Head-Shrinkers Versus Shrinks: Jivaroan Dream Analysis

Author(s): Philippe Descola

Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 24, No. 3 (Sep., 1989), pp. 439-450
Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
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HEAD-SHRINKERS

VERSUS SHRINKS:

JIVAROAN DREAM ANALYSIS

PHILIPPEDESCOLA
Laboratoire
d'Anthropologie
Sociale,Paris

and
The similarities
betweenmythand dreamhave long been underscored
by anthropologists
common
ofsymbolic
universals
havebeenableto agreeon theexistence
psychoanalysts,
thoughneither
thatdream
outfromtheideapropounded
to bothdomains.Thisarticlestarts
bystructural
anthropology,
theanalogybetweenmythand
to thatpractised
workis a formof'bricolage'similar
bymythic
thought;
thanfromanidentity
rather
dreamthusstemsfromtheircommonuseofcertain
typesofmental
processes,
of theJivaroan
Achuarof the Upper
of symboliccontent.Throughan analysisof the oneiromancy
ofdreamsdependslesson an iconiclexiconof
Amazon,it is shownthatthemetaphoric
interpretation
codeshomologous
rulesand referential
thedream-book
structural
sort,thanon a grammar
combining
to theone evidencedbythestructural
ofmyths.
analysis

Myth and dream have always echoed each other, eitherspontaneously,wherever

mythicthoughthas survived,or self-consciously,in the debate that opposes the
unconsciousofthemythto themythologyoftheunconscious.The respectivepositions
of a psychoanalyst
and an anthropologistmay serveto illustratethe two poles of this
hoaryconfrontation:
theformerconsidersmythsas collectivedreams(Abraham1909),
the lattersuggestsinterpreting
dreamsaccordingto the methodsof structuralist
myth
analysis(Kuper 1979). Irretrievably
flawedby the assimilationof 'prelogicalmentality'
to infantilethoughtprocesses,the Freudianambitionof transposingdreamtheoryto
the analysisof mythsis scoffedat by contemporaryanthropologists.Paradoxically,
however,mostanthropologists
are equallyreluctantto entertaintheconverseproposition: indeed,when not simplyignored,Kuper's paperhas been criticised,in particular
forhavingconfusedthe structureof dreamswith thatof the linguisticmechanismsof
theirnarration(Tedlock 1987: 27). Nevertheless,Kuper'sthesisdeservesconsideration:
'the reasoningof the unconsciousand thelogic ofmythicalthoughtare both not only
rigorousbut also similarin kind[myemphasis],perhapsrevealingdeep and significant
featuresof human mentalprocesses'(Kuper 1979: 661). Kuper endeavouredto shore
up thishypothesisby treatingdreams,like myths,as modes of argumentin which a
problem is resolved througha series of rule-governedtransformations
of an initial
dream.situation.
Applied to dreamnarrativesas told to Georges Devereux (1969) by
a PlainsIndian,thistechniquereliedon two basic devices (permutationand inversion)
to show how the dreamsprogressedthrougha chain of relatedpropositionstowards
a logical solution,or suppression,of the originalemotionalconflict.
In thisarticleI wish to exploresome of theimplicationsof Kuper's approachwhile
adopting a stance ratherdistinctfromhis: instead of tryingto isolate the rules of
Man(N.S.) 24, 439-450

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

440

ofa dream,I willattemptto elucidate

transformation
thatorganisetheinternalstructure
in thisinstance
thestructural
rulesthatgoverna particularsystemofdreaminterpretation,
thatofan Amazonianpeople, thejivaroan AchuarofEcuador. Ifthestructural
analysis
of mythand the Jivaroananalysisof dreams can be shown to operate in identical
manner,thisfactmaybe taken,it seemsto me, as an indicationthatthefieldsto which
these analysesapply are sufficiently
homologous for distinctculturalsystemsto apprehendthemby means of the same intellectualprocedures.
DreaminginJivaroan
culture
ObserversofJivaroansocietieshave repeatedlyemphasisedthe importanceof dreams
in the shapingof dailylife and theirclose connexion with the visionaryexperience
induced by the absorptionof powerfulhallucinogens.At the verybeginningof the
seventeenthcentury,one of the firstaccuratereportson theJivaroneatlystressedthe
pointbystatingthat'theyhave neitheridolsnorworship,know nothingoftheexistence
of God, and have onlyan elementarypaganismfedby the delusionsof dreams'(Diego
Vaca, inJimenezde la Espada 1965: 246, my translation).The religiousdimensionof
whichtended
dreamingwas also heavilyunderscoredby classicaljivaroanethnography,
to presentthe world revealed by dreamsand hallucinatoryvisions,in a simplified
reflectedin the illusionsof
platonicfashion,as a domain of trueessences,imperfectly
Michael
wakinglife(see e.g. Karsten1935: 444 sqq; Harner1972: 134). More recently,
Brown has also insistedon the close linkestablishedby theJivaroanAguarunaof Peru
betweenvisionsprovokedby psychotropicplantsand normaldreams;but he considers
the latterless a channelto a hiddenrealitythana creativemeans of shapingthe future
and of monitoringthe efficacyof magical procedures (Brown 1985: 59-60, 95).
effects
ofthe control
However, his approachis more concernedwiththeinstrumental
of visionaryexperienceon the acquisitionof personalauthorityand symbolicpower,
of
than it is with the complex set of rules governingthe day-to-dayinterpretation
dreams.Thus, verylittleattentionhas been paid until now to the internallogic of
Jivarooneiromancy.
of the Ecuadorian
Achuar dwell in the dense rainforest
Some 5000 Jivaro-speaking
and Peruvianupper Amazon along the banks of the Pastaza riverand its tributaries.
Theirwidelyscatteredand generallypolygynoushouseholdsarepoliticallyautonomous
and economicallyself-supporting,
owing to highlyefficienttechniques of swidden
gardening,huntingand fishing(Descola 1986). Long protectedby theabsenceofroads
and navigablewatercourses,the Ecuadorian Achuar remainedquite isolateduntilthe
end ofthesixties,at which timecontactswere establishedwithCatholic and Protestant
missionaries.
When I began fieldworkin 1976 theinfluenceofthemissionswas already
notablein some parts(Descola 1981; Taylor 1981), but manyAchuarstillretainedthe
characteristic
featuresofJivaroanculture,notablyan addictionto feuding.The warcomplexindeedcontinuedto permeateallaspectsofsociallifeandplayeda predominant
partin the individualquest forvisionsand in the imageryof dreams.
The Achuar believe thatall theirdreams(genericterm:kara)directlyor indirectly
forecastsome futureevent. As among the Aguaruna (Brown 1987: 157), the exact
natureof the dreammechanismremainsrathervague: the more common idea is that
the wakan ('shadow', 'representation','reflection')of an individualleaves his body
duringsleep to wanderin a plane ofrealitywheretheeverydaycorporealand linguistic
constraints
are suspended.Usually translatedas 'soul', wakanis somewhatakin to the

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

441

and true
Greekpsyche;it denotesconscienceof the selfand is the seat ofintentionality
meaning. Dreaming is held then to create a state of singular clear-sightedness,
induced by drugs;itsresultis to establish
homologous to the intoxication(nampektin)
a semanticcommunityeitherwith naturalbeingsnormallydevoid of the capacityof
magicalobjectsand incorporeal
linguisticexpression(especiallyanimals),orwithspirits,
essencesordinarilymute or invisibleduringwakinglife.
theirdreamsimmediatelyupon waking,
Being veryearlyrisers,theAchuarinterpret
in the hoursthatprecede dawn, in orderto inferfromthe contentof theirnocturnal
visions the course of theiractions duringthe day. The transitionalperiod between
sleepand diurnalactivitiesis ofgreatimportanceinjivaroanculture.The usualformality
of house etiquettegivesway to a sense of sharedintimacyas residentsons-in-lawand
eventualmale visitorsjoin the head of the household around his hearthto share a
warminfusionofwayusleaves (Ilexsp.) and freelydiscusssuch criticalmattersas feuding
of militaryalliancesor accusationsof shamanisticaggression.It is
expeditions,shifting
also a favouredtimefortellingmythsto childrenand impartingto themthe symbolic
knowledge necessaryto the achievementof adulthood. The period is thusa liminal
pause, dialecticallyopen to thepragmaticand speculativeexegesisofsymbolicimagery
and to the mundane commentaryof individualsocial strategies.
Althoughdreampresentationis usuallyveryschematic,forreasonsthatwill appear
further
on, it is exceptionalthatsomeone has no dreamto recall.Such vivid memory
by the wailing of an infant,
is probablythe resultof discontinuoussleep, fragmented
the barkingof a dog, a suspiciousnoise, or an insistentfeelingof discomfortwhen a
dyingfirecan no longer stave offthe coolness of the night.Aftereach episode of
calledto mind,or even commented
intermittent
sleep,thecontentsofdreamsarebriefly
upon betweenspousesin theprivacyofthepalm slatbed, so thatthedefinitivewaking
offersa richpaletteof imagesreadyforexegesis.
All dreamsare presages,but theydo not all predictin thesame manner.The Achuar
distinguishthreebroad categoriesof dreamsaccordingto theircontentand the rules
to whichtheycan be submitted:thekuntuknar
dream,themesekramprar
ofinterpretation
dreamand the karamprar
dream.
are a positivepreconditionof huntingand, to a lesserextent,of fishing.
Kuntuknar
They are not an exclusivemale prerogative,fortheycan be dreamedby women and
evenbypredatoryanimals(dogs,jaguars,anacondas).AlthoughAchuarmen aresolitary
hunters,theyoftenbringalong one of theirwives to handle the pack of dogs; these
belong to women and are trainedand raisedby them. Furthermore,since hunting
(with blowguns and, more seldom, shotguns)also offersan opportunityformarital
sexual relations,sometimes difficultto indulge in within a crowded polygynous
natural.
household,thepresenceofwomen on huntingexpeditionsis deemed perfectly
In principle,no man can undertakea huntingexpeditionifhe or his wives have not
ifhe hopes to encounterbig game
dreameda kuntuknar
thepreviousnight,particularly
such as peccary.Failingan adequate dream,the huntermightmeet some animalbut
will not manage to kill it.
Kuntuknar
are characterised
by the presenceof generallyunknown human beings,
and by the possibilityof a systematicinversionbetween the manifestcontentof the
dream and the message it portends:the particularattributesand behaviour of the
anonymousmen and women thatappear duringsleep are convertedinto signsidentifyingspecificanimal species. Thus, dreamingof a partyof enemy warriorswill be

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442

PHILIPPE DESCOLA

interpretedas an omen forecastingthe encounterof a herd of peccary.The content

of kuntuknar
and theirinterpretation
mustremainsecret,or at any raterestricted
to a
confidentialdiscussionbetween husbandand wife; indeed, should the natureof the
presagereceivedbe publiclydisclosed,thealertedgamewould keep out ofthehunter's
path. Special magicalincantations(anent)can be sung by men at sunset,or played on
thefluteor the two-stringviolin,in orderto 'call' an appropriatekuntuknar
duringthe
the case when thefreshspoor ofbig game has been
followingnight;thisis particularly
spottedand immediateaction is requiredthe next day.
dreamsforetella negativeor dangerousevent forthe dreameror his
Mesekramprar
close kin: a death,an accident,an attackby an animal,a combat with enemies or a
disease sent by a shaman. These bad omens can be dreamtby anyone and theyare
commented on with concern by the household, since their outcome affectsthe
well-beingof the local communityas a whole. Their manifestcontentexhibitsmore
varietythan the imageryof the kuntuknartheyfeatureaggressiveanimals,uncanny
but irritating
personalexperiences,trifling
incidents,or seductivehuman beings,the
latterbeing generallyanonymousas in kuntuknar.
The rule of interpretation
mainly
consists,here also, in an inversionbetween the apparentcontentof the dreamand the
axis: the attributes
and behaviour
messageit portends,in termsof the nature/culture
of animalsforebodespecifichuman deeds,while human acts announce the actionsof
particularanimals.For example, a dream of chargingpeccarieswill be interpretedas
the presage of a skirmishwith enemy warriors,while a man dreamingof sexual
intercoursewith a woman is thuswarned of a possiblesnakebite.
or penke karamprar
Karamprar,
('dream proper'), are dreams wherein a personal
relationshipis establishedwith a being spatiallyremote or ontologicallydistant,but
always known to the dreamer.These beings eitherenterin a dialogue or delivera
message:the meaningof the dreamis thushomologous to its explicitcontentand it
The entitiesthatappear in thiscategoryof
does not requirea key of interpretation.
dreamsmay be livingpersonstemporarilyestrangedor absent,deceased relativesor
acquaintances,a whole rangeoftutelaryspirits,
magicalobjectsin humanform,certain
kindsof animals,or the embodimentof personaldestiny.
When a close kinsmantravelsfaraway on a tradingexpeditionor a warringparty,
his appearancein a dream expressesgriefforhis absence and concern forhis safety;
a long-distancedialogue aimed at reassurance.Sore
dreamingofhimis like establishing
feelingsbroughtabout by quarrels,especiallybetween in-laws,can also be dissipated
dreamswhichbuildup an imageofrenewedharmony
throughthemediumofkaramprar
between the protagonistsof the dispute.
The conditionofthedead is a tragicone: condemnedto a desperatesolitude,forever
tryingto temptor coerce the livingintojoining them,theyroam in perpetualhunger
and dissatisfaction.
dreamsallow themto visitthe people who knew them
Karamprar
and to air theirgrievances:theywant the food and manioc-beerbowls on theirgrave
replenished,theycomplainofhavingbeen attackedin one oftheiranimalincarnations,
or theysourlyprotestbecause theirkillinghas not yet been avenged.
Althoughthemagicalanentincantationscan be used,amongotherthings,to transmit
petitionsto thespirits,thelattercannotcommunicatewiththeAchuarexceptthrough
the channel of dreams.Nunkui, the garden-spirit,
is a frequentvisitorin karamprar
to women: where to find
dreamsduringwhich she benevolentlyimpartsinformation
a magicalgardenstone (nantar)and which specificcultigenit is meantfor,how to treat

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

443

one of her animal helpers,or what particularcare should be given to a new exotic
forhuman
cultivar.Nantargardeningstoneshave vampiricalproperties,and theirthirst
blood is normallyquenched by a substitutemacerationof red achiote. Should the
measure,the stonewill appearin dream,
owner of the nantarforgetthisprecautionary
under the guise of a young girl,to protestagainstthis neglect. Nunkui's husband,
Shakaim,who cultivatesthe forestlike a huge plantation,likewise appearsin men's
dreamsto advise themon the bestplace forclearinga garden,or to point out a likely
spot forfindinga namurmagical huntingstone. These messagesfromthe spiritsare
anentspellscan be sung at dusk
not wholly unexpected.As in the case of kuntuknar,
dream of a specificspirit
by men and women to invitethe visitationin a karamprar
a difficult
task.Nocturnalsexual
whose counselis deemed necessarybeforeundertaking
relationsshould be excluded on these occasions, since they tend to prevent the
formationof dreams.
the principle
Karamprar
dreamsare also one of the channelsthroughwhich arutam,
itselfinphysicalform.Arutamis a verycomplexandpolysemic
ofpersonalfate,manifests
conceptinjivaro culture,withimportantlocal variationsin the natureofitsattributes,
so thatany seriousattemptto explainits significancemustperforceescape the scope
of this article.Among the Achuar, arutamis basicallyan impersonaland atemporal
visionaryexperience
essence thatcan be capturedby any man througha terrifying
of
tobacco
and
psychotropicplants
taking
juice
induced by fastingand the repeated
of the Daturaand Brugmansia
species. Upon revelation,thisessence attachesitselfto
to shapehisdestiny.
theindividual,givinghimstrength
and knowledge,and contributes
It appearsin visionsas a famedold warriorwho deliversadvice and indicationson the
outcome of imminentwarring expeditions.Arutammay also provoke speechless
karamprar
dreamsthatvividlyexpose the futurelife of the dreamerand his or her
is the usual way in which the mainly
achievements;thislattertype of manifestation
male-orientedarutamappearsto women.
Kuntuknar
and mesekramprardreams
evidentlypossesscertaincommon characteristics
dreams.They are presentedby the dreameras a
thatdistinguishthemfromkaramprar
mute scene whereina singleaction is performedeitherby oneselfor by anonymous
beings. Although theircontentmust surelybe richerand more complex, they are
alwaysrecountedin thiselementaryfashion,as ifa kind ofprimarycensorshiphad laid
to theinterpretation
ofthedreamas a whole.
aside theepisodesthatappearedirrelevant
This phenomenologicalstrippingreducesthe contentof the dreamto a singleimage
the attributes
thatcan be submittedto a generalformulaof inversionor transposition:
of naturalbeings are translatableinto human behaviour,while culturalactivitiesare
theregister
ofkuntuknar
in whichrelationsto animalsareplayedout. The interpretation
and mesekramprar
dreamsis thusstrictly
metaphorical.
Karamprar
dreams,on the otherhand,are recountedextensivelyand in much detail,
exceptwhen theircontentmustremainsecretas in the case of visionssentby arutam.
These dreamsare an exercisein universalcommunication,in so faras theyabolishthe
constraints
imposed by physicaldistance,ontologicalseparationand the solipsismof
naturalidioms. As opposed to kuntuknar
and mesekramprar,
dreamsare truly
karamprar
a wanderingofthewakansoul,temporarily
freedofthelinguisticand perceptualbarriers
thatnormallyhindersemanticempathywithnon-humanor too-distantlocutors.The
meaning of this categoryof dreamsis always immediate,as it consistsin a message
deliveredby someone previouslyknown to the dreamer,be it under his usual form

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444

PHILIPPE DESCOLA

or some otherappearance.The interpretation

ofkaramprar
dreamsis thenwhollyliteral,
at leastforthosewho claim to have had them.
The classification
ofdreamsintoliteraland metaphorical-or indexicaland iconical,
as E. Basso suggests(1987: 92)-is common to manyculturesand reflects
theversatility
of dreamingas a predictiveinstrument.'Culture patterndreams',in the terminology
of Lincoln (1970), are usuallyinterpreted
literallyas communicationsfromthe supernaturalworld,while 'personaldreams'can be submittedto a decodingprocess.Among
theAchuar,theformercategoryof dreamis closelylinkedto the drug-inducedvisions
(waimiakmau)
as both use the same imageryin the visual representationof the spirit
world. In fact,culturallyinspireddreamssuch as the karamprar
message dreamsare
probablythemselvesa secondaryelaborationoriginatingat leastpartiallyin culturally
definedhallucinations.
Rules ofmetaphorical
interpretation
Since dreamsareaccessibleonlythroughculturally
determinedand individuallyfiltered
narrativepresentations,the literal interpretationof karamprar
dreams bears more
relevanceto theJivarotheoryofknowledgethanto thegeneralstudyofoneiromancy.
The rulesof metaphoricalinterpretation
to which kuntuknar
and mesekramprar
dreams
are submittedare of more interestin thisrespect,fortheyseem to differmarkedly
fromthe usual techniquesof symboliccorrespondenceapparentlycommon to many
archaicsocieties.The predictivecontentof thesedreamsis revealedthrougha double
and probablysimultaneousprocess:the selectionof a shortsequence and a systematic
inversionortransposition
ofwhatissignified.
The Achuar,likeseveralotherAmazonian
societies,make use of a simplpprincipleof conversionthatpresupposesa correspondence between fieldsof practiceand setsof notionsusuallyheld to be irreconcilable:
humansand animals,up and down, aquatic and aerial,male tasksand femaletasks.1
of the symbols
However, the conversionprocess is applied here less to the content
interconnectedby thesequence selectedforgloss,thanto the relation
it expresses;being
of a purely logical character,this relation lends itselfeasily to the operations of
fromwhich the auguralmessage
permutationby homology,inversionor symmetry
springs.These permutationsseem to be groundedin an elementarygrammarwith a
probablyfiniteset of rules,some of which are revealedby the studyof a sample of
kuntuknar
and mesekramprar
dreamswith theircorrespondinginterpretations.2
These
are explainedbelow:
Rulesforinterpreting
kuntuknar
1. Inversion
ofoperations.
An operativeaction executedby the dreameris invertedterm
by termto suggesta technicaloperationassociatedwith hunting.
A woman'sdreamofthreading
as a signthatshewillemptythebowelsofa
glassbeadsis interpreted
contrasts
an operationwheresmall,hardand
largeanimalkilledby herhusband.The interpretation
hollowedobjectsare addedon a full,flexibleand linearsupport,
to an operationwhereinsmall,soft
the
and fullobjectsare expelledout of a flexible,linearand hollow support;the inversionaffects
directionof the movementsof the hand,the relationbetweencontainerand contained,and the
or artificial
natural
originoftheobjectshandled.
A woman'sdreamofspinning
cottonis an omenthatshewillpluckthebellyofa mashu(Mitusalvini,
is
a largeblackcurassowwitha whitebelly)killedby her husband.The matterof bothoperations
ofvegetalorigin
white,butone producesa linearcontinuity
(thread)froma fragmented
discontinuity
in a fragmented
obtainedfroma planecon(cotton),whilethe otherresults
discontinuity
(feathers)

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

445

tinuityof animal ongin (belly).

A woman's dream of carryinga basket fullof peeled manioc tuberson her back is interpretedas a sign
thatshe will carryin her basket a quarteredpeccary killed by her husband. The exegesis here requires
several ethnographicprecisions. First,like the nantarmagical stones, mamnocsupposedly sucks human
blood throughits leaves; second, manioc tubersare always peeled by women near a riverbefore they
are broughtto the house; third,when a man has the good fortuneto kill several peccaries in the same
herd, he will carryone or two of them whole on his back and will have his wife carrythe rest in
quartersin her basket. The interpretationthus opposes two typesof thingscarriedin a basket: on the
one hand several whole objects of vegetal origin, peeled but formerlyblood-absorbing, and, on the
other,a single fragmentedobject of animal origin,retaininghis skin but exuding blood.

These threewomen's kuntuknar

are characterised,
as with all others,by the factthat
the manifestcontent of the dreams refersto autonomous female work processes
features
(threadingbeads, spinningcotton and gardening),while theirinterpretation
subordinatetasksin a work process (hunting)where men play the main role.
A man's dream of killing a kuyu (Pipilepipile,the blue-throatedpiping guan, a noisy bird that often
perches on high branches near water), is a presage that he will land big fish.The interpretationcontrastsan operation wherein an aerial, motionless and visible animal is killed at a distance (dart) from
the riveredge, to an operation wherein an aquatic, mobile and invisible animal is captured by direct
contact (hook and line), also fromthe riveredge.

What mightconceivablybe taxed as an excessiveattentionto minute detailsin the

trackingofthesestructural
correspondencesis largelyan effectof theiranalyticalmode
thedecompositionofa seriesofchainsofoperationnecessarily
ofpresentation:
amplifies
the distinctiveness
of theirelementarycomponents.However, each of thesechainsis
perceivedby the Achuar not as a sequence of structural
properties,but as an integral
kinaestheticimage renderedutterlyfamiliarby common practice,and hence immediatelyevocativeby inversionof its equallyfamiliarcounterpart.
2. Conversion
ofculture
tonatureorofhumantoanimal.All thesekuntuknar
were dreamt
by men, since theirinterpretation
generallyreferredto specificallymale tasksin the
huntingprocess:tracking,killingor butchering.
A dream of an enemy warrior party is a sign that one is going to meet a herd of peccary. The
is based on the homology of aggressivebehaviour.
interpretation
A dream of women's faces in tears suspended in a tree means one will find a troop of woollymonkeys. The interpretationis based on the homology between the moving sight of tearfulwomen
and the despairshown by femalewoolly-monkeyswhen one of the males is shot down.
A dream of a recumbentwoman exposing her sex is interpretedas a good omen for the hunting of
is based on the homology between the exposed vulva and the open belly
peccaries. The interpretation
of the animal in the firststage of butchering.It appears as a clear inversion of Freudian dream symbolism where open wounds usuallysignifyfemalegenitalia.
A dream of hauling up a canoe on the shore is a presage forkillinga tapir.The interpretationis based
on the factthattapirsare oftenkilled while tryingto escape by swimmingin rivers,so thattheirlarge
and cumbersomebody has to be draggedout of the water.

Interestingly
enough, tapirsare supposedlytaboo and, althoughsome Achuar do kill
themoccasionally,theirkillingshould not be advertisedin a kuntuknar.
The factthat
it is done pointsto the versatility
of a systemof interpretation
based more on rulesof
iconic transformation
thanon a fixedsetofsymbolicequivalencespassedon bytradition.
Dreaming of a very stillwarriorwith a complex achiote face design intentlyeyeing the dreamer is a
presage for the killing of a jaguar or an ocelot. The interpretationis based on a homology with the
mottledhead and the crouchingstance of felineswhen theyare about to bound on theirprey.
A dream of an aggressiveenemy warriorutteringthreatsis a sign of meetingpeccaries. The interpretation is based on a homology with the bellicose behaviour of these animals.

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446

PHILIPPE DESCOLA

A dreamofmanypeoplenoisilygambolling
in a riveris anotheromenforpeccary.The interpretation
is basedon thehomologywiththeturmoil
causedbya herdwhilecrossing
a watercourse.
A dreamofa manwitha verypale faceis a signone willkilla capuchinmonkey.The interpretation
is basedon a homologywiththewhitishfaceofthismonkeythatcontrasts
neatlywiththedarkerfur
on therestofitsbody.
A dreamof a manwitha redbeardis interpreted
as a signforthekillingof a howler-monkey.
The
is basedon a homologywiththebushyrussetfurthatcoverstheneckofthiscommon
interpretation
gameanimal.
Dreamingof a chubbybaby is a good omen forkillingagouti.The interpretation
is based on a
homologywiththisplumprodent,
particularly
appreciated
bytheAchuarforitsfatty
meat.

Rulesforinterpreting
mesekramprar
1.
1.1

Inversion
on thenature/culture
orhuman/animal
axis.
Mode where the signifier
is animal or naturaland the signifiedis human or cultural.

A dreamof a jaguarprowlingaroundthe house or entering

it is a signof an imminent
attackby
The interpretation
enemywarriors.
is basedon a homologyin aggressive
behaviours;
it symmetrically
inverts
thecorresponding
kuntuknarinterpretation.
A dreamof a charging
herdof peccaryis interpreted
as thesignof a skirmish
withenemywarriors.
The homologyis cognatewiththatof the precedingdream,and is equallyan invertedmode of a
kuntuknar
interpretation.
A dreamofbeingattacked
by an anacondameansa shamanis sendingmagicaldartsto bewitchone.
is basedon a metaphorical
The interpretation
anacondasreputedly
transposition,
beingeagerauxiliaries
oftheshamans.

1.2

Mode where the signifier

is human or culturaland the signifiedanimal or
natural.
1.2.1 An action of man on man signifiesan action of animal on man.
A dreamofpricking
oneselfwitha fish-hook,
a dart,a needleor a thornis interpreted
as an omenof
snakebite.
A dreamof sexualintercourse
witha womanis interpreted
as an omen of snakebite.The phallic
buttheinterpretation
reverses
theacceptedFreudiansymbolism-asin the
homologyis self-evident,
case oftheequationbetweenwoundandvulva-indicating
perhapstheminorpartplayedin Achuar
dreamsbysexualrepression.

1.2.2 An action of man on animal signifiesan action of animal on man.

A dreamofeatingminnowsandvomiting
themis interpreted
as an omenofbeingstungbya ray.The
is basedon an association
betweenminnowscapturedby fishing
withpoisonousplants
interpretation
andtheveryrealdangersuchfishing
(barbasco)
impliesofbeingstungbya raywhilewadingin shallow
water.

2.

Homologyofeffects.
is interpreted
as a threatofbeingcrushedto deathby
A dreamofbeingsuffocated
by a mosquito-net
an anaconda.
on the riverafterbarbasco
is interpreted
as an
A dreamof a vastamountof smallfishfloating
fishing
Poisonfishing
omenof an impending
and epidemicsare homologousin theirefepidemic(sunkur).
of fishesand men alike,and thusoffera
fects:theycausehuge and suddengapsin the populations
andothermodesoffishing.3
withotherformsofhumanmortality
sharpcontrast

3.

Metonymical
homology.
is an omenof deathforthedreameror a closerelative.Considereda
A dreamof eatingpalm-grubs
are nevertheless
associatedwithworms,of whichtheyforma
delicacyby the Achuar,palm-grubs
measureeach timethatan infestation
of
symbolicsubstitute.
They are tabooedas a precautionary
wormsis feared(whensowingmaize,forexample).The interpretation
between
playson an inversion
andbeingeatenbyworms.
eatingpalm-grubs

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

447

A dream of wandering in a fog so thick that one cannot see one's hand is interpretedas an omen of
death for the dreameror a close relative.The interpretationderivesfromthe idea that the blurringor
confusionof bodily limitsleads to a dilution of the selfin the environment.
A dream that one's teeth are gettingloose or fallingout, as well as a dream of losing one's hair, are
interpretedas omens of death for the dreameror a close relative.The interpretationis based on a loss
of physicalintegrityin two areas of the body closely associated by the Achuar with ideas of strength
and vitality.4

dreams
ofkuntuknar
andmesekramprar
ofinterpretation
thesystem
Likeanygrammar,
numberofstatements.
anindefinite
normative
andcapableofgenerating
isbothhighly
numberofrules:itselects
numberofcodeswitha finite
a finite
Itworksbycombining
thatpertainto a
thoseimagesofrelations
of dreammaterial
in theinfinite
diversity
themto thesimplerules
or sociologicalcode,and submits
zoological,technological
andhomology)thatwillendowthemwithan auspiciousor
ofconversion
(inversion
ominousmeaning.
enablestheAchuarto avoidrecourseto a fixedsetofcorrespondences
The system
and auguralmeaning,ofthetypecommonin popular
betweenstereotyped
symbols
thetranslation
ofwhichremains
Thereobviouslyexistsomesymbols,
dream-books.
and
animals
constant
andalsoreversible
(forexample,theequationbetweenaggressive
is necessarily
interpretations
However,therangeoftheseautomatic
enemywarriors).
are strictly
conditioned
by presages
verynarrowin a culturewheredailyactivities
ofsymbolic
dreams.Indeed,a system
dulyregistered
equivalences
obtainedthrough
to
wouldhaveto possessa degreeof exhaustivity
impossible
practically
by tradition
ofdream
betweenthediversity
a functional
correspondence
reachin orderto establish
theyaresupposedto predict.
ofconcretesituations
imagesandthediversity
theoutcome
The Achuararecertainly
consciousoftheelementofhazardinlinking
whimsof theirdreamsand theyhave
of theirfutureactionsto the unpredictable
andspecific
meansto cope withit.Thesearethevastlydiversified
developedcultural
dreamor theadviceofa supernatural
anentsongsintendedto 'call' eithera kuntuknar
to a certain
The recitation
ofanent
functions
extentasa kindofauto-suggestion
entity.
to the
highlypropitious
inducinga mentalimageryand an emotivepredisposition
certain
kinds
of
dreams
are
not
ofthedreamsthattheyanticipate.
Thus,
appearance
of a previous
or fortuitous
events,but ratherthe confirmation
totallyspontaneous
terminology)
setof'diurnal
residues'
(inFreudian
intentionality;
theyfeedon a specific
selectedbythewould-bedreamer.
purposefully
processthatthecontentofdreamslends
However,it is mainlyin theinterpretive
This is particularly
so withkuntuknar
and
itselfto the necessities
of circumstance.
definedas suchat thetimeofexegesisbythemanypossibilities
dreams,
mesekramprar
the
ofinversion
thatone oftheirnarrowly
codedsequencessuggests.
By side-stepping
symbolwouldcall
constraints
ofa standardised
dreamlexiconwhereineachregistered
fora fixedtranslation,
theAchuarhave openeda largefieldof exercisefortheir
capacitiesin orderto meettheirpracticalneeds.Anyrelationwithinany
analytical
dreamcan therefore
becomesignificant,
so long as it pertainsto one of the codes
selectedfordreamexegesisandcan be submitted
to one or anotherruleoftransforof theculturaland
mation:inversion
betweencontainer
and content,transposition
ofform,operation,
natural
homologiesor reversal
oppositionofattributes,
registers,
behaviouror effect.

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448

PHILIPPE DESCOLA

Structural
and Freudianapproaches
todreams
The mannerin which the Achuar interpretsome of theirdreamsbears an evident
resemblanceto the structural
methodofmythanalysissetforthby Levi-Strauss.While
Levi-Straussbringsto lightthe intellectualproblemsthatthe mythtriesto resolveby
studyingthe relationsbetween latentpropertiesrevealedby characters,situationsand
concatenationsofnarrativesequences,theAchuardissectthedreamimageryto extract
elementary
relations,themselvessuggestiveby homologyofotherrelationsthatdesired
or dreadedeventsmightmaterialise.Levi-Strausssplitsup the empiricaldata of myths
to discoverthe formulaof a relationof ideas, whereasthe Achuar breakup nocturnal
imagesinto minimallogical unitsto draw fromthempracticalindications.
This paradoxical affinity
of method probablypoints to an affinity
of object: the
long-assertedanalogybetween dreamand mythwould thenbe based on theiridentical
manner of moving fromthe sensible to the intelligible,fromthe concrete to the
abstract.In thesameway thatmythicalthoughtworksout structures
byfitting
together
residuesofevents(Levi-Strauss1962: 32), dreams,accordingto Freud,organiseresidual
images by condensation and displacement,in order to express metaphoricallyan
unresolvedemotionalconflict.5Both operationsexpressa logic of relations:the myth
encodes relationsby using a repertorycomposed of heterogeneouselementstaken
froma specificsocial and naturalmilieu,while theprimaryprocessesat work in dream
production take as theirobject one's systemof relationswith one's entourageand
physicalenvironment.6In thissense, dream work is as much a formof bricolageas
mythis held to be (Levi-Strauss1985: 257). The individual unconscious and the
collectiveunconsciousare probablyrelatedless by contiguity,derivationor universal
archetypes,than by the use of identicaldevices forthe encoding of the diversityof
realityin elementarysystemsof relationships.
Such an idea would no doubt appear somewhathereticalto a Freudian.As LeviStrausshimselfrightlyobserves(1985: 251), Freud denied the existenceof a grammar
ofdreamoperationswhile,on theotherhand,he admittedthepossibility
ofconstituting
a universaldictionaryof dreamsymbols.This positionis partlya consequence of the
incapacityof thefounderofpsychoanalysis
fullyto rejecta realistview of symbols;but
of dreamsto a
above all it stemsfromhis tendencyto reduce the unlimitedsignifiers
unique signifiedof a sexual nature,therebygrantingto the psycho-organiccode the
exorbitantprivilegeof functioningas a universalkey forthe interpretation
of dreams
and myths(1985: 247-55).
The Achuar have explored a different
a constantsigpath. Instead of attributing
nificationto dream symbols,they emphasisethe logical operationsthroughwhich
thathold
symbolsare connected;it is not themetaphoricalexpressionof dreamtobjects
a divinatoryvalue, but the metaphoricalconstructionof theirrelations.
Furthermore,
therulesofinterpretation
certainelementsofthepossibly
used by theAchuarillustrate
extensivegrammarof dream codes that psychoanalysishas reduced mainly to the
repressionofsexualimpulses;in thepresentcase,thedecodingofdreamimagerydraws
upon threelimitedreferentialdomains (technicalacts, the animal world, social behaviour),whereinsexualityplaysonly a minorrole, and indeed figuresmore oftenas
the signifierthan the signified.These dream codes-technological, zoological and
sociological-are thusakin to mythiccodes, in thattheyare endowed with semantic
functionsexpressingthrougha particularlexicon certainbasic propertiesof the dream
structure.Since these propertiesare purelyformal(e.g. a homology), theycan only

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PHILIPPE DESCOLA

449

become expressiveas presageswhen theyoperateas a mode ofcorrespondencebetween

two codes (e.g. zoological and sociological).However,just as a familyofmythschooses
selectivelyamong all conceivable codes (Levi-Strauss1985: 246), a given structural
systemof dreaminterpretation
probablyselectsonlya fewreferential
codes among the
existingrange.Ifthisis thecase,we need a comparativegrammarofdreamsthatwould
tryto elucidatehow each culturechooses and combines,accordingto itsown formula,
a smallset of rulesand codes amongstall those thatare accessibleto it.
Because of the necessarilylimitedscope of its object, ethnography-of dreamsor
ofanythingelse-is a permanentinvitationto pursueinferences.Althoughthistemptation rarelyleads to sound theory,it sometimeshelps to throw lighton a universal
problem,by showinghow a particularculturehas worked out a new approach to it.
Levi-Strausshas alreadygiventhejivaro creditforhavingprecededFreudby inventing
a mythof genesis farmore imaginativeand subtle than the thesison the origin of
societypresentedin Totemandtaboo.He sumsup thecomparisonbywritingthat'when
mythswantto reasonlike thepsychoanalyst,
theycertainlyneed no help' (Levi-Strauss
1985: 245, mytranslation).
It mightbe fairto reversethisproposition,and pay another
tributeto a people usuallybetterknown forits fiercenessthan its hermeneutics,by
suggestingthatwhen dreamswant to reason like the structuralist,
theycan do with
the help of theJivaro.
NOTES

This articleis a revised version of a communication presented at the symposium 'Forms and uses of
dreams in Amerindian societies', organised by Michel Perrin at the 46th InternationalCongress of
Americamsts,Amsterdam,4-8 July1988; I thankM. Perrinand the participantsfortheirhelpfulremarks,
as well as Ann-ChristineTaylor and Joanna Overing for their later comments and linguisticassistance.
The research on which the article is based was conducted with A-C. Taylor among the northern
Ecuadorian Achuar of the Pastaza Province in the course of severalfieldtrips(September 1976 to August
1978, March and April 1979 and June to September 1984). I gratefullyacknowledge the financialassistance of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique,the College de France and the Fondation
Fyssen,as well as the institutionalsupportin Ecuador of the InstitutoNacional de Antropologia e Historia,the PontificiaUniversidad Cat6lica del Ecuador and the Federaci6n de Centros Shuar.
1 For examples,see Da Matta (1970) on the Apmaye and Reid (1978) on the Maku.
2 I recorded the dreams and their interpretations
both informally,while they were being discussed,
and throughseveralsystematicsessionswith informantsof both sexes.
3 On the relation between poison fishingand epidemics in Amerindian thought, see Levi-Strauss
1964: 284-5.
4 Dreams referringto a confusionof the limit of the selfor to a loss of bodily integrityare common
among small-scale societies in lowland South America. Thomas Gregor argues that such dreams are
typicalof those 'person-centred'systems,relativelylacking in cohesive corporate groups, so common in
Amazonia; the concern for boundaries implicitin these dreams would thus be part of a 'largerquest for
identity'(Gregor 1981: 719).
5 This analogy presupposesof course an acceptance of the structuralist
conception of mythicthought.
A more psychological perspective, focusing on the process of myth narration,resultsin the type of
opposition between dream and myth set forthby Waud Kracke: 'the dream, especially if told, moves
fromsensoryimageryto verbal form,while the mythmoves fromlanguage to sensoryimagery' (1987:
37). Such a contrastdisappearsif one keeps in mind that,before expressingitselfas a movement fromthe
language of the narratorto the sensoryimageryit arouses in the listener,the mythexistsas an operation
throughwhich sensoryimageryhas been encoded in verbal form.
6 Although they are of a same nature, the encoding mechanisms at work in mythologyare rather
more complex than those of oneiromancy.As M. Perrinremarks,this is probablybecause '...myth must
satisfythe mind, whereas oneiromancymust deal with the passions and distressesof everydaylife' (Perrmn
1986: 517, my translation).

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450

PHILIPPE DESCOLA
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L'oniromancie Jivaro: inconscient mythique ou grammaire structurale?

Resume
Anthropologues et psychanalystesn'ont cesse de soulignerles convergences entre mythe et reve, sans
arrivertoutefoisa s'entendresurl'existenced'universauxsymboliquescommuns aux deux domaines. Cet
article part de l'idee avancee par l'anthropologie structuraleque le travail du reve est un 'bricolage'
homologue a celui pratiquepar la pensee mythique,l'analogie entremytheet reve relevantd'une identit6
des processus mentaux et non d'une identite des contenus symboliques. Prenant comme illustration
metaphorique
l'oniromancie desJivaroAchuar du Haut Amazone, on faitapparaltreque l'interpretation
des reves depend moins d'un lexique iconique du type clefdes songes que d'une grammairecombinant
de meme nature que ceux isoles par l'analyse structurale
des reglesstructuraleset des codes referentiels
des mythes.

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