UNIT III

Commonly used Stones in India.

Marble:
Origin and composition: - it is a most common variety of metamorphic rock. It is formed from
crystallized limestone by metamorphism\, chemically, it is calcareous and is chiefly composed of
calcium carbonate.
Following are the properties of marble:_
its crushing strength is from 500 to 600 kg/cm2
the usual color of marble is white, but it is also available in different shades of colors such as
grey, black, red, brown, yellow and combination of these
it is compact and crystalline in structure due to which it can take a fine polish
it is les durable
Itcan be carved easily and thus is most suited for sculpture work.
its specific gravity is 2.72 its weight 2720 kg/cum
its absorption is 1 to 3%
Chief uses:- used as building stone and in decorative panels

Sandstone:
Origin and composition:-This stone is a common variety of sedimentary rocks mechanical
origin. it is physically, stratified and chemically, siliceous in siliceous in nature, it is chiefly
composed of quartz (grains of sand) bound together by a cementing material, but other minerals
such as felspar, mica, magnetite etc. are also present.
Properties:- following are the properties of sand stone: it's crushing strength is 400 to 650 kg/cm2
It is white, grey, yellow, light brown, and red in color.
Its specific gravity is 2.3 to 2.4. Its weight is nearly 2350 kg/cu m.
Chief uses: - general walls building flagstone.

Slate:
its crushing strength varies from 700 to 2100 kg/cm2
it is hard tough and is least absorptive
It also offers good abrasive resistance.
It is a good heat and electrical insulator.
Its water absorption varies from 0.5 to 1%.
Following are the uses of slate.
It is a valuable material for roofing and black boards.
Thick slabs of harder variety of slates are used for flooring steps shelves mental pieces sills of
doors and window etc.
slate a available at the available at the following localities in India:_ o simla, kangra, gurgaon,
Gurdaspur, Alwar, Rajasthan, (MP) (Haryana) (Gujarat
Basalt: Origin and Composition: these stones are the common varieties of igneous rocks they are
formed by solidification of lava on the earths surface due to volcanic eruption. Some basalts
develop step like appearance and are known as traps. They are chiefly composed of silica,
alumina and felspar.
Properties:- Following are the properties of basalt and trap
Their crushing strength is 700 to 850 kg/sq.cm.
They are hard and tough
They are greenish grey to dark grey in color.
Their specific gravity (2-9 to 2.96) is more than that of granite their weight is nearly
2900kg/cm3.
They are available as a vast deposit of basaltic rock, near the western Ghats of India, known as
Deccan trap. They are also available at Rajmahal Hills (Bihar) known as Rajmahal Trap.
Varieties of basalts jike, Bombay Basalt, Blue basalt, red basalt and yellow basalt are found and
used in Maharasatra, Gujarat etc.

Limestone : Color :- White light grey to light buff.

 Texture :- fine to crystalline, may have fossils

Parting :-parallel to beds: also may have irregular fractures.
Hardness:- fairly soft steel easily catches
May show fossils.
All lime stone are of sedimentary origin and have for their principal ingredient carbonate of
lime.
When clay is present, the stone is called argillaceous limestone; when silica predominates,
siliceous limestone; when iron is prevalent, ferruginous limestone; when magnesia is present to
the extent of 15 per cent.

Granite: Granite is one of the most valuable stones for construction purposes. Although the quality of
granite varies according to the proportions of the constituents and to their method of aggregation,
this kind of stone is generally durable,strong, and hard.
The hardest and most durable granites contain a greater proportion of quartz anda smaller
proportion of feldspar and mica. Feldspar makes granite more susceptible to decomposition by
the solution potash contained in it, potash feldspar being less durable than lime or soda feldspar.
Because of its uniform structure, granite can be quarried in large blocks. The rift, the grain, and
the joint planes are advantageous in quarrying, as it is very difficult to cut granite in other places.
The uses for which granite is suitable depend on the texture of the stone. Medium-grained stone
is best fitted for building construction. Fine-grained stone can be carved and polished.

Schist: Schist has a more crystalline structure than slate, and the crystals are easily seen. It is composed
chiefly of minerals that cleave readily, such as hornblende, mica, etc., mixed with a variable
amount of granular quartz and feldspar. The presence of the cleavage minerals produces a fine
cleavage or foliation, called schistosity.
Schist is sometimes used in building construction but it disintegrates very rapidly and is not
durable. It should always be set with the planes of schistosity horizontal.

Gneiss Gneiss is a coarse-grainedlaminated rock.

It is formed by metamorphism of either sedimentary or igneous rock.
It is oftenused as structural material and as concrete aggregate.

Shale Shale is a typical clay rock that splits readily in lines parallel to the bedding.
Sand and lime carbonate are always present in this stone and, with increase of either, the rock
grades into shaly sandstone or shaly limestone.
Shale is used for light traffic roads and in the manufacture of brick,tile, and other burned clay
products, but it is not suitable for concrete aggregate.

Conglomerate Stratified rock composed of rounded pebbles of any material, such as limestone, quartz, shale,
granite grains, feldspar, etc., cemented together is known as conglomerate.
When the pebbles are quartz with siliceous binding the rock is strong and hard to quarry or
dress.
When the interstices between the pebbles are not filled by the binder, the rock is very porous,
and may hold great amounts of ground water.
This stone is seldom used in building construction

STONE MASONRY
Definition: The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone
masonry.

Types of Stone Masonry:

Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1) Rubble Masonry
2) Ashlar Masonry

Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable
mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness. Rubble
masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:

1. Random rubble masonry

2. Squared rubble masonry
3. Dry rubble masonry
Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed
stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further random rubble masonry is also divided
into the following three types:
a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which
stones are laid without forming courses is known as un coursed random rubble
masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of masonry and is of varying
appearance. The stones used in this masonry are of different sizes and shapes.
before lying, all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical
joints are not plumbed, joints are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at
corners and at jambs to increase their strength. Once "through stone" is used for
every square meter of the face area for joining faces and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary
buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones
are laid in layers of equal height is called random rubble masonry. In this
masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level courses. Headers of one coursed
height are placed at certain intervals. The stones are hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary
walls etc.
c.
Squared rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints
and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called squared
rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.
d. Coursed Square rubble masonry: The square rubble masonry in which chisel
dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square rubble masonry. This is a
superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists of stones, which are squared on all

joints and laid in courses. The stones are to be laid in courses of equal layers. and
the joints should also be uniform.
Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools, markets,
modern residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good quality of stone is
easily available.
e. Un coursed square rubble masonry: The squared rubble in masonry which
hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is called un coursed
square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are squared on all joints and
beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be laid are of different sizes.
Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas where a
good variety of stones are cheaply available.
3) Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar
is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry and
is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more,
three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.

2. Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as
ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular,
thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of
stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and
abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry
Random coarse ashlars masonry
Rough tooled ashlar masonry
Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
Chamfered ashlars masonry
Block in coarse masonry
Ashlar facing
Ashlar fine or coarsed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same
height in each course are used. Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is

uniform throughout. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labor and
wastage of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone
masonry.
Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed
ashlar but the courses are of varying thick nesses, depending upon the character of the building.
Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough
tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled
type except that there is chisel-drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry
faced.
Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are beveled or
chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm or more.
Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an
intermediate place between rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed.
It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.
Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry is
very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall, except in
works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest
in rubble.

METHODOLOGY
1. The stone used shall be hard, durable and tough. All stones should be laid on its natural bed.
2. The pressure acting on the stones should not act parallel to the bedding planes. This will try to
split the stones. Sometimes stones used in corbels are laid with pressure acting parallel tobedding
planes.
3.The bond stones and headers should not be of dumb-bell shape.
4. Large flat stones should be laid under the ends of girders, roof trusses, etc.
5. In all slopping retaining walls, the beds of the stones and the plan of the courses should be at
right angles to the slope.
6. All laid fine dressed stone work should be protected against damage during further
construction by means of wooden boxes.
7. Jambs for door and window openings should be made of quoins which are equal in height to
the course. They should be in breadth equal to at least 1 times the height of the course and
their length should be at least twice the height.

8. All the surfaces should be kept wet while the work is in progress and also till the mortar has
set.
9. Double scaffolding will be used wherever it is difficult to fit in the stones later on.
10. All the portions of the masonry should be raised uniformly. Wherever this is not possible, the
stone work built earlier shoul d be raked (stepped) so that the new work can be bonded well with
the old.
11. Sufficient through stones should be used and they should form th of the area in elevation.
12. The hearting of the masonry should be properly packed with mortar and chips, if necessary
to avoid any hollows or very thick mortar joints.
13. Vertical faces of the masonry walls should be checked with a plumb rule and the battered
faces should be tested with wooden template corresponding to the batter and a plumb rule to
ensure a constant batter.
14. The stones used in the masonry should be wetted before use to avoid moisture being sucked
from the mortar.
15. Masonry should not be allowed to take tension.
JOINTS IN STONE MSONRY
1. Butt Joint or Square Joint
This is the most commonly used joint in stone masonry. The dressed edges of two
adjacent stones are placed side by side.
2. Rebated or Lapped Joint
This type of joint is provided in arches, gables, copings etc., to prevent the possible
movement of the stones. The length of the rebates or lap depends upon the nature of the
work, but it should not be less than 70mm.
3. Tongue and Grooved Joint or Joggle Joint
This type of joint is provided to prevent sliding along the side joints. The joint is made by
providing projection or tongue in one stone and a corresponding groove or sinking on the
adjacent stone.
4. Tabled or Bed Joint
This joint is used to prevent lateral movement of stones such as in sea walls where the
lateral pressure is heavy. The joint is made by forming a joggle in the bed of the stone.
The height of the projection is kept about 30 to 40 mm, while the width is kept equal to
above ? the breadth of the stone.

5. Cramped Joint
The joint uses metal cramp instead of dowels. Holes made in the adjacent stones should
be of dovetail shape. The cramps are usually of non-corrosive metals such as gunmetal,
copper etc with their ends turned down to a depth of 4 to 5 cm. The length, width and
thickness of cramps vary from 20 to 30cm, 2 to 4 cm and 5 mm to 10 mm respectively.
Wrought iron cramps may also be used but they must be either galvanized or dipped in
oil while hot, to prevent their corrosion. After placing the cramps in position, the joint is
grouted and covered with cement, lead or asphalt. Cramps prevent the tendency of the
joints to open out due to slippage of the stones.
6. Plugged Joint
This is an alternative to cramped joints. It consists of making plug holes of dovetail shape
in the sides of adjacent stones. After placing the adjacent stones, a common space for
plug is formed which is filled with molten lead. Sometimes, rich cement grout is used in
the place of molten lead.
7. DowelledJoint
This is a simple type of joint used to ensure stability of the adjacent stones against
displacement or sliding. The joint is formed by cutting rectangular holes in each stone
and inserting dowels of hard stone, gun metal, brass, or copper. These dowels are set in
cement mortar.
8. Rusticated Joint
This joint is used in those stones whose edges are sunk below the general level, such as
for plinth, quoin, outer walls of lower storeys etc. Such a joint gives massive appearance
to the structure.
9. Saddled or Water Joint
This type of joint is used in cornices and such others weathered surfaces, to divert the
water moving on the weathered surface away from the joint. The saddle is beveled
backwards from the front edge .

COMPARISION OF BRICKSTONE AND STONEWORK:

At places where stones are not easily available but where there is plenty of clay,
brickwork becomes cheaper than stonework.
The cost of construction works out to be less in case of brickwork than stonework as less
skilled labour is required in the construction of brickwork.
No lifting devices are necessary to carry bricks as they
Can be easily moved by manual labour.
The bricks resist various atmospheric effects better than stones.

 In case of brickwork, the mortar joints are thin and hence the structure becomes more
durable.