CELL DIFFERENTIATION

Blastomeres
-the first zygotic cellular divisions produce these cells
-gives rise to all the tissue types of the fetus
Embryonic stem cells
-explanted (transferred) to tissue culture cells of the inner cell
mass
-during their cell specialization called cell differentiation, cells
become very effecient, change their shape accordingly (eg.
Muscle cell precursors elongate into fiber-like cells)
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Two basic parts of the cytoplasm cytoplasm and nucleus
Plasma membrane (plasmalemma)
Definition: the outermost component of the cell
Function: separating the cytoplasm from its extracellular
environment
Integrins- the plasma membrane proteins that link to both
cytoplasmic protein filaments and ECM components
Cytosol
Definition: the fluid component of the cytosol
Function: bathing the metabolically active structures, the
organelles. All the machinery converging on the ribosomes for
protein synthesis (mRNA, transfer RNA, enzymes and other
factors) are contained here.
Organelles- may be membranous (mitochondria) or
nonmembranous (ribosomes and proteasomes)
Cytoskeleton- determines the shape and motility of eukaryotic
cells.

Inclusions- a minor cytoplasmic structure that are generally

deposits of carbohydrates, lipids, or pigments.

Plasma membrane
Definition: 7.5-10nm in thickness
Amphipathic, consisting of two non polar long chain fatty acids
linked to a charged polar head that bears the phosphate group.
Function: a selective barrier regulating the passage of materials
into and out of the cell and facilitating the transport of specific
molecules between the cell and its environment.
Glycolipids
>the outer lipids that include oligosaccharide chains that extend
outward from the cell surface
>contribute to a delicate cell surface coating called the
glycocalyx.
Integral proteins- are directly incorporated within the bilayer
itself. Can be extracted only by using detergents
Peripheral membrane proteins- exhibits a looser association with
one of the two membranes, particularly the inner. Can be
extracted by salt solutions
Receptors- participate in cell adhesion, cell recognition, and the
response to protein hormones.
Lipid rafts
> protein complexes that are less mobile are located in these
specialized membrane patches having high concentrations of
cholesterol and saturated fatty acids which reduce lipid fluidity.
> Maintains spatial relationships between enzymes and
signaling proteins

TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS AND MEMBRANE

TRANSPORT
Simple diffusion
Ion channels

Aquaporins

Active transport

Small lipophilic (fat soluble)

molecules can pass through
lipid bilayers
Ions such as Na+, K+, and
Ca2+ cross membranes by
passing through integral
membrane proteins that act as
ion channels or ion pumps
Transmembrane diffusion of
water molecules (osmosis)
involves their passive
movement through these
transmembrane proteins
Ion pumps and carrier proteins
involve this, using energy from
the breakdown of ATP

VESICULAR TRANSPORT: ENDOCYTOSIS AND

EXOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis
> bulk uptake material also occurs across the plasma membrane
in this general process
> an active process involving the folding and fusion of the
membrane to form vesicles
Phagocytosis
Phagosome- an intracellular
vacuole which then fuses with
a lysosome for degradation of

-cell eating
-macrophages and neutrophils,
for engulfing and removing
particulate matter such as
bacteria, protozoa, dead cells

contents
Fluid-phase endocytosis

and etc.
-pinocytosis, smaller
invaginations of the cell
Pinocytic vesicles- usually fuse membrane form and entrap
with lysosomes
extracellular fluid and its
dissolved contents
Transcytosis- bulk transfer
across the cell
Receptor-mediated endocytosis -high affinity binding of such
ligands to their receptor causes
these proteins to aggregate in
special membrane regions that
then invaginate and pinch off
as vesicles.
Coated pits- receptors associated with other proteins and begin
invagination.
Clathrin- polypeptides on the surface of coated pits
Coated vesicle- the pinched off cage-like invagination
containing the ligands and their receptors internally.
Early endosomes- membranous vesicles near the cell surface
Late endosomes- deeper in the cytoplasm
Phagosomes and pinocytic vesicles = fuse with lysosomes
Exocytosis- bulk movement of large molecules from inside to
outside the cell can involve the form this vesicular transport

Protein secretion involving exocytosis may follow two

pathways
Constitutive secretion
> used products that are
released from cells
continuously as soon as
synthesis is done (eg.
Procollagen and ECM)
>occurs in response to signals
Regulated secretion
coming to the cells (eg.
Release of digestive enzymes
from pancreatic cells)
Membrane trafficking- process of membrane movement and
recycling (eg. During exocytosis, membrane is returned to the
cell surface)
Multivesicular bodies- subpopulations of vacuoles among the
early and late endosomes in many cells accumulate small
vesicles and tubules within their lumens by further
invaginations becoming this.
SIGNAL RECEPTION AND TRANSDUCTION
Gap junctions- channels where signals may pass directly from
cell to cell without reaching the extracellular fluid.
Target cells- only cells with specific receptors for a specific
ligand

Different routes of signal molecules

Endocrine signaling
The signal molecules are
carried in the blood to target
cells (eg. Blood)
Paracrine signaling

Synaptic signaling

Juxtracrine signaling

Chemical mediators are rapidly

metabolized after release they
act on local cells very close to
the source
Special king of paracrine
signaling. Neurotransmitters
only act on adjacent cells. (eg.
Synapses)
Important in early embryonic
tissue interactions

3 important classes of receptors

Channel-linked receptors
Enzymatic receptors
G-protein-coupled-receptors

Allow ion transfer upon ligand

bonding
Ligand binding induces
catalytic activity
G protein binds the guanine
nucleotide, the GTP

Signal transduction- activates a series of intracellular

intermediates producing changes in either the cytopasm, the
nucleus or both. *channel-mediated ion influx

Ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

-found in the cytosol

-are composed of 4segments of
rRNA and 80 different proteins
-all have two subunits of
different sizes
-polyribosomes are formed by
a single mRNA, are basophilic
because of numerous
phosphate groups, reactions of
basic dyes indicate sites of
active protein synthesis
-a convoluted membranous
network
-provides a major site for
biosynthesis of proteins and
lipids
-collects newly synthesized
proteins for modification and
delivery into pathways
Cisternae- extension to the
surface of the nucleus to the
cell membrane and encloses a
series of intercommunicating
channels and sacs

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

(RER)

-prominent in cells specialized

for protein secretion, such as
pancreatic acinar cells,
fibroblasts, and plasma cells
-principal activities include
synthesis and segregation of
proteins not destined for the
cytosol
-for glycosylation of

glycoproteins
-modifications of newly
formed polypeptides
-assembly of multichain
proteins
Protein synthesis begins on
polyribosomes in the cytosol

Smooth Endoplasmic
reticulum (SER)

Signal-recognition particle
(SRP)- the newly translated
signal sequence is bound by
this protein which inhibits
further polypeptide elongation
-is not basophilic
-a major role of enzymes in the
SER is phospholipid synthesis
-distinct functions include
glycogen and lipid metabolism,
detoxification reactions and
temporary Ca2+ sequestration
-occupies a large portion in the
cytoplasm and contains
enzymes for steroid synthesis
-sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ways phospholipids are
transferred from the SER to
other membranes in various
ways:
1. direct communication with
the RER allowing lateral
diffusion
2. By vesicles that detach move
along the cytoskeleton
3. Phospholipid transfer
proteins

Golgi apparatus

-completes posttranslational
modifications of proteins
synthesized in the RER and
then packages and addresses
proteins to proper destinations
-initiates packing,
concentration, and storage of
secretory functions.
Transport vesicles- materials
are moved from the RER
cisternae to the golgi apparatus
in this small, membraneenclosed carriers
Cis face- the golgi receiving
regions
Trans face- at the opposite of
the golgi network, at its
shipping or trans face.

Secretory granules

Lysosomes

-are found in cells that store a

product until its release by
exocytosis is signaled by a
metabolic, hormonal, or neural
passage.
Zymogen granules- secretory
granules with dense contents of
digestive enzymes
-are sites of intracellular
digestion and turn over of
cellular components
-are capable of breaking down
of macromolecules

Proteasomes

Mitochondria

Autophagosome- formed by
the SER around the organelle
or cytoplasmic portion to be
removed, producing this,
-small abundant protein
complexes not associated with
the membrane
-they function to degrade
denatured or otherwise nonfunctional polypeptides
-also removes proteins no
longer needed by the cell and
provide an important
mechanism for restricting
activity of a specific protein to
a certain window of time
Are membrane-enclosed
organelles with arrays of
enzymes specialized for
aerobic respiration and
production of ATP
Outer membrane- is sieve-like,
containing many
transmembrane proteins called
porins that form channels
Inner membrane- is folded to
form a series of long infolding
called cristae, which project
into the the matrix and greatly
increase this membranes
surface area

Peroxisomes

Chemiosmotic processformation of ATP by oxidative

phosphorylation
Are spherical organelles
enclosed by a single membrane
and named for their enzymes
producing and degrading
hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Forms in two ways:
1. by budding of precursor
vesicles from the ER
2. By growth and division of
pre existing peroxisomes

cytoskeleton

-determines the cell shape and

movements of organelles and
cytoplasmic vesicles and also
the movement of entire cells
Microtubules
-are organized into larger
arrays called axonemes in the
cytoplasmic extensions called
the cilia and flagella
-a structures that confers
rigidity to help maintain cell
shape
-protein subunit is alpha and
beta tubulin
-also form part of the system
for intracellular transport

Centrosomes
- organized around two
cylindrical centrioles,
composed of nine highly
organized microtubular triplets.
-during DNA replication,
centrosome has two pairs of
centrioles, which during
mitosis divide into halves,
which move to the opposite
poles of cells
Microfilaments (actin
filaments)
-composed of actin allow
cellular motility, and most
contractile activity in cells by
the myosin
Intermediate filaments
1. Keratin
2. Vimentin- derived from the
mesenchyme
3. Neurofilament- form the
subunits of the major
intermediate filaments of
neurons
4. Lamins- they form a
structural framework called the
nuclear lamina just inside the
nuclear envelope

Inclusions

-contain accumulated
metabolites or other substances
not enclosed by membrane
1. fat droplets- prominent in
adipocytes, adrenal cortex
cells, liver and other cells
2. glycogen granules- where
glucose is stored
3. Lipofucsin- yellowish
pigment visualized in stable
non dividing cells (eg.
Neurons, cardiac muscle)