Applied Optics

LASER

Interaction of radiation with matter

Ruby Laser
PHYSICS - VOL 2 by
Halliday, Resnick
He-Neon Laser
and Krane (5
Edition)
Applications of Laser
th

OPTICAL FIBERS
Angle of Acceptance and Numerical
Aperture
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
S P Basavaraju
Types of Optical Fibers
Types of Attenuation
Applications of Optical Fibers

BASICS OF
LASERS AND LASER LIGHT
L ight
A mplification by
S timulated
E mission of
R adiation

CHARACTERISTIC OF THE LASER LIGHT

1. Monochromaticity
The light emitted by a laser is almost pure in color,
almost of a single wavelength or frequency.

2. Coherence

3. Directionality

The degree of directionality of a laser light is due to

the geometrical design of the laser cavity and to the
monochromaticity and coherent nature of light
generated in the cavity.

4. LIGHT INTENSITY

The intensity of laser light is very high. For example

intensity of light from a 1mW Helium- Neon laser is
hundreds of times more than the light starting from an
equal area on the surface of sun.
5. FOCUSIBILITY
Focusing light to a tiny , diffraction limited spot is a
challenge. Due to the incoherence and non point
source, it is difficult to focus the ordinary light to tiny
spot. But as laser emits intense, coherent light that
appears to come from distant point source, it can be
focused to a diffraction limited spot.

LASER

(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

Characteristics of laser light:

Laser light is highly
monochromatic, highly coherent, highly directional and can be
sharply focused.

Interaction of radiation with matter

Absorption: Absorption of a photon of frequency f takes
place when the energy difference E2 E1 of the allowed
energy states of the atomic system equals the energy hf of
the photon. Then the photon disappears and the atomic
system moves to upper energy state E2.

Spontaneous Emission:
In an ordinary light source, the radiation of light from
different atoms is not coherent. The radiations are emitted in
different directions in random manner. Such type of emission
of radiation is called spontaneous emission.

Stimulated Emission:
In stimulated emission, both the stimulating photon and the
emitted photon are of same frequency, same phase, are in
same state of polarization and in the same direction. In other
words, these two photons are coherent. Thus amplified
radiation (or Laser light) is obtained by stimulated emission.

Spontaneous and Stimulated emission

1. Emission take place
without external
agency.
2. Independent of
incident light intensity

1. Emission take place

with external agency
namely photon of right
frequency
2. Dependent on incident
light intensity.

3. Transition take place

b/n two states

3. Transition take place

b/n two or three states

4. Ordinary light radiation

is emitted

4. Laser
radiation
emitted

is

Population inversion: Boltzmann

statistics
gives
population of atoms in various energy states at temp T.

the

E2 E1
nE2

exp
nE1
kT

k = Boltzmann constant. n(E1) = density of atoms with energy

E1 , n(E2) = density of atoms with energy E2 .
n(E2) < n(E1)
if
E2 > E1 (Figure a).
This is the normal condition in which the population of the
atoms in upper energy state is less than that in lower
energy state.
For the stimulated emission rate to exceed the absorption
rate, it is necessary to have higher population of upper
energy state than that of lower energy state. This condition
is called population inversion [n(E2) > n(E1)] (Figure b).
This is a non equilibrium condition and is facilitated by the
presence of metastable states.

Metastable state: A metastable state is an excited energy

state of an atomic system from which spontaneous
transitions to lower states is forbidden (not allowed by
quantum mechanical selection rules).
The average life
time of the atomic system in the metastable state is of
the order of 103 s which is much longer than that in an
ordinary excited state.
Stimulated transitions from the metastable state are
allowed. An excited atomic system goes to metastable state
(usually a lower energy state) due to transfer of its extra
energy by collision with another atomic system.

Thus, it is possible to have population inversion of

atomic systems in a metastable state relative to a lower
energy state.

Principle of a Laser:
The main parts of a laser are lasing medium, resonant cavity
and pumping system.
In a laser the medium chosen to amplify light is called
lasing medium (active medium). The atomic systems in this
medium may have energy levels including a ground state
(E1), an excited state (E3) and a metastable state (E2).

The resonant cavity is a pair of parallel mirrors to reflect

the radiation back into the lasing medium.
Pumping is a process of exciting more number of atoms
in the ground state to higher energy states, which is
required for attaining the population inversion.

Ruby Laser :
In Ruby laser the lasing medium is a ruby rod. Pure Ruby is
Al2O3. For using it in laser, it is doped with Cr2O3.

Cr3+ ions are the active centers, which has approximately similar
energy level structure as shown below.

The ends of the rod are cut exactly parallel and polished. One end
face is fully silvered and the other partially silvered.
The rod along with the silvered end faces serve as a resonant
cavity.
A helical Xenon flash lamp surrounds the rod. When a current
pulse is made to pass through lamp, it flashes an intense pulse of
light.

Cr3+ ions in their ground level E1 absorb these photons and are
excited to level E3.
The atoms in the state E3 may come down to state E1 by
spontaneous emission or they may come down to meta-stable
state (E2) by collision.
The atoms in the state E2 come down
to state E1 by stimulated emission.
When population inversion takes place
at E2, a stray photon of right energy
stimulates
chain
reaction,
accumulates more photons, all
coherent.
The reflecting ends turn the coherent beam back into active
region so that the regenerative process continues and part of the
light beam comes out from the partially silvered mirror as a laser
pulse. The output is an intense pulse of coherent light of
wavelength 694.3nm.

He-Ne Laser
He-Ne Laser has a
gas
discharge
tube
filled with He (80%)
and
Ne (20%)
at
low
pressure. He-gas is the
pumping medium and Negas is the lasing medium.
The simplified energy level
diagram shows 4 levels: Eo,
E1, E2 and E3.
Electrons and ions in
the electrical gas discharge
occasionally collide with Heatoms, raising them to level
E3 (a metastable state).
18

During
collisions
between He- and
Ne- atoms, the
excitation energy (E3 = 20.61eV) of He-atom is transferred to
Ne-atom (level E2 = 20.66eV). Thus, population inversion
occurs between levels E2 and E1. This population inversion
between E2 and E1 is maintained because:
(1) the metastability of level E3 ensures a ready supply of
Ne-atoms in level E2 and
(2) level E1 decays rapidly to Eo.
Stimulated
emission
from
level E2
to
level
E1
predominates, and red laser light of wavelength 632.8nm is
generated. The mirror M1 is fully reflective and the mirror M2
is partially reflective to allow the laser beam to come out.
The Brewsters windows W & W are at polarizing angles to
the mirrors, to reduce the reflection loss and make the laser
light linearly polarized.
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APPLICATIONS OF LASER
Laser is used in various scientific, engineering and medical
applications.
It is used in investigating the basic laws of interaction of
atoms and molecules with electromagnetic wave of high
intensity.
Laser is widely used in engineering applications like optical
communication, micro-welding and sealing etc.
In medical field, laser is used in bloodless and painless
surgery especially in treating the retinal detachment.
Also used as a tool in treating dental decay, tooth extraction
and cosmetic surgery.
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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

LASER IN EXPERIMENT

MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

MILLITARY LASER EXPERIMENT

MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

23

LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

LASER PLAY [ LASER SHOW ]

MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

24

LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

LASER CUTTING

MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

25

LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

LASER IN
PRINTER

DERMATOLOGICAL
LASER
MIT- MANIPAL

DIODE
LASER
BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

26

LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

COMMERCIAL LASER LINES

MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT

ATOMIC PHYSICS

WARNING:
LASER AREA

WARNING:
LASER IN OPERATION
WEAR SAFTY GOGGLES
MIT- MANIPAL

BE-PHYSICS-ATOMIC PHYSICS-2010-11

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QUESTIONS
1 Mention the characteristics of a laser beam.
[2]
2 Explain the following terms with reference to lasers:
(a) spontaneous emission
(b) stimulated emission
(c) metastable state
(d) population inversion
(e) pumping
(f) active medium
(g) resonant cavity.
[1 EACH]
3 Explain the principle of a laser.
[2]
4 Explain construction and working of ruby laser with necessary
diagrams.
[5]
5 Explain construction and working of He-Ne laser with
necessary diagrams.
[5]
6 Mention any four applications of laser.
[2]

OPTICAL FIBERS

OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical fibers are thin, flexible strands of transparent dielectric
material such as glass or plastic.
They are basically used to guide infrared & visible light waves
through curved paths.

Structure of optical fiber :

It consists of a central
cylindrical core made of pure
glass or plastic in composition
of refractive index n1
cladding made of similar
material but of lower refractive
index n2 (n2< n1).
There is a material continuity
from core to cladding.
The cladding is enclosed in a polyurethane jacket that protects
the fiber from external damaging factors such as abrasion,
crushing & chemical reactions.
Many such protected fibers are grouped to form a cable.
The diameter of the core varies between 10 to 200m that of
the cladding varies between 50 to 250m.

Principle of working :
Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection of
light.

When a beam of light traveling from optically denser medium to

rarer medium with the angle of incidence is greater than
particular angle called critical angle (C) for the pair of media,
the light undergoes total internal reflection.

Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture

Consider an optical fiber with refractive index of the material of
the core n1 and cladding n2 placed in a surrounding medium of
refractive index n0.
Let a ray AO of light enter the core of the fiber at an angle 0.
Let this ray after refraction through an angle 1 at O strikes the
interface between the core and the cladding at the critical angle
such that the refracted ray grazes the interface.

Applying Snells law of refraction at O, we have,

sin 0 n1

sin 1 n0

n1
i.e.,
sin 0 sin 1
..... (1)
n0
sin (90 1 )
n2
Similarly, applying Snells law at B,

sin 90
n1

i.e.,

n2
cos1
n1

or

sin 1

n22
1 2
n1

........ (2)

substituting Eq. (2) in Eq. (1) and simplifying we get,

1
sin 0
n0

n12 n22

0 is called the acceptance angle or half angle of the acceptance

cone. The term sin 0 is called numerical aperture (NA).

The acceptance angle is generally about 50 for a single mode

fiber & 100 to 150 for multi mode fibers.
The term sin0 is called numerical aperture (NA), which indicates
the light gathering power of the optical fiber.
It is evident that any ray that enters the fiber at an angle less than
0, strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle greater than the
critical angle and undergoes total internal reflection each time it
strikes the interface.
The optical fiber sustains the light signal transmission over a long
distance.

Fractional refractive index change ():

It is the ratio of the difference in the refractive indices (n1-n2)
between the core & the cladding to the refractive index n1 of the
core.

n1 n2

n1
Since n1 > n2, is always positive.

Relation between NA & :

We have

1
NA sin 0
n0

Assuming n0 = 1,

We also have

n12 n22

NA n12 n22

n1 n2

n1

Since n1 n2, we get

(n1 n2 )(n1 n2 )

or

(n1 n2 ) n1

NA ( n1 ) (2n1 ) n1 2

The light accepting capacity of a fiber can be increased by making

large. But there are practical limitations to achieve this. Also a
very large may cause signal distortion.

Skip distance (Ls)

Skip distance is the distance between two successive reflections
of the ray of light which propagates through the optical fiber.
Consider a portion of the optical fiber through which a light signal
is transmitted.

Ls d cot 1 d cosec21 1
Since

n0
sin 1
sin
n1

Ls d

n12
1
2
2
n0 sin

Number of modes of transmission through an optical fiber

Depending on the launch angle into the fiber, there can be
hundreds of ray paths by which energy can propagate down
the core.
The ray paths corresponding to a given wave front is called a
mode.
An optical fiber permits a discrete number of modes to
propagate through it.
Not all the rays that enter the acceptance cone sustain
propagation.

Only those rays that satisfy the coherent phase condition are
successfully propagated.

The measure of number of modes supported for propagation

through an optical fiber is determined by a parameter called the

V-number that is given by

d
V
n0

n12 n22

where d is the diameter of the core and is the wavelength of

the light propagated.

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Based on their refractive index profile, geometry, and ability to

support the number of modes for propagation optical fibers may be broadly classified into

a) single mode step index optical fibers

b) multi-mode step index optical fibers

c) multi-mode graded index optical fibers

Types of optical fibers

Based on their refractive index profile, geometry and ability to
support the number of modes for propagation
Single mode
step index
a) Geometry

b) Refractive
index profile.

Multi mode
step index

Multi mode
graded index
(GRIN)

c) Ray
propagation

d) I/p & O/P

signals
e) Refractive
index

Core & cladding are

uniform

Core & cladding are

uniform

Core is non uniform

cladding is uniform

f) Source

Laser

Laser or LED

Laser or LED

g) Cost

Less expensive

Least expensive

Most expensive

h) Application

Designed for longer

transmission distances,
making it suitable for
long-distance telephone,
submarine cable systems
and multi channel
television broadcast
systems

Designed for short

transmission
distances, and is
suited for use in
LAN systems and
video surveillance in
data links which has
lower bandwidth
requirements.

In telephone trunks
between offices

TYPES OF ATTENUATION

Attenuation is the loss of power of the light signal that occurs

during its propagation through the optical fiber.

The main sources of attenuation are

1. absorption
2. scattering
3. other losses

Absorption
Absorption of light during propagation occurs due to the
impurities present in the fiber material and also due to the
intrinsic nature of the material itself.

The impurities generally present are

a. Transition metals such as iron, chromium, cobalt, copper etc
present in the starting materials.
b. The hydroxy ions (OH-) that enter into the fiber material at

the time of fabrication.

The photons absorbed by the impurities may be lost as heat or

may be reemitted as light energy of different wavelengths and

different phase from the one that is propagated. Hence it results
in a loss.

Intrinsic absorption occurs by the pure material itself even if the

material is free from impurities and in-homogeneities.

Intrinsic absorption though quite less compared to the loss due

to the impurities, it cannot be eliminated.

Scattering

Glass is a heterogeneous mixture of oxides of silicon,

phosphorus, germanium etc.
Structural in-homogeneities in the core index will set in the fiber
material during solidification of glass from its molten state. It will
also result in a fluctuation of the molecular density.
These in-homogeneities act as scattering centers.
Since their dimensions are smaller than the wavelength of the
light propagated through the fiber, the energy loss that occurs
due to such scattering resemble Rayleigh scattering that is
proportional to 1/4.

The losses due to these scattering cannot be eliminated by any

process.
There are other structural in-homogeneities & defects that set in

during fabrication of the fiber that contribute to the loss due to

scattering.
Their sources are trapped gas bubbles, un-reacted starting
materials etc.
However these can be reduced to a great extent by improved

methods of manufacturing.

Other losses
a) Due to dimensional irregularities and imperfections in the

fibers (that are called microscopic bends) the light may not
sustain total internal reflection. The energy will escape from the
core.

b) Macroscopic bends occur during wrapping the fiber on a

spool or negotiating a curve during cable laying.
Fibers can withstand bends of curvature up to about 10cm
without significant loss.

For higher curvature (smaller radius of curvature) than this, the

loss increases exponentially.
Amplification is therefore needed in communication applications
at regular intervals in order to compensate for the losses that
occur despite all precautions.

An optical repeater is used to boost the signal.

APPLICATIONS
Optical communication:
In optical communication, fibers are used to carry information.
An optical communication system uses a transmitter, which
encodes a message into an optical signal, a channel (optical
fiber), which carries the signal to its destination, and a receiver,

which reproduces the message from the received optical signal.

Optical communication has several advantages can carry
large data in digital form, interference and noise free.

Simplified block diagram of optical communication system is

shown below

Optical fibers are also used in sensors, flexible fiberscope

(endoscope) and other industrial applications.

Questions:
7. What is total internal reflection?

[1]

8. Explain the following terms with reference to optical fibers:

(a) acceptance cone half-angle,
(b) numerical aperture,
(c) modes of propagation in an optical fiber.
[1 EACH]
9. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture in terms of
refractive index of core and cladding and then arrive at the
condition for ray propagation in an optical fiber. [5]
10. Define fractional refractive index change and obtain a
relation between & numerical aperture NA. [3]
54

11. What is skip distance? With neat diagram, derive an

expression for it.
[3]
12. Briefly explain the different types of optical fibers with
necessary diagrams.
[5]
13. Explain the different types of attenuations possible in
optical fibers? Explain them.
[4]
14. Mention any four applications of optical fiber.

[2]

55