandareintimatelyfamiliarwiththeproducts,whichenablesthemtocomeupwithideas
thataretakenseriouslybyuppermanagement.Inshort,employeeslovewhattheydo,workwith
nicepeoplewhotreateachotherwell,andarerespectedbythecompany.Whenemployeesare
treatedwell,itisnowondertheytreattheircustomerswellonadailybasis.
Sources:BasedoninformationinLewis,L.(2005).TraderJoesadventure.Chicago:Dearborn
TradeMcGregor,J.,Salter,C.,Conley,L.,Haley,F.,Sacks,D.,&Prospero,M.(2004).Customers
first.FastCompany,87,7988Speizer,I.(2004).Shoppersspecial.WorkforceManagement,
83,5154.
Whatinspiresemployeestoprovideexcellentservice,marketacompanysproductseffectively,or
achievethegoalssetforthem?Answeringthisquestionisofutmostimportanceifwearetounderstand
andmanagetheworkbehaviorofourpeers,subordinates,andevensupervisors.Putadifferentway,if
someoneisnotperformingwell,whatcouldbethereason?
Jobperformanceisviewedasafunctionofthreefactorsandisexpressedwiththeequation
below.Mitchell,T.R.(1982).Motivation:Newdirectionsfortheory,research,andpractice.Academyof
ManagementReview,7,8088Porter,L.W.,&Lawler,E.E.(1968).Managerialattitudesand
performance.Homewood,IL:DorseyPress.Accordingtothisequation,motivation,ability,and
environmentarethemajorinfluencesoveremployeeperformance.
Figure5.2
Performanceisafunctionoftheinteractionbetweenanindividualsmotivation,ability,andenvironment.
Motivationisoneoftheforcesthatleadtoperformance.Motivationisdefinedasthedesireto
achieveagoaloracertainperformancelevel,leadingtogoaldirectedbehavior.Whenwereferto
someoneasbeingmotivated,wemeanthatthepersonistryinghardtoaccomplishacertaintask.
Motivationisclearlyimportantifsomeoneistoperformwellhowever,itisnotsufficient.Abilityor
havingtheskillsandknowledgerequiredtoperformthejobisalsoimportantandissometimesthe
keydeterminantofeffectiveness.Finally,environmentalfactorssuchashavingtheresources,
information,andsupportoneneedstoperformwellarecriticaltodetermineperformance.Atdifferent
times,oneofthesethreefactorsmaybethekeytohighperformance.Forexample,foranemployee
sweepingthefloor,motivationmaybethemostimportantfactorthatdeterminesperformance.In
contrast,eventhemostmotivatedindividualwouldnotbeabletosuccessfullydesignahousewithout
thenecessarytalentinvolvedinbuildingqualityhomes.Beingmotivatedisnotthesameasbeingahigh
performerandisnotthesolereasonwhypeopleperformwell,butitisneverthelessakeyinfluence
overourperformancelevel.
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Sowhatmotivatespeople?Whydosomeemployeestrytoreachtheirtargetsandpursueexcellence
whileothersmerelyshowupatworkandcountthehours?Aswithmanyquestionsinvolvinghuman
beings,theanswerisanythingbutsimple.Instead,thereareseveraltheoriesexplainingtheconceptof
motivation.Wewilldiscussmotivationtheoriesundertwocategories:needbasedtheoriesandprocess
theories.
5.1NeedBasedTheoriesofMovaon
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1.ExplainhowemployeesaremovatedaccordingtoMaslowshierarchyofneeds.
2.ExplainhowtheERG(existence,relatedness,growth)theoryaddressesthelimitaonsofMaslows
hierarchy.
3.Describethedierencesamongfactorscontribungtoemployeemovaonandhowthesedier
fromfactorscontribungtodissasfacon.
4.Describeneedforachievement,power,andaliaon,andidenfyhowtheseacquiredneeds
aectworkbehavior.
Theearlieststudiesofmotivationinvolvedanexaminationofindividualneeds.Specifically,early
researchersthoughtthatemployeestryhardanddemonstrategoaldrivenbehaviorinordertosatisfy
needs.Forexample,anemployeewhoisalwayswalkingaroundtheofficetalkingtopeoplemayhavea
needforcompanionship,andhisbehaviormaybeawayofsatisfyingthisneed.Atthetime,researchers
developedtheoriestounderstandwhatpeopleneed.Fourtheoriesmaybeplacedunderthiscategory:
Maslowshierarchyofneeds,ERGtheory,Herzbergstwofactortheory,andMcClellandsacquired
needstheory.
MaslowsHierarchyofNeeds
AbrahamMaslowisamongthemostprominentpsychologistsofthetwentiethcentury.Hishierarchy
ofneedsisanimagefamiliartomostbusinessstudentsandmanagers.Thetheoryisbasedonasimple
premise:Humanbeingshaveneedsthatarehierarchicallyranked.Maslow,A.H.(1943).Atheoryof
humanmotivation.PsychologicalReview,50,370396Maslow,A.H.(1954).Motivationand
personality.NewYork:Harper.Therearesomeneedsthatarebasictoallhumanbeings,andintheir
absencenothingelsematters.Aswesatisfythesebasicneeds,westartlookingtosatisfyhigherorder
needs.Inotherwords,oncealowerlevelneedissatisfied,itnolongerservesasamotivator.
Figure5.3 MaslowsHierarchyofNeeds
ThemostbasicofMaslowsneedsarephysiologicalneeds.Physiologicalneedsrefertotheneedfor
food,water,andotherbiologicalneeds.Theseneedsarebasicbecausewhentheyarelacking,thesearch
forthemmayoverpowerallotherurges.Imaginebeingveryhungry.Atthatpoint,allyourbehavior
maybedirectedatfindingfood.Onceyoueat,though,thesearchforfoodceasesandthepromiseof
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foodnolongerservesasamotivator.Oncephysiologicalneedsaresatisfied,peopletendtobecome
concernedaboutsafetyneeds.Aretheyfreefromthethreatofdanger,pain,oranuncertainfuture?
Onthenextlevelup,socialneedsrefertotheneedtobondwithotherhumanbeings,beloved,and
formlastingattachmentswithothers.Infact,attachments,orlackofthem,areassociatedwithour
healthandwellbeing.Baumeister,R.F.,&Leary,M.R.(1995).Theneedtobelong:Desirefor
interpersonalattachmentsasafundamentalhumanmotivation.PsychologicalBulletin,117,497529.
Thesatisfactionofsocialneedsmakesesteemneedsmoresalient.Esteemneedreferstothedesireto
berespectedbyonespeers,feelimportant,andbeappreciated.Finally,atthehighestlevelofthe
hierarchy,theneedforselfactualizationreferstobecomingallyouarecapableofbecoming.This
needmanifestsitselfbythedesiretoacquirenewskills,takeonnewchallenges,andbehaveinaway
thatwillleadtotheattainmentofoneslifegoals.
Maslowwasaclinicalpsychologist,andhistheorywasnotoriginallydesignedforworksettings.Infact,
histheorywasbasedonhisobservationsofindividualsinclinicalsettingssomeoftheindividual
componentsofthetheoryfoundlittleempiricalsupport.Onecriticismrelatestotheorderinwhichthe
needsareranked.Itispossibletoimaginethatindividualswhogohungryandareinfearoftheirlives
mightretainstrongbondstoothers,suggestingadifferentorderofneeds.Moreover,researchersfailed
tosupporttheargumentsthatonceaneedissatisfieditnolongerservesasamotivatorandthatonly
oneneedisdominantatagiventime.Neher,A.(1991).Maslowstheoryofmotivation:Acritique.
JournalofHumanisticPsychology,31,89112Rauschenberger,J.,Schmitt,N.,&Hunter,J.E.
(1980).AtestoftheneedhierarchyconceptbyaMarkovmodelofchangeinneedstrength.
AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,25,654670.
Despitethelackofstrongresearchsupport,Maslowstheoryfoundobviousapplicationsinbusiness
settings.Understandingwhatpeopleneedgivesuscluestounderstandingthem.Thehierarchyisa
systematicwayofthinkingaboutthedifferentneedsemployeesmayhaveatanygivenpointand
explainsdifferentreactionstheymayhavetosimilartreatment.Anemployeewhoistryingtosatisfy
esteemneedsmayfeelgratifiedwhenhersupervisorpraisesanaccomplishment.However,another
employeewhoistryingtosatisfysocialneedsmayresentbeingpraisedbyuppermanagementinfront
ofpeersifthepraisesetstheindividualapartfromtherestofthegroup.
Howcananorganizationsatisfyitsemployeesvariousneeds?Inthelongrun,physiologicalneedsmay
besatisfiedbythepersonspaycheck,butitisimportanttorememberthatpaymaysatisfyotherneeds
suchassafetyandesteemaswell.Providinggenerousbenefitsthatincludehealthinsuranceand
companysponsoredretirementplans,aswellasofferingameasureofjobsecurity,willhelpsatisfy
safetyneeds.Socialneedsmaybesatisfiedbyhavingafriendlyenvironmentandprovidingaworkplace
conducivetocollaborationandcommunicationwithothers.Companypicnicsandothersocialget
togethersmayalsobehelpfulifthemajorityofemployeesaremotivatedprimarilybysocialneeds(but
maycauseresentmentiftheyarenotandiftheyhavetosacrificeaSundayafternoonforacompany
picnic).Providingpromotionopportunitiesatwork,recognizingapersonsaccomplishmentsverbally
orthroughmoreformalrewardsystems,andconferringjobtitlesthatcommunicatetotheemployee
thatonehasachievedhighstatuswithintheorganizationareamongthewaysofsatisfyingesteem
needs.Finally,selfactualizationneedsmaybesatisfiedbytheprovisionofdevelopmentandgrowth
opportunitiesonoroffthejob,aswellasbyworkthatisinterestingandchallenging.Bymakingthe
efforttosatisfythedifferentneedsofeachemployee,organizationsmayensureahighlymotivated
workforce.
ERGTheory
Figure5.4
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ERGtheoryincludesexistence,relatedness,andgrowth.
Source:BasedonAlderfer,C.P.(1969).Anempiricaltestofanewtheoryofhumanneeds.Organizational
BehaviorandHumanPerformance,4,142175.
ERGtheory,developedbyClaytonAlderfer,isamodificationofMaslowshierarchyofneeds.Alderfer,
C.P.(1969).Anempiricaltestofanewtheoryofhumanneeds.OrganizationalBehaviorandHuman
Performance,4,142175.Insteadofthefiveneedsthatarehierarchicallyorganized,Alderfer
proposedthatbasichumanneedsmaybegroupedunderthreecategories,namely,existence,
relatedness,andgrowth.ExistencecorrespondstoMaslowsphysiologicalandsafetyneeds,
relatednesscorrespondstosocialneeds,andgrowthreferstoMaslowsesteemandself
actualization.
ERGtheorysmaincontributiontotheliteratureisitsrelaxationofMaslowsassumptions.For
example,ERGtheorydoesnotrankneedsinanyparticularorderandexplicitlyrecognizesthatmore
thanoneneedmayoperateatagiventime.Moreover,thetheoryhasafrustrationregression
hypothesissuggestingthatindividualswhoarefrustratedintheirattemptstosatisfyoneneedmay
regresstoanother.Forexample,someonewhoisfrustratedbythegrowthopportunitiesinhisjoband
progresstowardcareergoalsmayregresstorelatednessneedandstartspendingmoretimesocializing
withcoworkers.Theimplicationofthistheoryisthatweneedtorecognizethemultipleneedsthatmay
bedrivingindividualsatagivenpointtounderstandtheirbehaviorandproperlymotivatethem.
TwoFactorTheory
FrederickHerzbergapproachedthequestionofmotivationinadifferentway.Byaskingindividuals
whatsatisfiesthemonthejobandwhatdissatisfiesthem,Herzbergcametotheconclusionthataspects
oftheworkenvironmentthatsatisfyemployeesareverydifferentfromaspectsthatdissatisfy
them.Herzberg,F.,Mausner,B.,&Snyderman,B.(1959).Themotivationtowork.NewYork:John
WileyHerzberg,F.(1965).ThemotivationtoworkamongFinnishsupervisors.Personnel
Psychology,18,393402.Herzberglabeledfactorscausingdissatisfactionofworkersashygiene
factorsbecausethesefactorswerepartofthecontextinwhichthejobwasperformed,asopposedtothe
jobitself.Hygienefactorsincludedcompanypolicies,supervision,workingconditions,salary,safety,
andsecurityonthejob.Toillustrate,imaginethatyouareworkinginanunpleasantworkenvironment.
Yourofficeistoohotinthesummerandtoocoldinthewinter.Youarebeingharassedandmistreated.
Youwouldcertainlybemiserableinsuchaworkenvironment.However,iftheseproblemsweresolved
(yourofficetemperatureisjustrightandyouarenotharassedatall),wouldyoubemotivated?Most
likely,youwouldtakethesituationforgranted.Infact,manyfactorsinourworkenvironmentare
thingsthatwemisswhentheyareabsentbuttakeforgrantediftheyarepresent.
Incontrast,motivatorsarefactorsthatareintrinsictothejob,suchasachievement,recognition,
interestingwork,increasedresponsibilities,advancement,andgrowthopportunities.Accordingto
Herzbergsresearch,motivatorsaretheconditionsthattrulyencourageemployeestotryharder.
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Figure5.5
Thetwofactortheoryofmotivationincludeshygienefactorsandmotivators.
Sources:BasedonHerzberg,F.,Mausner,B.,&Snyderman,B.(1959).Themotivationtowork.NewYork:John
WileyandSonsHerzberg,F.(1965).ThemotivationtoworkamongFinnishsupervisors.Personnel
Psychology,18,393402.
Herzbergsresearchisfarfrombeinguniversallyaccepted.Cummings,L.L.,&Elsalmi,A.M.(1968).
Empiricalresearchonthebasesandcorrelatesofmanagerialmotivation.PsychologicalBulletin,70,
127144House,R.J.,&Wigdor,L.A.(1967).Herzbergsdualfactortheoryofjobsatisfactionand
motivation:Areviewoftheevidenceandacriticism.PersonnelPsychology,20,369389.One
criticismrelatestotheprimaryresearchmethodologyemployedwhenarrivingathygieneversus
motivators.Whenpeopleareaskedwhytheyaresatisfied,theymayattributethecausesofsatisfaction
tothemselves,whereaswhenexplainingwhatdissatisfiesthem,theymayblamethesituation.The
classificationofthefactorsashygieneormotivatorisnotthatsimpleeither.Forexample,thetheory
viewspayasahygienefactor.However,paymayhavesymbolicvaluebyshowingemployeesthatthey
arebeingrecognizedfortheircontributionsaswellascommunicatingthattheyareadvancingwithinthe
company.Similarly,thequalityofsupervisionorthetypesofrelationshipsemployeesformwiththeir
supervisorsmaydeterminewhethertheyareassignedinterestingwork,whethertheyarerecognized
fortheirpotential,andwhethertheytakeonmoreresponsibilities.
Despiteitslimitations,thetheorycanbeavaluableaidtomanagersbecauseitpointsoutthat
improvingtheenvironmentinwhichthejobisperformedgoesonlysofarinmotivatingemployees.
Undoubtedly,contextualfactorsmatterbecausetheirabsencecausesdissatisfaction.However,solely
focusingonhygienefactorswillnotbeenough,andmanagersshouldalsoenrichjobsbygiving
employeesopportunitiesforchallengingwork,greaterresponsibilities,advancementopportunities,
andajobinwhichtheirsubordinatescanfeelsuccessful.
AcquiredNeedsTheory
Amongtheneedbasedapproachestomotivation,DavidMcClellandsacquiredneedstheoryistheone
thathasreceivedthegreatestamountofsupport.Accordingtothistheory,individualsacquirethree
typesofneedsasaresultoftheirlifeexperiences.Theseneedsaretheneedforachievement,theneed
foraffiliation,andtheneedforpower.Allindividualspossessacombinationoftheseneeds,andthe
dominantneedsarethoughttodriveemployeebehavior.
McClellandusedauniquemethodcalledtheThematicApperceptionTest(TAT)toassessthe
dominantneed.Spangler,W.D.(1992).ValidityofquestionnaireandTATmeasuresofneedfor
achievement:Twometaanalyses.PsychologicalBulletin,112,140154.Thismethodentailspresenting
researchsubjectsanambiguouspictureaskingthemtowriteastorybasedonit.Takealookatthe
followingpicture.Whoisthisperson?Whatisshedoing?Whyisshedoingit?Thestoryyoutellabout
thewomaninthepicturewouldthenbeanalyzedbytrainedexperts.Theideaisthatthestoriesthe
photoevokeswouldreflecthowthemindworksandwhatmotivatestheperson.
Ifthestoryyoucomeupwithcontainsthemesofsuccess,meeting
deadlines,orcomingupwithbrilliantideas,youmaybehighinneedfor
Figure5.6
achievement.Thosewhohavehighneedforachievementhaveastrong
needtobesuccessful.Aschildren,theymaybepraisedfortheirhardwork,
whichformsthefoundationsoftheirpersistence.Mueller,C.M.,&Dweck,
C.S.(1998).Praiseforintelligencecanunderminechildrensmotivationand
performance.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,75,3352.As
adults,theyarepreoccupiedwithdoingthingsbetterthantheydidinthe
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past.Theseindividualsareconstantlystrivingtoimprovetheir
Thetypeofstoryyoutell
performance.Theyrelentlesslyfocusongoals,particularlystretchgoals
bylookingatthispicture
thatarechallenginginnature.Campbell,D.J.(1982).Determinantsof
maygiveawaythe
choiceofgoaldifficultylevel:Areviewofsituationalandpersonality
dominantneedthat
influences.JournalofOccupationalPsychology,55,7995.Theyare
particularlysuitedtopositionssuchassales,wherethereareexplicitgoals,
feedbackisimmediatelyavailable,andtheireffortoftenleadstosuccess.In
fact,theyaremoreattractedtoorganizationsthataremeritbasedand
motivatesyou.
2010Jupiterimages
Corporation
rewardperformanceratherthanseniority.Theyalsodoparticularlywellas
entrepreneurs,scientists,andengineers.Harrell,A.M.,&Stahl,M.J.
(1981).AbehavioraldecisiontheoryapproachformeasuringMcClellandstrichotomyofneeds.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,66,242247Trevis,C.S.,&Certo,S.C.(2005).Spotlighton
entrepreneurship.BusinessHorizons,48,271274Turban,D.B.,&Keon,T.L.(1993).Organizational
attractiveness:Aninteractionistperspective.JournalofAppliedPsychology,78,184193.
Areindividualswhoarehighinneedforachievementeffectivemanagers?Becauseoftheirsuccessin
lowerleveljobswheretheirindividualcontributionsmatterthemost,thosewithhighneedfor
achievementareoftenpromotedtohigherlevelpositions.McClelland,D.C.,&Boyatzis,R.E.(1982).
Leadershipmotivepatternandlongtermsuccessinmanagement.JournalofAppliedPsychology,67,
737743.However,ahighneedforachievementhassignificantdisadvantagesinmanagement
positions.Managementinvolvesgettingworkdonebymotivatingothers.Whenasalespersonis
promotedtobeasalesmanager,thejobdescriptionchangesfromactivelysellingtorecruiting,
motivating,andtrainingsalespeople.Thosewhoarehighinneedforachievementmayviewmanagerial
activitiessuchascoaching,communicating,andmeetingwithsubordinatesasawasteoftimeandmay
neglecttheseaspectsoftheirjobs.Moreover,thosehighinneedforachievementenjoydoingthings
themselvesandmayfinditdifficulttodelegateanymeaningfulauthoritytotheirsubordinates.These
individualsoftenmicromanage,expectingotherstoapproachtasksaparticularway,andmaybecome
overbearingbossesbyexpectingeveryonetodisplayhighlevelsofdedication.McClelland,D.C.,&
Burnham,D.H.(1976).Poweristhegreatmotivator.HarvardBusinessReview,25,159166.
Ifthestoryyoucreatedinrelationtothepictureyouareanalyzingcontainselementsofmakingplansto
bewithfriendsorfamily,youmayhaveahighneedforaffiliation.Individualswhohaveahighneed
foraffiliationwanttobelikedandacceptedbyothers.Whengivenachoice,theyprefertointeract
withothersandbewithfriends.Wong,M.M.,&Csikszentmihalyi,M.(1991).Affiliationmotivationand
dailyexperience:Someissuesongenderdifferences.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,
60,154164.Theiremphasisonharmoniousinterpersonalrelationshipsmaybeanadvantageinjobs
andoccupationsrequiringfrequentinterpersonalinteraction,suchasasocialworkerorteacher.In
managerialpositions,ahighneedforaffiliationmayagainserveasadisadvantagebecausethese
individualstendtobeoverlyconcernedabouthowtheyareperceivedbyothers.Theymayfindit
difficulttoperformsomeaspectsofamanagersjobsuchasgivingemployeescriticalfeedbackor
discipliningpoorperformers.Thus,theworkenvironmentmaybecharacterizedbymediocrityand
mayevenleadtohighperformersleavingtheteam.
Finally,ifyourstorycontainselementsofgettingworkdonebyinfluencingotherpeopleordesiringto
makeanimpactontheorganization,youmayhaveahighneedforpower.Thosewithahighneedfor
powerwanttoinfluenceothersandcontroltheirenvironment.Aneedforpowermayinfactbea
destructiveelementinrelationshipswithcolleaguesifittakestheformofseekingandusingpowerfor
onesowngoodandprestige.However,whenitmanifestsitselfinmorealtruisticformssuchas
changingthewaythingsaredonesothattheworkenvironmentismorepositive,ornegotiatingmore
resourcesforonesdepartment,ittendstoleadtopositiveoutcomes.Infact,theneedforpoweris
viewedasanimportanttraitforeffectivenessinmanagerialandleadershippositions.McClelland,D.C.,
&Burnham,D.H.(1976).Poweristhegreatmotivator.HarvardBusinessReview,25,159166
Spangler,W.D.,&House,R.J.(1991).Presidentialeffectivenessandtheleadershipmotiveprofile.
JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,60,439455Spreier,S.W.(2006).Leadershiprun
amok.HarvardBusinessReview,84,7282.
McClellandstheoryofacquiredneedshasimportantimplicationsforthemotivationofemployees.
Managersneedtounderstandthedominantneedsoftheiremployeestobeabletomotivatethem.
Whilepeoplewhohaveahighneedforachievementmayrespondtogoals,thosewithahighneedfor
powermayattempttogaininfluenceoverthosetheyworkwith,andindividualshighintheirneedfor
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affiliationmaybemotivatedtogaintheapprovaloftheirpeersandsupervisors.Finally,thosewho
haveahighdriveforsuccessmayexperiencedifficultiesinmanagerialpositions,andmakingthem
awareofcommonpitfallsmayincreasetheireffectiveness.
K E Y TA K E AWAY
Needbasedtheoriesdescribemovatedbehaviorasindividualseortstomeettheirneeds.
Accordingtothisperspecve,themanagersjobistoidenfywhatpeopleneedandmakethework
environmentameansofsasfyingtheseneeds.Maslowshierarchydescribesvecategoriesofbasic
humanneeds,includingphysiological,safety,social,esteem,andselfactualizaonneeds.Theseneeds
arehierarchicallyranked,andasalowerlevelneedissased,itnolongerservesasamovator.ERG
theoryisamodicaonofMaslowshierarchy,inwhichtheveneedsarecollapsedintothree
categories(existence,relatedness,andgrowth).Thetheoryrecognizesthatwhenemployeesare
frustratedwhileaempngtosasfyhigherlevelneeds,theymayregress.Thetwofactortheory
dierenatesbetweenfactorsthatmakepeopledissasedonthejob(hygienefactors)andfactors
thattrulymovateemployees(movators).Finally,acquiredneedstheoryarguesthatindividuals
possessstableanddominantmovestoachieve,acquirepower,oraliatewithothers.Thetypeof
needthatisdominantwilldrivebehavior.Eachofthesetheoriesexplainscharacteriscsofawork
environmentthatmovatesemployees.Thesetheoriespavedthewaytoprocessbasedtheoriesthat
explainthementalcalculaonsemployeesmaketodecidehowtobehave.
EXERCISES
1.Manymanagersassumethatifanemployeeisnotperformingwell,thereasonmustbealackof
movaon.Doyouthinkthisreasoningisaccurate?Whatistheproblemwiththeassumpon?
2.ReviewMaslowshierarchyofneeds.Doyouagreewiththeparcularrankingofemployeeneeds?
3.HowcananorganizaonsasfyemployeeneedsthatareincludedinMaslowshierarchy?
4.Whichmovaontheoryhaveyoufoundtobemostusefulinexplainingwhypeoplebehaveina
certainway?Why?
5.Reviewthehygieneandmovatorsinthetwofactortheoryofmovaon.Doyouagreewiththe
disnconbetweenhygienefactorsandmovators?Arethereanyhygienefactorsthatyouwould
considertobemovators?
6.Afriendofyoursdemonstratesthetraitsofachievementmovaon:Thispersoniscompeve,
requiresfrequentandimmediatefeedback,andenjoysaccomplishingthingsanddoingthings
beerthanshedidbefore.Shehasrecentlybeenpromotedtoamanagerialposionandseeks
youradvice.Whatwouldyoutellher?
5.2ProcessBasedTheories
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1.Explainhowemployeesevaluatethefairnessofrewarddistribuons.
2.Describethethreetypesoffairnessthataectemployeeatudesandbehaviors.
3.Listthethreequesonsindividualsconsiderwhendecidingwhethertoputfortheortatwork.
4.Describehowmanagerscanuselearningandreinforcementprinciplestomovateemployees.
Aseparatestreamofresearchviewsmotivationassomethingmorethanactionaimedatsatisfyinga
need.Instead,processbasedtheoriesviewmotivationasarationalprocess.Individualsanalyzetheir
environment,developthoughtsandfeelings,andreactincertainways.Processtheoriesattemptto
explainthethoughtprocessesofindividualswhodemonstratemotivatedbehavior.Underthiscategory,
wewillreviewequitytheory,expectancytheory,andreinforcementtheory.
EquityTheory
Imaginethatyouarepaid$10anhourworkingasanofficeassistant.Youhaveheldthisjobfor6
months.Youareverygoodatwhatyoudo,youcomeupwithcreativewaystomakethingseasier
aroundyou,andyouareagoodcolleaguewhoiswillingtohelpothers.Youstaylatewhennecessary
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andareflexibleifrequestedtochangehours.Nowimaginethatyoufoundouttheyarehiringanother
employeewhoisgoingtoworkwithyou,whowillholdthesamejobtitle,andwhowillperformthe
sametypeoftasks.Thisparticularpersonhasmoreadvancedcomputerskills,butitisunclearwhether
thesewillbeusedonthejob.Thestartingpayforthispersonwillbe$14anhour.Howwouldyoufeel?
Wouldyoubeasmotivatedasbefore,goingaboveandbeyondyourduties?Howwouldyoudescribe
whatyouwouldbefeeling?
Ifyourreactiontothisscenarioisalongthelinesofthiswouldbeunfair,
yourbehaviormaybeexplainedusingequitytheory.Adams,J.S.(1965).
Figure5.7
Inequityinsocialexchange.InL.Berkowitz(Ed.),Advancesin
experimentalsocialpsychology(Vol.2,pp.267299).NewYork:
AcademicPress.Accordingtothistheory,individualsaremotivatedbya
Equityisdeterminedby
senseoffairnessintheirinteractions.Moreover,oursenseoffairnessisa
comparingonesinput
resultofthesocialcomparisonswemake.Specifically,wecompareour
outcomeratiowiththe
inputsandoutcomeswithotherpeoplesinputsandoutcomes.Weperceive
fairnessifwebelievethattheinputtooutcomeratiowearebringinginto
PreviousChapter
inputoutcomeratioofa
referent.Whenthetwo
ratiosareequal,equity
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thesituationissimilartotheinputtooutcomeratioofacomparison
NextChapter
exists.
person,orareferent.Perceptionsofinequitycreatetensionwithinusand
driveustoactionthatwillreduceperceivedinequity.
Source:BasedonAdams,
J.S.(1965).Inequityin
WhatAreInputsandOutcomes?
socialexchange.InL.
Berkowitz(Ed.),
Inputsarethecontributionspeoplefeeltheyaremakingtothe
Advancesinexperimental
environment.Inthepreviousexample,thepersonshardworkloyaltyto
socialpsychology:Vol.2
theorganizationamountoftimewiththeorganizationandlevelof
education,training,andskillsmayhavebeenrelevantinputs.Outcomesare
(pp.267299).NewYork:
AcademicPress.
theperceivedrewardssomeonecanreceivefromthesituation.Forthe
hourlywageemployeeinourexample,the$10anhourpayratewasacore
outcome.Theremayalsobeother,moreperipheraloutcomes,suchasacknowledgmentorpreferential
treatmentfromamanager.Inthepriorexample,however,thepersonmayreasonasfollows:Ihave
beenworkingherefor6months.Iamloyal,andIperformwell(inputs).Iampaid$10anhourforthis
(outcomes).Thenewpersondoesnothaveanyexperiencehere(referentsinputs)butwillbepaid$14
anhour.Thissituationisunfair.
Weshouldemphasizethatequityperceptionsdevelopasaresultofasubjectiveprocess.Different
peoplemaylookatthesamesituationandperceivedifferentlevelsofequity.Forexample,another
personmaylookatthesamescenarioanddecidethatthesituationisfairbecausethenewcomerhas
computerskillsandthecompanyispayingextraforthoseskills.
WhoIstheReferent?
Thereferentothermaybeaspecificpersonaswellasacategoryofpeople.Referentsshouldbe
comparabletousotherwisethecomparisonisnotmeaningful.Itwouldbepointlessforastudent
workertocomparehimselftotheCEOofthecompany,giventhedifferencesinthenatureofinputsand
outcomes.Instead,individualsmaycomparethemselvestosomeoneperformingsimilartaskswithin
thesameorganizationor,inthecaseofaCEO,adifferentorganization.
ReaconstoUnfairness
Thetheoryoutlinesseveralpotentialreactionstoperceivedinequity.Oftentimes,thesituationmaybe
dealtwithperceptuallybyalteringourperceptionsofourownorthereferentsinputsandoutcomes.
Forexample,wemayjustifythesituationbydownplayingourowninputs(Idontreallyworkveryhard
onthisjob),valuingouroutcomesmorehighly(Iamgainingvaluableworkexperience,sothesituation
isnotthatbad),distortingtheotherpersonsinputs(thenewhirereallyismorecompetentthanIam
anddeservestobepaidmore),ordistortingtheotherpersonsoutcomes(shegets$14anhourbutwill
havetoworkwithalousymanager,sothesituationisnotunfair).Anotheroptionwouldbetohavethe
referentincreaseinputs.Iftheotherpersonbringsmoretothesituation,gettingmoreoutofthe
situationwouldbefair.Ifthatpersoncanbemadetoworkharderorworkonmorecomplicatedtasks,
equitywouldbeachieved.Thepersonexperiencingaperceivedinequitymayalsoreduceinputsor
attempttoincreaseoutcomes.Ifthelowerpaidpersonputsforthlesseffort,theperceivedinequity
wouldbereduced.Researchshowsthatpeoplewhoperceiveinequityreducetheirworkperformanceor
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reducethequalityoftheirinputs.Carrell,M.R.,&Dittrich,J.E.(1978).Equitytheory:Therecent
Reaconsto
Example
inequity
literature,methodologicalconsiderations,andnewdirections.AcademyofManagementReview,3,
202210Goodman,P.S.,&Friedman,A.(1971).AnexaminationofAdamstheoryofinequity.
AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,16,271288.Increasingonesoutcomescanbeachievedthrough
legitimatemeanssuchasnegotiatingapayraise.Atthesametime,researchshowsthatthosefeeling
inequitysometimesresorttostealingtobalancethescales.Greenberg,J.(1993).Stealinginthenameof
justice:Informationalandinterpersonalmoderatorsoftheftreactionstounderpaymentinequity.
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses,54,81103.Otheroptionsincludechanging
thecomparisonperson(e.g.,othersdoingsimilarworkindifferentorganizationsarepaidonly
minimumwage)andleavingthesituationbyquitting.Schmidt,D.R.,&Marwell,G.(1972).Withdrawal
andrewardreallocationasresponsestoinequity.JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology,8,207
211.Sometimesitmaybenecessarytoconsidertakinglegalactionasapotentialoutcomeofperceived
inequity.Forexample,ifanemployeefindsoutthemainreasonbehindapaygapisgenderrelated,the
personmayreacttothesituationbytakinglegalactionbecausesexdiscriminationinpayisillegalinthe
UnitedStates.
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Table5.1PotentialResponsestoInequity
Reaconsto
inequity
Example
Distortpercepons
Changingonesthinkingtobelievethatthereferentactuallyismoreskilledthan
previouslythought
Increasereferents
inputs
Encouragingthereferenttoworkharder
Reduceowninput
Deliberatelypungforthlesseortatwork.Reducingthequalityofoneswork
Increaseown
outcomes
Negoangaraiseforoneselforusingunethicalwaysofincreasingrewardssuchas
stealingfromthecompany
Changereferent
Comparingoneselftosomeonewhoisworseo
Leavethesituaon Quingonesjob
Seeklegalacon
Suingthecompanyorlingacomplaintiftheunfairnessinquesonisunderlegal
protecon
Source:BasedonresearchfindingsreportedinCarrell,M.R.,&Dittrich,J.E.(1978).Equitytheory:
Therecentliterature,methodologicalconsiderations,andnewdirections.AcademyofManagement
Review,3,202210Goodman,P.S.,&Friedman,A.(1971).AnexaminationofAdamsstheoryof
inequity.AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,16,271288Greenberg,J.(1993).Stealinginthenameof
justice:Informationalandinterpersonalmoderatorsoftheftreactionstounderpaymentinequity.
OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecisionProcesses,54,81103Schmidt,D.R.,&Marwell,G.
(1972).Withdrawalandrewardreallocationasresponsestoinequity.JournalofExperimentalSocial
Psychology,8,207211.
OverpaymentInequity
Whatwouldyoudoifyoufeltyouwereoverrewarded?Inotherwords,howwouldyoufeelifyouwere
thenewemployeeinourstudentworkerscenario?Originally,equitytheoryproposedthatover
rewardedindividualswouldexperienceguiltandwouldincreasetheirefforttorestoreperceptionsof
equity.However,researchdoesnotprovidesupportforthisargument.Instead,itseemsthat
individualsexperiencelessdistressasaresultofbeingoverrewarded.Austin,W.,&Walster,E.(1974).
Reactionstoconfirmationsanddisconfirmationsofexpectanciesofequityandinequity.Journalof
PersonalityandSocialPsychology,30,208216.Itisnothardtoimaginethatindividualsfind
perceptualwaystodealwithasituationlikethis,suchasbelievingtheyhavemoreskillsandbringmore
tothesituationcomparedtothereferentperson.Therefore,researchdoesnotsupportequitytheorys
predictionswithrespecttopeoplewhoareoverpaid.Evan,W.M.,&Simmons,R.G.(1969).
Organizationaleffectsofinequitablerewards:Twoexperimentsinstatusinconsistency.IEEE
EngineeringManagementReview,1,95108.
IndividualDierencesinReaconstoInequity
Sofar,wehaveassumedthatoncepeoplefeelasituationisinequitable,theywillbemotivatedtoreact.
However,doesinequitydisturbeveryoneequally?Researchershaveidentifiedapersonalitytraitthat
explainsdifferentreactionstoinequityandnamedthistraitasequitysensitivity.Huseman,R.C.,
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Hatfield,J.D.,&Miles,E.W.(1987).Anewperspectiveonequitytheory:Theequitysensitivity
construct.AcademyofManagementReview,12,222234.Equitysensitiveindividualsexpectto
maintainequitablerelationships,andtheyexperiencedistresswhentheyfeeltheyareoverrewardedor
underrewarded.Atthesametime,therearesomeindividualswhoarebenevolents,thosewhogive
withoutwaitingtoreceivemuchinreturn,andentitleds,whoexpecttoreceivesubstantial
compensationforrelativelylittleinput.Therefore,thetheoryismoreusefulinexplainingthebehavior
ofequitysensitiveindividuals,andorganizationswillneedtopayparticularattentiontohowthese
individualsviewtheirrelationships.
FairnessBeyondEquity:ProceduralandInteraconalJusce
Equitytheorylooksatperceivedfairnessasamotivator.However,thewayequitytheorydefines
fairnessislimitedtofairnessofrewards.Startinginthe1970s,researchonworkplacefairnessbegan
takingabroaderviewofjustice.Equitytheorydealswithoutcomefairness,andthereforeitis
consideredtobeadistributivejusticetheory.Distributivejusticereferstothedegreetowhichthe
outcomesreceivedfromtheorganizationareperceivedtobefair.Twoothertypesoffairnesshavebeen
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identified:proceduraljusticeandinteractionaljustice.
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Letsassumethatyoujustfoundoutyouaregettingapromotion.Clearly,
thisisanexcitingoutcomeandcomeswithapayraise,increased
Figure5.8
responsibilities,andprestige.Ifyoufeelyoudeservetobepromoted,you
Dimensionsof
wouldperceivehighdistributivejustice(yourgettingthepromotionisfair).
Organizational
However,youlaterfoundoutuppermanagementpickedyournameoutof
Justice
ahat!Whatwouldyoufeel?Youmightstillliketheoutcomebutfeelthat
thedecisionmakingprocesswasunfair.Ifso,youaredescribingfeelingsof
proceduraljustice.Proceduraljusticereferstothedegreetowhichfair
decisionmakingproceduresareusedtoarriveatadecision.Peopledonot
careonlyaboutrewardfairness.Theyalsoexpectdecisionmaking
processestobefair.Infact,researchshowsthatemployeescareaboutthe
proceduraljusticeofmanyorganizationaldecisions,includinglayoffs,
employeeselection,surveillanceofemployees,performanceappraisals,and
paydecisions.Alge,B.J.(2001).Effectsofcomputersurveillanceonperceptionsofprivacyand
proceduraljustice.JournalofAppliedPsychology,86,797804Bauer,T.N.,Maertz,C.P.,Jr.,Dolen,
M.R.,&Campion,M.A.(1998).Longitudinalassessmentofapplicantreactionstoemploymenttesting
andtestoutcomefeedback.JournalofAppliedPsychology,83,892903Kidwell,R.E.(1995).Pink
slipswithouttears.AcademyofManagementExecutive,9,6970.Peoplealsotendtocaremore
aboutproceduraljusticeinsituationsinwhichtheydonotgettheoutcometheyfeelthey
deserve.Brockner,J.,&Wiesenfeld,B.M.(1996).Anintegrativeframeworkforexplainingreactionsto
decisions:Interactiveeffectsofoutcomesandprocedures.PsychologicalBulletin,120,189208.Ifyou
didnotgetthepromotionandlaterdiscoveredthatmanagementchosethecandidatebypickingnames
outofahat,howwouldyoufeel?Thismaybeviewedasaddinginsulttoinjury.Whenpeopledonotget
therewardstheywant,theytendtoholdmanagementresponsibleifproceduresarenotfair.Brockner,
J.,Fishman,A.Y.,Reb,J.,Goldman,B.,Spiegel,S.,&Garden,C.(2007).Proceduralfairness,outcome
favorability,andjudgmentsofanauthoritysresponsibility.JournalofAppliedPsychology,92,1657
1671.
Whydoemployeescareaboutproceduraljustice?Therearethreepotentialreasons.Cropanzano,R.,
Bowen,D.E.,&Gilliland,S.W.(2007).Themanagementoforganizationaljustice.Academyof
ManagementPerspectives,21,3448Tyler,T.R.(1994).Psychologicalmodelsofthejusticemotive:
Antecedentsofdistributiveandproceduraljustice.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,67,
850863Tyler,T.,Degoey,P.,&Smith,H.(1996).Understandingwhythejusticeofgroupprocedures
matters:Atestofthepsychologicaldynamicsofthegroupvaluemodel.JournalofPersonalityand
SocialPsychology,70,913930.First,peopletendtobelievethatfairnessisanendinitselfanditisthe
rightthingtodo.Second,fairprocessesguaranteefuturerewards.Ifyournamewaspickedoutofahat,
youhavenocontrolovertheprocess,andthereisnoguaranteethatyouwillgetfuturepromotions.If
theproceduresarefair,youaremorelikelytobelievethatthingswillworkoutinthefuture.Third,
fairnesscommunicatesthattheorganizationvaluesitsemployeesandcaresabouttheirwellbeing.
Researchhasidentifiedmanywaysofachievingproceduraljustice.Forexample,givingemployees
advancenoticebeforelayingthemoff,firingthem,ordiscipliningthemisperceivedasfair.Kidwell,R.
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E.(1995).Pinkslipswithouttears.AcademyofManagementExecutive,9,6970.Advancenotice
helpsemployeesgetreadyforthechangesfacingthemorgivesthemanopportunitytochangetheir
behaviorbeforeitistoolate.Allowingemployeesvoiceindecisionmakingisalsoimportant.Alge,B.
J.(2001).Effectsofcomputersurveillanceonperceptionsofprivacyandproceduraljustice.Journalof
AppliedPsychology,86,797804Kernan,M.C.,&Hanges,P.J.(2002).Survivorreactionsto
reorganization:Antecedentsandconsequencesofprocedural,interpersonal,andinformationaljustice.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,87,916928Lind,E.A.,Kanfer,R.,&Earley,C.P.(1990).Voice,
control,andproceduraljustice:Instrumentalandnoninstrumentalconcernsinfairnessjudgments.
JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,59,952959.Whendesigningaperformanceappraisal
systemorimplementingareorganization,itmaybeagoodideatoaskpeoplefortheirinputbecauseit
increasesperceptionsoffairness.Evenwhenitisnotpossibletohaveemployeesparticipate,providing
explanationstoemployeesishelpfulinfosteringproceduraljustice.Schaubroeck,J.,May,D.R.,&
William,B.F.(1994).Proceduraljusticeexplanationsandemployeereactionstoeconomichardship:A
fieldexperiment.JournalofAppliedPsychology,79,455460.Finally,peopleexpectconsistencyin
treatment.Bauer,T.N.,Maertz,C.P.,Jr.,Dolen,M.R.,&Campion,M.A.(1998).Longitudinal
assessmentofapplicantreactionstoemploymenttestingandtestoutcomefeedback.Journalof
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AppliedPsychology,83,892903.Ifonepersonisgivenextratimewhentakingatestwhileanotheris
NextChapter
not,individualswouldperceivedecisionmakingasunfair.
Nowletsimaginethemomentyourbosstoldyouthatyouaregettingapromotion.Yourmanagers
exactwordswere,Yes,wearegivingyouthepromotion.Thejobissosimplethatwethoughtevenyou
canhandleit.Nowwhatisyourreaction?Thefeelingofunfairnessyoumaynowfeelisexplainedby
interactionaljustice.Interactionaljusticereferstothedegreetowhichpeoplearetreatedwith
respect,kindness,anddignityininterpersonalinteractions.Weexpecttobetreatedwithdignitybyour
peers,supervisors,andcustomers.Whentheoppositehappens,wefeelangry.Evenwhenfacedwith
negativeoutcomessuchasapaycut,beingtreatedwithdignityandrespectservesasabufferand
alleviatesourstress.Greenberg,J.(2006).Losingsleepoverorganizationalinjustice:Attenuating
insomniacreactionstounderpaymentinequitywithsupervisorytrainingininteractionaljustice.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,91,5869.
OBToolbox:BeaFairPerson!
Whendistributingrewards,makesureyoupayattentiontodifferentcontributionlevelsof
employees.Treatingeveryoneequallycouldbeunfairiftheyparticipatedandcontributedat
differentlevels.Peoplewhoaremorequalified,skilled,orthosewhodidmorethanothers
expecttoreceiveagreatershareofrewards.
Sometimesyoumayhavetodisregardpeoplescontributionstodistributecertainrewards.
Somerewardsorprivilegesmaybebetterdistributedequally(e.g.,healthinsurance)orbased
ontheparticularemployeesneeds(suchasunpaidleaveforhealthreasons).
Payattentiontohowyoumakedecisions.Beforemakingadecision,askpeopletogiveyou
theiropinionsifpossible.Explainyourdecisionstopeoplewhoareaffectedbyit.Before
implementingachange,givepeopleadvancenotice.Enforcerulesconsistentlyamong
employees.
Payattentiontohowyoutalktopeople.Treatothersthewayyouwanttobetreated.Bekind,
courteous,andconsiderateoftheirfeelings.
Rememberthatjusticeisintheeyeofthebeholder.Evenwhenyoufeelyouarebeingfair,
othersmaynotfeelthesameway,anditistheirperceptionthatcounts.Therefore,pay
attentiontobeingperceivedasfair.
Peopledonotcareonlyabouttheirownjusticelevel.Theyalsopayattentiontohowothers
aretreatedaswell.Therefore,inadditiontopayingattentiontohowspecificemployeesfeel,
creatingasenseofjusticeintheentireorganizationisimportant.
Sources:AdaptedfromideasinColquitt,J.A.(2004).Doesthejusticeoftheoneinteractwiththe
justiceofthemany?Reactionstoproceduraljusticeinteams.JournalofAppliedPsychology,89,
633646Cropanzano,R.,Bowen,D.E.,&Gilliland,S.W.(2007).Themanagementof
organizationaljustice.AcademyofManagementPerspectives,21,3448.
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Employerswouldbenefitfrompayingattentiontoallthreetypesofjusticeperceptions.Inadditionto
beingtherightthingtodo,payingattentiontojusticeperceptionsleadstooutcomescompaniescare
about.Injusticeisdirectlyharmfultoemployeespsychologicalhealthandwellbeingandcontributesto
stress.Greenberg,J.(2004).Managingworkplacestressbypromotingorganizationaljustice.
OrganizationalDynamics,33,352365Tepper,B.J.(2001).Healthconsequencesoforganizational
injustice:Testsofmainandinteractiveeffects.OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecision
Processes,86,197215.Highlevelsofjusticecreatehigherlevelsofemployeecommitmentto
organizations,andtheyarerelatedtohigherjobperformance,higherlevelsoforganizational
citizenship(behaviorsthatarenotpartofonesjobdescriptionbuthelptheorganizationinotherways,
suchasspeakingpositivelyaboutthecompanyandhelpingothers),andhigherlevelsofcustomer
satisfaction.Conversely,lowlevelsofjusticeleadtoretaliationandsupportofunionization.Blader,S.
L.(2007).Whatleadsorganizationalmemberstocollectivize?Injusticeandidentificationasprecursors
ofunioncertification.OrganizationScience,18,108126CohenCharash,Y.,&Spector,P.E.(2001).
Theroleofjusticeinorganizations:Ametaanalysis.OrganizationalBehaviorandHumanDecision
Processes,86,278321Colquitt,J.A.,Conlon,D.E.,Wesson,M.J.,Porter,C.O.L.H.,&Ng,K.Y.
(2001).Justiceatthemillennium:Ametaanalyticreviewof25yearsoforganizationaljusticeresearch.
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JournalofAppliedPsychology,86,425445Cropanzano,R.,Bowen,D.E.,&Gilliland,S.W.(2007).
Themanagementoforganizationaljustice.AcademyofManagementPerspectives,21,3448
Masterson,S.S.(2001).Atrickledownmodeloforganizationaljustice:Relatingemployeesand
customersperceptionsofandreactionstofairness.JournalofAppliedPsychology,86,594604
Masterson,S.S.,Lewis,K.,Goldman,B.M.,&Taylor,S.M.(2000).Integratingjusticeandsocial
exchange:Thedifferingeffectsoffairproceduresandtreatmentonworkrelationships.Academyof
ManagementJournal,43,738748Moorman,R.H.(1991).Relationshipbetweenorganizational
justiceandorganizationalcitizenshipbehaviors:Dofairnessperceptionsinfluenceemployee
citizenship?JournalofAppliedPsychology,76,845855Skarlicki,D.P.,&Folger,R.(1997).
Retaliationintheworkplace:Therolesofdistributive,procedural,andinteractionaljustice.Journalof
AppliedPsychology,82,434443.
ExpectancyTheory
Accordingtoexpectancytheory,individualmotivationtoputforthmoreorlesseffortisdeterminedby
arationalcalculationinwhichindividualsevaluatetheirsituation.Porter,L.W.,&Lawler,E.E.(1968).
Managerialattitudesandperformance.Homewood,IL:IrwinVroom,V.H.(1964).Workand
motivation.NewYork:Wiley.Accordingtothistheory,individualsaskthemselvesthreequestions.
Figure5.9 SummaryofExpectancyTheory
Sources:BasedonPorter,L.W.,&Lawler,E.E.(1968).Managerialattitudesandperformance.Homewood,IL:
IrwinVroom,V.H.(1964).Workandmotivation.NewYork:Wiley.
Thefirstquestioniswhetherthepersonbelievesthathighlevelsofeffortwillleadtooutcomesof
interest,suchasperformanceorsuccess.Thisperceptionislabeledexpectancy.Forexample,doyou
believethattheeffortyouputforthinaclassisrelatedtoperformingwellinthatclass?Ifyoudo,you
aremorelikelytoputfortheffort.
Thesecondquestionisthedegreetowhichthepersonbelievesthatperformanceisrelatedto
subsequentoutcomes,suchasrewards.Thisperceptionislabeledinstrumentality.Forexample,do
youbelievethatgettingagoodgradeintheclassisrelatedtorewardssuchasgettingabetterjob,or
gainingapprovalfromyourinstructor,orfromyourfriendsorparents?Ifyoudo,youaremorelikely
toputfortheffort.
Finally,individualsarealsoconcernedaboutthevalueoftherewardsawaitingthemasaresultof
performance.Theanticipatedsatisfactionthatwillresultfromanoutcomeislabeledvalence.For
example,doyouvaluegettingabetterjob,orgainingapprovalfromyourinstructor,friends,or
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parents?Iftheseoutcomesaredesirabletoyou,yourexpectancyandinstrumentalityishigh,andyou
aremorelikelytoputfortheffort.
Expectancytheoryisawellacceptedtheorythathasreceivedalotofresearchattention.Heneman,H.
G.,&Schwab,D.P.(1972).Evaluationofresearchonexpectancytheorypredictionsofemployee
performance.PsychologicalBulletin,78,19VanEerde,W.,&Thierry,H.(1996).Vroomsexpectancy
modelsandworkrelatedcriteria:Ametaanalysis.JournalofAppliedPsychology,81,575586.Itis
simpleandintuitive.Considerthefollowingexample.Letsassumethatyouareworkinginthe
concessionstandofamovietheater.Youhavebeensellinganaverageof100combosofpopcornand
softdrinksaday.Nowyourmanagerasksyoutoincreasethisnumberto300combosaday.Wouldyou
bemotivatedtotrytoincreaseyournumbers?Hereiswhatyoumaybethinking:
Expectancy:CanIdoit?IfItryharder,canIreallyachievethisnumber?Istherealinkbetween
howhardItryandwhetherIreachthisgoalornot?Ifyoufeelthatyoucanachievethisnumberif
youtry,youhavehighexpectancy.
Instrumentality:Whatisinitforme?WhatisgoingtohappenifIreach300?Whatarethe
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outcomesthatwillfollow?Aretheygoingtogivemea2%payraise?AmIgoingtobenamedthe
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salespersonofthemonth?AmIgoingtoreceiveverbalpraisefrommymanager?Ifyoubelieve
thatperformingwellisrelatedtocertainoutcomes,instrumentalityishigh.
Valence:HowdoIfeelabouttheoutcomesinquestion?DoIfeelthata2%payraiseisdesirable?
DoIfindbeingnamedthesalespersonofthemonthattractive?DoIthinkthatbeingpraisedbymy
managerisdesirable?Ifyouranswersareyes,valenceispositive.Incontrast,ifyoufindthe
outcomesundesirable(youdefinitelydonotwanttobenamedthesalespersonofthemonth
becauseyourfriendswouldmakefunofyou),valenceisnegative.
Ifyouranswerstoallthreequestionsareaffirmativeyoufeelthatyoucandoit,youwillgetan
outcomeifyoudoit,andyouvaluetherewardyouaremorelikelytobemotivatedtoputforthmore
efforttowardsellingmorecombos.
Asamanager,howcanyoumotivateemployees?Infact,managerscaninfluenceallthree
perceptions.Cook,C.W.(1980).Guidelinesformanagingmotivation.BusinessHorizons,23,6169.
InuencingExpectancyPercepons
Employeesmaynotbelievethattheireffortleadstohighperformanceforamultitudeofreasons.First,
theymaynothavetheskills,knowledge,orabilitiestosuccessfullyperformtheirjobs.Theanswerto
thisproblemmaybetrainingemployeesorhiringpeoplewhoarequalifiedforthejobsinquestion.
Second,lowlevelsofexpectancymaybebecauseemployeesmayfeelthatsomethingotherthaneffort
predictsperformance,suchaspoliticalbehaviorsonthepartofemployees.Ifemployeesbelievethat
theworkenvironmentisnotconducivetoperformingwell(resourcesarelackingorrolesareunclear),
expectancywillalsosuffer.Therefore,clearingthepathtoperformanceandcreatinganenvironmentin
whichemployeesdonotfeelrestrictedwillbehelpful.Finally,someemployeesmayperceivelittle
connectionbetweentheireffortandperformancelevelbecausetheyhaveanexternallocusofcontrol,
lowselfesteem,orotherpersonalitytraitsthatconditionthemtobelievethattheireffortwillnotmake
adifference.Insuchcases,providingpositivefeedbackandencouragementmayhelpmotivate
employees.
InuencingInstrumentalityPercepons
Showingemployeesthattheirperformanceisrewardedisgoingtoincreaseinstrumentality
perceptions.Therefore,thefirststepininfluencinginstrumentalityistoconnectpayandotherrewards
toperformanceusingbonuses,awardsystems,andmeritpay.However,thisisnotalwayssufficient,
becausepeoplemaynotbeawareofsomeoftherewardsawaitinghighperformers.Publicizingany
contestsorawardprogramsisneededtobringrewardstotheawarenessofemployees.Itisalso
importanttohighlightthatperformance,notsomethingelse,isbeingrewarded.Forexample,ifa
companyhasanemployeeofthemonthawardthatisrotatedamongemployees,employeesare
unlikelytobelievethatperformanceisbeingrewarded.Thistypeofmeritlessrewardsystemmay
actuallyhamperthemotivationofthehighestperformingemployeesbyerodinginstrumentality.
InuencingValence
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Employeesaremorelikelytobemotivatediftheyfindtherewardtobeattractive.Thisprocess
involvesmanagersfindingwhattheiremployeesvalue.Desirablerewardstendtobefairandsatisfy
differentemployeesdivergingneeds.Ensuringhighvalenceinvolvesgettingtoknowacompanys
employees.Talkingtoemployeesandsurveyingthemaboutwhatrewardstheyfindvaluablearesome
methodstogainunderstanding.Finally,givingemployeesachoicebetweenmultiplerewardsmaybea
goodideatoincreasevalence.
Figure5.10 WaysinWhichManagersCanInfluenceExpectancy,Instrumentality,andValence
ReinforcementTheory
ReinforcementtheoryisbasedontheworkofIvanPavlovonbehavioralconditioningandthelater
workofB.F.Skinneronoperantconditioning.Skinner,B.F.(1953).Scienceandhumanbehavior.New
York:FreePress.Accordingtoreinforcementtheory,behaviorisafunctionofitsoutcomes.Imagine
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thateventhoughnooneaskedyouto,youstayedlateanddraftedareport.Whenthemanagerfound
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out,shewasecstaticandtookyououttolunchandthankedyougenuinely.Theconsequencesfollowing
yourgooddeedwerefavorable,andthereforeyouaremorelikelytodemonstratesimilarbehaviorsin
thefuture.Inotherwords,yourtakinginitiativewasreinforced.Instead,ifyourmanagerhadsaid
nothingaboutitandeveryoneignoredthesacrificeyoumade,youarelesslikelytodemonstratesimilar
behaviorsinthefuture.
Reinforcementtheoryisbasedonasimpleideathatmaybeviewedascommonsense.Beginningat
infancywelearnthroughreinforcement.Ifyouhaveobservedasmallchilddiscoveringthe
environment,youwillseereinforcementtheoryinaction.Whenthechilddiscoversmanipulatinga
faucetleadstowatercomingoutandfindsthisoutcomepleasant,heismorelikelytorepeatthe
behavior.Ifheburnshishandwhileplayingwithhotwater,thechildislikelytostayawayfromthe
faucetinthefuture.
Despitethesimplicityofreinforcement,howmanytimeshaveyouseenpositivebehaviorignored,or
worse,negativebehaviorrewarded?Inmanyorganizations,thisisafamiliarscenario.Peoplegoabove
andbeyondthecallofduty,yettheiractionsareignoredorcriticized.Peoplewithdisruptivehabitsmay
receivenopunishmentsbecausethemanagerisafraidofthereactionthepersonwillgivewhen
confronted.Problememployeesmayevenreceiverewardssuchaspromotionssotheywillbe
transferredtoadifferentlocationandbecomesomeoneelsesproblem.Moreover,itiscommonfor
peopletoberewardedforthewrongkindofbehavior.StevenKerrhaslabeledthisphenomenonthe
follyofrewardingAwhilehopingforB.Kerr,S.(1995).OnthefollyofrewardingAwhilehopingforB.
AcademyofManagementExecutive,9,714.Forexample,acompanymaymakepublicstatements
abouttheimportanceofquality.Yet,iftheychoosetorewardshipmentsontimeregardlessofthe
amountofdefectscontainedintheshipments,employeesaremorelikelytoignorequalityandfocuson
hurryingthedeliveryprocess.Becausepeoplelearntorepeattheirbehaviorsbasedonthe
consequencesfollowingtheirprioractivities,managerswillneedtosystematicallyexaminethe
consequencesofemployeebehaviorandmakeinterventionswhenneeded.
ReinforcementIntervenons
Reinforcementtheorydescribesfourinterventionstomodifyemployeebehavior.Twooftheseare
methodsofincreasingthefrequencyofdesiredbehaviors,whiletheremainingtwoaremethodsof
reducingthefrequencyofundesiredbehaviors.
Figure5.11 ReinforcementMethods
Positivereinforcementisamethodofincreasingthedesiredbehavior.Beatty,R.W.,&Schneier,C.
E.(1975).Acaseforpositivereinforcement.BusinessHorizons,18,5766.Positivereinforcement
involvesmakingsurethatbehaviorismetwithpositiveconsequences.Forexample,praisingan
employeefortreatingacustomerrespectfullyisanexampleofpositivereinforcement.Ifthepraise
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immediatelyfollowsthepositivebehavior,theemployeewillseealinkbetweenthebehaviorand
positiveconsequencesandwillbemotivatedtorepeatsimilarbehaviors.
Negativereinforcementisalsousedtoincreasethedesiredbehavior.Negativereinforcement
involvesremovalofunpleasantoutcomesoncedesiredbehaviorisdemonstrated.Nagginganemployee
tocompleteareportisanexampleofnegativereinforcement.Thenegativestimulusinthe
environmentwillremainpresentuntilpositivebehaviorisdemonstrated.Theproblemwithnegative
reinforcementisthatthenegativestimulusmayleadtounexpectedbehaviorsandmayfailtostimulate
thedesiredbehavior.Forexample,thepersonmaystartavoidingthemanagertoavoidbeingnagged.
Extinctionisusedtodecreasethefrequencyofnegativebehaviors.Extinctionistheremovalof
rewardsfollowingnegativebehavior.Sometimes,negativebehaviorsaredemonstratedbecausethey
arebeinginadvertentlyrewarded.Forexample,ithasbeenshownthatwhenpeoplearerewardedfor
theirunethicalbehaviors,theytendtodemonstratehigherlevelsofunethicalbehaviors.Harvey,H.W.,
&Sims,H.P.(1978).Somedeterminantsofunethicaldecisionbehavior:Anexperiment.Journalof
AppliedPsychology,63,451457.Thus,whentherewardsfollowingunwantedbehaviorsareremoved,
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thefrequencyoffuturenegativebehaviorsmaybereduced.Forexample,ifacoworkerisforwarding
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unsolicitedemailmessagescontainingjokes,commentingandlaughingatthesejokesmaybe
encouragingthepersontokeepforwardingthesemessages.Completelyignoringsuchmessagesmay
reducetheirfrequency.
Punishmentisanothermethodofreducingthefrequencyofundesirablebehaviors.Punishment
involvespresentingnegativeconsequencesfollowingunwantedbehaviors.Givinganemployeea
warningforconsistentlybeinglatetoworkisanexampleofpunishment.
ReinforcementSchedules
Inadditiontotypesofreinforcements,researchershavefocusedtheirattentiononschedulesof
reinforcementaswell.Beatty,R.W.,&Schneier,C.E.(1975).Acaseforpositivereinforcement.
BusinessHorizons,18,5766.Reinforcementispresentedonacontinuousscheduleifreinforcers
followallinstancesofpositivebehavior.Anexampleofacontinuousschedulewouldbegivingan
employeeasalescommissioneverytimehemakesasale.Inmanyinstances,continuousschedulesare
impractical.Forexample,itwouldbedifficulttopraiseanemployeeeverytimeheshowsuptoworkon
time.Fixedratioschedulesinvolveprovidingrewardseverynthtimetherightbehavioris
demonstrated.Anexampleofthiswouldbegivingtheemployeeabonusforeverytenthsalehemakes.
Variableratioinvolvesprovidingthereinforcementonarandompattern,suchaspraisingthe
employeeoccasionallywhenthepersonshowsupontime.Inthecaseofcontinuousschedules,
behavioralchangeismoretemporary.Oncetherewardiswithdrawn,thepersonmaystopperforming
thedesiredbehavior.Themostdurableresultsoccurundervariableratios,butthereisalsosome
evidencethatcontinuousschedulesproducehigherperformancethandovariableschedules.Beatty,R.
W.,&Schneier,C.E.(1975).Acaseforpositivereinforcement.BusinessHorizons,18,5766
Cherrington,D.J.,&Cherrington,J.O.(1974).Participation,performance,andappraisal.Business
Horizons,17,3544Saari,L.M.,&Latham,G.P.(1982).Employeereactionstocontinuousand
variableratioreinforcementschedulesinvolvingamonetaryincentive.JournalofAppliedPsychology,
67,506508Yukl,G.A.,&Latham,G.P.(1975).Consequencesofreinforcementschedulesand
incentivemagnitudesforemployeeperformance:Problemsencounteredinanindustrialsetting.
JournalofAppliedPsychology,60,294298.
OBToolbox:BeEecveinYourUseofDiscipline
Asamanager,sometimesyoumayhavetodisciplineanemployeetoeliminateunwantedbehavior.
Herearesometipstomakethisprocessmoreeffective.
Considerwhetherpunishmentisthemosteffectivewaytomodifybehavior.Sometimes
catchingpeopleintheactofdoinggoodthingsandpraisingorrewardingthemispreferableto
punishingnegativebehavior.Insteadofcriticizingthemforbeinglate,considerpraisingthem
whentheyareontime.Carrotsmaybemoreeffectivethansticks.Youcanalsomakethe
behaviorextinctbyremovinganyrewardsthatfollowundesirablebehavior.
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Besurethatthepunishmentfitsthecrime.Ifapunishmentistooharsh,boththeemployeein
questionandcoworkerswhowilllearnaboutthepunishmentwillfeelitisunfair.Unfair
punishmentmaynotchangeunwantedbehavior.
Beconsistentinyourtreatmentofemployees.Havedisciplinaryproceduresandapplythemin
thesamewaytoeveryone.Itisunfairtoenforcearuleforoneparticularemployeebutthen
giveothersafreepass.
Documentthebehaviorinquestion.Ifanemployeeisgoingtobedisciplined,theevidence
mustgobeyondhearsay.
Betimelywithdiscipline.Whenalongperiodoftimepassesbetweenbehaviorand
punishment,itislesseffectiveinreducingundesiredbehaviorbecausetheconnectionbetween
thebehaviorandpunishmentisweaker.
Sources:AdaptedfromideasinAmbrose,M.L.,&Kulik,C.T.(1999).Oldfriends,newfaces:
Motivationresearchinthe1990s.JournalofManagement,25,231292Guffey,C.J.,&Helms,
M.M.(2001).Effectiveemployeediscipline:AcaseoftheInternalRevenueService.Public
PersonnelManagement,30,111128.
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AsystematicwayinwhichreinforcementtheoryprinciplesareappliediscalledOrganizationalBehavior
Modification(orOBMod).Luthans,F.,&Stajkovic,A.D.(1999).Reinforceforperformance:The
needtogobeyondpayandevenrewards.AcademyofManagementExecutive,13,4957.Thisisa
systematicapplicationofreinforcementtheorytomodifyemployeebehaviorsintheworkplace.The
modelconsistsoffivestages.Theprocessstartswithidentifyingthebehaviorthatwillbemodified.
Letsassumethatweareinterestedinreducingabsenteeismamongemployees.Instep2,weneedto
measurethebaselinelevelofabsenteeism.Howmanytimesamonthisaparticularemployeeabsent?
Instep3,thebehaviorsantecedentsandconsequencesaredetermined.Whyisthisemployeeabsent?
Moreimportantly,whatishappeningwhentheemployeeisabsent?Ifthebehaviorisbeing
unintentionallyrewarded(e.g.,thepersonisstillgettingpaidorisabletoavoidunpleasantassignments
becausesomeoneelseisdoingthem),wemayexpectthesepositiveconsequencestoreinforcethe
absenteeism.Instead,toreducethefrequencyofabsenteeism,itwillbenecessarytothinkoffinancial
orsocialincentivestofollowpositivebehaviorandnegativeconsequencestofollownegativebehavior.
Instep4,aninterventionisimplemented.Removingthepositiveconsequencesofnegativebehavior
maybeaneffectivewayofdealingwiththesituation,or,inpersistentsituations,punishmentsmaybe
used.Finally,instep5thebehaviorismeasuredperiodicallyandmaintained.
StudiesexaminingtheeffectivenessofOBModhavebeensupportiveofthemodelingeneral.Areview
oftheliteraturefoundthatOBModinterventionsresultedin17%improvementin
performance.Stajkovic,A.D.,&Luthans,F.(1997).Ametaanalysisoftheeffectsoforganizational
behaviormodificationontaskperformance,19751995.AcademyofManagementJournal,40,1122
1149.Particularlyinmanufacturingsettings,OBModwasaneffectivewayofincreasingperformance,
althoughpositiveeffectswereobservedinserviceorganizationsaswell.
Figure5.12 StagesofOrganizationalBehaviorModification
Source:BasedoninformationpresentedinStajkovic,A.D.,&Luthans,F.(1997).Ametaanalysisoftheeffects
oforganizationalbehaviormodificationontaskperformance,19751995.AcademyofManagementJournal,
40,11221149.
K E Y TA K E AWAY
Processbasedtheoriesusethementalprocessesofemployeesasthekeytounderstandingemployee
movaon.Accordingtoequitytheory,employeesaredemovatedwhentheyviewreward
distribuonasunfair.Perceponsoffairnessareshapedbythecomparisonstheymakebetweentheir
inputsandoutcomeswithrespecttoareferentsinputsandoutcomes.Followingequitytheory,
researchidenedtwoothertypesoffairness(proceduralandinteraconal)thatalsoaectworker
reaconsandmovaon.Accordingtoexpectancytheory,employeesaremovatedwhentheybelieve
thattheireortwillleadtohighperformance(expectancy),whentheybelievethattheirperformance
willleadtooutcomes(instrumentality),andwhentheyndtheoutcomesfollowingperformancetobe
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desirable(valence).Reinforcementtheoryarguesthatbehaviorisafunconofitsconsequences.By
properlytyingrewardstoposivebehaviors,eliminangrewardsfollowingnegavebehaviors,and
punishingnegavebehaviors,leaderscanincreasethefrequencyofdesiredbehaviors.Thesethree
theoriesareparcularlyusefulindesigningrewardsystemswithinacompany.
EXERCISES
1.Yourmanagertellsyouthatthebestwayofensuringfairnessinrewarddistribuonistokeepthe
payasecret.Howwouldyourespondtothisasseron?
2.Whendistribungbonusesorpay,howwouldyouensureperceponsoffairness?
3.Whatarethedierencesbetweenprocedural,interaconal,anddistribuvejusce?Listwaysin
whichyoucouldincreaseeachofthesejuscepercepons.
4.Usingexamples,explaintheconceptsofexpectancy,instrumentality,andvalence.
5.SomepraconersandresearchersconsiderOBModunethicalbecauseitmaybeviewedasaway
ofmanipulaon.Whatwouldbeyourreacontosuchacricism?
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5.3TheRoleofEthicsandNaonalCulture
LEARNINGOBJECTIVES
1.Considertheroleofmovaonforethicalbehavior.
2.Considertheroleofnaonalcultureonmovaontheories.
MovaonandEthics
Whatmotivatesindividualstobehaveunethically?Motivationtheorieshavebeenappliedtoexplain
thisinterestingandimportantquestion.Onetheorythathasbeenparticularlysuccessfulinexplaining
ethicalbehaviorisreinforcementtheory.Justlikeanyotherbehaviorsuchasperformanceor
cooperation,ethicalbehaviorisonethatislearnedasaresultoftheconsequencesfollowingones
actions.Forexample,inanexperimentsimulatingthejobofasalesmanager,participantsmadea
seriesofdecisionsusingacomputer.Partwaythroughthesimulation,subjectswereinformedthat
salespeoplereportingtothemweregivingkickbackstocustomers.Subjectsinthisexperimentwere
morelikelytocutthekickbacksiftherewasathreatofpunishmenttothemanager.Ontheotherhand,
subjectsplayingthesalesmanagerweremorelikelytocontinuegivingawaythekickbacksiftheymade
aprofitafterprovidingthekickbacks.Hegarty,W.H.,&Sims,H.P.(1978).Somedeterminantsof
unethicaldecisionbehavior:Anexperiment.JournalofAppliedPsychology,63,451457.Ina
separatestudyhighlightingtheimportanceofrewardsandpunishments,researchersfoundthatthe
severityofexpectedpunishmentwastheprimarypredictorofwhethersubjectsreportedinclinationto
behaveunethically.Inadditiontotheseverityofthepunishment,theperceivedlikelihoodof
punishmentwasalsoamajorinfluenceofethicalbehavior.Rettig,S.,&Rawson,H.E.(1963).Therisk
hypothesisinpredictivejudgmentsofunethicalbehavior.JournalofAbnormalandSocialPsychology,
66,243248.Thesefindingshighlighttheimportanceofrewardsandpunishmentsformotivating
unethicalbehaviors.
Therearemanyorganizationalsituationsinwhichindividualsmaydounethicalthingsbutthen
experiencepositiveconsequencessuchasbeingawardedpromotionsformeetingtheirsalesquotas.
Forexample,inmanyhotels,staffmembersroutinelyreceivekickbacksfromrestaurantsorbarsif
theyrefercustomerstothoselocations.Elliott,C.(2007).Isyourbellhoponthetake?National
GeographicTraveler,24(3),1820.Similarly,salesstaffrewardedwithspiffs(productspecificsales
incentives)maygivecustomersadvicethatgoesagainsttheirownpersonalbeliefsandinthissenseact
unethically.Radin,T.J.,&Predmore,C.E.(2002).Themythofthesalesperson:Intendedand
unintendedconsequencesofproductspecificsalesincentives.JournalofBusinessEthics,36,7992.As
longasunethicalbehaviorisfollowedbypositiveconsequencesforthepersoninquestion,wewould
expectunethicalbehaviortocontinue.Thus,inordertominimizetheoccurrenceofunethicalbehavior
(andinsomeinstanceslegalproblems),itseemsimportanttoexaminetherewardsandpunishments
thatfollowunethicalbehaviorandremoverewardsfollowingunethicalbehaviorwhileincreasingthe
severityandlikelihoodofpunishment.
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MovaonAroundtheGlobe
Motivationisaculturallyboundtopic.Inotherwords,thefactorsthatmotivateemployeesindifferent
culturesmaynotbeequivalent.Themotivationtheorieswecoverinthischapterarelikelytobe
culturallyboundbecausetheyweredevelopedbyWesternresearchersandthemajorityoftheresearch
supportingeachtheorywasconductedonWesternsubjects.
Basedontheculturalcontext,Maslowshierarchyofneedsmayrequiremodificationbecausethe
rankingoftheneedsmaydifferacrosscultures.Forexample,astudyconductedin39countriesshowed
thatfinancialsatisfactionwasastrongerpredictorofoveralllifesatisfactionindevelopingnations
comparedtoindustrializednations.Inindustrializednations,satisfactionwithesteemneedswasa
morepowerfulmotivatorthanitwasindevelopingnations.Oishi,S.,Diener,E.F.,&Suh,E.M.(1999).
Crossculturalvariationsinpredictorsoflifesatisfaction:Perspectivesfromneedsandvalues.
PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin,25,980990.
Peoplearoundtheworldvaluejusticeandfairness.However,whatisperceivedasfairmaybeculturally
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dependent.Moreover,peopleindifferentculturesmayreactdifferentlytoperceived
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unfairness.Erdogan,B.,&Liden,R.C.(2006).Collectivismasamoderatorofresponsesto
organizationaljustice:Implicationsforleadermemberexchangeandingratiation.Journalof
OrganizationalBehavior,27,117Mueller,C.W.,&Wynn,T.(2000).Thedegreetowhichjusticeis
valuedintheworkplace.SocialJusticeResearch,13,124.Forexample,incrossculturalstudies,itwas
foundthatparticipantsinlowpowerdistanceculturessuchastheUnitedStatesandGermanyvalued
voiceintotheprocess(theopportunitiesforexplanationandappealingadecision)morethanthosein
highpowerdistanceculturessuchasChinaandMexico.Atthesametime,interactionaljusticewas
valuedmorebytheChinesesubjects.Brockner,J.,Ackerman,G.,Greenberg,J.,Gelfand,M.J.,
Francesco,A.M.,Chen,Z.X.,etal.(2001).Cultureandproceduraljustice:Theinfluenceofpower
distanceonreactionstovoice.JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology,37,300315Tata,J.
(2005).Theinfluenceofnationalcultureontheperceivedfairnessofgradingprocedures:A
comparisonoftheUnitedStatesandChina.JournalofPsychology,139,401412.Thereisalsosome
evidenceindicatingthatequity(rewardingemployeesbasedontheircontributionstoagroup)maybea
culturespecificmethodofachievingfairness.OnestudyshowsthatJapanesesubjectsviewedequityas
lessfairandequalitybaseddistributionsasmorefairthandidAustraliansubjects.Kashima,Y.,Siegal,
M.,Tanaka,K.,&Isaka,H.(1988).Universalisminlayconceptionsofdistributivejustice:Across
culturalexamination.InternationalJournalofPsychology,23,5164.Similarly,subjectsindifferent
culturesvariedintheirinclinationtodistributerewardsbasedonsubjectsneedorage,andincultures
suchasJapanandIndia,apersonsneedmaybearelevantfactorinrewarddistributions.Kashima,Y.,
Siegal,M.,Tanaka,K.,&Isaka,H.(1988).Universalisminlayconceptionsofdistributivejustice:A
crossculturalexamination.InternationalJournalofPsychology,23,5164MurphyBerman,V.,
Berman,J.,Singh,P.,Pachauri,A.,&Kumar,P.(1984).Factorsaffectingallocationtoneedyand
meritoriousrecipients:Acrossculturalcomparison.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,
46,12671272.
K E Y TA K E AWAY
Movaontheoriesareparcularlyusefulforunderstandingwhyemployeesbehaveunethically.Based
onreinforcementtheory,peoplewilldemonstratehigherunethicalbehaviorsiftheirunethical
behaviorsarefollowedbyrewardsorgounpunished.Similarly,accordingtoexpectancytheory,if
peoplebelievethattheirunethicalaconswillberewardedwithdesirableoutcomes,theyaremore
likelytodemonstrateunethicalbehaviors.Intermsofculture,someofthemovaontheoriesare
likelytobeculturebound,whereasothersmaymorereadilyapplytoothercultures.Exisngresearch
showsthatwhatisviewedasfairorunfairtendstobeculturallydened.
EXERCISES
1.Whatistheconneconbetweenacompanysrewardsystemandthelevelofethicalbehaviors?
2.Whichofthemovaontheoriesdoyouthinkwouldbemoreapplicabletomanydierent
cultures?
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5.4Conclusion
Inthischapterwehavereviewedthebasicmotivationtheoriesthathavebeendevelopedtoexplain
motivatedbehavior.Severaltheoriesviewmotivatedbehaviorasattemptstosatisfyneeds.Basedon
thisapproach,managerswouldbenefitfromunderstandingwhatpeopleneedsothattheactionsof
employeescanbeunderstoodandmanaged.Othertheoriesexplainmotivatedbehaviorusingthe
cognitiveprocessesofemployees.Employeesrespondtounfairnessintheirenvironment,theylearn
fromtheconsequencesoftheiractionsandrepeatthebehaviorsthatleadtopositiveresults,andthey
aremotivatedtoexerteffortiftheyseetheiractionswillleadtooutcomesthatwouldgetthemdesired
rewards.Noneofthesetheoriesarecompleteontheirown,buteachtheoryprovidesuswitha
frameworkwecanusetoanalyze,interpret,andmanageemployeebehaviorsintheworkplace.
5.5Exercises
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Companiesareinterestedinmovangemployees:Workhard,beproducve,behaveethicallyand
stayhealthy.Healthcarecostsarerising,andemployersarendingthatunhealthyhabitssuchas
smokingorbeingoverweightarecosngcompaniesbigbucks.
Yourcompanyisconcernedabouttherisinghealthcarecostsanddecidestomovateemployeesto
adopthealthyhabits.Therefore,employeesaregivenayeartoquitsmoking.Iftheydonotquitby
then,theyaregoingtolosetheirjobs.Newemployeeswillbegivenniconetests,andthecompany
willavoidhiringnewsmokersinthefuture.Thecompanyalsowantstoencourageemployeestostay
healthy.Forthispurpose,employeeswillgetcashincenvesforweightloss.Iftheydonotmeetthe
weight,cholesterol,andbloodpressurestandardstobeissuedbythecompany,theywillbecharged
extrafeesforhealthinsurance.
Isthisplanethical?Whyorwhynot?Canyouthinkofalternavewaystomovateemployeestoadopt
healthyhabits?
I N D I V I D UA L E X E R C I S E
Yourcompanyprovidesdiversitytrainingprogramstoensurethatemployeesrealizetheimportanceof
workingwithadiverseworkforce,areawareoftheequalemploymentopportunitylegislaon,andare
capableofaddressingthechallengesofworkinginamulculturalworkforce.Parcipaoninthese
programsismandatory,andemployeesarerequiredtotakethetrainingasmanymesasneededunl
theypass.Thetrainingprogramlastsonedayandisusuallyconductedinanicehoteloutsidethe
workplace.Employeesarepaidforthemetheyspendinthetrainingprogram.Yourealizethat
employeesarenotreallymovatedtoperformwellinthisprogram.Duringthetraining,theyputin
theminimumlevelofeort,andmostparcipantsfailtheexamgivenattheconclusionofthetraining
programandthenhavetoretakethetraining.
Usingexpectancyandreinforcementtheories,explainwhytheymaynotbemovatedtoperformwell
inthetrainingprogram.Thensuggestimprovementsintheprogramsothatemployeesaremovated
tounderstandthematerial,passtheexam,andapplythematerialintheworkplace.
GROUPEXERCISE
ARewardAllocaonDecision
Youareinchargeofallocanga$12,000bonustoateamthatrecentlymetanimportantdeadline.The
teamwasinchargeofdesigningaWebbasedproductforaclient.Theprojectlastedayear.There
werevepeopleintheteam.Yourjobistodetermineeachpersonssharefromthebonus.
Devin:Projectmanager.Hewasinstrumentalinsecuringtheclient,coordinangeveryoneseort,and
managingrelaonshipswiththeclient.Heputinalotofextrahoursforthisproject.Hisannualsalary
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is$80,000.Heisindependentlywealthy,drivesanexpensivecar,anddoesnothaveanydebt.Hehas
workedforthecompanyfor5yearsandworkedfortheprojectfromthebeginning.
Alice:Technicallead.Sheoversawthetechnicalaspectsoftheproject.Sheresolvedmanyimportant
technicalissues.Duringtheproject,whilesomemembersworkedextrahours,sherefusedtostayat
theoceoutsideregularhours.However,shewasproducveduringregularworkhours,andshewas
accessibleviaemailintheevenings.Hersalaryis$50,000.Sheisasinglemotherandhasalotofdebt.
Shehasworkedforthecompanyfor4yearsandworkedfortheprojectfor8months.
Erin:Graphicdesigner.Shewasinchargeofthecreaveaspectsoftheproject.Sheexperimentedwith
manylooks,andwhiledoingthatshesloweddowntheenreteam.BriceandCarrieweremadather
becauseofthemanymistakesshemadeduringtheproject,butthelookandfeeloftheproject
eventuallyappealedtotheclient,whichresultedinrepeatbusiness.Hersalaryis$30,000.Sheissingle
andlivestoparty.Shehasworkedforthecompanyfor2yearsandworkedforthisprojectfromthe
beginning.
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Brice:Tester.Hewasinchargeofndingthebugsintheprojectandensuringthatitworked.Hefound
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manybugs,buthewasnotveryaggressiveinhistesng.Hemisunderstoodmanythings,andmanyof
thebugshefoundwerenotreallybugsbuthismisuseofthesystem.Hehadanegaveatude
towardthewholeproject,actedverypessimiscallyregardingthelikelihoodofsuccess,and
demoralizedtheteam.Hissalaryis$40,000.Hehasaccumulatedalargecreditcarddebt.Hehas
workedforthecompanyfor3yearsandworkedfortheprojectinthelast6months.
Carrie:Webdeveloper.Shewasinchargeofwringthecode.ShewasfrustratedwhenErinslowed
downtheenreprojectbecauseofherexperimentaon.Carriewasprimarilyresponsibleformeeng
theprojectdeadlinebecausesheputinalotofextraworkhours.Hersalaryis$50,000.Hermother
hasongoinghealthissues,andCarrieneedsmoneytohelpher.Sheworkedforthecompanyforthe
pastyearandwasinvolvedinthisprojectfor6months.
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