TRANSFORMERS

The transformer is a device used for converting a low alternating

voltage to a high alternating voltage or a high alternating voltage
into a low alternating voltage. It is a static electrical device that
transfers energy by inductive coupling between its winding
circuits. Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized
coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge
units weighing hundreds of tons used in power plant substations
or to interconnect portions of the power grid. All operate on the
same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide.
While new technologies have eliminated the need for
transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still
found in many electronic devices. Transformers are essential for
high-voltage electric power transmission, which makes longdistance transmission economically practical. A transformer is
most widely used device in both low and high current circuit. In
a transformer, the electrical energy transfer from one circuit to
another circuit takes place without the use of moving parts. A
transformer which increases the voltages is called a step-up
transformer. A transformer which decreases the A.C. voltages is
called a step-down transformer.
Transformer is, therefore, an essential piece of
apparatus both for high and low current circuits.

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Clo
se-up of single-phase pole mount transformer.

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PRINCIPLE
It is based on the principle of mutual induction that is if a
varying current is set-up in a circuit then induced e.m.f. is
produced in the neighboring circuit. The varying current in a
circuit produce varying magnetic flux which induces e.m.f. in
the neighboring circuit.

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CONSTRUCTION
A transformer consists of a rectangular shaft iron core made of
laminated sheets, well insulated from one another. Two coils p 1
& p2 and s1 & s2 are wound on the same core, but are well
insulated with each other. Note that the both the coils are
insulated from the core, the source of alternating e.m.f is
connected to p1p2, the primary coil and a load resistance R is
connected to s1 s2, the secondary coil through an open switch S.
thus there can be no current through the sec. coil so long as the
switch is open. For an ideal transformer, we assume that the
resistance of the primary & secondary winding is negligible.
Further, the energy loses due to magnetic the iron core is also
negligible. For operation at low frequency, we may have a soft
iron. The soft iron core is insulating by joining thin iron strips
coated with varnish to insulate them to reduce energy losses by
eddy currents. The input circuit is called primary. And the output
circuit is called secondary.

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An ideal voltage step-down transformer. The secondary current arises from the action of the secondary
EMF on the (not shown) load impedance.

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

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THEORY AND WORKING

When an altering e.m.f. is supplied to the primary coil p 1p2, an
alternating current starts falling in it. The altering current in the
primary produces a changing magnetic flux, which induces
altering voltage in the primary as well as in the secondary. In a
good-transformer, whole of the magnetic flux linked with
primary is also linked with the secondary, and then the induced
e.m.f. induced in each turn of the secondary is equal to that
induced in each turn of the primary. Thus if E p and Es be the
instantaneous values of the e.m.f.s induced in the primary and
the secondary and Np and Ns are the no. of turns of the primary
secondary coils of the transformer and, D / d t = rate of change
of flux in each turn of the coil at this instant, we have
Ep = -Np D/dt

(1)

Es = -Ns D/dt

(2)

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Since the above relations are true at every instant, so by dividing

2 by 1, we get
E s / E p = - Ns / N p

(3)

As Ep is the instantaneous value of back e.m.f induced in the

primary coil p1, so the instantaneous current in primary coil is
due to the difference (E Ep ) in the instantaneous values of the
applied and back e.m.f. further if R p is the resistance o, p1p2 coil,
then the instantaneous current Ip in the primary coil is given by
I =E Ep / Rp
E E p = Ip R p
When the resistance of the primary is small, R p Ip can be
neglected so therefore
E Ep = 0 or Ep = E
Thus back e.m.f = input e.m.f
Hence equation 3 can be written as E s / Ep = Es / E = output e.m.f
/ input e.m.f = Ns / Np = K
Where K is constant, called turn or transformation ratio.
In a step up transformer

Es > E so K > 1, hence Ns > Np

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In a step down transformer

Es < E so K < 1, hence Ns < Np

If Ip=value of primary current at the same instant t
And Is =value of sec. current at this instant, then Input power at
the instant t = Ep Ip and Output power at the same instant =
E s Is
If there are no losses of power in the transformer, then Input
power = output power or
E p Ip =
Es / E p

E s Is
=

Or

Ip / I s

= K

In a step up transformer

As k > 1, so Ip > Is or Is < Ip

I.e. current in sec. is weaker when secondary voltage is higher.
Hence, whatever we gain in voltage, we lose in current in the
same ratio. Similarly it can be shown, that in a step down
transformer, whatever we lose in voltage, we gain in current in
the same ratio.Thus a step up transformer in reality steps down
the current & a step down transformer steps up the current.

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BASIC IDEA OF STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

BASIC IDEA OF STEP UP TRANSFORMER

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EFFICIENCY
Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
power to the input power i.e.
= output power / input power = Es Is / Ep Ip
Thus in an ideal transformer, where there is no power losses,
= 1. But in actual practice, there are many power losses;
therefore the efficiency of transformer is less than one.

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ENERGY LOSSES
In practice, the output energy of a transformer is always less
than the input energy, because energy losses occur due to a
number of reasons as explained below.
1. Loss of Magnetic Flux: The coupling between the coils is
seldom perfect. So, whole of the magnetic flux produced by the
primary coil is not linked up with the secondary coil.
2. Iron Loss: In actual iron cores in spite of lamination,
Eddy currents are produced. The magnitude of eddy current
may, however be small. And a part of energy is lost as the heat
produced in the iron core.
3. Copper Loss: In practice, the coils of the transformer
possess resistance. So a part of the energy is lost due to the heat
produced in the resistance of the coil.
4. Hysteresis Loss: The alternating current in the coil tapes
the iron core through complete cycle of magnetization. So
Energy is lost due to hysteresis.
5. Magneto restriction: The alternating current in the
Transformer may be set its parts in to vibrations and sound may
be produced. It is called humming. Thus, a part of energy may
be lost due to humming.

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USES OF TRANSFORMER
A transformer is used in almost all a.c. operations
In voltage regulator for T.V., refrigerator, computer, air

conditioner etc.
In the induction furnaces.
A step down transformer is used for welding purposes.
A step down transformer is used for obtaining large current.
A step up transformer is used for the production of X-Rays

and NEON advertisement.

Transformers are used in voltage regulators and stabilized
power supplies.
Transformers are used in the transmissions of a.c. over long
distances.
Small transformers are used in Radio sets, telephones, loud
speakers and electric bells etc.

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A Big Transformer

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DC Generator
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts
mechanical energy into direct current electricity. This energy
conversion is based on the principle of production of
dynamically induced emf. This article outlines basic
construction and working of a DC generator.

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Construction Of DC Machine:
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any
constructional changes and vice versa is also possible. Thus, a
DC generator or a DC motor can be broadly termed as a DC
machine. These basic constructional details are also valid for
the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let's call this point as
construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a
dc generator'.
The above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4pole DC machine. A DC machine consists two basic parts;
stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are
described below.
1. Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It
is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only provides
mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries
the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
2. Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the
help of bolts or welding. They carry field winding and pole
shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes;
(i) they support field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air
gap uniformly.
3. Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field
coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are
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connected in series. They are wound in such a way that,

when energized, they form alternate North and South poles.
4.

Armature core (rotor)

5. Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of the machine.

It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature
winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular
steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be
provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling
purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
6. Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper
coil which rests in armature slots. The armature conductors
are insulated from each other and also from the armature
core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two
methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or
wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding
means that each armature slot will carry two different coils.
7. Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the
armature winding is made through a commutator-brush
arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc
generator, is to collect the current generated in armature
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conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator

helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A
commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are
insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal
to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected
to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest
on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the
commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or
supply the current.

Working Principle Of DC Generator

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According to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction,

whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field (OR
a conductor is moved in a magnetic field), an emf (electromotive
force) gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of induced
emf can be calculated from the emf equation of dc generator. If
the conductor is provided with the closed path, the induced
current will circulate within the path. In a DC generator, field
coils produce an electromagnetic field and the armature
conductors are rotated into the field. Thus, an
electromagnetically induced emf is generated in the armature
conductors. The direction of induced current is given
by Flemings right hand rule.
Need of a Split ring commutator:

According to Flemings right hand rule, the direction of induced

current changes whenever the direction of motion of the
conductor changes. Lets consider an armature rotating
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clockwise and a conductor at the left is moving upward. When

the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of motion of
that particular conductor will be reversed to downward. Hence,
the direction of current in every armature conductor will be alter
nating. If you look at the above figure, you will know how the
direction of the induced current is alternating in an armature
conductor. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the
armature conductors also gets reversed when the current reversal
occurs. And therefore, we get unidirectional current at the
terminals.

Types Of DC Generator

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DC generators can be classified in two main categories, viz; (i)

Separately excited and (ii) Self-excited.
(i) Separately excited: In this type, field coils are energized
from an independent external DC source.
(ii) Selfexcited: In this type, field coils are energized from the
current produced by the generator itself. Initial emf generation is
due to residual magnetism in field poles. The generated emf
causes a part of current to flow in the field coils, thus
strengthening the field flux and thereby increasing emf
generation. Self excited dc generators can further be divided into
three types (a) Series wound - field winding in series with armature
winding
(b) Shunt wound - field winding in parallel with armature
winding
(c) Compound wound - combination of series and shunt
winding

AC Generator
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An alternator is
an electrical
machine which
converts
mechanical energy into alternating electric energy. They are also
known as synchronous generators.

AC Generator Working

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The working principle of an alternator or AC generator is

similar to the basic working principle of a DC generator.

Above figure helps you understanding how an alternator or

AC generator works. According to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor moves in a
magnetic field EMF gets induced across the conductor. If the
close path is provided to the conductor, induced emf causes
current to flow in the circuit.
Now, see the above figure. Let the conductor coil ABCD is
placed in a magnetic field. The direction of magnetic flux will
be form N pole to S pole. The coil is connected to slip rings, and
the load is connected through brushes resting on the slip rings.
Now, consider the case 1 from above figure. The coil is rotating
clockwise, in this case the direction of induced current can be
given by Fleming's right hand rule, and it will be along A-B-CD.
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As the coil is rotating clockwise, after half of the time period,

the position of the coil will be as in second case of above figure.
In this case, the direction of the induced current according
to Fleming's right hand rule will be along D-C-B-A. It shows
that, the direction of the current changes after half of the time
period, that means we get an alternating current.

Construction Of AC Generator

Main parts of the alternator, obviously, consists of stator and

rotor. But, the unlike other machines, in most of the alternators,
field exciters are rotating and the armature coil is stationary.
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Stator: Unlike in DC machine stator of an alternator is not meant

to serve path for magnetic flux. Instead, the stator is used for
holding armature winding. The stator core is made up of
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron, to minimize the eddy
current losses.

Uses OF AC
1. Aircraft auxiliary power generation, wind generators,
high speed gas turbine generators.

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2. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) drive systems,

automotive starter generators.
3. An ac generator, or 'alternator', is used to produce ac
voltages for transmission via the grid system or, locally,
as portable generators.
4. All of our household appliances runs on ac current.
Ex: Refrigerator, washing machines, oven, lights, fan etc.

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