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Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Reynolds apparatus
dye
dye filament
water
outlet
Laminar flow
at low velocity
considered as moving in
layers
P.2-1
Turbulent flow
at high velocity
inertial force
viscous force
= constant
P.2-2
where
As
where
Hence
inertial force
viscous force
v
d
vd
Reynolds Number, Re =
vd
Re - small
Re - intermediate
Re - large
Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000
P.2-3
Worked example:
2.1 What is the critical velocity of a water flow through a circular pipe of
diameter 2 cm so that the flow is laminar?
(Dynamic viscosity of water is 1.0*10-3 Ns/m2, density of water =
1000 kg/m3)
Answer
1000 * v * 0.02
=
1.0 * 10
3
i.e.
< 2000
2000 * 1.0 * 10 3
m/s
=
1000* 0.02
= 0.1 m/s
Hence the critical velocity is 0.1 m/s.
P.2-4
dv
dy
r
s
pA
(p
dp
L) A
ds
W
Apply the momentum equation in the s direction. Since the flow is steady,
the net change of momentum is zero. Hence
P.2-5
F
Fpressure F weight Fshear 0
or
dp
L ) A W sin ( 2r ) L 0
ds
dz
W AL & sin
ds
r d ( p z )
2
ds
pA ( p
Taking
After re-arranging
Normally, we denote
p z p * - piezometric pressure
Hence for a laminar flow, the shear stress on the cylindrical surface is
given by
r dp *
2 ds
dv
dy
dv
dr
dv
r dp *
dr
2 ds
When integrating the above equation with respect to r with the boundary
condition v = 0 when r = R (i.e. no slip condition), the result is
1 dp * 2
(r R 2 )
4 ds
P.2-6
umax
1 dp * 2
R
4 ds
vmax -
Putting
p*
dp *
L
ds
R 2 p *
vmax 4 L
=
=
2rvdr
2r[
1 dp * 2
( R r 2 )]dr
4 ds
R 4 dp *
=8 ds
Again, putting
dp *
p*
ds
L
pd 4
Q =
128L
&
R = d/2
- Hagen-Poiseuille equation
The laminar flow in a round pipe is called Poiseuille flow or HagenPoiseuille flow.
Assumptions are (a) laminar flow, (b) fully developed flow, (c) steady
flow, and (d) Newtonian fluid.
The mean velocity, v =
flow rate, Q
x sec tional area, A
P.2-7
d 2 p
=
32 L
1
vmax
2
By applying Bernoullis equation over a pipe in length L, the head loss can
be expressed as
hf
p*
Re =
vd
64
Re
P.2-8
Note:
P.2-9
Worked examples:
d 4 ( P1 P2 )
128 L
* (0.25) 4 * (20 * 103 )
m3/s
=
3
128 * 10 * 200
= 9.59 m3/s
P.2-10
2.3 Oil of viscosity 0.101 Ns/m2 and specific gravity of 0.85 flows
through 3000 m of 300 mm-dia. pipe at the rate of 0.0444 m3/s. What
is the lost in head in the pipe?
Answer
Since
Now,
then
Hence
d 4 ( P1 P2 )
Q=
128L
Q = 0.0444 m3/s, = 0.101 Ns/m2,
L = 3000 m,
d = 0.3 m
4
(0.3) ( P1 P2 )
0.0444
128 * 0.101 * 3000
P1 - P2
Lost in head =
=
P1 P2
g
67.67 * 1000
m of oil
850 * 9.81
= 8.12 m of oil
P.2-11
Turbulent flow (with Re > 4000) is a flow regime in which the movement
of the fluid particles is chaotic, eddying and unsteady, with significant
movement of particles in directions transverse to the flow direction.
Similar to the laminar flow, when fluid with lower velocity moving to area
with high velocity, it will gain in the momentum. However, in turbulent
flow, another important factor is the presence of eddies. The sizes range
from very small to fairy large. These eddies greatly promotes the mixing
with the fluid.
Therefore, turbulent flow produces high levels of mixing and has a velocity
profile that is more uniform or flatter than the corresponding laminar
velocity profile.
2.3.1
The above equation can be applied in both laminar (refer Section 2.2.2)
and turbulent flows. It was first developed empirically by Henri Darcy
(1803 1858), while the equation was given in its present from by Julius
Weisbach (1806 1871) and is known as Darcy - Weisbach formula.
It is found that friction factor depends on
wall roughness
i.e. f = f(, v, d, , )
P.2-12
By dimensional analysis,
f
vd
,
d
= f
Reynolds number =
relative roughness =
vd
and
Once the Reynolds number and relative roughness have been determined,
the corresponding value of the friction factor can be obtained analytically
or graphically.
All materials are rough when viewed with sufficient magnification,
although glass and plastic are assumed to be smooth. Typical values of
surface roughness
New pipe surface
Glass, brass, copper and lead
Wrought iron, steel
Cast iron
Concrete
2.3.2
Roughness, (mm)
smooth
0.046
0.26
0.3 (smooth surface)
3.0 (rough surface)
Friction Factor
Experimental data that relate the friction factor to the Reynolds number
have been obtained for fully developed pipe flow over a wide range of wall
roughness. The results of these data are presented in the Figure in next
page which is commonly known as Moody diagram, named after Lewis F.
Moody (1880 1953).
P.2-13
P.2-14
There are several features of the Moody diagram that should be noted.
(i) For a given wall roughness, measured by the relative roughness
64
Re
f
3.7 Re f
P.2-15
f
3. 7
0.25
5.74
log
10 3.7 d Re 0.9
This equation is explicit in f and predicts the friction factor that differs by
less than 3% from those on the Moody diagram for 4000 < Re < 108 and
10-5 <
< 2*10-2.
This equation also has the advantage of being explicit in f, from which it
differs by less than 1.5% for 4000 Re 108.
P.2-16
Worked examples:
2.4 Determine the head loss for flow of 140 L/s of oil, = 0.00001 m2/s,
through 400 m of a 200 mm diameter cast iron pipe.
Answer
Given
Re =
014
.
Q
=
m/s = 4.456 m/s
d 2 4
* 0.2 2 4
vd
0.2 * 4.456
105
2.6 *10 4
=
0 .2
= 8.912*104
= 0.0013
hf
400 4.456 2
= 0.0238*
*
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 48.17 m of oil
m of oil
P.2-17
2.51
1
d
= 2.0 log
3.7 Re f
f
As
where
= 0.0013; Re = 89120
d
0.0013
2.51
1
= 2.0 log
89120 f
f
3.7
20816 * 10 5
1
-4
+ 2.0*log(3.514*10 +
) =0
f
f
i.e.
or
Hence
= 0.023365
hf
400 4.4562
m of oil
= 0.023365*
*
0.2 2 * 9.81
= 47.29 m of oil
P.2-18
In section 2.3, the head loss in long, straight sections of pipe can be
calculated by use of the friction factor obtained from Moody diagram or
the Colebrook White equation. This is called frictional loss or major
loss.
Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes. These
pipe fittings add to the overall head loss of the system. These losses are
called minor losses.
In some cases, the minor losses may be greater than the friction loss.
Since the flow pattern in fittings and valves is quite complex, the theory is
very week. The losses are commonly measured experimentally and
correlated with the pipe flow patterns.
2.4.1
Minor losses are losses due to the inclusion of pipe fittings in a pipeline.
Some examples are
entrance or exit of a pipe
expansions or contractions of a pipe
bends, elbow and tees
valves of open or partially closed
gradual expansions or contractions
Minor losses is given by
hL
v2
= K*
2g
where
K is a constant
P.2-19
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2.4.1
Component
Elbows
Regular 90, flanged
Regular 90, threaded
Long radius 90, flanged
Long radius 90, threaded
Long radius 45, flanged
Regular 45, threaded
180 return bends
180 return bends, flanged
180 return bends, threaded
Tees
Line flow, flanged
Line flow, threaded
Branch flow, flanged
Branch flow, threaded
Valves
Globe, fully open
Gate, fully open
Ball valve, fully open
Others
Entrance loss
Exit loss
0.3
1.5
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.4
0.2
1.5
0.2
0.9
1.0
2.0
10
0.15
0.05
0.5
1.0
p1
P.2-20
Worked examples:
2.6 Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below. The minor
loss coefficient for entrance is 0.5. The pipe diameter is 15 mm and
the pipe roughness produces a friction factor of 0.025.
1
15m
2
150m
Answer
fL v2
v
v1
p
v
+K 2
+ z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 +
d 2g
2g
2g
2g
2
fL v2
)*
= (1 + K +
2g
d
2
15
v
= (1+0.5+0.025*150/0.015) * 2
2g
2
v
= 251.5 2
2g
or v2
Hence
= 1.082 m/s
= A2*v2
= 1.082**0.0152/4 m3/s
= 0.1912 L/s
P.2-21
2.7 Find the discharge through the pipe in the figure below for H = 20 m.
The minor loss coefficients for entrance, elbows and globe valve are
0.5, 0.8 (each) and 10 respectively. The kinematic viscosity of water is
1.02*10-6 m2/s.
globe
valve
40m
elbows
dia. = 150mm
20m
= 0.0003
30m
40m
Answer
2
v
fL v
v
p
v
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + i i 2 + K i 2
2g
di 2 g
2g
2g
p1
Using
f v2
fL v
Li
i i 2 =
d 2g
di 2 g
2
f
v22
(30 20 40)
=
015
. 2 * 9.81
= 30.58 f v22
2
v
K i 2
2g
v
= 2 K i
2g
2
v2
(0.5 2 * 0.8 10)
=
2 * 9.81
= 0.617 v22
As
P1-P2 = 0, v1 = 0, z1-z2 = 20 m,
2
i.e.
20
v
v
fL v
= 2 + i i 2 + K i 2
2g
2g
di 2 g
2
= (0.051+30.58f + 0.617)v22
= (0.668+30.58f) v22
or
v2
20
0.668 30.58 f
P.2-22
Since
f
0.030
0.0230
0.0235
Re = 1.47*105 v2 ; /D = 0.002
v2 (m/s)
3.551
3.818
3.797
Re
5.2*105
5.6*105
5.6*105
fcal.
0.0230
0.0235
0.0235 (ok)
v2
= 3.797 m/s
Since
= A2*v2
= *0.152/4 * 3.797 m3/s
= 0.067 m3/s
P.2-23
h
f
*
* 2 4 Q 2 5 Q
Hence
f
d g d
g d
2.5.1
Pipes are in series if they are connected end to end so the fluid flow in a
continuous line is a constant.
Pipe 1
Pipe 2
Pipe n
= h1 + h2 + h3 ++ hn
= k1*Q2 + k2*Q2 + k3*Q2 + + kn*Q2
= (k1 + k2 + k3 + + kn)*Q2
P.2-24
For pipes connected in parallel, the fluid can flow from one to the other by
a number of alternative routines.
Pipe 1
Pipe 2
Pipe n
The head loss for individual pipe is the same as the total head loss when
applying Bernoullis equation across each pipe.
The total flow rate is the summation of the individual pipe.
Since
hf
or
Qi
= ki*Qi2
hf
=
ki
Total Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + + Qn
hf
h
h
h
+ f + f ++ f
=
k1
k2
k3
kn
=(
1
1
1
1
+
+
++
) hf
kn
k1
k2
k3
P.2-25
Hence
1
k eff
hf
k eff
1
1
1
1
+
+
++
kn
k1
k2
k3
P.2-26
Worked examples:
A
= v2 2
A1
d
= v2 2
d1
225
=
v2 = 2.25 v2
150
Friction in the 150 mm pipe
2
f 1 L1 v 1
0.04 * 6 v12
=
=
hf1
0.15 2g
d 1 2g
2
v12
v22
2 v2
= 1.6
= 1.6*2.25 *
= 8.1
2g
2g
2g
Similarly, friction in the 225 mm pipe
2
f2L2 v2
0.04 * 15 v 2 2
hf2
=
=
0.225 2g
d 2 2g
v22
= 2.67
2g
v22
Hence, total head loss = hf1 + hf2
= 10.77
2g
Applying Bernoullis equation between the two top water surfaces,
p1 = p2
= 0 (Patm)
v1 = v2
= 0 (water surfaces)
z1 = 6 m; z2 = 0
2
2
p1 v1
p2 v2
+
+ z1 =
+
+ z 2 +hL
2g
2g
P.2-27
or
z1 z2
6
or
Hence
v2
Q
= hL
v22
= 10.77
2g
6 * 2 * 9.81
=
= 3.31 m/s
10.77
= A2v2
* 0.2252
=
* 3.31 m3/s
4
= 0.132 m3/s
P.2-28
hf
fL v
= 1 1 1
d 1 2g
f L v
= 2 2 2
d 2 2g
Apply Bernoullis equation to the points on the free surfaces and from
the result of the previous worked example,
level difference = head loss
2
2
f 1 L1 v 1
f2L2 v2
=
H =
d 1 2g
d 2 2g
6
Therefore,
Hence
0.04 * 3000 v 12
0.04 * 2000 v 2 2
=
=
0.6
2 * 9.81
0.3
2 * 9.81
v1
v2
= 0.767 m/s
= 0.664 m/s
Q1 = A1v1
Q2 = A2v2
* 0.6 2
=
* 0.767 = 0.217 m3/s
4
* 0.32
=
* 0.664 = 0.047 m3/s
4
Total discharge, Q = Q1 + Q2
= 0.217 + 0.047 m3/s
= 0.264 m3/s
P.2-29
2.5.3
Branched pipes
reservoir 1
pipe1, k1
reservoir 2
Q1
h1
Q3
reservoir 3
h3
J Q2
pipe2, k2
h2
pipe 3, k3
=0
= k1*Q12
= k2*Q22
= k3*Q32
=0
= k1*Q12
= k2*Q22
= k3*Q32
P.2-30
Both sets of equations have 4 unknowns Q1, Q2, Q3 and hJ. We have to
determine which case controls the problem.
It is determined by assuming hJ = h2, i.e. no flow from J to reservoir 2.
Therefore
and
Q1 =
h1 h 2
k1
Q3 =
h2 h3
k3
P.2-31
Worked example:
2.10 Three reservoirs are connected as the figure below. Determine the
flow, Q1, Q2 and Q3 with k1 = 3.058, k2 = 8.860 and k3 = 0.403 s2/m5
and hf = ki*Qi2.
reservoir 1
reservoir 2
Q1
J Q2
200m
Q3
180m
reservoir 3
140m
Answer
Step 1
Pipe
1
2
3
Q3 =
ki (s2/m5)
3.058
8.860
0.403
hi (m)
200
180
140
h2 h3
k3
Q1 < Q3
200 180
3.058
= 2.557 m3/s
180 140
= 9.963 m3/s
0.403
case (ii)
P.2-32
or
m3/s
180 - h = 8.860Q22
180 h
Q2 =
8.860
or
m3/s
h - 140 = 0.403Q32
h 140
Q3 =
0.403
or
Since
therefore
Q1 + Q2 - Q3 = 0
200 h
180 h
+
3.058
8.860
m3/s
h 140
0.403
=0
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (m3/s)
2.557 + 0 9.963
3.617 + 1.502 7.045
4.044 + 1.840 - 4.981
3.920 + 1.746 - 5.680
3.925 + 1.749 - 5.658
3.922 + 1.747 - 5.669
Error
-7.406
-1.926
+0.903
-0.014
+0.016
+0.000
P.2-33
REFERENCE
water
out
loop 1
loop 2
loop 4
loop 5
loop 3
loop 6
The algebraic sum of head loss around each loop must be zero.
1
4
+ve
7
2
4
3
P.2-34
Method of Analysis
Assume hi = ki*Qi2
The sign convention is clockwise positive for the discharge and
head loss.
Initially a flow rate, Q is assumed. A correction for discharge, Q
is then evaluated and the new flow rate is Q + Q.
the head loss for each member can be approximated as
hi = ki*(Qi + Q)2
= ki*[Qi2 + 2QiQ + (Q)2]
ki*Qi2 + 2 ki*Qi*Q
hence
Q =
(by assumption 1)
1 h i
2 (hi )
Qi
hi is the sum of head loss around a loop which can be +ve or -ve.
(hi / Qi) is the sum of the ratio (head loss/flow) for each member of the
loop. The ratio is a magnitude and therefore is +ve only.
Q is the correction flow for a loop. Each pipe within the loop will have
this correction. Any pipe belonging to 2 or more loops, the correction for
that particular pipe will contribute from every loop.
P.2-35
A steady push on the piston causes a flow rate of 0.4 cm3/s through the
needle. The fluid has S.G. = 0.9 and = 0.002 Ns/m2. By considering the
head loss at the needle only, determine the force F required to maintain the
flow.
[F = 0.012 kN]
D= 1cm
D=0.25mm
1.5cm
3cm
P.2-36
Oil, with density = 900 kg/m3 and = 1*10-5 m2/s, flows at 0.2 m3/s
through a 20-cm diameter pipe 500 m long cast-iron pipe. The roughness
of iron is 0.26 mm. Determine the head loss in the pipe. [hf = 117.352 m]
P.2-37
P.2-38
P.2-39
P.2-40
For the three branch piping system shown below, we have the following
data.
20m
Pipe
1
2
3
D, L, m
f
mm
100 500 0.025
150 750 0.020
130 1000 0.018
K
3
2
7
12m
Pipe 2
Pipe 3
5m
Pipe 1
J
Determine the flow rate of each pipe and piezometric head H at the
junction, J.
[H=14.732 m]
P.2-41
1.
2.
If oil ( = 4*10-5 m2/s, S.G. = 0.9) flows from the upper to the lower
reservoir at a rate of 0.028 m3/s in the 15-cm smooth pipe, determine
the elevation of the oil surface in the upper reservoir. (K for entrance,
exit and bend are 0.5, 1 and 0.19 respectively)
130mPD
60m
7m
3.
130m
300mm
24m
1600m
450mm
300mm
120m
24m
300mm
450mm
450mm
300mm
END
P.2-42