Types of DC Generators

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Generally DC generators are classified according to the ways of excitation
of their fields. There are three methods of excitation.
1.
Field coils excited by permanent magnets Permanent magnet DC
generators.
2.
Field coils excited by some external source Separately excited DC
generators.
3.
Field coils excited by the generator itself Self excited DC
generators.
A brief description of these type of generators are given below.

Permanent Magnet DC Generator

When the flux in the

magnetic circuit is established by the help of permanent magnets then it
is known as Permanent magnet DC generator.
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets
situated around the armature. This type of dc generators generates very
low power. So, they are rarely found in industrial applications. They are
normally used in small applications like dynamos in motor cycles.

Separately Excited DC Generator

These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by some
external dc source such as battery .
A circuit diagram of separately excited DC generator is shown in figure. Ia
= Armature current IL = Load current V = Terminal voltage Eg =
Generated emf

Voltage drop in the armature = Ia Ra (R/sub>a is the armature

resistance) Let, Ia = IL = I (say) Then, voltage across the load, V = IRa
Power generated, Pg = EgI Power delivered to the external load, PL =
VI.

Self-excited DC Generators
These are the generators whose field magnets are energized by the
current supplied by themselves. In these type of machines field coils are
internally connected with the armature. Due to residual magnetism some
flux is always present in the poles. When the armature is rotated some
emf is induced. Hence some induced current is produced. This small
current flows through the field coil as well as the load and thereby
strengthening the pole flux. As the pole flux strengthened, it will produce
more armature emf, which cause further increase of current through the
field. This increased field current further raises armature emf and this
cumulative phenomenon continues until the excitation reaches to the
rated value. According to the position of the field coils the Self-excited DC
generators may be classified as
1.
Series wound generators
2.
Shunt wound generators
3.
Compound wound generators
Series Wound Generator
In these type of generators, the field windings are connected in series
with armature conductors as shown in figure below. So, whole current

flows through the field coils as well as the load. As series field winding
carries full load current it is designed with relatively few turns of thick
wire. The electrical resistance of series field winding is therefore very low
(nearly 0.5 ). Let, Rsc = Series winding resistance Isc = Current flowing
through the series field Ra = Armature resistance Ia = Armature current IL
= Load current V = Terminal voltage Eg = Generated emf

Then, Ia
= Isc = IL=I (say) Voltage across the load, V = Eg -I(IaRa) Power
generated, Pg = EgI Power delivered to the load, PL = VI
Shunt Wound DC Generators
In these type of DC generators the field windings are connected in parallel
with armature conductors as shown in figure below. In shunt wound
generators the voltage in the field winding is same as the voltage across
the terminal. Let, Rsh = Shunt winding resistance Ish = Current flowing
through the shunt field Ra = Armature resistance Ia = Armature current IL
= Load current V = Terminal voltage Eg = Generated emf

Here armature current Ia is dividing in two parts, one is shunt field current
Ish and another is load current IL. So, Ia=Ish + IL The effective power
across the load will be maximum when IL will be maximum. So, it is
required to keep shunt field current as small as possible. For this purpose
the resistance of the shunt field winding generally kept high (100 ) and
large no of turns are used for the desired emf. Shunt field current, I sh =
V/Rsh Voltage across the load, V = Eg-Ia Ra Power generated, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to the load, PL = VIL
Compound Wound DC Generator
In series wound generators, the output voltage is directly proportional
with load current. In shunt wound generators, output voltage is inversely
proportional with load current. A combination of these two types of
generators can overcome the disadvantages of both. This combination of
windings is called compound wound DC generator. Compound wound
generators have both series field winding and shunt field winding. One
winding is placed in series with the armature and the other is placed in
parallel with the armature. This type of DC generators may be of two
types- short shunt compound wound generator and long shunt compound
wound generator.
Short Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

The generators in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with the
armature winding as shown in figure.

Series field current, Isc = IL Shunt field current, Ish = (V+Isc Rsc)/Rsh
Armature current, Ia = Ish + IL Voltage across the load, V = Eg - Ia Ra - Isc
Rsc Power generated, Pg = EgIa Power delivered to the load, PL=VIL
Long Shunt Compound Wound DC Generator

The generators in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both series
field and armature winding as shown in figure.

Shunt field current, Ish=V/Rsh Armature current, Ia= series field current,

Isc= IL+Ish Voltage across the load, V=Eg-Ia Ra-Isc Rsc=Eg-Ia (Ra+Rsc)
[Ia=Ics] Power generated, Pg= EgIa Power delivered to the load, PL=VIL
In a compound wound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the
series field. When the series field assists the shunt field, generator is said
to be commutatively compound wound. On the other hand if series field
opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially
compound wound.

What is an Electric generator? (back to

basics)
February 19th, 2013 | Posted in Electrical distribution
Tags: compound generator, electric generator, shunt generator
Hi, the following article has been written by a member of the Electrical Engineering community who want to
contribute to the blog with this first article about electric generators.
Electric Generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy. The mechanical energy can
be supplied by the prime mover which combustion engine, steam engine, can water falling through turbine or
even an electric motor or any such mechanism that can be a source of mechanical energy. Usually this energy is
obtained from a rotating shaft that is also called the armature of the generator. The electric energy then produced
can be used for power transmission to commercial, industrial or even domestic level. Generators supply current
which usually has a frequency of 50 Hz, which is used here.

An electric generator has two parts:

Stator

Rotor
The stator comprises of the stationary magnetic poles, whereas the rotating armature is included in the rotor.

Working of an Electric Generator

Generators usually work on Faradays law of Electro Magnetic induction. This law explains that by rotating an
electric conductor in a magnetic field, an emf is induced, which creates a flow of charges. When the conductor
rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage difference is created between its two ends and the flux in it changes and
an emf is induced which is proportional to the rate of change of flux (e=-N d/dt) and hence the current flows.
The electric conductor rotating is called the armature of the generator.
This phenomenon is shown in the figure below:

When the side of the conductor is perpendicular to the magnetic fields, the rate of change of flux is minimum in it.

Types of Electric generator

There are five major types of electric generators, classified according to the manner in which their field flux is
produced:
1) Separately Excited Generator: In a separately excited generator, the field flux is derived from a separate
power source independent of the generator itself.

2) Shunt Generator: In a shunt Generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the field circuit directly across
the terminals of the generator.
3) Series generator: In series Generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the field circuit in series with
the armature of the generator.
4) Commutatively Compound Generator: In commutatively compounded generator, both a shunt and a series
field are present and their efforts are additive.
5) Differentially compound Generator: In a differentially compounded generator, both a shunt and a series field
are present, but their efforts are subtracted.

1. Separately Excited Generator

The equivalent circuit of a separately excited generator is shown below:

Here the total voltage is represented by VT.

Ia is the armature current and Va is the armature voltage. IL is the load current and EA is the induced emf. The
relation between them is given as:
V T = E A I a Ra
Where IL = Ia.
Its output characteristics are the graph of IL versus EA.

This graph is ideally a straight line but usually deviates due to the armature reaction.

2. Shunt Generator
A shunt generator is a generator that supplies its own field current by having its field connected directly across
the terminals of the machine. The equivalent circuit of a shunt generator is shown below:

In the circuit, the armature current of the machine supplies both the field circuit and the load attached to the
machine. The relation between the three currents is as follow:
Ia = I F + I L
Where;
Ia = armature current.

IF = field circuit current

IL = load current
The Kirchhoffs voltage law equation for the armature circuit of this machine is:
V T = E A I A RA
This type of generator has a distinct advantage over the separated excited generator that no external power
supply is required for the field circuit.
The Graph of its output characteristics is as follows:

3. Series Generator
The series generator is the generator whose field is connected in series with its armature. Since its armature has
a much higher current than the shunt field, the series field winding will only have a few turns but a thicker wire.
Its equivalent circuit is shown below:

Here: IA = IL = IS.

And its Kirchhoffs law equation is written as:

VT = EA IA (RA + RS)
The graph of its output characteristics is as shown:

4. Commutatively Compounded Generator

A commutatively compounded generator is one in which there are both series and shunt fields, connected so that
the magneto motive forces from the two fields are such that they add up.
It can also be further divided into two categories:

Long Shunt Compound

Short Shunt Compound

The equivalent circuit for these types of generators is shown below:

The equations for a commutatively compound generator are:

IA = I F + I L
VT = EA IA (RA + RS)
The graph of the terminal characteristics of a commutatively compound Generator is as follow:

5. Differentially Compound Electric Generator

In this type of Generator, the shunt and series field windings, both are present but their magneto motive forces
produced are such that they subtract from each other and the net magneto motive force is much less. The
equivalent circuit of a differentially compound generator is more or less the same as the commutatively
compound generator, just the directions of the magneto motive forces produced inside the circuit are different. Its
current equations can be written as:
IF* = IF + Ieq
Its terminal voltage versus load current graph is as shown:

TYPES OF GENERATORS
4:40 PM Hanif Guntoro

Essentially, there are two basic types of generators:

DC generators
AC generators: Asynchronous (Induction) generators and Synchronous generators
INDUCTION GENERATORS
The induction generator is nothing more than an induction motor driven above its synchronous speed by an
amount not exceeding the full load slip the unit would have as a motor. Assuming a full load slip of 3%, a motor
with a synchronous speed of 1200 rpm would have a full load speed of 1164 rpm. This unit could also be driven
by an external prime mover at 1236 rpm for use as an induction generator.
The induction generator requires one additional item before it can produce power it requires a source of leading
VARs for excitation. The VARs may be supplied by capacitors (this requires complex control) or from the utility
grid. Induction generators are inexpensive and simple machines, however, they offer little control over their
output. The induction generator requires no separate DC excitation, regulator controls, frequency control or
governor.
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Synchronous generators are used because they offer precise control of voltage, frequency, VARs and WATTs.
This control is achieved through the use of voltage
regulators and governors. A synchronous machine consists of a stationary armature winding (stator) with many
wires connected in series or parallel to obtain the desired terminal voltage.
The armature winding is placed into a slotted laminated steel core. A synchronous machine also consists of a
revolving DC field - the rotor. A mutual flux developed across the air gap between the rotor and stator causes the
interaction necessary to produce an EMF. As the magnetic flux developed by the DC field poles crosses the air
gap of the stator windings, a sinusoidal voltage is developed at the generator output terminals. This process is
called electromagnetic induction.
The magnitude of the AC voltage generated is controlled by the amount of DC exciting current supplied to the
field. if FIXED excitation were applied, the voltage magnitude would be controlled by the speed of the rotor
(E=4.44fnBA), however, thismwould necessitate a changing frequency! Since the frequency component of the
power system is to be held constant, solid state voltage regulators or static exciters are commonly used to control
the field current and thereby accurately control generator terminal voltage.
The frequency of the voltage developed by the generator depends on the speed of the rotor and the number of
field poles. For a 60 Hz system, Frequency = speed(rpm)*pole pairs/60.

Electric Drives - AC Motors

(Description and Applications)

AC Motors

Polyphase Induction Motors

One third of the world's electricity consumption is used for running induction motors
driving pumps, fans, compressors, elevators and machinery of various types. The AC
induction motor is a common form of asynchronous motor whose operation depends
on three electromagnetic phenomena:

Motor Action - When an iron rod (or other magnetic material) is suspended in a
magnetic field so that it is free to rotate, it will align itself with the field. If the magnetic
field is moving or rotating, the iron rod will move with the moving field so as to maintain
alignment.
Rotating Field - A rotating magnetic field can be created from fixed stator poles by
driving each pole-pair from a different phase of the alternating current supply.
Transformer Action - The current in the rotor windings is induced from the current in
the stator windings, avoiding the need for a direct connection from the power source to
the rotating windings.

The induction motor can be considered as an AC transformer with a rotating

secondary winding.

Rotating Fields

Rotating magnetic fields are created by polyphase excitation of the stator

windings. In the example below of a 3 phase motor, as the current applied to the
winding of pole pair A (phase 1) passes its peak and begins to fall, the flux
associated with the winding also begins to weaken, but at the same time the
current in the winding of the next pole pair B (phase 2) and its associated flux is
rising. Simultaneously the current through the winding of the previous pole pair C
( phase 3) and its associated flux will be negative and rising (towards positive).
The net effect is that a magnetic flux wave is set up as the flux created by the
stator poles rotates from one pole to the next, about the axis of the machine, at
the frequency of the applied voltage. In other words, the rotating flux field
appears to the stator as the north and south poles of a magnet rotating about the
stator.

The magnitude of the rotating flux wave is proportional applied MMF. Ignoring the
effect of the back EMF set up by the induced currents in the rotor windings, the
flux density B will be proportional to the applied voltage.

History

Transformer Action

The stator carries the motor primary windings and is connected to the power
source. There are normally no external connections to the rotor which carries the
secondary windings. Instead the rotor windings are shorted.
When a current flows in the stator windings a current is induced in the shorted
secondary windings by transformer action. The magnitude of the rotor current will

be proportional to the flux density B in the air gap (and the relative motion, called
the slip, of the rotor with respect to the rotating field as we shall see below).
Torque is produced by the reaction between the induced rotor currents and the
air-gap flux created by the stator currents.
Many rotor types are used. The most popular AC motors use "squirrel cage"
rotors which are constructed from copper or aluminium bars fixed between
conducting end rings which provide the short circuit path for the currents induced
in the bars.

Since there are no connections to the rotating windings, the costly commutator
can be eliminated and with it, a potential source of unreliability.

History

Torque Generation (Motor Action)

When the motor is first switched on and the rotor is at rest, a current is induced in
the rotor windings (conductors) by transformer action. Another way of seeing this
is that the relative motion of the rotating flux passing over the slower moving
(initially static) rotor windings causes a current to flow in the windings
by generator action.
Once current is flowing in the rotor windings, the motor action due to the Lorentz
force on the conductors comes into effect. The reaction between the current
flowing in the rotor conductors and the magnetic flux in the air gap causes the
rotor to rotate in the same direction as the rotating flux as if it was being dragged
along by the flux wave.

Similar to the DC machine, the torque in an induction motor T is proportional to

the flux density B and the induced rotor current I. Thus
T = k1 BI
Where k1 is a constant depending on the number of stator turns, the number of
phases and the configuration of the magnetic circuit.

The rotor speed builds up due to the motor action described above, but as it does
so, the relative motion between the rotating stator field and the rotating rotor
conductors is reduced. This in turn reduces the generator action and thus the
current in the rotor conductors and the torque on the rotor. As the speed of the
rotor approaches the speed of the rotating field, known as the synchronous
speed, the torque on the rotor drops to zero. Thus the speed of an induction
motor can never reach the synchronous speed.

An induction motor is therefore an asynchronous machine

Slip

The relative motion between the rotating field and the rotating rotor is called the
slip and is given by:
S = Ns- Nr
Ns
Where S is the slip, Ns is the synchronous speed in RPM, and Nr is the rotor
speed.

Since the rotor current is proportional to the relative motion between the rotating
field and the rotor speed, the rotor current and hence the torque are both directly
proportional to the slip.

The rotor current is proportional to the rotor resistance. Increasing the rotor

resistance will reduce the current and increase the slip; hence a form of speed
and torque control is possible with wound rotor motors. Increased rotor
resistance also has the added benefit of reducing the input surge current and
increasing starting torque on switch on, but all of these benefits are at the
expense of more complex rotor designs and unreliable slip rings to give access to
the rotor windings.

Speed

Synchronous speed in RPM is given by:

Ns = 120 (f)
p
Where f is the powerline frequency in Hz and p is the number of poles per
phase. p must be an even integer since for every north pole there is a
corresponding south pole.
The following table shows motors speeds for motors with different numbers of
poles working with different AC supply frequencies.

Rotor Speed (rpm)

Number of
poles

10

12

Frequency
50 Hz

3000

1500

1000

750

600

500

Frequency
60 Hz

3600

1800

1200

900

720

600

The actual speed of the motor depends on the load it must drive. Increasing the
load on the motor causes it to slow down increasing the slip. The motor speed

will settle at an equilibrium speed when the motor torque equals the load torque.
This occurs when the slip provides just enough current to deliver the required
torque.

Speed Control
Pole Changing

Early machines were designed with multiple poles to facilitate speed control
by pole changing. By switching in different numbers or combinations of poles
a limited number of fixed speeds could be obtained.

Variable Rotor Resistance

The speed of induction motors can however be varied over a limited range by
varying the rotor resistance as noted in the section on slip but only by using
wound rotor designs negating many of the advantages of the induction motor.

Variable Frequency

Since motor speed depends on the speed of the rotating field, speed control
can be effected by changing the frequency of the AC power supplied to the
motor.

As in most machines the induction motor is designed to work with the flux
density just below the saturation point over most of its operating range to
achieve optimum efficiency.
The flux density B is given by:
B = k2 V
f
Where V is the applied voltage, f is the supply frequency and k2 is a constant
depending on the shape and configuration of the stator poles.
In other words if the flux density is constant, the Volts per Hertz is also a
constant. This is an important relationship and it has the following

consequences.

For speed control, the supply voltage must increase in step with the
frequency, otherwise the flux in the machine will deviate from the desired
optimum operating point. Practical motor controllers based on frequency control
must therefore have a means of simultaneously controlling the motor supply
voltage. This is known as Volts/Hertz control.
Increasing the frequency without increasing the voltage will cause a
reduction of the flux in the magnetic circuit thus reducing the motor's output
torque. The reduced motor torque will tend to increase the slip with respect to the
new supply frequency. This in turn causes a greater current to flow in the stator,
increasing the IR volt drop across the windings as well as the I2R copper losses
in the windings. The result is a major drop in the motor efficiency. Increasing the
frequency still further will ultimately cause the motor to stall.
Increasing the voltage without increasing the frequency will cause the
material in the magnetic circuit to saturate. Excessive current will flow giving rise
to high heat dissipation due to I2R losses in the windings and high eddy current
losses in the magnetic circuit and ultimately failure of the motor due to
overheating. Increasing the voltage will not force the motor to exceed the
synchronous speed because as it approaches the synchronous speed the torque
drops to zero.
The variable frequency is normally provided by an inverter. See more
about Motor Controls

Note also that since the induced current in the rotor is proportional to the flux
density and the flux density in turn is proportional to the line voltage, the
torque, which depends on the product of the flux density and the rotor current,
is proportional to the square of the line voltage V.

Generator Action

If an induction motor is forced to run at speeds in excess of the synchronous

speed, the load torque exceeds the machine torque and the slip is negative,
reversing the rotor induced EMF and rotor current. In this situation the machine
will act as a generator with energy being returned to the supply.
If the AC supply voltage to the stator excitation is simply removed, no generation
is possible because there can be no induced current in the rotor.

Regenerative braking

Thus in traction applications, regenerative braking is not possible below

synchronous speed in a machine fed with a fixed frequency supply. If
however the motor is fed by a variable frequency inverter then regenerative
braking is possible by reducing the supply frequency so that the synchronous
speed becomes less than the motor speed.
AC motors can be microprocessor controlled to a fine degree and can
regenerate current down to almost a stop whereas DC regeneration fades
quickly at low speeds.

Dynamic Braking

Induction motors can be brought rapidly to a stop (and / or reversed) by

reversing one pair of leads which has the effect of reversing the rotating
wave. This is known as "plugging". The motor can also be stopped quickly by
cutting the AC supply and feeding the stator windings instead with a DC (zero
frequency) supply. With both of these methods, energy is not returned to the
supply but is dissipated as heat in the motor. These techniques are known as
dynamic braking.

See more about induction motor and generator characteristics.

Starting

Three phase induction motors and some synchronous motors are not self starting
but design modifications such as auxiliary or "damper" windings on the rotor are
incorporated to overcome this problem.

Usually an induction motor draws 5 to 7 times its rated current during starting
before the speed builds up and the current is modified by the back EMF. In
wound rotor motors the starting current can be limited by increasing the
resistance in series with the rotor windings.
In squirrel cage designs, electronic control systems are used to control the
current to prevent damage to the motor or to its power supply.
Even with current control the motor can still overheat because, although the
current can be limited, the speed build up is slower and the inrush current,
though reduced, is maintained for a longer period.

Power Factor

The current drawn by an induction motor has two components, the current in
phase with the voltage which governs the power transfer to the load and the
inductive component, representing the magnetising current in the magnetic
circuit, which lags 90 behind the load current.
The power factor is defined as cos where is the net lag of the current behind
the applied voltage due to the in phase and out of phase current components.
The net power delivered to the load is VAcos where V is the applied
voltage, A is the current which flows.

Various methods of power factor correction are used to reduce the current lag in
order to avoid losses due to poor power factor. The simplest is to connect a
capacitor of suitable size across the motor terminals. Since the current through a
capacitor leads the voltage, the effect of the capacitor is to counter-balance the
inductive element in the motor canceling out the current lag.
Power factor correction can also be accomplished in the motor controller.

Characteristics

One of the major advantages of the induction motor is that it does not need a
commutator. Induction motors are therefore simple, robust, reliable, maintenance
free and relatively low cost.
They are normally constant speed devices whose speed is proportional to the
mains frequency.
Variable speed motors are also possible by using motor controllers which provide
a variable frequency output.

Applications

Three phase induction motors are used wherever the application depends on AC
power from the national grid. Because they don't need commutators they are
particularly suitable for high power applications.

They are available with power handling capacities ranging from a few Watts to
more than 10 MegaWatts.
They are mainly used for heavy industrial applications and for machine tools.
The availability of solid state inverters in recent years means that induction
motors can now be run from a DC source. They are now finding use in
automotive applications for electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Induction motors
are seen as more rugged for these applications than permanent magnet motors
which are vulnerable to possible degradation or demagnetization of the magnets
due to over-temperature or accidental over-current at power levels over about 5
kW. Nevertheless, the induction motor can be ill-suited for some automotive
applications because of the difficulties associated with extracting heat from the
rotor, efficiency problems over wide speed and power ranges, and a more
expensive manufacturing process due to distributed windings. Permanent
magnet and reluctance motors may offer better solutions for these applications.

Wound Rotor Induction Motor

Now of historicINTEREST ONLY , these motors were designed to permit control of

the speed - torque characteristics of the machine. They used conventional windings
on the rotor which were accessible through slip rings. The rotor windings were not
connected to the supply line but current through the windings could be controlled by
external rheostats connected in series with the windings. Modern electronic controls
have made these designs obsolete.

Single Phase Induction Motors

At first sight it might be assumed that it would be impossible to create a rotating field
using only a single phase supply. With the aid of an auxiliary stator winding displaced
from the main winding it is however possible to create a second MagnetoMotive
Force (MMF) in the auxiliary winding, out of phase with the MMF in the main winding,
and this is sufficient to generate the rotating field.

Capacitor-Run Motors

The necessary phase difference between the main and auxiliary windings can be
provided by connecting a high value capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding.
These motors are commonly used in household washing machines, refrigerators
and shower pumps and can easily be identified by the large electrolytic capacitor
strapped to the motor body.

As an alternative to using an external capacitor, the split-phase method uses a

high resistance auxiliary winding. The difference in the impedance of the two
windings is sufficient to create the necessary phase difference between the
currents in the two windings.

Shaded Pole Motors

The shaded pole motor uses another, rather crude, method of inducing a second
stator MMF, out of phase with the main MMF in order to create the desired
rotating field from a single phase AC supply. A short circuited turn of thick copper,
known as the shading ring, is mounted in a slot in the pole piece. Some of the
magnetic flux produced by the main winding induces a current in the shading ring
which produces its own weak flux which opposes and retards the main flux
through the ring so that the resulting flux through the ring is out of phase with the
main flux. Thus there is a phase difference between one side of the pole and the
other. Though inefficient, this method is once more sufficient to set up a rotating
field.

Characteristics

Single phase induction motors are less efficient than polyphase machines and
were developed mainly for domestic use since most dwellings are only
supplied with single phase power.
No control of speed.

Applications

All kinds of household appliances and light industrial applications.

Synchronous AC Motors

The synchronous motor is similar to the induction motor in that it is a polyphase

machine in which the stator produces a rotating field, however the rotor is
constructed from either permanent magnets or electromagnets energised by direct
current supplied through slip rings.

Torque

The torque depends on the attraction of the rotor magnets to the rotating
magnetic poles and not on relative motion between the windings in the rotor and
the rotating magnetic field. It can therefore lock on to the rotating field.
See Alternative Motor Action. Unlike squirrel cage induction motors, synchronous
motors can run and produce torque at synchronous speed.
They are difficult to start on mains frequency because the rotating field is too fast
so they need to start at lower frequency or they need unexcited auxiliary windings
or a rudimentary squirrel cage to bring the rotor up to synchronous speed. As the
motor approaches synchronous speed it will suddenly snap in to synchronisation.

Pull In Torque

To achieve synchronisation the motor torque must be greater then the load
torque. The torque developed when the motor locks on to synchronous speed
is called the pull in torque. If the load is greater than the pull in torque the
motor will not reach synchronous speed.

Pull Out Torque

As the load on the motor is increased, the motor torque and the torque
angle will also increase. However if the torque angle exceeds 90 degrees the
torque will begin to fall and the motor will lose synchronisation and eventually
stop. The pull out torque is typically 1.5 times the continuously rated torque.

Characteristics

Synchronous operation.

Applications

Fixed speed applications such as clocks and timers

Synchronous Reluctance Motors

The operating principle of the basic reluctance motors is described in the section
about switched reluctance motors.
The so called "synchronous" reluctance motor is designed to run on mains frequency
alternating current and it uses distributed stator windings similar to those used in
squirrel cage induction motors. The rotor however needs salient poles to create a
variable reluctance in the motor's magnetic circuit which depends on the angular
position of the rotor. These salient poles can be created by milling axial slots along
the length of a squirrel cage rotor. See diagram below.

Characteristics

The synchronous reluctance motor is not self starting without the squirrel cage.
During run up it behaves as an induction motor but as it approaches synchronous
speed, the reluctance torque takes over and the motor locks into synchronous
speed.

Applications

Used where regulated speed control is required in applications suc as metering

pumps and industrial process equipment.

Hysteresis Motor

The Hysteresis Synchronous motor consists of a wound stator producing a rotating

field and a rotor in the form of a cylindrical shell with crossbars all made from hard

steel with relatively high magnetic hysteresis.

At start up, the combined effects of eddy currents in the steel causing induction
motor action and remanent magnetism in the steel causing the magnetic poles to
follow the rotating field, together cause the motor speed to build up. As the motor
approaches synchronous speed the magnetic effect of the crossbars behaving like a
permanent magnet causes the motor to lock on to synchronous speed. The net
result is that the torque is roughly constant at all speeds.

Characteristics

Simple design
Starts as an induction motor and locks in as a synchronous motor.
Having a smooth rotor of homogenous material, the noise and vibration produced
is inherently low. Since there are no pole faces or saliencies, the magnetic path is
of constant permeability, thus eliminating the magnetic pulsations which are the
major cause of noise in the salient pole type.

Applications

Their efficiency is low, and applications are restricted to small power ratings.
Used extensively in tape recorders and clocks.
Now mostly replaced by permanent magnet motors.

Universal Motors

An AC motor which uses separately excited rotor windings using a commutator to

feed current to rotor coils behaves in much the same way as a brushed DC motor
and can in fact be used as a universal motor taking its supply either from an AC or a
DC source.
Unlike induction and synchronous motors, the speed of universal motors is not
limited by the electric mains supply frequency and can easily exceed one revolution
per cycle. This makes them useful for household appliances such as blenders,
vacuum cleaners and hair dryers which need high-speed operation. Speeds of up to
30,000 RPM are possible but the current carrying capacity is limited by the
commutator and brushes which restricts their use to low power applications of about
1 kilowatt or less. See more about universal motors.