SCALES:

Usually the word scale is used for an instrument used for drawing straight lines. But actually
in Engineers language scale means the proportion or ratio between the dimensions adopted
for the drawing and the corresponding dimensions of the object. It can be indicated in two
different ways. Example: The actual dimensions of the room say 10m x 8m cannot be
adopted on the drawing. In suitable proportion the dimensions should be reduced in order to
adopt conveniently on the drawing sheet. If the room is represented by a rectangle of 10cm x
8cm size on the drawing sheet that means the actual size is reduced by 100 times.
Representing scales: The proportion between the drawing and the object can be represented
by two ways as follows:
a) Scale: - 1cm = 1m or 1cm=100cm or 1:100
b) Representative Fraction: - (RF) = 1/100 (less than one) i.e. the ratio between the size of
the drawing and the object.
There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as
1. Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the actual
dimensions of the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one)
2. Full scale: Some times the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on the drawing
then in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).
3. Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside parts of a wrist
watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger than the actual dimensions of
the objects then in that case it is represented by scale and RF as
Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one)
Note: The scale or R.F of a drawing is given usually below the drawing. If the scale adopted
is common for all drawings on that particular sheet, then it is given commonly for all figures
under the title of sheet.
Types of Scales and their constructions:
When an unusual proportion is to be adopted and when the ready made scales are not
available then the required scale is to be constructed on the drawing sheet itself. To construct
the scale the data required is 1) the R.F of the scale 2) The units which it has to represent i.e.
millimetres or centimetres or metres or kilometres in M.K.S or inches or feet or yards or
miles in F.P.S) The maximum length which it should measure. If the maximum length is not
given, some suitable length can be assumed.
The maximum length of the scale to be constructed on the drawing sheet =
R.F X maximum length the scale should measure.

This should be generally of 15 to 20 cms length.

Table: Metric Units Table: FPS Units
1 Kilometre (km) =10 Hecta metres (hm)
1 Hectametere(hm) =10 Decametres(dam)or 0.1km
1 Decametre(dam) =10 Metres (m) or 0.1hm
1 Metre(m) =10Decimetres(dm) or 0.1dam
1 Decimetre(dm) =10 Centimetres(cm) or 0.1m
1 Centimetre(cm) =10 Millimetres (mm) or 0.1dm

1 Mile =8 Furlongs
1 Furlong =220 Yards
1Yard =3 Feet
1 Feet =12 Inches

The various types of scales used in practice are 1. Plain scales, 2. Diagonal scales, 3. Vernier
scales, 4. Comparative scales and 5. Scale of chords.
Plain Scales:
Plain scales read or measure upto two units or a unit and its sub-division, for example
centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm). When measurements are required upto first decimal,
for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm etc. It consists of a line divided into number of equal main parts
and the first main part is sub-divided into smaller parts. Mark zero (O) at the end of the first
main part. From zero mark numbers to the main parts or units towards right and give numbers
to the sub-divisions or smaller parts towards left. Give the names of the units and sub-units
below clearly. Indicate below the name of the scale and its R.F clearly.
The construction of the plain scale is explained below by a worked example.
1.

A 3 cm long line represents a length of 4.5 metres. Extend this line to measure upto 30
metres and show on it units of metre and 5 metre. Show the length of 22 metres on this
line.

i) The scale has to represent metre and 5 metres, hence it is a Plain scale.
ii) Given that 3cm represents 4.5metres or 450cm, Hence 1cm represents 450/3=150cm,
hence scale is 1cm=150cm or 1:150: R.F=1/150
iii) Maximum length to read is 30metres; Length of the scale is 20cm. i.e. (1/150)x30x100 =
20cm
Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 6 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 5 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 22 metres,
take 4 main parts to represent 20 metres and 2 small parts to represent 2metres. Give names
as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 22 metres as shown.
Note: Assume height of the plain scale as 1 cm.

2. Construct a plain scale of 1:5 to show decimeters and centimeters and to read upto 1
metre. Show the length of 7.4 decimetres on it.

i) The scale has to represent decimetre and 1/10 of decimeter.

ii) Given that the scale is 1:5 that is R.F=1/5
iii) Maximum length to read is 1 metre; Length of the scale=(1/5)x1x100=20cm
Construction:
Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 10 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 10 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 7.4
decimetres, take 7 main parts to represent 7 decimetres and 4 small parts to represen0t 0.4
decimetres. Give names as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 7.4 decimetres as
shown.

Diagonal Scales:
Diagonal scales are used to read or measure upto three units.
For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) or miles, furlongs and
yards etc. This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be accurately
measured or when measurements are required upto second decimal.
For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.
Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as explained
below:
Principle of diagonal scale: To divide a given line AB into small divisions in multiples of
1/10 its length for example 0.1AB; 0.2AB etc. as shown in

Procedure:
i) Draw AB of given length
ii) At one end, say at B draw a line perpendicular to AB.
iii) Mark 10 equal divisions by taking some convenient length starting from B and ending
with C.
iv) Give numbers from 9, 8, 7----1 as shown.
v) Join C to A and from 9 to 1, draw parallels to AB, cutting AC at 9, 8, ------ 1 etc.
vi) From the similar triangles 11C, 22C ------- 99C and ABC, C5=(1/2)BC=0.5BC and
55=(1/2)AB=0.5AB. Similarly 11=0.1AB, 22=0.2AB etc

Thus each horizontal line below AB will be shorter by (1/10)AB, giving lengths in multiples
of 0.1AB
1. An area of 144 sqcm on a map represents an area of 9 sqkm on the field. Find the
R.F.of the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers,
hectametres and decameters and to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the scale a
distance of 3 kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6 decametres or 3.56km.
The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.
Take square root on both sides. Then 12cm=3 km or Scale is 1 cm= 0.25km or 2.5x10 4 cm;
RF=1/(2.5x104)
Length of the scale to read upto 5 km is RF X 5 km= 1/(2.5x104) X 5x105 =20cm

Construction:

Draw a line AB of 20 cm and construct a rectangle on it, by taking AD 5cm as shown. Divide
AB into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting with 0 to 4 towards right
side to indicate kilometers (km). Divide 0A into 10 equal parts, each part represents a
hectametre (hm). Divide AD into 10 equal parts, each part represents one decametre (dam).
Join diagonals as shown.
To mark 3.56km, take it as sum of 3.50km and 0.06km. On the plain scale take 3.5km and on
the diagonal at 5 upto 6 parts diagonally which is equal to 0.06km, giving a total of 3.56km
as shown by MN.
Note: Assume the height of the diagonal scale AD as 5cm for dividing it into 10 equal parts
conveniently.

Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with great accuracy.
It consists of two parts a primary scale and a vernier. The primary scale is a plain scale fully
divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the
help of the vernier.
The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.

Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale in which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we
divide A-O into ten equal parts, each will be of 1 cm. Now it would not be easy to divide each
of these parts into ten equal divisions to get measurements in millimeters.
Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11 such equal parts, thus representing 11 cm,
and divide it into ten equal divisions, each of these divisions will represent 11 / 10 1.1 cm.
The difference between one part of AO and one division of BO will be equal 1.1 1.0 = 0.1
cm or 1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this scale. The upper scale BO is the vernier. The
combination of plain scale and the vernier is vernier scale.
1. Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read centimeters upto 4 meters and on it, show
lengths 2.39 m and 0.91 m
Length of scale = RF X max. Distance
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100
= 16 cm
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 16 cm long.
Divide it in 4 equal parts.
( each will represent meter )
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts.
( each will represent decimeter )
Name those properly.

CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)
Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in
10 equal parts.
Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm
and construct a rectangle
Covering these parts of vernier.

TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:

(1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4 m
The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero) is 2.39 m
(2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 0.11 =0.80 m
The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is 0.91 m

2. A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of 6250 sq.Kms. Construct a vernier
scale to measure kilometers, hectometers and decameters and long enough to measure upto 7
km. indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59 decameters.

RF=

AREA OF DRAWING
AREA OFACTUAL
RF=

500 X 50 cm sq
6250 km sq

Length of scale = RF X max. Distance

= 2 / 105 X 7 kms = 14 cm
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale)
Draw a line 14 cm long.
Divide it in 7 equal parts.
( each will represent km )
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal parts.
( each will represent hectometer )
Name those properly.
TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:

CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)
Take 11 parts of hectometer part length
and divide it in 10 equal parts.
Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm and
Covering in a rectangle complete scale.

a) For 5.33 km : Subtract 0.33 from 5.33 i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
The distance between 33 dm ( left of Zero) and 5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
(b) For 59 dm : Subtract 0.99 from 0.59 i.e. 0.59 0.99 = - 0.4 km ( - ve sign means left of
Zero)The distance between 99 dm and - .4 km is 59 dm (both left side of Zero)