Cements

CVLE 321
By
Prof. Adel El
Kordi
&
Dr. Meheddene Machaka
Structural Engineering
Department
Faculty of Engineering
Beirut Arab University

THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

1- quarry
. BLASTING

. TRANSPORT

loader

dumper

Quarry face

. CRUSHING & TRANSPORTATION

storage at
the plant

crushing
conveyor

BLASTING : The raw materials that are used to manufacture cement (mainly limestone
and clay) are blasted from the quarry.
TRANSPORT : The raw materials are loaded into a dumper.
CRUSHING AND TRANSPORTATION : The raw materials, after crushing, are transported
2to the plant by conveyor. The plant stores the materials before they are homogenized.

THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2- Raw grinding and burning

. RAW GRINDING

preheating

. BURNING

kiln
cooling
clinker

RAW GRINDING : The raw materials are very finely ground to produce the raw mix.
BURNING : The raw mix is preheated before it goes into the kiln, which is heated by a
flame that can be as hot as 2000 C. The raw mix burns at 1500 C producing clinker
which, when it leaves the kiln, is rapidly cooled with air fans. So, the raw mix is burnt
to produce clinker : the basic material needed to make cement.
3

THE CEMENT MANUFACTURING PROCESS

3- Grinding, storage, packing, dispatch

Gypsum and the secondary additives are added
to the clinker.

. GRINDING
clinker
storage

Finish grinding

. STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH

silos

dispatch
bags

.GRINDING : The clinker and the gypsum are very finely ground giving a pure cement.
Other secondary additives and cementitious materials can also be added to make a
blended cement.
.STORAGE, PACKING, DISPATCH :The cement is stored in silos before being dispatched
either
in bulk or in bags to its final destination.
4

Clinker

Gypsum

Background: Portland Cement Clinker

Components,Oxides & Compounds.

Oxides

Compounds

Fe2O3

C4AF

AL2O3

C3A

SiO2

C2S

CaO

C3S

Chemical Composition & Industrial Process

Preparing row materials
Lime stone
Ca CO3.2H2O

Sand
SiO2

silt
Fe2O3+ Al2O3+Sio3+SiO2

Iron Ore
Fe2O3

Crushing & Pre-Heating

Calcium Oxide
Ca O

Silicon Oxide
SiO2

Aluminum & Ferric Oxides

Fe2O3+ Al2O3+SiO3

Ferric oxide
Fe2O3

Weighing , kiln feeding & burning

Tri-calcium Silicate

C 3S

Di-calciumSilicate

C 2S

Tri-calcium Aluminates

C 3A

Tetra calcium Aluminates Ferrite

C4AF

Phases of clinker for different types of Portland cements

Adding proper ratio of gypsum & grinding

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Type V

OPC

Modified PC

High early PC

Low heat PC

SRC

Formation of Chemical Reactions.

Fe2O3

AL2O3

CaO

C4AF
AL2O3

CaO
C3A

SiO2

CaO
CaO

C2S
C3S
8

Effect of changes in Fe2O3

on the C4AF and C3A

C4AF
Fe2O3
C3 A
9

Effect of changes in SiO2

on the C2S and C3S

C2S
SiO2
C3S
10

Cement Compounds & Hydration

Tr-calcium
Aluminates

C3A
Portland Cement.

Tetra calcium
Aluminates
Ferrite

C4AF

Ca (OH)2
Hydration

Tri-calcium
Silicate

process.

C3S
Di-calcium
Silicate

C2S
11

Gel CSH

Heat of
Hydration

Gaining
compressive
strength

Form the
paste
structure
Fill the
pores
paste
structure

Provide alkaline
protective
medium for
steel bars

Voids

+
Cracks

Reduce
Durability

Cement Phases & rate of releasing

heat of hydration.
800
Tr-calcium
Aluminate
s

C3A

710

Portland Cement.

Hydration
process

Tri-calcium
Silicate

C3S
Tetra calcium
Aluminates
Ferrite

380

330

C4AF
Di-calcium
Silicate

C2S
12

750

130

80
40

da y 3

80

da y 7

420

170
130

da y 2 8

Effect of Heat of hydration on durability

Calories Per Gram

Fat

Starch

Sugars

Proteins

Type II

63 (7d.)

Type I

80 (7d.)

Cement heat of hydration is one of the most important factors

affecting durability as it increases generation of cracks in concrete and
causes concrete deterioration specially in the aggressive media.
13

Hydration of cement phases.

3days

Tr-calcium
Aluminates

C3A
Portland Cement.

Tetra calcium
Aluminates
Ferrite

C4AF

7days

28days

Setting of
cement paste

Hydration process.

Mono
( sulfate)

Setting of
cement paste

Tri-calcium Silicate C3S

phases

Early
compressive
strength
3days &7days
Di-calcium
Silicate C2S

14

Ettringite

CSH
ultimate
compressive
strength
starting from
28days

+
CH

Heat of Hydration of Pure Compounds

Heat of
Hydration
(cal/gr)
C3S

120

C2S

62

C3A

207

C4AF

100

The amount of heat

liberated is affected by
the fractions of the
compounds of the
cement.
Heat of Hydration(cal/gr)=
120*(%C3S)+62*(%C2S)+
207*(%C3A)+100*(C4AF)

The requirement of ASTM C 150 varies in the

three types of cement as follows :
C3A
1.

The content Of C3A .

Type V SRC

Type II

Type I OPC

5%
2.

The Content of SO3.

Type V SRC

8%

Type II

Type I OPC

2.5%

3%

3.5 %

SO3
For type II chemical analysis is more restrict consenting defining the content of each
of:

Silicone oxide 20% minimum,

Aluminum oxide & ferric Oxide that are 6% maximum

Summation of contents of the component C3S & Component C3A is 58 %

maximum

Type II production needs more accuracy in Quality control

as
16 it is more restricted in its components

Effects of cement chemical components & physical

properties on concrete properties
Cement Effects
Place ability

Cement amount, fineness, setting characteristics

Strength

Cement composition (C3S, C2S and C3A), loss on ignition,

fineness
Drying Shrinkage
SO3 content, cement composition
Permeability
Cement composition, fineness
Resistance to sulfate C3A content
Resistance to
C3A content
Chlorides
Alkali Silica
Alkali content
Reactivity
Cracking
Cement content, Heat of hydration, C3A, C3S, air entrained
Corrosion of
embedded

Cement Composition (esp. C3A content) steel

C3A content is the most important component affecting properties of concrete .

17

Cement Hydration

18

Types of PC (ASTM C 150)

Portland cement types and their uses:
Cement
type

Use

I1

General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating conditions

II2

Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack

III

When high-early strength is required

IV3

when low heat of hydration is required`

V4

When high sulfate resistance is required

IA4

A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIA4

A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

IIIA4

A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

1 Cements that simultaneously meet requirements of Type I and Type II are also widely available.
2 Type II low alkali (total alkali as Na 2O < 0.6%) is often specified in regions where aggregates susceptible to alkali-silica reactivity are employed.
3 Type IV cements are only available on special request.
4 These cements are in limited production and not widely available.
19

Standard Cements (ASTM)

Type I: Ordinary Portland Cement

Suitable to be used in general concrete

construction when special properties are not
required.
Type II: Modified Portland Cement

Suitable to be used in general concrete

construction. Main difference between Type
I&II is the moderate sulfate resistance of
Type II cement due to relatively low C3A
content (%8). Since C3A is limited rate of
reactions is slower and as a result heat of
hydration at early ages is less. *It is suitable
to be used in small scale mass concrete like
retaining walls.

Type III: High Early Strength P.C.

Strength development is rapid.
3 days fc=7 days fc of Type I
It is useful for repair works, cold weather
& for early demolding.
Its early strength is due to higher C3S &
C3A content.
Type IV: Low Heat P.C.
Generates less heat during hydration &
therefore gain of strengthis slower.
In standards a maximum value of
C3S&C3A& a minimum value for C2S are placed.
It is used in mass-concrete and hotweather concreting.

Type III
High Early
Strength
Cements

22

Moderate and Low

Heat Cements

23

 Type V: Sulfate Resistant P.C.

Used in construction where concrete will

be subjected to external sulfate attack
chemical plants, marine & harbor structures.
During hydration C3A reacts with gypsum &
water to form ettringite. In hardened cement
paste calcium-alumino-hydrate can react
with calcium&alumino sulfates, from external
sources, to form ettringite which causes
expansion & cracking.
C-H and sulfates can react & form gypsum
which again causes expansion & cracking.
* In Type V C3A is limited to 5%.

Type II & Type V

Sulfate Resistant
Cements

25

Outdoor Sulfate Test

Type V Cement
W/C-ratio = 0.65

26

Type V Cement
W/C-ratio = 0.39

Type IA, IIA, IIIA: Air Entrained Portland

Cement
Only difference is adding an airentraining agent to the cement during
manufacturing to increase freeze-thaw
resistance by providing small sized air
bubbles in concrete.

28

Average Compound
Composition

ASTM Type & Name

of P.C.
Type I - O.P.C.
Type II - Modified

C3S

C2S

C3A

C4AF

49

25

12

General Purpose

12

For Moderate Heat of

Hydration

46

29

Type III - High Early

Strength

56

15

12

C3S&C3A increased, C2S

decreased

Type IV - Low Heat

P.C.

30

46

13

C2S increased

12

Limit on C3A5%,
2C3A+C4AF25%

Type V - Sulfate
Resistant P.C.

43

36

SEMs of Hardened
Cement Paste

30

Scanning Electron Micrograph of

Powdered Cement

31

Fineness of cement
As hydration takes place at the surface of
the cement particles, it is the surface area
of cement particles which provide the
material available for hydration. The rate of
hydration is controlled by fineness of
cement. For a rapid rate of hydration a
higher fineness is necessary.

However,
Finer cements requires higher grinding
(cost )
Finer cements deteriorate faster upon
exposure to atmosphere.
Finer cements are very sensitive to
alkali-aggregate reaction.
Finer cements require more gypsum for
proper hydration.
Finer cements require more water.

 Fineness of cement is determined by

air permeability methods. For example,
in the Blaine air permeability method a
known volume of air is passed through
cement. The time is recorded and the
specific surface is calculated by a
formula.
Fineness is expressed in terms of
specific surface of the cement (cm2/gr).
For OPC specific surface is 2600-3000
cm2/gr.

Sieving

Blaine Apparatus

setting
Setting refers to a change from liquid state to
solid state. Although, during setting cement
paste acquires some strength, setting is
different from hardening.
The water content has a marked effect on the
time of setting. In acceptance tests for
cement, the water content is regulated by
bringing the paste to a standard condition of
wetness. This is called normal consistency.

 Normal consistency of O.P.C. Ranges from 2030% by weight of cement.

Vicat apparatus is used to determine normal
consistency. Normal consistency is that
condition for which the penetration of a
standard weighed plunger into the paste is
10mm in 30sec. By trial & error determine the
w/c ratio.
In practice, the terms initial set&final set are
used to describe arbitrary chosen time of
setting. Initial set indicates the beginning of a
noticeable stiffening & final set may be
regarded as the start of hardening (or
complete loss of plasticity).

Consistency of Cement Paste

ASTM C 187
Vicat plunger

38

Setting Time

ASTM C 191
Vicat apparatus

39

Gillmore Needle

Vicat Needle

 Setting can be obtained by using the vicat

apparatus.

ASTM C150

Initial setting time>45min

TS 19

Initial > 1hr (60min)

Final setting time<375min

Final < 8hr (480min)

Factors Affecting Setting Time

Temperature & Humidity

Amount of Water
Chemical Composition of Cement
Fineness of Cement (finer cement,
faster setting)
Flash-set

Abnormal Settings
False-set

 Flash-Set: is the immediate stiffening of

cement paste in a few minutes after mixing
with water. It is accompanied by large
amount of heat generation upon reaction of
C3A with water.
Gypsum is placed in cement to prevent
flash-set. The rigidity can not be overcome &
plasticity may not be regained without
addition of water.
Amount of gypsum must be such that it will
be used upto almost hardening. Because
expansion caused by ettringite can be
distributed to the paste before hardening.
More gypsum will cause undesirable
expansion after hardening.

 False-Set: is a rapid development of rigidity of

cement paste without generation of much heat.
This rigidity can be overcome & plasticity can
be regained by further mixing without addition
of water. In this way cement paste restores its
plasticity & sets in a normal manner without any
loss of strength.
Probable Causes of False-Set:
When gypsum is ground by too hot of a clinker,
gypsum may be dehydrated into hemihydrate
(CaSO4.1/2H2O) or anhydrate (CaSO4). These
materials when react with water, gypsum is
formed, which results in stiffening of the paste.

Setting Times for Portland Cements

45

Soundness of Cement
Soundness is defined as the volume stability of
cement paste.
The cement paste should not undergo large changes
in volume after it has set. Free CaO&MgO may result
in unsound cement. Upon hydration C&M will form
CH&MH with volume increase thus cracking.
Since unsoundness is not apparent until several
months or years, it is necessary to provide an
accelerated method for its determination.
Lechatelier Method: Only free CaO can be determined.
Autoclave Method: Both free CaO&MgO can be
determined.

Soundness Test

ASTM C 151 (AASHTO T 107)

47

Consistency of Mortar

ASTM C 230 and ASTM C 1437

Flow table
48

Strength of Cement
Strength tests are not carried out on
neat cement pastes, because it is very
difficult to form these pastes due to
cohesive property of cement.
Strength tests are carried out on
cement mortar prepared by standard
gradation (1 part cement+3 parts
sand+1/2 part water)

Mortar Cubes

50

ASTM C 109

Direct Tension (Tensile Strength):

1
1

t=P/1in2

Difficult test procedure

Flexural Strength (tensile strength in bending):

P
4cm
4cm

f=(M*C)/I
M:maximum moment
I:moment of inertia
C:distance to bottom fiber from C.G.

Compression Test:
i) Cubic Sample

ii)Flexural Sample after it

is broken

P
4cm 4cm

4cm
P

c=P/A
c=P/A

A=4x4

Strength Development of Mortar Cubes

56

Density of Cement

57

Le Chatelier flask ( ASTM C 188)

58

European Standard EN 197

Cement

CEM I

CEM II

CEM III
A

S
slag

59

W
D
Q
P
V
Silica pozzolana Calcined - Siliceous Calcareous
Fly ash
pozzolana
Fly ash
fume

CEM V

CEM IV

T
Burnt
shale

L
Lime
stone

LL
Pure
Lime
stone

M
All
types

European Standard EN 197

60

European Standard EN 197

Cement Component
1. Main component
2. Minor additional constituents
3. Calcium sulphate
4. Additives

61

TS EN 197-1
Main Component
K : Clinker
D : Silica Fume
P : Natural Pozzolan
Q : Calcined Natural Pozzolan
T : Calcined Shale
W : Class C Fly Ash
V : Class F Fly Ash
L : Limestone (Organic compound < 0.5%)
LL : Limestone (Organic compound < 0.2%)
S : Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Example: A fly ash mac should not be

used in a Portland- fly ash cement
(CEM II/B-V)

Minor additional constituents

EN 197 allows for the inclusion of up to 5% by mass of a minor
additional constituent (or mac) in all types of cement
Materials typically used as a mac include:
1. Finely ground limestone
2. Fly Ash
3. Cement kiln dust (CKD)

63

European Standard EN 197

Designation

Description

CEM I

Portland cement

CEM II

Portland-composite cements including:

-Portland-fly ash cement (CEM II/A-V, CEM II/B-V)
-Portland-slag cement (CEM II/A-S, CEM II/B-S)
-Portland-limestone cement (CEM II/A-L (LL),
CEM II/B-L (LL)

CEM III

Blast furnace cements (CEM III/A, CEM III/B)

CEM IV

Pozzolanic cements (CEM IV/A, CEM IV/B)

CEM V

Composite cements

64

CEM I Cement

Designation

Name

% Clinker

% Minor additional
constituents

CEM I

Portland
cement

95-100

0-5

(CEM I) is not (OPC)

65

Common CEM II Cements

Designation
Name
CEM II/A-L(LL)
CEM II/B-L(LL)
CEM II/A-D

Portlandsilica fume
cement

CEM II/A-V

Portland-fly
ash cement

CEM II/B-V
CEM II/A-P
CEM II/B-P
CEM II/A-S
66

Portlandlimestone
cement

CEM II/B-S

Portlandpozolana
cement
PortlandSlag cement

% of Sec.
Main
Constituent

%
Clinker

6-20

80-94

Limestone

21-35

65-79

Silica fume

6-10

90-94

6-20

80-94

21-35

65-79

6-20

80-94

pozolana

21-35

65-79

Slag

6-20

80-94

21-35

65-79

Second Main
Constituent

Fly ash

Common CEM II Cements

Designation
Name

Second Main
Constituent

CEM II/A-T

Portlandburnt shale
CEM II/B-T
cement

burnt shale

CEM II/A-M

Portlandcomposite
CEM II/B-M
cement

67

composite

% of Sec.
%
Main
Clinker
Constituent
6-20

80-94

21-35

65-79

6-20

80-94

21-35

65-79

CEM III Cements

Designation

CEM III/A
CEM III/B
CEM III/C

68

Name

Blast
furnace
cement

Second Main
Constituent

Blast furnace
slag

% of Sec.
Main
Constituent

%
Clinker

36-65 (A)

35-64

66-80 (B)

20-34

81-95 (C )

5-19

CEM IV Cements

Designation

Name

CEM IV/A
CEM IV/B Pozzolanic
cement

69

Second Main
Constituent

% of Sec.
Main
Constituent

%
Clinker

Fly ash,
natural
Pozzolana or
silica fume

11-35

65-89

36-55

45-64

CEM V Cements
Designation

Name

CEM V/A Composite

cement
CEM V/B

Additional
Main
Constituents
Two

% of
Additional
Constituents.

%
Clinker

(18 30) x 2

40-64

(31 50) x 2

20-38

Example
Composite cement with:18-30% ggbs (S) and 18-30%
siliceous fly ash (V) plus clinker; would be
designated as:
CEM V/A (S-V) 32,5N
70

CEMENTS DESIGNATED
Example: CEM II/A-LL 42.5 N
CEM II: Portland composite cement
A signifies low proportion of second
constituent (6-20% in this case)
L or LL signifies limestone as the
second main constituent (LL signifies
high purity limestone)
42.5 N: Cement strength class 42.5
Normal strength development
Portland-limestone cement
71

Strength Classes
There are three cement strength classes, based on
the minimum 28 day strength

32.5

42.5

52.5

On basis of strength development, each class can

be divided in to:
L: Low early strength
N: Normal strength development
R: High early strength

Example: class 32.5R

72

52.5N

Strength Classes

73

Strength
Class

Min.
2 Day

Min.
7 Day

Min.
28 Day

Max.
28 Day

32.5 N

16

32.5

52.5

32.5 R

10

32.5

52.5

42.5 N

10

42.5

62.5

42.5 R

20

42.5

62.5

52.5 N

20

52.5

52.5 R

30

52.5

Blast furnace cements

(CEM III/A, CEM III/B)
Strength
Class
32.5 L
42.5 L

Min.
2 Day
-

52.5 L

10

Min.
Min.
Max.
7 Day 28 Day 28 Day
12
32.5
52.5
16
42.5
62.5
-

52.5

These low early strength classes apply

only to ES 4756-1/2005 CEM III cements
74

Low Heat Cements

ES 4756-1/2005 now covers some low heat
cements
Low Heat is defined as a characteristic
heat of hydration not exceeding 270 J/g
(measured at 7 days (EN 196-8) or 41 hrs
(EN 196-9))
Low heat cements carry an LH suffix i.e.:
Example: CEM III/B 42.5R - LH
75

Cement Properties (Class 42.5N)

Property

Cement to be tested

Limiting Value

Initial set

All

Min 60 mins

Soundness

All

Max 10 mm

Loss on ignition

CEM I, CEM III

Max 5.0 %

Insoluble residue

CEM I, CEM III

Max 5.0 %

Sulphate

CEM I, CEM II, CEM IV,

CEM V

Max 3.5 %

CEM III

Max 4 %

Chloride

All

Max 0.10 %

Pozzolanicity

CEM IV

Meets requirements

Composition

All

Meets requirements

Heat of hydration

Low heat common

cements

Max 270 J/g

76