Research

This article is about the search for knowledge. For other

uses, see Research (disambiguation).
Researcher redirects here. It is not to be confused with
the oceanographic research ship.
Research comprises creative work undertaken on a sys-

tematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge,

including knowledge of humans, culture and society,
and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new
applications.[1] It is used to establish or conrm facts,
rearm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems, support theorems, or develop new theories.
A research project may also be an expansion on past work
in the eld. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements
of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied
research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or
the research and development (R&D) of methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which
vary considerably both within and between humanities
and sciences. There are several forms of research:
scientic, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business,
marketing, practitioner research, life, technological,etc.

1 Forms of research
Scientic research is a systematic way of gathering data
and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientic
information and theories for the explanation of the nature
and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientic research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private
groups, including many companies. Scientic research
can be subdivided into dierent classications according
to their academic and application disciplines. Scientic
research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such as business schools,
but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of
the institution, because the quality of research does not
tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate). [2]
Research in the humanities involves dierent methods
such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead explore the issues
and details that surround it. Context is always important,
and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or
ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method.
Basrelief sculpture Research holding the torch of knowledge Historians use primary sources and other evidence to sys(1896) by ervin coritana with mano pots. Library of Congress, tematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories
Thomas Jeerson Building, Washington, D.C.
in the form of accounts of the past.
1

4 STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research',

can take form when creative works are considered both
the research and the object of research itself. It is the
debatable body of thought which oers an alternative
to purely scientic methods in research in its search for
knowledge and truth.

Etymology

a topic or issue. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an
answer to the question.[6]
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary denes research in more detail as a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.[4]

4 Steps in conducting research

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model
structure of research.[7] The hourglass model starts with a
broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required
information through the method of the project (like the
neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the
form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:[8]
Identication of research problem
Literature review
Specifying the purpose of research
Determine specic research questions
Specication of a conceptual framework, usually a
set of hypotheses[9]
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Aristotle, 384 BC 322 BC, - one of the early gures in the
development of the scientic method.[3]

Verify data
Analyzing and interpreting the data

Reporting and evaluating research

The word research is derived from the Middle French
"recherche", which means to go about seeking, the
Communicating the research ndings and, possibly,
term itself being derived from the Old French term "rerecommendations
cerchier" a compound word from re-" + cerchier, or
sercher, meaning 'search'.[4] The earliest recorded use
The steps generally represent the overall process; howof the term was in 1577.[4]
ever, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative
process rather than a xed set of steps.[10] Most research
begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather,
3 Denitions
the purpose for engaging in the study.[11] The literature
review identies aws or holes in previous research which
Research has been dened in a number of dierent ways. provides justication for the study. Often, a literature review is conducted in a given subject area before a research
A broad denition of research is given by Godwin Col- question is identied. A gap in the current literature,
ibao - In the broadest sense of the word, the denition as identied by a researcher, then engenders a research
of research includes any gathering of data, information question. The research question may be parallel to the
and facts for the advancement of knowledge.[5]
hypothesis. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested.
Another denition of research is given by Creswell who The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The
states that - Research is a process of steps used to collect researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a
and analyze information to increase our understanding of variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known

3
as empirical research. The results of the data analysis in
conrming or failing to reject the Null hypothesis are then
reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may
discuss avenues for further research. However, some researchers advocate for the ip approach: starting with articulating ndings and discussion of them, moving up to
identication research problem that emerging in the ndings and literature review introducing the ndings. The
ip approach is justied by the transactional nature of the
research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and
so on are not fully known until the ndings fully emerged
and interpreted.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept
any one or two tests as denitive. It is only when a
range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have condence in the
results.[12]
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent diculty, if not a
paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrase in the
following way, If you know what you're searching for,
why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found Scientic research equipment at MIT.
it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are
you searching for?!"[13]
on the topic to determine the gap in the literature
the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in
the chosen subject area is advisable. The research
5 Scientic research
will have to be justied by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
Main article: Scientic method
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain
the relationship between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual denition: Description of a concept by
relating it to other concepts.
4. Operational denition: Details in regards to dening the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information
from and/or about these samples by using specic
research instruments. The instruments used for data
collection must be valid and reliable.
Primary scientic research being carried out at the Microscopy
Laboratory of the Idaho National Laboratory.

structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following
steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic
and applied:

6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw conclusions
about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented
through tables, gures and pictures, and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis

9. Conclusion, reiteration if necessary

1. Observations and Formation of the topic: Consists
of the subject area of ones interest and following
that subject area to conduct subject related research. A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be
The subject area should not be randomly chosen proven (see, rather, Null hypothesis). Generally, a hysince it requires reading a vast amount of literature pothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by

7 RESEARCH METHODS

observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome

is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis
is rejected (see falsiability). However, if the outcome
is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said
to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used
because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this
sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only
supported by surviving rounds of scientic testing and,
eventually, becoming widely thought of as true.
A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be
veried. As the accuracy of observation improves with
time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate
prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to
challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new
will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which state no relationship or dierence between the
independent or dependent variables. A null hypothesis
uses a sample of all possible people to make a conclusion
about the population.[14]

other evidence to research and then to write history.

There are various history guidelines that are commonly
used by historians in their work, under the headings of
external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This
includes lower criticism and sensual criticism. Though
items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal
historical research:[15]
Identication of origin date
Evidence of localization
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data
Identication of integrity
Attribution of credibility

7 Research methods

Historical method

Main article: Historical method

The historical method comprises the techniques and

The research room at the New York Public Library, an example

of secondary research in progress.

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This
process takes three main forms (although, as previously
discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):
Exploratory research, which helps to identify and
dene a problem or question.
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence.
There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to
investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:
German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), considered
to be one of the founders of modern source-based history.

Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Askguidelines by which historians use historical sources and
ing a broad question and collecting data in the form

7.1

Research method controversies

5
sampling and structured data collection instruments that
t diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from
theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to dierent
treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study
can be considered a true experiment). If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for
their inuence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If
the intent is to generalize from the research participants
to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[18]
In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Primary data is data collected specically for the research,
such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary
data is data that already exists, such as census data, which
can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research
practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[19]
Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and
secondary data, is becoming more common.[20]

Maurice Hilleman is credited with saving more lives than any

other scientist of the 20th century.[16]

of words, images, video etc that is analyzed and

searching for themes. This type of research aims to
investigate a question without attempting to quantiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables. It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it can be expensive and time-consuming, and typically limited
to a single set of research subjects. Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses. Qualitative research is linked with the
philosophical and theoretical stance of social constructionism.

Big data has brought big impacts on research methods that

now researchers do not put much eort on data collection,
and also methods to analyze easily available huge amount
of data have also changed.[21]
Nonempirical refers to an approach that is grounded in
theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation to achieve the outcome. As such, nonempirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that
new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the
pool existing and established knowledge. Nonempirical is
not an absolute alternative to empirical research because
they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less eective than the other since
they have their particular purpose within life and in science. A simple example of a nonempirical task could the
prototyping of a new drug using a dierentiated application of existing knowledge; similarly, it could be the
development of a business process in the form of a ow
chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Empirical research on the other hand
seeks to create new knowledge through observations and
experiments in which established knowledge can either
be contested or supplements.

Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships. Asking a narrow question
and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing
statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or
descriptive).[17] Statistics derived from quantitative
research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. 7.1 Research method controversies
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.
There have been many controversies about research
methods stemmed from a philosophical positivism
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random promise to distinguish the science from other prac-

8 PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH

tices (especially religion) by its method. This promise elite Western-dominated journals.[26] Multilingual scholleads to methodological hegemony and methodology wars ars inuences from their native communicative styles can
where diverse researchers, often coming from opposing be assumed to be incompetence instead of dierence.[27]
paradigms, try to impose their own methodology on the
entire eld or even on the science practice in general as
the only legitimate one.
8.1.3 Publication
7.1.1

Quantitative vs. Qualitative war

7.1.2

Anti-methodology

According to this view, general scientic methodology

does not exist and attempts to impose it on scientists
is counterproductive. Each particular research with its
emerging particular inquiries requires and should produce
its own way (method) of researching. Similar to the art
practice, the notion of methodology has to be replaced
with the notion of research mastery.[22]

Publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the

same elite status as those of North America and Europe
primarily because of fewer material resources, rendering
them less able to meet practical conventions of publishing such as paper weight and graphic quality.[27] These
subdue the voices of periphery scholars and prevent their
contributions to collective knowledge.

8.1.4 Inuence of the Open-Access Movement

Problems in Research

The open access movement assumes that all information

generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to a
public domain, that of humanity.[28] This idea gained
8.1 Western Dominance
prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation.
Research disciplines have been dominated by academics For instance, most indigenous communities consider that
from Western countries, particularly by Americans. access to certain information proper to the group should
Geopolitical power dynamics have placed Western schol- be determined by relationships.[28]
ars as the elite gatekeepers of academia, relegating scholThere is a double standard found in the Western knowlars from Periphery countries to inferior positions.[23]
edge system. On the one hand, digital right management used to restrict access to personal information on
social networking platforms are celebrated as a protec8.1.1 Methods of Research
tion of privacy, while simultaneously when similar funcIn many disciplines, Western methods of conducting re- tions are utilised by cultural groups (ie indigenous comsearch are predominant.[24] Researchers are overwhelm- munities) this is denounced as access control and rep[28]
ingly taught Western methods of data collection and rehended as censorship.
study. The increasing participation of Indigenous peoples as researchers has brought increased attention to the
lacuna in culturally-sensitive methods of data collection.
Non-Western methods of data collection may not be the 8.2 Future Perspectives
most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, Hua Oranga was created as a criEven though Western dominance seems to be prominent
terium for psychological evaluation in Maori populations,
in research, some scholars, such as Simon Marginson, arand is based on dimensions of mental health important to
gue for the need [for] a plural university world.[29] Marthe Maori people taha wairua (the spiritual dimenginson argues that the East Asian Confucian model could
sion), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana
take over the Western model.
(the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family
This could be due to changes in funding for research
dimension).[25]
both in the East and the West. Focussed on emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly
8.1.2 Linguicism
in China and South Korea, have encouraged the increase
of funding for research expansion.[29] In contrast, in the
Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and Western academic world, notably in the United Kingdom
Linguicism in research and academic publication. As as well as in some state governments in the United States,
the great majority of mainstream academic journals are funding cuts for university research is observed which
written in English, multilingual periphery scholars of- may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in
ten must translate their work in order to be accepted to research.

Professionalisation

See also: Academic ranks, Academics, and Scientists

In several national and private academic systems, the
professionalization of research has resulted in formal job
titles.

9.1

In Russia

In present-day Russia, the former Soviet Union and in

some Post-Soviet states the term researcher (Russian: , nauchny sotrudnik) is both a generic
term for a person who carried out scientic research, as
well as a job position within the frameworks of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, Soviet universities, and in other
research-oriented establishments. The term is also sometimes translated as research fellow, research associate,
etc.
The following ranks are known:
Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)
Researcher (Research Associate)
Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)
Leading
Researcher
Associate)[30]

(Leading

Research

Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)

10

Cover of the rst issue of Nature, 4 November 1869.

Publishing

of its factors in order to prevent the publication of unproven ndings.[32] Business models are dierent in the
electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has
been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[33]
There are two main forms of open access: open access
publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is
freely available from the time of publication, and selfarchiving, where the author makes a copy of their own
work freely available on the web.

Academic publishing describes a system that is necessary

in order for academic scholars to peer review the work
and make it available for a wider audience. The system
varies widely by eld, and is also always changing, if often
slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research
that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These
forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for 11 Research funding
theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing
is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, Main article: Funding of science
technology, and medicine.
Most established academic elds have their own scientic
journals and other outlets for publication, though many
academic journals are somewhat interdisciplinary, and
publish work from several distinct elds or subelds. The
kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of
knowledge or research vary greatly between elds; from
the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that
researchers should not give great consideration to ndings that are not replicated frequently.[31] It has also been
suggested that all published studies should be subjected
to some measure for assessing the validity or reliability

Most funding for scientic research comes from three

major sources: corporate research and development departments; private foundations, for example, the Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation; and government research
councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the
USA[34] and the Medical Research Council in the UK.
These are managed primarily through universities and
in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a signicant amount of their time applying for grants for research
funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers

14

SEE ALSO

to carry out their research, but also as a source of merit.

artistic practices, methods and criticality. Through prethe insights gained shall be placed
The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehen- sented documentation,
[42]
in
a
context.
Artistic
research aims to enhance knowlsive list of U.S. Government and private foundation fundedge
and
understanding
with
presentation of the arts.[43]
ing sources.
For a survey of the central problematics of todays Artistic Research, see Giaco Schiesser.[44]

12

Original research

Original research is research that is not exclusively

based on a summary, review or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of
a primary source character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new knowledge, rather than to
present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classied).[35][36]

12.1

Dierent forms

According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research,

perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is
utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new
and unexpected productive modalities.[45] Most writers,
whether of ction or non-ction books, also have to do
research to support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.[46]
The Society for Artistic Research (SAR) publishes the
triannual Journal for Artistic Research (JAR),[47][48]
an international, online, open access, and peerreviewed journal for the identication, publication, and
dissemination of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the Research
Catalogue (RC),[49][50][51] a searchable, documentary
database of artistic research, to which anyone can
contribute.

Original research can take a number of forms, depending

on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it
typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the eld,
documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of
an experiment or set of experiments, or oers a novel in- Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR)
terpretation of previous results. In analytical work, there genres, they are: narrative inquiry, ction-based research,
are typically some new (for example) mathematical re- poetry, music, dance, theatre, lm, and visual art.[52]
sults produced, or a new way of approaching an existing
problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry
out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is 14 See also
changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the
European Charter for Researchers
work of the researcher.[37]
The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.[38]
Graduate students are commonly required to perform
original research as part of a dissertation.[39]

13

Artistic research

Undergraduate research
Internet research
List of countries by research and development
spending
Open research
Operations research

The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming

more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research
being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as
in the case of other disciplines.[40] One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept subjectivity
as opposed to the classical scientic methods. As such,
it is similar to the social sciences in using qualitative research and intersubjectivity as tools to apply measurement
and critical analysis.[41]
Artistic research has been dened by the University of
Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushgskolan, DOCH),
Stockholm in the following manner - Artistic research is
to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on

Participatory action research

Primary research
Psychological research methods
Research-intensive cluster
Scholarly research
Secondary research
Society for Artistic Research
Timeline of the history of scientic method

15

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[38] Callaham, Michael; Wears, Robert; Weber, Ellen
L. (2002). Journal Prestige, Publication Bias, and
Other Characteristics Associated With Citation of Published Studies in Peer-Reviewed Journals. JAMA.
doi:10.1001/jama.287.21.2847.
[39] Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006-2007 edition The United States Department of Labor
[40] Lesage, Dieter (Spring 2009). Whos Afraid of Artistic
Research? On measuring artistic research output (PDF).
Art&Research - A Journal of Ideas, Contexts and Methods.
2 (2). ISSN 1752-6388. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
[41] Eisner, E. W. (1981). On the Dierences between
Scientic and Artistic Approaches to Qualitative Research.
Educational Researcher.
10 (4): 59.
doi:10.2307/1175121.
[42] Unattributed. Artistic research at DOCH. Dans och
Cirkushgskolan (website). Retrieved 14 August 2011.
[43] Schwab, M. (2009). Draft Proposal. Journal for Artistic
Research. Bern University of the Arts.
[44] Schiesser, G. (2015). What is at stake Quest ce que
lenjeu? Paradoxes Problematics Perspectives in Artistic Research Today, in: Arts, Research, Innovation and
Society. Eds. Gerald Bast, Elias G. Carayannis [= ARIS,
Vol. 1]. Wien/New York: Springer 2015, pp. 197-210.
[45] Topal, H. (2014) Whose Terms? A Glossary for Social
Practice: RESEARCH
[46] Homan A (2003) Research for Writers, pp 4-5. London:
A&C Black Publishers Limited.
[47] Swiss Science and Technology Research Council (2011),
Research Funding in the Arts [accessed Feb 3, 2014]
[48] Borgdor, Henk (2012), The Conict of the Faculties.
Perspectives on Artistic Research and Academia (Chapter
11: The Case of the Journal for Artistic Research), Leiden: Leiden University Press.
[49] Schwab, Michael, and Borgdor, Henk, eds. (2014),
The Exposition of Artistic Research: Publishing Art in
Academia, Leiden: Leiden University Press.
[50] Wilson, Nick and van Ruiten, Schelte / ELIA, eds.
(2013), SHARE Handbook for Artistic Research Education, Amsterdam: Valand Academy, p. 249.

17

EXTERNAL LINKS

[51] Hughes, Rolf: Leap into Another Kind: International

Developments in Artistic Research, in Swedish Research Council, ed. (2013), Artistic Research Then and
Now: 20042013, Yearbook of AR&D 2013, Stockholm:
Swedish Research Council.
[52] Leavy, Patricia (2015). Methods Meets Art (2nd ed.). New
York: Guilford. ISBN 9781462519446.

16 Further reading
Cohen, N. & Arieli, T. (2011) Field research in conict environments: Methodological challenges and
snowball sampling. Journal of Peace Research 48
(4), pp. 423436.
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in
Military Studies New York: Routledge.

17 External links
The dictionary denition of research at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Research at Wikiquote

11

18
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Research Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research?oldid=743109290 Contributors: Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Chuq,

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