Tension, compression, Shear stress

Structures(buildings,bridges,towers etc.,) and their parts are usually subjected to

different types of loads such as dead loads, live loads, wind loads, seismic forces,
impact loads etc.,The structural design generally consists of two major steps namely
Analysis and Design.
In the process of analysis the worst probable loads on the structure are first
assessed and axial loads, shear force, bending moments, twisting moments etc.,
developed in the elements are determined.
In the process of design, suitable sizes are determined for the various members
such that the permissible stresses prescribed for the materials used. This is necessary
for the safety of the structure. It should be seen that the deformations such as
elongation, contraction, deflection, twist etc., do not exceed the maximum permitted
values for better serviceability conditions.
Hence, in the analysis and design processes, one should be able to determine
the determine the actions at the actions at various sections of the elements due to the
elements due to the applied loads and also the stresses and deformations developed in
the members due to these actions.
Force:Force is that which produces or tends to produce a in a bodys state of rest or
motion. It is measured in Newton (N).
Types of Forces acting on a Structural member:1
2
3
4

Tension (Tension Force).

Compression (Compression force)
Shear (Shear Force) and
Torsion (Torque).

1 Tension:-

If the force applied on a body tends to elongate it then the force is called a tensile
force and the body is said to be under tension.
2 Compression:If the force applied on a body tends to decrease its length then the force is called a
compressive force and the body is said to be under compression.
3 Shear:It the external forces acting on a piece of material tend to slide one layer of the
material over the adjacent layer,then the force is called a shear force.
4 Torsion :The moment which causes twisting of a member,it is called torsion or twisting
moment or torque.
Stress:When a structural element is subjected to external loads, it undergoes a
deformation. Under a direct pull it elongates; under a direct push it contracts; under
transverse loads or moments it bends; under torsion it twists. At the same time, by virtue
of its strength and stiffness ,it offers a resistance against this deformation. When the
load increases gradually ,the deformation and hence the resistance also increase
gradually. When there is no increase in load, the process of deformation stops and
hence the body will be in equilibrium. At this stage of equilibrium, the resistance offered
by the member will be equal and opposite to the applied load. The internal resistance
exerted by the member to counteract the applied load is termed as stress.
Generally the resistance exerted on unit cross sectional area of the member is
called intensity of stress or simply called as stress. Its unit is N/mm 2 .
Stress = Force/Cross sectional area.
TYPES OF STRESSES:

Basically the stresses are of three types. They are,

1. Tensile stress
2. Compressive stress and
3. Shear stress
When stresses are developed in members by direct forces such as axial
tension, axial compression, direct shear etc. They are called simple stresses.
These stresses can be easily determined by dividing the applied force by the
area of cross section of the members.
P
i.e., Direct stress, = A
Sometimes the above stresses are developed by indirect forces also.
For example: Tensile and Compressive stresses in beams due to transverse
loads (bending), shear stresses in shafts due to tangential loads (torsion).

Hookes Law,Relationship among Elastic constants

Elastic Limit
When the load on a body is increased, its deformation also increases. On
removal of this increased load, the increased deformation retards and the body regain
its original shapes. But this process happens only upto a limit, beyond which a part of
the increased deformation remains even after the removal of the increased load. The
limiting stress corresponding to this stage is called elastic limit.

Hookes Law
Hooks law states that when an elastic material is stressed within its elastic limit
(strictly saying, within the limit of proportional to the strain upto to elastic limit.
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
According to Hookes law the stress in a material is proportional to the strain upto
the elastic limit. Therefore within the elastic limit, the ratio of the axial stress to the
corresponding axial strain is found to be a constant. This constant is called the

Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus. It is generally denoted by the Letter E.

The unit for modulus of elasticity is N/mm 2 (or) MPa (same unit as that of Stress).
Modulus of elasticity (or) Youngs Modulus = Axial Stress/ Axial Strain
ie., E = /
Rigidity Modulus
The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain is found to be a
constant upto the elastic limit of the material. This constant is called Modulus Of
Rigidity or Shear Modulus of the material. It is commonly denoted by the letters G,
C, N etc. In this book the letter G is used to denote the modulus of rigidity.
Modulus of Rigidity (or) Shear Modulus = Shear Stress/ Shear Strain
G = /

Volumetric Strain
With the result of the longitudinal and lateral strains due to external loads the
volume of an elastic body changes. The change in volume (increase or decrease) of an
elastic body on unit original volume is called the volumetric strain (v).
Volumetric strain= Increase or decrease in volume / Original Volume
Bulk Modulus
When a body is subjected to uniform direct stresses of same nature (either
compressive or tensile) in all the three mutually perpendicular directions, the ratio of the
direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant upto the
elastic limit. This elastic constant is called the Bulk Modulus of the material and is
denoted by the letter, K.
Bulk Modulus = Direct Stress/ Volumetric Strain
K= / v
Relation Between Elastic Constants

It was already seen that each elastic material has four elastic constants. These
constants are inter-related with one another. If the values of any two constants are
known for a material, the other two constants may be easily determined using the
relationship equations.
Relation Between E,G and V
Consider a square block ABCD, EFGH of side a, and thickness t. Let uniform
shear of intensity be induced on the four sides ADHE, BCGH and CDHG as shown in
figure. Due to these stresses
the block undergoes a deformation. The front face ABCD is distorted to the new
position A1 B1 CD as shown in figure. (The relative displacements with respect to CD are
marked in the figure). Diagonal AC is elongated to the new dimension A1C and diagonal
BD is shortened to B1D. This shows that the diagonal BD is under the action of a
compressive force.

Stress & Strain at a point

STRESS AT A POINT
In most branches of engineering, materials are regarded as continuum, and
stresses and strains are evaluated considering an infinitesimal element having the same
properties as the whole mass. Stress at a point with a material has to viewed as a large
point with representative material of the whole mass.
Tensile stress is considered as positive, compressive stress as negative and a
shear stress causing a clockwise torque about the centre of free body as positive.
Consider an incremental and the stresses acting on the planes to represent the
stress conditions at a point in a material, as shown in figure. Here p x, py and pz are the
normal stresses and qxy, qyz and qzx are the shear stresses.
Now consider a rectangular element, as shown in figure, with shear stress acting
on four faces AB,BC,CD and DA. Since the element is in equilibrium, the moment on
any axis of all the forces acting on the element must to zero. Equating to zero all the
moments of forces about a line passing through A an parallel to Z-axis, then

(qxy . dy.dz) dx
i.e.,

qxy

= (qxy . dy.dz) dy

= qyx

Similarly it can be shown that

and

qxz

= qzx

qyz

= qzy

From this it may be inferred that the shear stress on planes at right angles are
equal and are called complementary shear stresses (e.g., qxz is complimentary shear to
qzx). Thus after satisfying the rotational moment equilibrium condition, q xy

qyx , qyz

qzy

and qxz = qzx.

STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM FOR MILD STEEL, TOR STEEL,

CONCRETE:BEHAVIOR OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS
When the ductile material is subjected to gradually increasing tensile load, it
passes through the following stages before its failure:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

Limit of proportionality
Elastic limit
Yield points (upper and lower yield points)
Strain hardening point
Ultimate load point, and
Breaking point
The typical stress - strain curve of a ductile material, during a tension test is

shown in figure.
When the load is increasing gradually on the specimen, the stress and hence the
strain also increases. Upto a stage called Limit of proportionality (A), the strain is
found to be proportional to the stress. That is, the ratio of stresses to the corresponding
strains is constant upto this limit. In this Zone the stress-strain curve (OA) is a straight
line.

Further increase in stress beyond the limit of proportionality causes relatively

higher rate of increase in strain. Now, the strain produced in the material is not
proportional to the stress. But still material continues to have its elastic property upto a
stage called elastic limit (B). In some materials, the gap between these two stages (A
&B) is found to be very small and hence the limit of proportionality itself is considered as
the elastic limit for practical purposes.
If the stress is increased further beyond the elastic limit, the material enters into a
stage called yielding (BCD). During the process of yielding, strain increases at a
constant rate whereas the stress increased very slowly upto a maximum value called
upper yield point(C) and then decreases rapidly to a minimum value called lower
yield point (D). The drop in the stress is due to the start free flow of the material.
Beyond D, the stress - strain curve is found to be a horizontal straight line upto E which
is called the strain hardening point. This horizontal portion (D E) of the curve indicates
increase in strain at a constant stress with respect to time. Such phenomenon is called
creeping.
But this process does not continue beyond E, because of strain hardening due to
the change in the crystalline structures of the material. Deformation beyond strain
hardening point requires further increase in stress. But even for a small increase in
stress, the strain is found to be increasing very rapidly. Now the material is in a semi
plastic stage and the deformation produced is called the ductile deformation. That is
the cross sectional area decreases almost uniformly along the full length of specimen.
The percentage elongation reduction and the percentage reduction in area indicate the
degree of ductility of the metal.
When the stress reaches the maximum valve called Ultimate load point (F), a
waist starts forming in the specimen (the cross sectional area decrease very rapidly at a
particular region) and plastic flow of material starts. In the plastic stage deformation will
take place freely even with a very small load. Hence, the stress drops rapidly till the
specimen breaks into two pieces at the breaking point (G).

Thus the limit of proportionality is a stage upto which the stress is proportional to
the strain. Elastic limit is a stage upto which the material has its elastic property. Yield
point is a stage at which the material yields, i.e., the material starts flowing. Creeping is
a process in which the material deforms continuously under a constant load. Strain
hardening point is the point beyond which strain increase only with the increase in
stress. Ultimate load is the maximum load the specimen could carry. Breaking load
(numerically less than the ultimate load) the load at which the specimen breaks into two
pieces.
Limit of Proportionality
The limiting value of stress upto which stress varies linearly with respect to strain
is called the limit of proportionality. That is upto this limit, the ratio of stress and
corresponding strain is found to be constant. In other words, it can be stated that the
stress is directly proportional to the strain within and upto the limit of proportionality.
compound bar
A composite bar composed of two or more different materials joined together
such that the system is elongated or compressed in a single unit.
What you mean by thermal stresses
If the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, with the rise or fall of
temperature no stress is developed, but if free expansion is prevented the stress
developed is called temperature stress or strain.
.

ULTIMATE STRESS, YIELD STRESS, FACTOR OF SAFETY

Yield sress
Extension or deformation with relatively less increase in load or even without any
increase in load, is called yielding. The minimum stress at which the material starts
yielding is called yield stress.
(Refer point B in figure)
Yield stress = Yield load/ Original area of cross-section
Ultimate stress

The maximum stress a material can with stand before its failure is known as
ultimate stress.
Ultimate stress
section

= Maximum load (or) Ultimate load/Original area of cross-

Breaking stress
The stress corresponding to the load at which the material fails or breaks is
known as breaking stress.
Breaking stress

= Breaking load/ Original area of cross-section

Nominal and Actual Stresses

During a tension test, the load is increased gradually and hence the length of the
specimen increases and at the same times, the cross sectional area of the specimen
decreases continuously. At each and every instant the cross sectional area will be
different. The loads have to be divided by the corresponding actual areas of cross
section to obtain the actual stresses.But, practically it is difficult to measure the actual
areas during continuous loading process. Hence the stresses are calculated based on
the original area of cross section and hence they are called nominal stresses. In the
case of breaking load only actual stress may be calculated based on the final area of
cross section at the breaking point(neck). This actual breaking stress will be greater
than the nominal ultimate stress. But in the stress-strain curve the nominal stresses are
only plotted.

Working stresses
The maximum permissible stress in a material during its use in any structure is
called the working stress. This is also called as permissible stress or safe stress.
The working stress shall always be less than the ultimate stress.
Factor of safety
Factor of safety is a number by which the ultimate stress or sometimes the yield
stress is divided to get the working stress. This can be also defined as a ratio of the
ultimate stress to the working stress of the material. Factor of safety depends on so
many factors like the type of material, its degree of reliability, workmanship,

manufacturing method, nature of loading, environmental condition etc., and is always

greater than one.
Factor of safety

= Ultimate stress/ Working stress

Significance of Percentage of Elongation and Reduction in Area

Let

L0

= Gauge length or Initial length of the specimen

= Length at fracture

Then, percentage elongation

Let

= {(L- L0) / L} X 100

A0

= Original area of cross-section

= Area at neck at fracture

Then percentage reduction of area

= {(A-A0) / A0} X 100

The percentage elongation and the percentage reduction in area indicate the
degree of ductility of the metal. The plastic response of a material to tensile force is
known as ductility.
The elongation in length and reduction in area of a test piece, tested to failure, in
tension are generally taken as the measures of ductility of the material. The above
values of material are useful in the analysis of structural behavior in limit states of
serviceability and during failure or collapse mechanism.
Fluids, gases or dry material with or without pressure are stored in specially made
vessels. The walls of these vessels are in the form of shells with adequate thickness,
steam boilers, reservoirs, pressure tanks, storing fluids (gases or liquids), working
chamber of engines compressed air receivers, etc., are the common example of shells.
The shapes of such vessels are in the form of cylinders and spheres.
MOHRS CIRCLE OF STRESS:
Engineers most often wants to determine maximum normal stress induced at a given
point for their design purpose. But there can be infinite number of planes passing through a
point, and normal stress on each plane will be different from one another.
There will be one plane on which normal stress value is maximum, this plane is known as
Principal plane ( more precisely maximum principal plane) and normal stress on this plane is
known as principal stress (more precisely maximum principal stress).
Similarly, there will be one more plane on which normal stress value is minimum, this is
also a principal plane (minimum principal plane) and normal stress on this plane is known as

Principal stress (minimum principal stress). 2 Dimensional Stress Analysis Stress acting on a
2D element is shown in figure below,

FIGURE 1.1: STRESS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ON A 2 DIMENSIONAL

ELEMENT
Mohrs circle method is the most easy and convenient way to do stress analysis. The
procedure to draw Mohrs circle for above case is explained below,
Step1 Draw normal and shear axes with positive axes as shown

FIG.2 NORMAL AND SHEAR AXES OF A MOHR CIRCLE

Step2 Mark normal stress values with sign convention, tensile stress is positive and
compression stress is negative

FIG.3 MARKING NORMAL STRESS VALUES ON NORMAL AXIS

Step3 - Draw shear stress values starting from already marked normal stress points.

FIG.4 DRAWING SHEAR STRESS VALUES

Step4 - Connect end of shear stress lines

FIG.5 CONNECTING END OF SHEAR STRESS LINES

Step5 - draw mohrs circle assuming the connection line as diameter of the circle

FIG.5 MOHR CIRCLE CONSTRUCTION

Step6 Stress Analysis on Mohr circle - To get normal and shear stress values at any plane
theta, take angle 2theta in Mohr circle starting from diagonal of the circle and locate a
peripheral point as as shown. Shear stress value will be Y axis value and normal stress
value will be X axis value.

FIG.6 DETERMINATION ON NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESS USING MOHR

CIRLCE
3 Dimensional Stress Analysis Stress boundary condition of a 3 dimensional case is
shown in left side of Fig.7. There will be 3 normal stress values induced in a 3
dimensional case, this is shown in right size of the figure.

FIG.7 STRESS BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN A 3 DIMENSIONAL BODY AND

NORMAL STRESS VALUES INDUCED IN IT
There is no graphical method for 3 Dimensional stress analysis, instead we have to
use analytical method for this. Values of Principal stress in a 3 dimensional systems
are given by solution of following equation.

Where values of stress invariants are ,