Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates contain 3 elements:

Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Carbohydrates are found in one of three forms:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides (both sugars)
Polysaccharides
The group includes monomers, dimers and polymers, as shown in this diagram:

Monosaccharides
General formula:
(CH2O)n where n is a number between 3 and 9.
They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms. (3 to 6
carbon atoms)
The
C=
C=
C=
C=

main types of monosaccharides are:

3 = triose
4 = tetrose
5 = pentose (e.g. ribose and deoxyribose)
6 = hexose (e.g glucose, fructose and galactose)

Chain form:

Ring form:
Two forms of the same chemical are known as isomers, and the extra variety
provided by the existence of and isomers has important biological
consequences, as we shall see in the structures of starch, glycogen and cellulose.

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All monosaccharides have two things:

A carbonyl group, or a carbon that forms a double bond with an oxygen,
written as C=O, and two other atom friends that we call A and B (4 bonds
total for carbon)
Some hydroxyl groups (OH).
They all: are soluble in water, are sweet tasting and form crystals.
Roles of monosaccharides
Used as source of energy in respiration, this is due to large number of
carbon-hydrogen bonds. These bonds can be broken to release a lot of
energy, which is transferred to help make ATP from ADP and phosphate.
The most important monosaccharide in energy metabolism is glucose.
Important as building blocks for larger molecules. E.g. Ribose(a pentose) is
one of the molecules used to make RNA and ATP. Deoxyribose is one of the
molecules used to make DNA.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined together by a
glycosidic bond by the process of condensation. E.g. two molecules of -glucose
and -fructose combine to make the disaccharide sucrose
There are three common disaccharides:
-Sucrose: glucose + fructose
Sucrose is the transport sugar in plants and the sugar commonly bought in shops
-Lactose: glucose + galactose
Lacotse is the sugar found in milk and therefore is important constituent of the
diet of young mammals
-Maltose: glucose + glucose.

Biochemical tests
-All monosaccharides and some disaccharides including maltose and lactose are
reducing sugars. These can be tested for, by adding Benedict's reagent to the
sugar and heating in a water bath. If a reducing sugar is present, the solution
turns green, then yellow and finally produces a brick red precipitate.
-Non-reducing sugars can also be tested for using Benedict's reagent but first
require addition of an acid and heating to hydrolyse (break apart) the sugar. The
acid must then be neutralized using an alkali like sodium hydroxide before
carrying out the test as described above.
Polysaccharides (not sugars)
Polysaccharides are polymers whose subunits (monomers) are monosaccharides.
They are made by joining many monosaccharide molecules by condensation. The
final molecule may be several thousand monosaccharide units long, forming a
macromolecule.

The most important are (all of which are polymers of glucose):

Starch
(in animals)
Function: Main storage polysaccharide in plants. (found in chloroplasts)
Structure: Made of 2 polymers - amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose: a polymer of glucoses joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds. The chains are
curved and coil up into helical structures like springs, making the final molecule
more compact.
Amylopectin: a polymer of glucoses joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds but the
chains are shorter than amylose, and branch out to the sides. The branches are
formed by -1,6-glycosidic bonds.
Relationship of structure to function:
Insoluble therefore good for storage.
Helix is compact.
Glycogen (in plants)
Function: Main storage polysaccharide in animals and fungi
Structure: Similar to amylopectin but with many more branches which are also
shorter.
Relationship of structure to function:
The number and length of the branches means that it is extremely compact and
very fast hydrolysis.
Cellulose
Function: Main structural constituent of plant cell walls
Strucutre:
The arrangement of the B-glucose molecules results in a strong molecule
because the hydrogen atoms of OH groups are weakly attracted to
oxygen atoms in the same cellulose molecule.
Between 60 and 70 cellulose molecules become tightly cross.linked to form
bundles called microfibils. These Microfibrils are bunched with other
Microfibrils, held by more Hydrogen bonds, to form Macrofibrils.
Relationship of structure to function:
The microfibrils are strong and so are structurally important in plant cell walls.
For example, in Guard Cell Walls, the arrangement of microfibrils allows the
Stomata to open and close. Cell walls can also be reinforced with other
substances, or made waterproof.
Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide found in nature It has a structural
role, being a mechanically strong molecule, unlike starch and glycogen. However,
the only difference between cellulose and starch and glycogen is that cellulose is
a polymer of B-glucose, not a-glucose.
Functions of carbohydrates
Substrate for respiration (glucose is essential for cardiac tissues).
Intermediate in respiration (e.g. glyceraldehydes).
Energy stores (e.g. starch, glycogen).
Structural (e.g. cellulose, chitin in arthropod exoskeletons and fungal walls).
Transport (e.g. sucrose is transported in the phloem of a plant).
Recognition of molecules outside a cell (e.g. attached to proteins or lipids on
cell surface membrane).
Biochemical test

Iodine solution or potassium iodide solution can be used to test for the presence
of starch. A positive result changes the solution from an orange-brown to a blueblack colour.