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SURFACE
VEHICLE
INFORMATION
REPORT
ISSUED
JAN93
J2084
Issued
1993-01
ForewordThis Document has not been changed other than to put it into the new SAE Technical Standards Board
Format.
This report is part of a series of SAE Technical Reports dealing with Aerodynamic Testing of Road Vehicles, which
to date comprises:
SAE HS J1566Aerodynamic Flow Visualization Techniques and Procedures
SAE J1594Vehicle Aerodynamics Terminology
SAE J2071Open-Jet Wind-Tunnel Boundary Interference
SAE J2085Solid-Wall Wind-Tunnel Boundary Interference
SAE J2082Cooling Flow Measurement Techniques
This SAE Information Report has been developed from an earlier SAE Recommended Practice (1) 1 which set out
test procedures for measuring the aerodynamic characteristics of heavy-duty trucks and buses using established
wind-tunnel model testing techniques. The Information Report provides the rationale and the background behind
the recommended test techniques in that Recommended Practice. It also outlines additional techniques that are
useful in wind-tunnel testing, but which have not yet gained the level of acceptance needed for an SAE
recommended practice.
The objective of both the Recommended Practice and the Information Report is to provide guidance for the
engineer tasked with carrying out wind-tunnel testing on a road vehicle, for whatever purpose. Use of the
procedures described should improve the comparability of aerodynamic data taken in different wind-tunnels and
should ensure that good quality data are obtained.
The present Information Report covers a broader range of vehicles than the Recommended Practice (1). In
addition to trucks and buses, which are mostly tested at reduced scale in order to match the sizes of wind-tunnels
commonly available, this report deals with tests on smaller vehicles, such as automobiles, motorcycles, and racing
cars, which are very often tested at full scale.
Printed in U.S.A.
Scope........................................................................................................................................................ 3
2.
References................................................................................................................................................ 3
3.
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.
6.1
6.2
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.
8.1
8.2
8.3
APPENDIX A.............................................................................................................................................................. 55
APPENDIX B.............................................................................................................................................................. 56
-2-
ScopeThe scope of this SAE Information Report is confined to wind-tunnel testing, although it is recognized
that many aspects of the aerodynamic characteristics of road vehicles can be investigated in other test facilities
(such as water-tanks) or, especially, on the road. For example, coastdown testing is often used to determine
aerodynamic drag (either in isolation or as part of the total resistance), and artificial gust generators are used
to investigate the sensitivity of vehicles to cross-wind gusts.
Also excluded from the present Report are climatic wind-tunnel tests of road vehicles, which are defined in
more detail in Section 3.
The Report covers the aerodynamic requirements of a wind-tunnel for automotive testing, together with the
facility equipment needed and the requirements affecting the test vehicle or model. The test methods and
procedures described here include those for six-component force measurements and measurements of
pressures and velocities both on the vehicle/model surface and in the surrounding flow-field.
Flow visualization techniques are outlined, with reference to the detailed coverage in a related SAE Information
Report (2). In addition, the reduction, analysis, and presentation of wind-tunnel data are considered, with
further references to associated SAE Information Reports (3,4) on corrections to be applied for wind-tunnel
blockage effects. Finally, methods are discussed for the validation of the wind-tunnel data, e.g., by tunnel-toroad correlation studies.
As already indicated, this document has been prepared in conjunction with a number of other SAE Information
Reports and Recommended Practices (15), each of which provides greater detail than is given here on its
particular aspect of automotive aerodynamic testing.
2.
References
2.1
Applicable PublicationsThe following publications form a part of this specification to the extent specified
herein. The latest issue of SAE publications shall apply.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
-3-
-4-
Objectives of Wind-Tunnel-TestingThe objectives of automotive wind-tunnel testing are many and varied.
Wind-tunnel testing is mainly carried out in the course of the development either of a new vehicle or of a new
variant of an existing vehicle. It then has the objective of meeting specific or implied design targets within such
constraints as styling, packaging, legislation and, of course, cost.
The achievement of vehicle performance and fuel economy targets requires that aerodynamic drag is kept
within certain limits. At the same time, to realize the required standards of vehicle stability, the other five
components of aerodynamic force (i.e., the lift and side forces and the pitching, yawing, and rolling moments)
also need to be limited appropriately. To ensure that the resulting target values are attained, wind-tunnel
measurements of all six components are made, and these measurements may be repeated many times as a
particular vehicle design is gradually refined until all the targets are reached, within the constraints mentioned
previously.
-5-
4.1
Types of Test SectionThe wind-tunnels used in industry and research centers for full-scale automotive
testing are listed in Table 1. The cross-sectional area of the test sections varies between 10 m2 and 90 m2.
Beyond that, innumerable wind-tunnels for small-scale testing are in operation all over the world.
As Figure 1 illustrates, wind-tunnel test sections for automotive testing may be closed, where the entire test
section is bounded by solid walls, or semi-open, where the test section is bounded only by a floor representing
the road. Recent alternatives are vented-wall sections, where the sidewalls and ceiling are slotted or
perforated, representing something between a solid-walled and an open section, or an adaptive wall test
section where the wall and ceiling contours may be adjusted as desired.
-6-
-7-
LM
Vmax
(m2)
(m)
(km/h)
TS
P
(kW)
BMW
20.0
12.50
160
3.66
BMW
10.0
9.83
250
3.00
Daimler-Benz
32.6
10.00
270
3.53
4 000
DNW
90.25
20.00
220
4.80
12 700
48.0
20.00
400
9.00
12 700
36.0
16.00
540
12.00
12 700
Fiat
30.0
10.50
200
4.00
1 865
FKFS
22.5
9.50
220
4.41
2 500
Ford (Cologne)
24.0/8.6
10.30
182/298
4.80
1 650/1 960
General Motors
56.3
21.3
250
5.00
2 984
15.0
10.00
144
sw
5.00
516
15.0
10.00
205
sw
7.70
1 000
JARI
12.0
10.00
205
4.06
1 200
Lockheed-Georgia
35.1
13.10
406
7.02
6 700
Mazda
24.0
12.00
230
6.00
1 600
MIRA
34.9
15.24
133
1.45
Mitsubishi
24.0
12.00
216
NAMI
27.0
18.00
180
sw
5.85
1 500
Nippon Soken
17.5/12.0
12.5/8.5
120/200
3.66
1 450
Nissan
28.5/15.0
12.00
190/270
6.43/12.0
2 200
NRC
81.9
22.90
200
6.00
6 700
Pininfarina
11.7
8.00
185
6.50
1 080
Porsche
22.3
12.00
230
sw
6.06
2 200
Toyota
17.5
8.00
200
3.66
1 500
Volkswagen
37.5
10.00
180
4.00
2 600
Volvo
27.1
15.80
200
sw
6.00
2 300
AT
LM
Vmax
TS
Contraction ratio
1 676
970
2 350
Conditions at the boundaries induce constraints on the air flow about a test body within the test section, which
result in differences in local flow patterns from those that would be obtained in free, unbounded air. The closed
test section forces the free air streamlines closer together and changes their curvature to match the shape of
the wall at the test section boundary. For the semi-open test section, free air streamlines tend to overexpand at
the test section boundary, changing their curvature to balance the surrounding pressure.
Ventilated test section tunnels were developed originally to relieve choking and shock reflection problems
encountered in transonic testing. Only recently have ventilated wall tunnels been considered for low-speed
bluff-body testing. Depending on the open-area ratio of the walls and the angular position of the re-entry flaps,
which are important for short test sections in comparison to the vehicle length and which are installed in the
plenum chamber surrounding the test section, wall interferences may be mostly reduced.
-8-
Ground SimulationConsideration of ground simulation is important because of errors which may result from
the classical set-up of a road vehicle in the test section. In contrast to the situation on the road, where there is
a relative motion V between the vehicle on one side and the air and the ground on the other side, in the usual
experimental set-up of road vehicle aerodynamics both the model and the ground plane are stationary and
facing the oncoming flow at velocity V. Due to the no-slip condition, a shear layer, the so-called Ground Plane
Boundary Layer (GPBL), develops along the ground plane, the thickness of which is dependent on the distance
x from its origin (6).
(Eq. 1)
Equation 1 is an approximation for a 2-d turbulent boundary layer (b.l.) at constant pressure. It can only be
applied to the flow in the empty test section with an impermeable ground plane. Typical values for in fullscale wind-tunnels are on the order of 70 to 160 mm. For the displacement thickness and the momentum
thickness similar relations hold:
-9-
Because of the steady growth of the GPBL in the streamwise direction, even at zero pressure gradient, there is
a normal boundary-layer-induced flow component e at the outer edge of the b.l. (6,8).
(Eq. 3)
w is a normal transpiration velocity at the ground plane, i.e., positive for blowing and negative for suction. The
displacement velocity e leads to a b.l.-induced vertical flow angle Figure 2.
(Eq. 4)
-10-
-11-
-12-
NOMENCLATURE2
Rex
U
u
v
vw
x
y
4.2.1.1
Subscripts
e
w
4.2.1.2
edge of b.l.
wall (ground plane)
Abbreviations
b.l.
boundary layer
GPBL ground plane boundary layer
-13-
Flow QualityWhen designing a wind-tunnel, the flow quality in the test section is one of the most important
requirements which will control the testing capability and quality. What does flow quality mean? A wind-tunnel
test is a simulated test situation, where air is forced past a test object. This situation in theory does not have
any flow disturbances or unsteadiness of the moving air in the empty test section, simulating zero-wind
conditions on the open road. The only way to minimize flow disturbances, which will always occur, is by careful
design of the complete tunnel circuit. Some of the most significant causes to the flow disturbances are
mentioned under each parameter description.
The flow quality is judged by many parameters. The following parameters give a base for a specification of
wind-tunnel: velocity uniformity, velocity fluctuations, flow angles, turbulence level, static pressure gradient,
boundary layer thickness, temperature uniformity, and noise level. The required specification of the flow
situation will not be met in every position in the test section. A test volume in the test section has to be defined
and within this volume the requirements should be fulfilled. The volume size and location should at least cover
the corner points of the largest model size to be tested. A note should be made regarding the wall boundary
layers and corner effects that will influence the flow quality measurements in the wall proximity.
Flow quality measurements are made with the test section empty. To be able to measure the flow quality
conveniently in a test volume there is a need for a traversing arrangement. The important requirements for a
traversing gear are: insignificant influence on the measured results, a rigid and stiff construction, ability to cover
the complete volume with a high number of grid-points and be able to carry different probes.
One of the main objectives to define flow quality parameters concerns the measurement equipment for the flow
control. The accuracy of the complete measurement system, in each case, should be at least five times better
than the specified requirement for the tunnel.
4.3.1
VELOCITY UNIFORMITYThe spatial flow velocity uniformity across the test section should be defined as the
percentage deviation of local streamwise velocity from the average value (based on time-average
measurements). Equation 5.
(Eq. 5)
where:
V1 = Local streamwise velocity
Vm = Average velocity
The uniformity requirement is specified as the maximum deviation from the average flow velocity in the
measured cross section. A well-designed wind-tunnel could have less than 0.25% in velocity variation in
the test volume. However, many wind-tunnels used satisfactorily for automotive testing have velocity
variations up to 1.0%.
The velocity variations in the flow can be caused by flow separations, poor turning vane design or improperly
adjusted vanes. The velocity uniformity is derived from dynamic pressure measurements with a pitot-static
probe and high-resolution pressure transducer.
4.3.2
VELOCITY FLUCTUATIONSThe flow velocity fluctuations are given in a local position as the variation over
time. This time-dependent unsteady flow should be kept as small as possible. This fluctuation could be
caused by either the fan regulation or flow separations, and the frequency will be different accordingly. A
requirement recommendation could be a maximum of 0.5% velocity fluctuation within any specified time
period over a specified speed range. This variation is measured by a pitot-static probe with a pressure
transducer and a frequency analyzer with recording possibilities.
-14-
FLOW ANGULARITYThe flow angularity variations can be divided into vertical (pitch) and horizontal (yaw)
variations. The angularity is defined as the maximum local deviation from the defined test section x-axis.
The local angularity is recommended in automobile testing to be less than 0.5 degrees. The pitch angle
deviation is more critical to the vehicle than the yaw angle deviation and should be less than 0.2 degrees.
The pitch angle deviation can affect the vehicle shape optimization with respect to drag and front and rear lift,
while the yaw angle deviation can be accepted by setting the car at an offset angle. Flow angularity is
caused by poor turning vane design, poor honeycomb design, poor or unsuitable nozzle design or
misalignment of the nozzle relative to the test section. To measure the flow angularity many different devices
can be used: the most common are some type of pyramid probe or yaw meter head, both working with the
aid of pressure measurements. Careful calibrations have to be made of the probe and equipment to be
used. One difficult problem is the possible deflection of the probe support and holder during the test, which
has to be controlled.
4.3.4
TURBULENCE LEVELSThe turbulence levels should be measured in the three coordinate directions. The
longitudinal turbulence intensity level is defined in Equation 6.
(Eq. 6)
where:
urms = Longitudinal rms velocity fluctuation
U = Mean test section velocity
Depending on the type of wind-tunnel design, either the longitudinal or the transverse turbulence level will
dominate. A well-designed wind-tunnel with turbulence-reducing measures would have less than 0.5%
turbulence level. The turbulence affects the transition and separation points on the model, and could also
interact with model surface roughness. However, although most tunnel designers strive for a low, repeatable
turbulence level, it should be borne in mind that vehicles mostly operate in traffic conditions that generate
turbulence. In addition, higher levels of turbulence may be of benefit in increasing the effective Reynolds
number, especially in small-scale model tests (see 4.4).
Turbulence is caused by the fan and turning vanes. A flow straightener and fine mesh screens are used for
reduction of turbulence. The measurement of turbulence levels is normally done by hot-wire equipment. To
be able to measure in three directions, angled probes are used and are traversed by a rigid holder and
support. Another measuring technique used involves the turbulence sphere, which will give a critical
Reynolds number. This Reynolds number corresponds to a turbulence factor which leads to a turbulence
level. The turbulence sphere indicates what a rounded model would see.
4.3.5
STATIC PRESSURE VARIATIONThe local static pressure variation is defined as the deviation in pressure
coefficient from a reference pressure, in the longitudinal direction. See Equation 7.
(Eq. 7)
where:
Cp = Pressure coefficient
px = Static pressure value in position x
pref = Reference static pressure
qref = Reference dynamic pressure
-15-
BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESSThis requirement consists of two parameters, i.e., the boundary layer
thickness, which corresponds to 99% of the freestream velocity, and the displacement thickness, which is a
derivative from the boundary layer profile. The displacement thickness is defined in Equation 8.
(Eq. 8)
where:
u/U = local velocity divided by the freestream velocity
y = distance from the wall
The requirement for the boundary layer is difficult to set because it will depend on pressure differences due
to boundary layer reducing systems and pressure gradients. A maximum empty-test-section displacement
thickness on the order of 10% of the minimum vehicle ground clearance, measured at its front bumper
location, is recommended (see Reference 1). A normal passenger car has about 150 mm ground clearance,
which then gives a recommendation of * <15 mm for the empty test section measurement. The wind-tunnel
boundary layer is built up in the whole circuit. It will change in size due to the pressure gradients in different
parts of the tunnel circuit. Large boundary layers affect the force measurements on a vehicle. The boundary
layers are mostly measured by pitot probes or hot-wire technique. The hot-wire will give not only the velocity
profile in the boundary layer but also the turbulence structure of the layer.
4.3.7
TEMPERATURE UNIFORMITYThe temperature uniformity is defined as the local temperature deviation from
the mean flow temperature. Good flow quality and a well-designed heat exchanger gives a temperature
deviation less than 1 C across the test section. Temperature gradients can cause problems with tunnels
without insulation by creating temperature boundary layers. The measurement is made by a precision
thermocouple traversed over the test section.
4.3.8
NOISE LEVELSThe test section background noise level will be defined as a single value dB(A) over a
specified frequency range and as decibel values per 1/3 octave band. The goal for any tunnel from the
working and testing point of view would be to have about 80 dB(A) or less at the location normally occupied
by the test vehicle. As noise consists of pressure fluctuations, if the background noise level is too high this
will also be seen in the pressure fluctuation and turbulence measurements. The noise is primarily caused by
the fan and fan motor.
If the tunnel is intended to be used for wind rush tests on vehicles, the level must be low enough not to
interfere with the measurement in the vehicle. This requirement has led to the development of wind-tunnels
(with semi-open-jet test sections) having noise levels down to 60 dB(A) at 100 km/h wind speed.
The measurement of the noise level is very difficult because there is a major problem of reducing the wind
noise generated by the microphone itself. Semi-open jet wind-tunnels can measure the noise level outside
the jet and then correlate it back to the measuring volume in the test section.
NOTEReferences 14 to 23 provide a bibliography to Section 4.3.
-16-
-17-
-18-
-19-
-20-
-21-
For basic aerodynamic evaluations on scale models there are possibilities to "stay on the safe side"
regarding Reynolds number effects by avoiding shapes and features which are likely to be sensitive.
However, the validation of test results based on 1:5 scale or smaller models requires special
experience to prevent possible misinterpretation.
d. There are opportunities to simulate conditions at higher Reynolds numbers by tuning the turbulence (to
some extent), but this field needs further investigation.
-22-
5.1
Model/Vehicle InstallationModel or vehicle installation is dependent upon the type of wind-tunnel, balance
and model. The one common factor to observe in installation of a ground vehicle test is to avoid an air gap
under the tires when simulating a tire which should touch the ground. When a gap is unavoidable, the test
engineer should recognize the potential for errors in the data.
The various ways to mount the test vehicle which are considered here are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Variations on the preceding list are possible. For example, it is possible to mount a full-size vehicle on a
cantilevered strut with an internal load cell balance, but it is not a common practice.
In considering each of the previously mentioned cases in detail as follows, it is assumed that force
measurements are required. If this is not so, the need for clearance gaps is generally eliminated.
5.1.1
FULL-SIZE VEHICLE IN A FIXED-FLOOR TUNNEL WITH EXTERNAL BALANCEMany facilities have an external
balance mounted under the test section floor with 4 flush-mounted wheel pads in the floor connected directly
to the balance. The pads are isolated from the floor structure. In such a case the vehicle may be rolled onto
the pads, aligned with the centerlines of the test section and secured in place. Before blocking the vehicle on
the balance it is important to move the car back and forth around the final position and to shake it to avoid
initial frictional forces acting on the tires affecting the repeatability of the test.
Restrain the vehicle from moving, and, if it does move, be able to detect and measure its position relative to
the balance reference point. For low-speed testing (up to about 30 m/s), setting the parking brakes and a
chock (tapered wedge) placed on the pad behind the tires can suffice. For higher-speed testing, straps
wrapped around each tire (or axle) and bolted to the pad may be required to prevent lifting over the chocks.
However, to simulate fully on-the-road suspension setting, the vehicle in the wind-tunnel should be blocked
by the driveline (first gear or parking position of automatic gear box). Using the brakes may falsify the
resultant pitch angle.
After installation of a vehicle with rubber tires and a typical vehicle suspension system, the wind should be
turned on to the maximum planned test speed to settle the suspension joints and allow the vehicle to roll
back against its restraints. Then remeasure the vehicle's position before making data runs. If the vehicle is
blocked by only the driveline, it will be necessary to check its position with the wind on. The position of the
vehicle is important in translating the moments about the balance's resolution center.
-23-
Check for proper tire pressure and load the passenger compartment and trunk with weights to establish the
proper height and test attitude. Sometimes it may be desired to test with clamped suspension, so the vehicle
does not move significantly on its springs, to prevent changing attitude with air speed. Full-size clay models
or advanced concept show cars are generally made on rigid chassis without springs.
Most wind-tunnels for testing ground vehicles have a turntable in the test section floor which can yaw the
model about the z (vertical) axis. Recommended practice is to center the vehicle's wheelbase and tread on
the center of rotation of the turntable which is usually the balance resolution center. Any deviations of the
position of the vehicle should be noted for translation of the data to the proper axis of rotation.
Before making data runs be sure the fouling system is active to ensure the model on the pads does not touch
the test section floor nor the balance touch the support structure during a test run. Yaw the vehicle through
its range of angles to check for fouling.
Some facilities do not have the convenience of driving or rolling the vehicle into the test section. These
generally have a removable roof and an overhead crane to lower the vehicle into place.
5.1.2
SCALE MODEL INSTALLATION ON A FIXED FLOORReduced-scale models generally have rigid wheels which
can be mounted on four studs protruding through the test section floor to a balance below. In this case, it is
difficult to avoid an air gap under the wheels as each stud and bottom of the wheel cannot touch the floor. Air
flow through this gap will increase in velocity, local pressure under the wheel will decrease, which results in
errors in the measured forces, particularly in the lift direction. Contrary to some belief (28), the smaller the
gap, the greater the errors. It is advisable to install flush pads with an annular gap around the pad, then
mount the wheel in tight contact with the pad.
Static loaded tire deflection should be modelled using flats of the appropriate size on all wheels. The proper
height attitude should be made with space adjustments between the fixed wheels and the model body.
A fouling system alarm is required to alert operating personnel if contact with surrounding structure occurs.
5.1.3
SCALE MODEL INSTALLATION ON A RAISED GROUND PLANESome facilities are equipped with an elevated
ground board to raise the model above the existing boundary layer on the wind-tunnel floor. Mounting a
model to the ground board is similar to mounting to the floor. The model attachment points on the board
would have to pass through the board and connect to the balance below the floor with a windshield around
any exposed struts.
The fundamental problem with using a raised ground board is that there are two parallel flow paths, above
and below the ground board. Any change to the model configuration which changes the flow resistance
through the upper path, such as yawing the model, will divert more flow below the board. Therefore, be sure
that proper corrections are being made to the tunnel speed control or to the data to account for this velocity
shift. Monitoring the velocity at a single point below the board will not always suffice, since the flow shift may
be three-dimensional. (Note that a similar condition can exist for a passive suction slot at the front of the test
section, unless a blower is added to supplement and vary the flow.)
5.1.4
TRUCK, BUS, OR TRAIN MODEL INSTALLATIONUsually a special fixture is required to mount multi-wheeled
vehicles in a facility equipped with only four wheel pads or attachment points to the balance. In some test
sections, a beam can be installed under the floor upon which any number of the wheels can be attached,
either by flush pads or short studs through the floor cover plate. The beam is mounted to the balance below
the floor. With many wheels in tandem, it is not always necessary to attach every wheel, but the gaps which
are needed under the other wheels should be sealed.
-24-
5.1.6
-25-
5.1.7
Another situation may occur in which a large truck cannot fit entirely on the turntable. If the overhanging
wheels are floated on an air cushion platform, the truck can be rotated through a yaw angle range. Drag and
side force measurements can be made if horizontal tare forces are minimized and calibrated over the
complete yaw angle range, but the lift force would be indeterminate since a portion of the weight would be
transferred to the floor through the air cushion. Care must be taken to measure the true yaw angle of the
vehicle under wind-on conditions because of the reduced yaw stiffness with the outermost wheels floating.
5.2
Instrumentation
5.2.1
FORCE MEASUREMENTSThe main requirement of the wind-tunnel test is to measure mean (time-averaged)
coefficients, of all six components, as a function of yaw angle. To make a good measurement, it is necessary
to consider accuracy and repeatability of both dynamic pressure (q) and forces (F). Equation 9.
(Eq. 9)
5.2.1.1
Dynamic-Pressure Measurement SystemThis system has to be just as accurate and repeatable as the
force measurement system (balance). This means that the accuracy of the measured velocity should be
within 0.2%, excluding test-section nonuniformity, and the repeatability should be one order of magnitude
better. Basic calibration with, for example, reference Prandtl-tubes mounted in the empty test section
should be performed.
-26-
BalanceFor accurate six-component measurements the balance has to satisfy the following
requirements:
a. The balance equipment should not disturb the air flow near the test object. If any structure to support
the test vehicle is influencing the flow, this influence should be measured and eliminated.
b. There should be no influence on the balance equipment from the air flow in the test section or the
balance room and if so this influence should be carefully determined and eliminated. Effects of
temperature and ventilation fluctuations should be covered by careful checkout of the balance behavior
at different conditions. Temperature control in the balance room is preferable.
c. Influences from undesired movements of the test object should be controlled. Flexing of the vehicle
support system or balance could in some cases affect the results of the measurement. Movement of
the test vehicle itself (in the case of production vehicles) and the subsequent movement of the center
of gravity in the X-direction can have an influence on the front/rear lift distribution and the pitching
moment. To control this, a device to measure the relative movement between vehicle and balance and
subsequent calculations could eliminate the whole problem.
d. Hysteresis and friction must be small. This requires much from the balance design itself, but also from
the surrounding equipment.
The most common balance used for six-component measurements is the external type. For specific
purposes internal balances can be used. These often limit the model weight. Some strain-gauge
balances are not protected against overload and have to be treated carefully during model mounting and
configuration changes.
-27-
5.2.3
TRAVERSING GEAR SYSTEMLocal flow field measurements or flow visualization needs a remotely controlled
traversing gear which is accurate and repeatable within reasonable time.
The traversing gear should be small enough to have negligible influence on the flow field and stiff enough not
to seriously influence the type of probes used for measurement. It should be computer-controlled for good
repeatability of positioning or moving pattern.
Typical measurement equipment includes:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hot-wire anemometers
Pressure probes (Prandtl tubes, etc.)
Temperature probes
Mechanical probes
Laser-Doppler anemometry (LDA)
-28-
FLOW VISUALIZATION EQUIPMENTFlow visualization techniques could be split into three groups:
a. Surface flow visualization
b. Flow field visualizationstreamers
c. Flow field visualizationplanar surveys
These can be split:
a. Surface flow visualization techniques:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Yarn tufts
Fluorescent minitufts
Liquid indicators
Contamination
Sublimation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Planar surveys
Tuft gridtransverse plane
Laser lightsheet of smoke
Discrete point flow field survey
Continuous flow field
Kiel probe/LED technique
Kiel probe/computer-generated graphics
7-hole probe/computer-generated graphics
These techniques are very well described in Aerodynamic Flow Visualization Techniques and Procedures,
SAE HS J1566.
References 29 to 35 provide an additional bibliography to Section 5.2.
5.3
Data AcquisitionBefore the advent of modern electrical transducers and computing systems, direct readout of the measured forces and moments from weigh-beams in the balance was the normal procedure in windtunnel testing. Similarly, pressure measurements were usually made by direct reading of the fluid levels in
manometers. In each case, the readings were reduced manually to the required non-dimensional coefficient
form (See section 8.1), using either a mechanical desk-top calculator or a slide-rule. Although these methods
of data acquisition and processing are still possible, of course, they have been superseded by transducers and
computers of such cost-effectiveness that no alternative method would normally be worth considering.
-29-
FORCE MEASUREMENTSThe loads registered by the balance are converted to electrical signals either by the
use of strain-gauged load cells or, in some older balances, by a rotary position-transducer attached to the
lead-screw driving the balance-weight on each weigh-beam arm. In both cases, the time-averaged values of
the signals are determined by sampling or integrating over a suitable period.
The sampling requirement will depend first on the fluctuations occurring in the load signals. Fluctuations in
force and moment readings may be caused by turbulence or flow unsteadiness in the tunnel airstream or by
the dynamics of separated flow zones on the vehicle. Some force measurement systems have built-in
damping to smooth these fluctuations. The periodicity of the residual fluctuations in the signals will influence
both the required frequency of sampling and the length of the sampling (or integrating) period. The sampling
rate should be at least twice the highest frequency present in the sampled signal in order to calculate an
accurate mean value.
The second factor determining the sampling requirement is the level of repeatability required in the force and
moment data. As in all measurements, it is necessary to ensure that the repeatability of the results is
sufficient to allow the required level of significance of observed changes in the data to be achieved. This may
dictate either increasing the averaging period of the data collection or taking repeat measurements.
Due to the broad range of forces possible with different vehicle configurations, it is not always appropriate to
express the repeatability simply as a percentage. Rather, a tolerance on the coefficient of force (or moment)
should be used, which will vary to some extent with the magnitude of the coefficient.
Typically, a repeatability range of CD = 0.002 or even 0.001 might be required in the case of the drag
coefficient of a car during an aerodynamic development program. While individual changes in CD of this
order have no significant effect on the performance and fuel economy of a vehicle, significant advances are
mostly achieved by the summation of a series of such small improvements. This type of aerodynamic
optimization therefore necessitates extreme repeatability, which in turn requires long averaging periods, e.g.,
from 15 to 60 s.
Since the repeatability of force coefficients depends equally on the repeatability of both balance readings
and dynamic-pressure readings, it is necessary to average the q-signal over a similar period. Indeed, to
minimize fully the effects of fluctuations in the flow and in the corresponding aerodynamic forces, the balance
signals and the q-signal need to be sampled simultaneously, not sequentially.
5.3.2
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTSThe signals from pressure transducers are averaged and then reduced to nondimensional coefficient form in the same way as the force measurements. In this case, however, there is a
third variable, the reference static pressure, to be recorded concurrently with both the local pressure and the
dynamic pressure. Usually, the difference between the local pressure and the reference pressure is
measured directly by means of a differential pressure transducer. It is also usual for several local pressure
measurements to be required in the same run. Hence the use of mechanical or electronic scanning devices
with many pressure ports (e.g., 48) and a single output signal. Since the ports are scanned sequentially, it is
necessary to ensure that the 'dwell' on each port is long enough to allow the measured pressure to stabilize,
while minimizing the time interval between readings from the various ports. When the best compromise
between these requirements has been determined, repeatability of the pressure coefficient data can be
enhanced by repeating the scan of all the ports a number of times and then averaging the results.
The reference static pressure is normally derived from the dynamic-pressure measuring system, which will
include one or more static-pressure holes near the nozzle exit plane (See Section 5.2.1.1). During the tunnel
calibration, with empty test section, the relationship will have been determined between the pressure(s)
measured at this location and the static pressure at the normal vehicle location, which is the required
reference static-pressure. With the vehicle installed, a correction has to be made to this reference pressure
(at least in closed test sections) to allow for blockage effects.
-30-
Model/Vehicle Requirements
6.1
Full-Scale TestingWith increased emphasis dedicated to aerodynamic aspects during vehicle development
in recent years, more and more manufacturers incorporate full-scale test facilities into their development
centers.
Full-size aerodynamic wind-tunnel tests are executed for research, development, and verification purposes
using:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Production vehicles
Prototypes
Solid models (nonfunctional)
Clay models
In general, full-size testing on models can only be performed by professional teams with qualified workshop
and modelling support.
Depending on the kind of wind-tunnel model and test objective, specific aspects and implications must be
taken into consideration.
-31-
6.1.2
-32-
SOLID MODELSThe main purposes of using "nonfunctional" solid full-scale models for aerodynamic testing
are:
a. Determination of the aerodynamic performance of specific design concepts before prototypes are
available.
b. Investigation for various air-management aspects in an early stage of development, for example:
engine cooling, brake cooling, dirt deposition, wind noise, etc.
c. Evaluation of series differentials and add-on devices.
d. Comparative tests requiring perfect repeatability (e.g., tests in different wind-tunnels, calibration
purposes).
e. Development of alternative body concepts with a common basic design (notch, hatch, wagon, van,
etc). In these cases the common body may be solid and the rear-end alternative may be built up in
clay.
There are many ways to build up solid models for aerodynamic testing. The most common practice is to use
fiberglass cast bodies or high-density foam bodies fixed on reinforced existing chassis structures modified as
far as needed. Wheelbase and track may be adjusted by insert structures. Underbody simulation may for
instance be tuned by appropriate foam parts or wooden parts.
A key item is the simulation of the engine compartment and cooling airflow. Cast models with a thin body
shell allow a very realistic simulation in this respect.
Many aspects to be observed during tests on production cars and prototypes are also to be considered when
using "nonfunctional" solid models. Some additional items seem to be worth mentioning:
a. Solid models should be equipped with fixed suspensions allowing adjustable ride height control.
b. Body gaps and openings are typically not simulated in a realistic way. Their effect has to be taken into
account to avoid misinterpretation. Adjustments are to be made according to experience with actual
vehicles (see next paragraph).
-33-
Engine compartment, wheelhouses, chassis platform and interior should not feature gaps or openings
allowing unrealistic flow paths.
d. For some development purposes it may be helpful to execute certain body sections by clay inserts to
allow fine tuning.
NOTEIt is expected that advances of computational methods (CAE) in design, body engineering and
aerodynamics will cause a trend toward using automatically milled body shells for aerodynamic
testing.
As far as clay models are concerned this is to some extent already state-of-the-art in the car
industry but it will also be applied on solid body shells with a more advanced fabrication
technology.
Successful future application of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) will require the opportunity
of quick verification by actual wind-tunnel models using CAE surface definitions.
6.1.4
CLAY MODELSAerodynamic development work in the wind-tunnel on all new car programs typically starts
on models with clay bodies. This allows very flexible modification and fine tuning of all shape parameters
and details.
In the initial phases scale models may be used to reduce cost and workload. At as soon as final design
concepts require consideration, full-scale clay models are required for professional aerodynamic
development work on cars to avoid the shortcomings of scale model investigations (discussed at the
beginning of this section).
Final clay approval of design concepts is usually backed up by aerodynamic figures derived from wind-tunnel
tests on highly detailed clay models. Similarly to the "solid models," clay models are generally built up on
reinforced existing chassis structures modified according to the new specifications. As there is no basic
difference between "solid models" and clay models as far as aerodynamics is concerned (apart from the
flexibility to execute design changes) the comments previously mentioned are also valid for clay models.
A key shortcoming of the clay model wind-tunnel tests is that body gaps are not properly simulated. Due
consideration of this aspect requires experience on actual full-size cars, from which some general
statements can be made:
a. Gaps and openings at the front end have a significant effect on drag and lift and should be simulated
as far as possible. On conventional front-end designs, gaps between bumper and body, headlamp
gaps, and gaps at the leading edge of the hood may cause more than 5% of overall drag. On
advanced front-end designs with small production tolerances, fixed headlamps and sealings at the
leading edge of the hood and between body and bumper, only very small effects are to be expected.
b. The gaps at both sides of the front hood only cause a drag penalty on the order of up to 1% of the
overall drag.
c. The effect of door gaps is close to zero on modern cars due to the sealing actions usually adopted to
avoid wind noise concerns.
d. Tailgate/trunk gaps are negligible on notchback cars but have some effect on fastbacks, and may be
very critical on wagon-type rear ends.
e. On fastback cars the upper tailgate gap at the rear header may increase drag by about 1%.
Depending on the exact position, the gaps at the sides may reduce yaw moment (enhanced windward
side D-pillar flow separation).
-34-
Station-wagon-type rear ends with an inclined backlight, as occurring on estate cars and compact
cars, may allow two different wake patterns: A low-energy wake flow with flow separation at the trailing
edge of the roof or a wake with strong longitudinal vortices and partly attached flow on the backlight
(Figure 8). In the latter case the inclusion of the upper tailgate gap may have a switching effect by
changing the flow separation conditions towards earlier flow separation, i.e., reduced drag and rear lift.
Drag reductions of more than 5% have been observed.
(As long as flow separation above the backlight and a station-wagon-type wake is intended, the use of
models without tailgate gaps means staying on the safe side. If, however, flow attachment on the backlight is
intended, a clay model simulation without correct tailgate gaps may be misleading.)
6.2
6.2.1
Small-Scale Testing
REQUIREMENTS FOR PHYSICAL SIMILARITYFor many aerodynamic experiments small-scale rather than fullscale testing may be preferred. This is due to lower wind-tunnel running costs and model expenses, earlier
availability of scale models, smaller blockage ratios or the desire to perform moving-belt experiments which
are rather elaborate in full scale.
No particular scale, however, may be considered standard for model tests of road vehicles. The scale must
be chosen in accordance with the requirements of the experiment that is to be performed. Whereas 1/10
scale tests may be helpful to gain some understanding of basic flow structures for a certain geometry, larger
scales are required to represent the full-scale flow in more detail. For development purposes some car
manufacturers do not rely on tests with models smaller than 1/2.5. Other companies mainly prefer quarteror fifth-scale models to cope with all their small-scale activities. These scales are still considerably larger
than typical model scales used in the aircraft industry. The biggest model of the Airbus that has been tested
so far (German-Dutch Wind-tunnel) was of 1/9.5 scale. In other branches of wind-tunnel testing, like civil
engineering, model scales between 1/50 and 1/500 or even smaller are common practice (14).
It is known from experience that most road vehicles are not very sensitive to scale effects (Reynolds number
effects) (36), provided the Reynolds number, based on overall length, is above 3.5 x 106. Typical errors in the
evaluation of the drag coefficient are on the order of 2%. There are cases, however, especially on cars with
slant-back rear ends or with small radii front ends, where considerably larger errors are likely to occur, as
mentioned in Section 3.4 (37)(16). In the case of small radii, the Reynolds number based on the local radius
has to be above the critical Reynolds number of a circular cylinder, i.e., Rer>3x105.
However, one has to take care that the local Mach number does not deviate too much from its corresponding
full-scale value. The effect of compressibility on stagnation pressure, for instance, can be approximated by
Equation 10 (38):
(Eq. 10)
From Equation 10 there results Cpst = 1.0035 for V = 40 m/s (M = 0.118). If V is increased to 75m/s (M =
0.221) for a scale model experiment, the pressure coefficient at the stagnation point is distorted to Cpst =
1.0122, indicating an error on the order of 1%. For a higher but still subsonic Mach number M*, the so-called
critical Mach number, there is a point along the vehicle contour where the local Mach number M exceeds the
value of one. This is illustrated in Figure 12 (38). It relates the critical pressure coefficient Cp* to the critical
free-stream Mach number M*. E.g., it can be seen that at M = 0.7, the local Mach number exceeds one as
soon as the local Cp decreases below 0.8.
-35-
REQUIREMENTS FOR GEOMETRIC SIMILARITYTo arrive at physical similarity between small-scale and fullscale flows over a vehicle, geometric similarity has first to be specified. This means that the scale model has
to be built with all the details that may be relevant for physical similarity:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
-36-
Nomenclature
Cp
Cpst
M
Rer
U
y
6.2.2.2
pressure coefficient
stagnation pressure coefficient
free-stream Mach number
Reynolds number based on local radius of curvature
free-stream velocity
isentropic exponent
Superscript
* critical conditions (M>1 locally)
-37-
7.1
Force MeasurementsWind-tunnel models are mounted on a force and moment measuring systeman
aerodynamic balancewhich is connected electronically to a data-acquisition computer system. The balance
is usually installed within a rotating turntable to allow the model to be turned through a range of yaw angles
with respect to the wind direction.
Force measurements on a test vehicle in a wind-tunnel require a system of one or more balances arranged to
measure lift, drag, and side force simultaneously, as well as their resultant moments in pitch, roll, and yaw.
Whether the balances are mounted inside the model or external to the model, and whether load cells,
weighbeams, or strain gauges are used, the principle is the same. Pressure of the wind acting on the surface
of the model produces a set of forces which are detected by each of the balances through the mounting struts
or wheel pads in the floor.
a. The lift balance supports the weight of, and continuously weighs, the vehicle. A lift force subtracts from
the force of gravity, while a down force adds to the force of gravity.
b. The drag force pushes the vehicle downstream in the longitudinal direction, a thrust pushes it
upstream. The drag balance measures the unbalanced surface pressure distribution and skin friction
in the drag direction.
c. The side-force balance detects the unbalanced pressures on each side of the model in the lateral
direction.
d. The pitching-moment balance detects the unbalance of the net lift force forward or rearward of the
center of the wheelbase, together with the moment due to any vertical offset of the drag force from the
balance resolution center.
e. The rolling-moment balance measures the unbalance of the net lift force on the right side or left side
wheels, together with the moment due to any vertical offset of the side force from the balance
resolution center.
f. The yawing-moment balance measures the unbalance of the net side force ahead of or behind the
center of the wheelbase, together with the moment due to any lateral offset of the drag force from the
longitudinal axis of the balance.
Measured forces can be expressed in "wind axes" in which the drag force is aligned with the longitudinal axis of
the test section. However, for ground vehicles, a transformation of axes is required to resolve the drag and side
force components into "body axes" in which the drag is aligned with the model centerline and therefore
represents the aerodynamic resistance of motion of the vehicle. All internal balances and most external
balances rotate in yaw with the model and therefore produce data directly into "body axes" coordinates. The lift
force in the vertical direction is not affected by this transformation. Refer to "Low Speed Wind-tunnel Testing"
(14) for the transformation equations.
The moment reference center is placed along the vehicle vertical plane of symmetry with the ground. The
longitudinal location is at the wheelbase midpoint. For tractor/trailers, it is at the centerline of the rear axle of
the tractor.
-38-
PREPARATIONBefore the vehicle is installed in the test section of the tunnel, the frontal area should be
determined, wheelbase and track measured and front and rear centerlines and wheelbase midpoints marked
on the body. The frontal area is required to nondimensionalize the force data (Equation 11):
(Eq. 11)
Wheelbase length is required to nondimensionalize the moments (Equation 12):
(Eq. 12)
The frontal area is the projected area enclosed within the silhouette of the complete vehicle as viewed
directly from the front (or rear). The open area between the wheels and the underbody should not be
included in the total area. The projected areas of mirrors and roof racks, etc., should be included, but not the
open space between the support bars of the rack and vehicle roof. For convenience in comparing results,
the value of the frontal area used in the data reduction should remain constant and independent of any
aerodynamic modifications made to the vehicle.
Each facility has its own method for measuring the projected area. Most are optical systems of laser or video
scanning, or photographing a shadow from a far-distance light source, on the order of 75 to 100 m away (41).
Accuracy is important when comparing results with other facilities. The test report should define how the
frontal area was measured and provide the numerical value used so that, if required, conversions can be
made to the data later. To correct the data for a change in the value of frontal area, multiply the coefficient of
force by the original area and divide by the new value.
The vehicle is installed with the wheelbase centerlines aligned with the centerlines of the test section and the
model secured to the balance (see 5.1.1). Before the test starts, the wind should be turned on to the
maximum speed to be tested to allow the tires to roll back against their stops and to allow the suspension to
settle. Afterwards, remeasure the position of the model for moment transfer corrections to true centerlines
and for misalignment of zero yaw setting to the tunnel airflow. Small corrections for zero yaw can be made by
rotating the turntable to a new angle aligned with the test section axis. In some cases the tunnel flow may
not be aligned with the geometric axis, or the model may not be symmetric.
The most critical requirement in setting the vehicle in the test section is to establish the height above the floor
and the pitch angle, i.e., the front higher or lower than the rear. Set the height as accurately as possible.
Force measurements will differ between a production vehicle with spring suspension and a model with rigid
mounting due to the small changes in height and pitch over a range of speeds and wind loads in the former
case. If the test vehicle is equipped with an electronically controlled attitude adjusting suspension system,
this should be switched off.
-39-
TEST PLANNINGThe purpose of the test will determine the variables to be evaluated. Preparation of easily
removed and replaced components will speed up the model changes and save costly wind-tunnel time.
Preplanning of the order in which the components are to be tested can also save time. A general rule is to
make only one configuration change for each run. If two are made, there is no way to determine which one
affected the force measurement, or if the two effects cancelled each other.
One baseline configuration of the model should be selected for an occasional rerun to check for data
repeatability. This should be a combination of components which can be reliably duplicated each time. If the
test extends more than one day, plan to repeat the last run of the day the next morning to be sure the data
repeats. If not, determine why.
Select the blockage and buoyancy correction to be applied to the data, if any. Enter the model dimensions
and position coordinates into the data system. Determine if test results are desired for constant velocity or
constant dynamic pressure, q. Most force data is taken at constant q, unless the engineer has a need for
comparing results at a known velocity.
7.1.3
REYNOLDS NUMBER EFFECTSTests should be performed to determine the effects of Reynolds number on
measured forces and moments. The test Reynolds number must be high enough to produce a realistic flow
pattern about the model, and correctly represent the viscous effects (see 4.4). High Reynolds numbers can
be obtained by increasing the airspeed (limited by drive motor power and compressibility effects), increasing
the model size (limited by test section size and model cost) or by increasing the air density with a pressurized
tunnel. Usually, force data is more repeatable, with less scatter, at the higher force levels associated with
high Reynolds numbers.
The initial run will usually be over a range of wind speeds to check for a Reynolds number range in which the
flow characteristics do not change significantly. Force data are reduced to coefficient form and plotted
versus Reynolds number to determine a speed above which the coefficients are essentially constant.
Subsequent testing should be conducted at these speeds if possible.
During the initial run the model should be checked at the maximum speed and yaw angle to make sure of
model integrity. It should also be observed for loose components or panels which deflect under wind load
and which, in effect, change the model shape. For example, the lightweight structures in some race vehicles,
secured with quick-disconnect pins, and sometimes combined with soft tires, frequently exhibit this problem
and therefore require testing over a range of speeds.
7.1.4
CROSS-WIND SIMULATIONThe effect of cross-winds is approximated by yawing the model about a vertical
axis relative to the approaching airstream. The air speed in the tunnel represents the relative air speed
resulting from the vehicle motion and the cross-wind. The yaw angle is the angle between the relative air
flow direction and the longitudinal axis of the vehicle.
-40-
7.2.1
OBJECTIVESurface static pressure measurements are used to determine the local effects of surface
modifications, to assess the contributions of various regions of the body to overall aerodynamic forces, to find
advantageous locations for air intake and exhaust ports, and to allow panel forces to be calculated.
7.2.2
MEASURING EQUIPMENTThe typical equipment for the measurements (Figure 13) is as follows:
a. Pressure taps Orifice taps should be fabricated from good quality metal tubing. The inside diameter
of the orifice tube bored at body surface of a small-scale model (1/5 or 3/8, etc.) should not exceed 0.4
mm (0.016 in).
However, the minimum inside diameter of the orifice tube bored at the body surface of a full-size model
or an actual vehicle should be 1.3 mm (0.05 in).
b. Connecting tube The connecting tube is made of flexible plastic tubing, the inside diameter of which
should be equal to or a little less than the outside diameter of the orifice tap and that of the connector
to the pressure transducer. The tube should be long enough to connect an orifice at the model with the
pressure transducer, even at the maximum yaw angle test.
c. Sealing paint for leakage This is available to seal leakage between an orifice tap, or a pressure
transducer connector and the interface vinyl tube.
d. Pressure transducer A pressure transducer with adequate sensitivity and good repeatability should
be used for the measurement. This may be either an electrical transducer fitted to a multiport scanner
(see 5.2.2) or a Betz-type manometer equipped with a rotary valve.
7.2.3
PREPARATIONSFrom experience or from published data, first of all, the position of each pressure tap on the
body surface of the model should be determined for obtaining reliable data. To do so, orifice taps must
usually be bored more closely on a body surface near a corner or an edge with abruptly changing pressure,
than on a relatively flat surface with steadily changing pressure.
-41-
MEASUREMENTSAfter setting the test model with the above equipment in the test section of the wind-tunnel,
checking for leakage or an impediment in the vinyl tube should be done, as shown in Figure 14.
Next, at the required wind velocity, the pressure p at each point of the body surface is measured, together
with the static pressure pref and dynamic pressure qref which are normally obtained from measurements in
the nozzle or close to the test section entry (as specified in 5.2.1.1). The pressure coefficient Cp defined as
follows is obtained with use of these values in Equation 13:
(Eq. 13)
-42-
Flow-field Measurements
7.3.1
OBJECTIVEAerodynamic forces and moments are closely related to flow-field characteristics around a body.
Therefore, measurement of these characteristics with suitable measuring equipment can contribute both to
the development/design of modifications for reducing aerodynamic forces and moments and to analysis of
experimental data on aerodynamic characteristics.
7.3.2
MEASURING EQUIPMENT AND METHODSThere are many types of measuring equipment (probes) for
pressures, velocities, temperature, and turbulence in the flow field, in addition to some methods for flow-field
description (flow visualization methods). Today, the most used ones for routine tests are as follows:
a. Pressure tubes These are composed of three kinds of tube as shown in Figure 15, which are
applied to measurement of pressure and velocities in the flow field, despite some limitations described
in (2).
b. Anemometer At present, useful anemometers for measurement of wind velocity in flow field around
a vehicle are the hot-wire type (Figure 16) and a pitot-static tube (Figure 15c). Miniature vane-type
anemometers may also be used.
-43-
Thermometer The most suitable type for measurement of air temperature in the flow field around a
vehicle is the thermocouple.
d. Other Types Other probes for measurement of wind velocities and pressures in the flow field, e.g.,
mechanical probes (the Kiel tube, multihole probes) and Dornier flug-log (for measurement of local
flow angles) are referred to in (2). Laser doppler anemometry (42) (43) and particle image velocimetry
may also be used, and in the near future ultrasonic anemometers may be used.
The ultrasonic anemometer, the probe of which is shown in Figure 17, has not been used much in
automotive wind-tunnel tests. This anemometer has been more used in atmospheric wind-tunnels
where tests on wind structure near the ground and other tests with respect to air pollution are done. It
is capable of measuring air flow of lower velocity (several cm/s) and turbulence with random frequency
of some 100 Hz.
e. Flow visualization methods Refer to the following 7.4. and to (2).
-44-
PREPARATIONAs shown previously, many kinds of measuring equipment and flow visualization methods are
now developed. Therefore, once the objective of a wind-tunnel test is determined, it is necessary to choose
the most appropriate types for that objective, considering the specifications, merits or demerits, and so on.
At the next step, the performance or characteristics of the available equipment must be calibrated before
tests.
Finally, the order of the flow-field measurement during a wind-tunnel test should be decided, mainly based on
the test objective, cost benefit, time efficiency and so on.
-45-
-46-
MEASUREMENTSWhen all the preparations are finished, the tunnel is run up to the intended wind velocity.
After re-examining if the indication of a probe is correct, the measurement should be continued to obtain
reliable data to be sent to the data-acquisition system.
If some strange data or trends have occurred, it would be advisable to analyze these by using certain flow
visualization methods.
7.4
Flow VisualizationMaking the flow pattern visible on and around the test vehicle is frequently used as an
adjunct to other types of wind-tunnel testing and can even serve as the primary reason for a wind-tunnel test.
Flow visualization has a variety of purposes; some of the more common ones are the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Consistent with the different purposes identified and in response to the wide variation in the types of vehicles
under examination, many different flow visualization techniques are employed. The choice of which method (or
methods) should be employed is determined by the purpose of the test, the flow field characteristics and
whether the flow to be examined is to be on the body surface or in the flow field around the body. The methods
can be grouped into the following three categories:
a. Techniques for surface flow visualization.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Yarn tufts
Fluorescent minitufts (static and rotating surfaces)
Liquid indicatorscontinuous film
Liquid indicatorsdiscrete pointsoil/ink droplets
Contaminationwater spray
Sublimation
Tuftsingle/multiple wand
Oil smoke
Liquid nitrogen/steam
Helium bubble
Techniques for flow field visualizationplanar surveys
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
In a majority of test situations, visual records of the flow observations are desired. A number of ways can be
used to document these results. The choice of recording medium is again dependent upon the purpose of the
test, the flow field characteristics, and the equipment and facilities available. For example, a flow field with
highly transient flow patterns may well best be documented with videotape or a movie film. Still photography
with a variety of shutter speeds and lighting techniques can also be very effective in a variety of conditions.
-47-
Four of these descriptions from the Information Report (2), for surface tufts and smoke streamers, have been
included, due to their common applicability. These can be found in Appendix B.
8.
8.1
Notation and PresentationThe notation recommended by the SAE is given in full in SAE J1594 and is
summarized as follows in conjunction with Figure 18. Other terminology often used in publications is also
indicated with the SAE terminology on the left.
-48-
where:
D
Drag (= -Fx)
L
Lift (= -Fz)
S
Side force (= Fy)
PM Pitching moment (= My)
YM Yawing moment (= Mz)
RM Rolling moment (= Mx)
Dynamic pressure (= 1/2V2)
q
Mass density of air (taken as 1.225 kg/m3 for NOAA U.S. standard atmosphere, at 15 C and 101.325
kPa)
Relative wind velocity
V
A
Projected frontal area
WB Wheelbase4
Also:
CLF
CLR
CSF
CSR
and
Apart from and , which are not illustrated, all parameters are positive as shown in Figure 18.
The following additional parameters are defined in SAE J1594:
Pressure coefficient (= (p-p)/q)
Cp
p
Local static pressure
Free-stream static pressure
p
Boundary layer thickness (height above ground surface where the local velocity () is 99% of the free
stream velocity (V) * Displacement thickness)
Momentum thickness
Re/1 Reynolds number per unit Length (=.V/)
VEQ Equivalent velocity (= V)
Viscosity of air (taken as 1.789 x 105 Ns/m2 for NOAA U.S. standard atmosphere)
4. For vehicles with more than two axles, a length parameter other than the wheelbase may be used, but should be specified. In some cases,
overall length is used instead of wheelbase.
-49-
CorrectionsThe finite extent of the jet in a wind-tunnel is known to produce errors in the aerodynamic forces
and moments and the surface pressure distribution on a vehicle, compared to the values that would be
observed in an unconstrained flow. These effects increase as the vehicle increases in size relative to the
dimensions of the test section.
The interference effects due to the boundary conditions of the wind-tunnel stream on the measured quantities
may be reduced to three main causes:
a. Blockage effects
b. Horizontal buoyancy effects
c. Streamline curvature effects
-50-
BLOCKAGE EFFECTSBlockage effects result from the displacement of fluid in the finite environment of a wind
tunnel stream. In a closed test section the effective cross section is reduced by the frontal area of the
vehicle, and continuity of mass flow requires that the flow speed must increase at the location of the vehicle
compared to the reference speed measured in the unobstructed part of the tunnel upstream of the vehicle.
In an open test section the jet expands in the region of the vehicle, and at the jet boundaries the curvature of
the streamlines is changed in order to balance the ambient pressure. Again, due to continuity requirements,
the speed around the vehicle is now reduced because the effective cross section of the jet is increased.
It is one of the important assumptions of blockage theory that a vehicle behaves within the tunnel as it would
in free air at some speed slightly different from the nominal tunnel velocity.
Effectively, it is assumed that blockage does not change the form of the pressure distribution on the vehicle
but only scales the magnitudes. This concept of invariance of the vehicle pressure field under constraint fails
as separation or reattachment of flow are influenced by the proximity of the wall of a closed test section or the
shear layer of an open test section. Once this has happened no correction procedure will work.
In reality, the blockage effect varies in the streamwise direction. This can easily be recognized by the fact
that blockage is zero upstream of the stagnation point and increases further downstream depending on the
displacement of fluid by the vehicle and its wake.
Nevertheless, it is the purpose of blockage theory to establish means of estimating the overall increment or
decrement of the wind velocity which must be applied to the tunnel speed. It is further necessary to consider
how these factors are used to correct the measured quantities and it is assumed that the vehicle is small
enough for the blockage effects to be additive.
Details of how to apply the different blockage correction methods available may be taken from the SAE
Information Reports for closed test sections (4) and for open test sections (3).
In the first-mentioned SAE Report (4), a comparison is made between eight different wall correction methods
for closed test sections. The choices were made based on the level of use of the methods in industry as well
as on the basic physics embodied in the correction. The spectrum of available wall correction techniques
ranges from simple considerations of vehicle and test section geometry to the application of potential flow
approximations of the vehicle and its wake.
Blockage effects in open-jet wind-tunnels are smaller and opposite in sign compared to the closed test
section. Therefore a correction of the measured data is often disclaimed. Beyond that, open-jet test sections
often reveal an invariance of the measured data with vehicle size to a certain extent. The tolerant behavior of
an open-jet wind-tunnel can occur due to other interference effects which compensate or even overrule
blockage effects. They are caused by the characteristic behavior of a jet and the mode of action of the
following collector.
Depending on the size of the vehicle occupying the test section and the measuring position, the jet might
yield a stagnation point at the collector leading edge at the end of the test section which differs from the
location with an empty test section. Consequently the streamline curvature of the jet is changed with vehicle
size and a pressure gradient is created influencing the drag coefficient. The pressure gradient can be
positive, amplifying the blockage effect, but with larger vehicles, acceleration of flow in the area of the
collector takes place and a negative pressure gradient is created increasing the drag forces. Although the
origins are different, the open-jet tunnel then shows the same trend as experienced in a closed test section.
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HORIZONTAL BUOYANCY EFFECTSIn the course of the basic calibration of the empty test section of a windtunnel the static pressure distribution in the flow direction is measured. If a static-pressure gradient is
revealed, the increment or decrement of the horizontal forces due to a buoyancy drag force can be removed,
depending on the sign of the gradient, by adding or subtracting the following term as in Equation 15:
(Eq. 15)
where:
dCp/dx is the pressure gradient at the vehicle location, V denotes the volume and A the frontal area of the
vehicle.
Additionally, due to the wake of the vehicle and the related displacement effect, a further, negative, staticpressure gradient over the model is created and consequently the drag is increased. The incremental drag is
a product of the measured drag CD and the factor ew describing the blockage effect of the wake. This drag
increment is commonly termed "wake buoyancy" Equation 16:
(Eq. 16)
where:
C denotes the cross-sectional area of the tunnel.
8.2.3
STREAMLINE CURVATURE EFFECTThe presence of the solid walls of a closed test section or the shear layer
of an open-jet wind-tunnel distorts the normal curvature of the streamlines around the vehicle when
measured in a cross-wind flow. The effect can be ascribed to a change of the induced flow components, that
is to say the circulation around the vehicle is changed. Depending on the yawing moment and the side force
it is found that the angle of attack is changed as well. Both effects are covered in airfoil testing by "streamline
curvature corrections."
For automotive testing these corrections have little practical relevance because usually the gradient of side
force against yaw angle remains rather moderate. But if it comes to detailed side force analysis, corrections
used in aircraft testing should be applied in default of better knowledge and reference is made to the
literature on the subject (14).
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8.3.1
The principal results from these particular correlation tests are shown as follows:
a. Wind-tunnel CD values are slightly lower than the corresponding road values (CD = 0.006). Also,
agreement between road value results and wind-tunnel values for CL is good, with CLF slightly higher
in the tunnel and CLR slightly lower (48).
b. The coastdown-extracted drag coefficients are compared to the average drag coefficients of all four
tunnels for the trucks (at zero yaw angle). According to the data, the full-scale drag coefficients are
within 0.042 to 0.072 of the average wind-tunnel measurements at zero yaw angle. The full-scale
drag increments due to modifications are always less than those from the wind-tunnel by from 0.011 to
0.047 (49).
c. An average drag coefficient difference between wind-tunnel and coastdown tests of only 0.008 (2%)
with a range from 0.017 to +0.012 (52).
8.3.2
From the previous results and others, the following comments on the tunnel-to-road correlation may be
made:
a. The correlation of values of CD on mass-production passenger cars (except those with smaller ground
clearance) is estimated to be relatively good.
b. The correlation of values of CL and the other aerodynamic coefficients, including CD, of both
passenger cars with smaller ground clearance and trucks, has not yet been studied so much. In
addition to comparison tests on these vehicles, the following aspects of wind-tunnel test technique
should therefore be studied further in the future to obtain good tunnel-to-road correlation data:
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Reynolds number is the ratio of inertia forces divided by the viscous forces as in Equation A1:
(Eq. A1)
is air density
V is air velocity
L is a characteristic length
is the kinematic viscosity
where:
If we match Re of a scale model to the Re of its full-scale counterpart, we have matched the viscous and
inviscid flow fields. This match is, in some cases, required to generate data which is representative of the fullscale vehicle. For a re-match consider Equation A2:
(Eq. A2)
For subsonic, incompressible flow, density and kinematic viscosity are the same for model and full-scale,
therefore Equation A3:
(Eq. A3)
or
But
is the inverse of the model scale. This means to simulate 100 kph full-scale with a 1:2.5 scale model, a speed
of 250 kph must be run. (Higher speeds lead to compressibility effects.) In many cases, wind-tunnels do not
have the capability to match Reynolds numbers and variations in Reynolds numbers (Reynolds number
sweeps) are performed to generate a database to extrapolate to full-scale Reynolds numbers.
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See 1
Figures B1 through B4.
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SAE J1252 SAE Wind-Tunnel Test Procedure for Trucks and Buses
HS J1566 Aerodynamic Flow Visualization Techniques and Procedures
SAE J2071 Aerodynamic Testing of Road Vehicles: Open-Jet Wind-Tunnel Boundary Interference
SAE J2085 Aerodynamic Testing of Road Vehicles: Solid-Wall Wind-Tunnel Boundary
Interference
5. SAE J1594 Vehicle Aerodynamics Terminology
6. SCHLICHTING, H., Boundary-Layer Theory. McGraw-Hill, New York, (1979)