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Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 490e495

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Applied Ergonomics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apergo

Thermal effects on human performance in ofce environment


measured by integrating task speed and accuracy
Li Lan a, b, *, Pawel Wargocki b, Zhiwei Lian a
a
b

Department of Architecture, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark, Building 402, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 31 August 2011
Accepted 27 June 2013

We have proposed a method in which the speed and accuracy can be integrated into one metric of
human performance. This was achieved by designing a performance task in which the subjects receive
feedback on their performance by informing them whether they have committed errors, and if did, they
can only proceed when the errors are corrected. Traditionally, the tasks are presented without giving this
feedback and thus the speed and accuracy are treated separately. The method was examined in a subjective experiment with thermal environment as the prototypical example. During exposure in an ofce,
12 subjects performed tasks under two thermal conditions (neutral & warm) repeatedly. The tasks were
presented with and without feedback on errors committed, as outlined above. The results indicate that
there was a greater decrease in task performance due to thermal discomfort when feedback was given,
compared to the performance of tasks presented without feedback.
2013 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Human performance
Speed
Accuracy

1. Introduction
There is a continuous and dynamic interaction between people
and their surroundings that produces physiological and psychological strain on the person, which consequently lead to changes in
health, well-being and performance (Parsons, 2000; ClementsCroome, 2006; Lan et al., 2010; Lieble et al., 2012), and this interaction has strong economic implications (Fisk, 2001; Mendell et al.,
2002; Wargocki and Djukanovic, 2005; Wargocki and Seppnen,
2006). It is a concerted effort of researchers, engineers and practitioners to nd out how to quantify the effects of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) on occupants productivity so that they can
consequently be included when calculating building costs; at present they are not considered at all. Better work performance has
been assumed to be one of the indicators of improved productivity
that result in increased protability when performing such calculations as illustrated by several examples provided in the literature
(Wargocki and Seppnen, 2006). Quantitative relationships have
been proposed between indoor climate (ventilation rate, perceived

* Corresponding author. Department of Architecture, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240,
China. Tel.: 86 21 34204263.
E-mail address: lanli2006@sjtu.edu.cn (L. Lan).

air quality, and temperature) and human performance (Wargocki


and Seppnen, 2006; Lan et al., 2011a) which can aid such predictions and calculations.
There are many factors among others like level of education, skills,
genders, circadian cycle, emotional states and response bias etc. that
should be considered when investigating the relationship between
indoor climate and human performance (Parsons, 2000; ClementsCroome, 2006; Lan et al., 2009). One of the factors is the so called
speed-accuracy tradeoff effect (Wickelgren, 1977). Accuracy and
speed are the two distinct aspects of human performance. Accuracy is
a measure of the quality of a behavior. Measures of accuracy include
number correct, percent correct, and probability of correct detections
(Gawron, 2000). In human performance studies, the response time
and other time-related measures have been used to attain information on the speed of work. IEQ-productivity research has usually used
metrics of work speed rather than metrics of work accuracy. For
studies performed in call centers, the speed of work expressed as
average time per call or average handling time was used as a measure
of work performance (Niemel et al., 2002; Federspiel et al., 2004;
Tham, 2004; Wargocki et al., 2004). Laboratory studies typically
assessed work performance by having subjects performing (cognitive) tasks that simulated aspects of actual work and by subsequent
evaluation of the speed (response time) and/or accuracy (percent
errors), e.g. characters typed per unit time, number of completed
addition/multiplication units per unit time etc. (Wyon, 1974; Wyon

0003-6870/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd and The Ergonomics Society. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2013.06.010

L. Lan et al. / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 490e495

et al., 1975; Wargocki et al., 1999, 2000; Bak-Bir et al., 2004;


Witterseh et al., 2004; Lan and Lian, 2009; Lan et al., 2009, 2010).
The importance of speed and accuracy may differ according to
the type of task. In addition, subjects in experiments concerning
measurements of work performance may have the capability to
compromise accuracy for speed. It is consequently quite difcult to
compare the task speed obtained under two different conditions
and conclude that the condition with the lower speed is worse for
performance unless we know that the error level under this condition was greater than or at least identical to that under another
condition. It is reasonably safe, however to conclude that the performance is reduced in a condition in which speed is lower and
there are more errors made (Wickelgren, 1977). Also in studies in
which either accuracy or speed are not affected and thus do not
create difculty for interpreting the results, as in such a case either
speed or accuracy can be separately used as measures of performance (Hancock and Vasmatzidis, 1998; Pilcher et al., 2002;
Wargocki et al., 2004; Wargocki and Wyon, 2007a,b; Lan and
Lian, 2009; Lan et al., 2009). The problem is more complicated if
speed and accuracy go in two opposite directions, because within
the capacity of a person, increased speed of work may eventually
compromise the accuracy and vice versa (Wickens and Hollands,
2000). For example, Eysenck and Willett (1962) have shown that
during high arousal level, subjects performed less well on the Tsaie
Partington test by making more errors, while at the same time their
speed of work increased. It is difcult to interpret such experimental results and use them, for example, to quantitatively predict
the effects of indoor environmental quality on performance in real
ofces. Consequently, it would be useful to develop a procedure
that would eliminate such interpretation dilemma, e.g. by developing the method in which the speed and accuracy are integrated
into one measure dening the overall effect of environmental
conditions on performance. Attempts to achieve this goal have been
made in the past. For example, Bak-Bir et al. (2004) measured
separately speed and accuracy and then multiplied them with equal
weights to create the overall performance index illustrating their
results. Another approach was used by Tanabe and Nishihara
(2004) and Tsutsumi et al. (2007) who used the correct answer
speed in the addition task as a measure of overall performance
which excluded errors and indicated the number of correct answers
a subject could complete every minute.
In this paper an approach to measure human performance with
one composite index integrating speed and accuracy was proposed
and the method was checked experimentally with thermal environment as the prototypical example.
2. Methods
A subjective experiment with thermal environment as the
prototypical example was carried out. During the experiment,
neurobehavioral tests and tasks typical of ofce work were presented to the subjects in two ways: (1) without feedback on their
performance, i.e. that the subjects performed the tasks without
receiving information on whether they commit errors or not, and
(2) with feedback on their performance, i.e. that they received information on whether they have committed errors and could only
advance in performing the tests when the committed errors were
corrected.
The experimental study was carried out in an ofce (with a oor
area of 18 m2 and a volume of 55 m3) adapted for experimental
purposes (Toftum et al., 2004). Six females and six males with an
average age of 23  2 years who agreed to participate were
randomly selected from a group of 30 subjects who had participated in another experiment using similar experimental procedures and had taken place immediately prior to the present study

491

(Skwarczynski et al., 2009). The other experiment selected the


subjects from the group who volunteered to participate in the experiments using an opportunity sampling. The subjects were all
students from the Technical University of Denmark but of different
nationalities; all tests were presented to them in English-the tests
could be performed by people with the uency in English required
to take studies at the Technical University of Denmark. The subjects
were exposed in the ofce to two thermal conditions created by
setting the temperature at 22  C and 30  C; the clothing level of the
subjects was 0.9 clo at both temperatures. The clothing level was
selected to keep the subjects thermally neutral at 22  C. 30  C was
selected to make sure that the two thermal conditions were sufciently different, as the relationship derived by Seppnen et al.
(2006) suggests that a temperature of 22  C creates conditions for
optimal performance while performance should be considerably
reduced at 30  C. The subjects subsequently reported that they felt
thermally neutral at 22  C and warm at 30  C (Lan et al., 2011b). A
noise level of 50 dB(A) (with no occupants in the ofce) and a
ventilation rate of 10 L/s per person were kept constant independently of the temperature in the ofce.
The subjects were divided into 2 groups of 6 persons (3 males
and 3 females). Each group was exposed to each temperature twice
in a repeated-measures design balanced for order of presentation,
i.e. one group was exposed in the following order: 22e30e30e22
and the other group in the following order: 30e22e22e30. The
exposures took place in two successive weeks in the afternoon from
13:00 to 17:30; the actual exposure in the ofce lasted 4.5 h. Each
group was exposed twice a week (Group 1 on Mondays and
Wednesdays and Group 2 on Tuesdays and Thursdays) and on the
same weekdays in the subsequent week. Although only 12 subjects
participated, the repeated measures design with repetition ensured
that the statistical power of the study was similar to the statistical
power of the previous comparable studies on the effects of IEQ on
performance in which 30 subjects were normally recruited, and the
repeated measures design was used without repetition (Wargocki
et al., 2000); the statistical power for both designs is 0.96 with
the sphericity assumption and assuming equal medium effect size
(ES 0.25) (Faul et al., 2007).
During each exposure in the ofce, the subjects performed
neurobehavioral tests and tasks typical of ofce work designed to
assess different skills. The latter included text typing and addition
(Wargocki et al., 1999). The former was a neurobehavioral test
battery (Lan and Lian, 2009; Lan et al., 2009) including seven
computerized tests: Mental re-orientation (a spatial orientation
test), Grammatical Reasoning (a logic reasoning task), Digit Span
Memory (a traditional test of verbal working memory and attention), Visual Learning Memory (a picture memory task measuring
spatial working memory), Number Calculation (a mental arithmetical test in which the subject has to add, subtract or multiply
numbers), Stroop (a test of attentional vitality and exibility due to
perceptual/linguistic interference), and Choice Reaction Time (a
sustained attention task measuring response speed and accuracy to
visual signals). The tasks were presented on a PC and were selfpaced; the reaction/processing time was recorded by the computer clock.
All tasks were presented to the subjects without feedback on
their performance, i.e. they did not receive any information on their
performance and performed each task until the time available to
perform the task elapsed or/and until the entire task was
completed. Speed and accuracy were used as two separate measures of performance on the tasks presented in this way. Additionally a performance index (PI) was computed to assess the
overall performance integrating speed and accuracy and giving
equal weights to both measures: the mean processing/reaction
time (i.e. time used to perform the task) was divided by the

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L. Lan et al. / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 490e495

accuracy of responses (e.g. by correct characters typed per minute


or correct units added per minute) (Equation (1)).

Performance Index PI accuracy=reaction time


accuracy speed

(1)

Additionally, text typing, addition, Stroop and Number Calculation


were also presented to the subjects by providing them with
continuous feedback on their performance. For example, for text
typing, subjects were asked to type successive sections of text
(approximately 10 lines at a time) that were presented to them on
the screen, exactly as it appeared. The computer program checked
every word as the text was completed to make sure it was typed
without errors. If errors were present the subjects received feedback informing them that they had made errors and exactly which
words were wrongly typed; they then had to correct these errors
before proceeding to the new screen with new text. Similarly the
feedback was given in the other three tasks presented with feedback on performance. Consequently, speed at which tasks were
performed was used as the only measure of performance in these
cases and thus speed and accuracy were integrated experimentally
into one metric of performance; subjects who were less accurate
had to use more time correcting their mistakes and thus their
overall speed was reduced. The overall performance for tasks with
feedback was expressed by the performance index (PIf) as follows
where the reaction time/speed at which the task was performed
includes the time spent for the correction of errors (Equation (2)).

 
Performance Index PIf 1=reaction time speed

(2)

Physiological parameters and biomarkers were measured


several times during the exposure to explore the mechanisms by
which raised temperatures affect performance. On several occasions during each exposure in the ofce, the subjects reported
perceived air quality, thermal comfort, Sick Building Syndrome
(SBS) symptoms, willingness to exert effort while working,
emotion, fatigue and workload. The detailed experimental procedure is described in Lan et al. (2011b).
The SPSS 13.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) program was used to
perform the statistical analysis. The experimental data were subject

to analysis of variance (ANOVA) in a repeated measures design;


Huynh-Feldt statistics was used to adjust the violation of sphericity.
The signicance level was set to be 0.05 (P < 0.05). The effect size
(ES) that measures the difference between the true value and the
value specied by the null hypothesis and hence indicates whether
the difference is of practical importance was calculated (Lan and
Lian, 2010). Effect sizes with values of 0.1, 0.25 and 0.4 for the
ANOVA indicate small, moderate and large changes (Cohen, 1988).
The statistical methods were consulted for their validity.
3. Results
The results of performance of tasks that were presented to
subjects with and without feedback on their performance are reported in this paper. All other results are reported by Lan et al.
(2011a; 2011b).
As shown in Table 1, except for the performance of text typing, task
performance decreased at 30  C compared with 22  C although for
some tasks the decrease was not signicant. The effect size was in
many cases at least moderate, indicating that the observed effects
were of practical importance. In the case of text typing without feedback, the subjects input more characters at 30  C but at the same time
they also made more errors; the effect size was small in this case and
the effect was not statistically signicant, suggesting that the
observed effects occurred by chance and had no practical importance.
In the case of text typing with feedback, the subjects performed less
well at 30  C compared with 22  C. The effect was not statistically
signicant although the effect size was in this case moderate.
The change of task speed and accuracy between 30  C and 22  C
relative to 30  C indicates that there was a greater change in speed
than in accuracy as a result of increasing the air temperature (Fig. 1).
Except for the addition task, the change of the performance index
calculated for tasks presented with feedback (PIf) integrating
experimentally speed and accuracy, was affected to a higher degree
than the change of the performance index calculated for tasks
presented without feedback (PI) by arbitrarily multiplying speed
and accuracy thus giving equal weights to both measures of performance. It should be noticed that the difference occurred even
though there was a very low error rate for tasks presented without
feedback (Table 1, Fig. 1).

Table 1
Performance measures of the tasks typical of ofce work and of the neurobehavioral tests.

Tasks without
feedback

Task name

Text typing

Temperature ( C)

22

Performance
Index (PI)a

Accuracy

Reaction timeb

Tasks with
feedback

**
*

Metrics
Value
ES
P
(%)
ES
P
(sec)
ES
P

Char/min
143
0.11
0.75
98.1
0.55c
0.11
0.538
0.17
0.64

Addition
30
144

97.4

0.528

22
Units/min
4.67
1.15c
0.01**
94.1
0.08
0.81
19.9
1.01c
0.01**

Stroop
30

22

4.11

93.8

22.1

Calculation
30

Units/sec
0.513
0.59c
0.09*
98.5
0.85c
0.02**
1.96
0.61c
0.08*

22

0.469

97.7

2.15

30

Units/sec
0.236
0.62c
0.08*
97.0
0.42c
0.21
4.38
0.70c
0.05**

0.226

96.0

4.60

Task name

Text typing with feedback

Addition with feedback

Stroop with feedback

Calculation with feedback

Temperature ( C)

22

22

22

22

Performance
Index (PIf)a

Metrics
Value
ES
P

Char/min
133
0.40c
0.23

30
120

Units/min
3.02
0.83c
0.03**

Signicant differences (P < 0.05) between conditions observed.


Differences approaching signicance (0.05 < P < 0.10).
a
PI and PIf combine accuracy and reaction time.
b
Reaction time for text typing 60/(char/min) and for addition 60/(units/min).
c
The effects were large when the values of effect size (ES) were larger than 0.4.

30
2.77

Units/sec
0.517
1.01c
0.01**

30
0.465

Units/sec
0.225
0.93c
0.01**

30
0.205

L. Lan et al. / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 490e495

Fig. 1. Relative change of task performance in the condition of 22  C compared to


30  C; the positive change indicates that the performance increased at 22  C compared
with 30  C, while the negative change indicates that the performance decreased at
22  C compared with 30  C.

4. Discussion
To infer differences in competence based on measures of performance, both speed and accuracy must be examined (Glickman

493

et al., 2005). However, the speed-accuracy tradeoff recognizes


that subjects sometimes may sacrice accuracy to enhance their
speed of responding, or vice versa (Wickelgren, 1977). Arousal level
may also affect speed and accuracy differently under the same
conditions. McMorris et al. (2011) concluded that increases in
arousal result in increased brain concentrations of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine, which may increase
the speed of processing. However, these increases may well also
result in neural noise, which would have a negative effect on accuracy. In the present experiment, arousal was estimated using the
TsaiePartington test but no differences in performance of this test
were observed between the two conditions investigated, suggesting that the arousal level was not affected by the change of temperature (Lan et al., 2011b).
Fast but inaccurate responding is not easily comparable to slow
but accurate responding, especially when one tries to quantitatively
assess the IEQ effect on productivity in the ofce. Therefore, it
seems necessary to integrate task speed and accuracy into one index measuring the overall effects of IEQ on human performance. A
need for such an approach was also expressed by the experts in the
Delphi survey performed prior to the above described experiment.
Forty experts studied topics related to human productivity and
cognitive abilities and had published on these topics were
approached; fteen experts responded. They expressed their
opinion on the need to integrate speed and accuracy into one index
and if so how it should be done (Fig. 2). Fourteen (93%) of them
thought that it was interesting and useful to integrate task speed
and accuracy. Most of them, up to 80%, thought that the weights

Fig. 2. Questionnaire used for the Delphi survey.

494

L. Lan et al. / Applied Ergonomics 45 (2014) 490e495

should not be assigned arbitrarily, but instead should depend on


the context. Only about half experts suggested that it was acceptable to assign equal weights to the two separate measures of human performance when attempting to integrate them into one
measure to predict the overall effect of the indoor environment on
the performance of ofce work for the purpose of general building
design and operation.
Negative effects on human performance as a result of thermal
discomfort due to raised air temperature were efciently measured
by designing the tasks in such a way that subjects could not proceed
until they had corrected their mistakes i.e. by providing feedback on
their performance. Performance of these tasks was negatively
affected even though the performance of tasks without feedback was
not affected. This may suggest that presentation of tasks to subjects
with feedback may be more sensitive to changes in indoor environmental conditions than the approach used so far when no feedback on
performance was given to subjects. An example can be the performance of Stroop which was not signicantly affected by elevated
temperatures when presented without feedback but a highly significant effect was found when feedback on performance was given
(Table 1). Consequently, it may be proposed that unless it is important
to test specic skills and how accuracy and speed are affected, performance tests in which feedback is continually given to subjects
when tests are performed should be used in future experiments when
investigating the effects of IEQ on ofce work. This approach seems
quite rational and better reecting real world situation because most
of the typical ofce work is performed in this way where some time is
usually used to check and correct for possible mistakes.
Similar to previous studies (Wyon, 1974; Wargocki et al., 1999,
2000; Lan and Lian, 2009; Lan et al., 2009), it was found that task
speed was affected to a larger extent than accuracy by thermal
discomfort (Fig. 1). One reason is most likely that people work at a
speed leading to an acceptable error rate (Wickelgren, 1977). If low
error rates are observed, the accuracy aspect may be ignored and
speed (reaction time) can be used to estimate the effect on performance. This was done in some of the previous studies in which
the effects of IEQ on the performance of ofce work were measured
(Wargocki and Seppnen, 2006).
One important result shown in Fig. 1 is that for most of the tasks
the effects on performance of tasks with feedback were greater or
at least very similar, to task performance if no feedback was provided. It may suggest that the previous estimations of the effects of
thermal discomfort on performance of ofce work (Wargocki and
Seppnen, 2006) may have underestimated the true effect.
Consequently, the potential costs for productivity of having employees complaining of thermal discomfort would be higher than
the costs which were estimated previously. This may also explain
why generally the effects on performance measured in eld experiments that used normal work as a measure of performance are
higher than in laboratory studies in which the tests simulating ofce work are presented to subjects without feedback on their
performance (Wargocki et al., 2002, 2004; Tham, 2004). Besides the
benets for experimental methodology of measuring the effects on
performance, the approach presented in this paper provides a
useful tool for improving estimations in cost-benet calculations
pertaining to building design and operation which include costs/
benets due to effects on human productivity.
5. Conclusions
 Presenting the tasks with continuous feedback on performance
was found to be a useful tool for improving the methods for
measurements of the effects of IEQ on performance.
 A larger decrease in task performance was observed due to
thermal discomfort when the tasks were presented with

feedback (which integrated speed and accuracy), compared


with the tasks presented without feedback on performance (in
which speed and accuracy were measured separately).
 Task speed was affected by thermal discomfort to a much
greater extent than accuracy when the performance tasks
without feedback were presented.
 The human performance measurement approach presented in
this paper provides a useful tool for quantifying the effects of
indoor environmental quality (IEQ) on occupants productivity.
However, this method needs to be examined by studying the
effects of other indoor environments like indoor air quality,
noise. It would also be good to learn whether it is legitimate to
integrate the speed and accuracy by giving equal weights to
both measures.
 The future studies on the effects of IEQ on performance should
consider using tests providing continuous feedback on performance because it would feature much better the realism of
working environment where people normally adjust the pace
of work based on the error rate.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the International Centre for Indoor
Environment and Energy and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51108260 and 51238005). The authors would
_
like to thank Ms Justyna Krzyzanowska
for her contribution to this
study and Dr. Ju rn Toftum for his assistance in preparing computerized versions of the tests.
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