Doc. no. ESS140/ext:10, rev.

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Erik Strom
November 7, 2005

Introduction

This document should be viewed as a complement to Sections 7.3.3, 7.5.6, 7.6.2,

7.6.5 of Proakis and Salehis book [1]. In particular, thebooks equation (7.6.71)
is shown to be valid only under the assumption that M is an integer; more
general formulas are derived below.

Quadrature Modulation

A block diagram for a generic inphase quadrature phase modulator (IQ-modulator)

is found in Figure 1. We see that the transmitted signal can be viewed as the
sum of two PAM processes with dierent pulse shapes: I (t) in the top (in-phase)
branch and Q (t) in the lower (quadrature) branch, where

I =

Q =

2
gT (t) cos(2fc t)
Eg
2
gT (t) sin(2fc t),
Eg

and where Eg is the energy of the pulse shape gT (t). The pulse shape and
the carrier frequency fc is chosen such that the power spectral density of the
transmitted signal will t the frequency response of the channel.
As implied by the IQ-modulator block diagram, the signals I (t) and Q (t)
spans a two-dimensional signal space. In fact, it can be shown that signals are
approximately orthonormal if the carrier frequency fc is much larger than the
bandwidth of gT (t). The approximation is very good for many practical choices
of fc and gT (t), and we will from now consider I (t) and Q (t) to be exactly orthonormal and to make up the standard basis for the IQ signal space. The reader
1

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Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

PAM with I (t )

PAM

sI , m

2-dimensional
constellation
bits

bits/
symbol

Eg

gT ( t )
2 cos(2 fc t )

symbol/
vector

sI

sQ

s (t )

PAM

transmitted vector s =

1
sQ ,m

Eg

gT ( t )

2 sin(2 f c t )
PAM with Q (t )

Figure 1: Generic IQ-modulator

should here be cautioned that some texts use Q (t) as one of the basis functions. Hence, we need to be a bit careful when using material on IQ modulation
from dierent sources.
A generic demodulator is shown in Figure 2. We will assume that the channel
noise is white and Gaussian with power spectral density N0 /2. It then follows
that the noise vector elements, nI and nQ , are independent Gaussian random
variables with zero mean and variance N0 /2.
Let us consider the transmission of the kth signal vector an M-ary constel
T
lation {s1 , s2 , . . . , sM }. The transmitted vector is sk = sI,k sQ,k , and the
transmitted signal is therefore
sk (t) = sI,k I (t) + sQ,k Q (t)


2
2
gT (t) cos(2fc t) + sQ,k
gT (t) sin(2fc t)
= sI,k
Eg
Eg

If we dene Ak and k as (see Figure 3 for a geometrical interpretation)

Ak = sk  =

k = tan1

s2I,k + s2Q,k ,

sQ,k
.
sI,k

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3 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Matched filter with respect to I (t )

t = nT + T0

1
gT (T0 t )
Eg
s (t )

r (t )

2 cos(2 fc t )

t = nT + T0

Decision
rule

1
gT (T0 t )
Eg
n(t )

2 sin(2 f c t )

sI nI
+
sQ nQ

r =s+n =

Matched filter with respect to Q (t )

Figure 2: Generic IQ-demodulator

Q (t )
sQ ,k

sI ,k

sQ ,k

Ak

sk =

k
sI ,k

I (t )

Figure 3: Geometric interpretation of Ak and k . Note that taken as the angle

from the vector to the I (t) axis, not the other way around. In this gure,
k 0.12.
According to the choice of denition of the angle k , we have that
sI,k = Ak cos(k ) = Ak cos(k )
sQ,k = Ak sin(k ) = Ak sin(k ),
and we can rewrite the transmitted signal as


2
2
gT (t) cos(2fc t) Ak sin(k )
gT (t) sin(2fc t)
sk (t) = Ak cos(k )
Eg
Eg

2
gT (t) cos(2fc t + k ),
= Ak
Eg

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4 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

where we have used the trigonometric identity cos() cos() sin() sin() =
cos( + ).
We conclude that the transmitted signal can be seen as the pulse gT (t) multiplied with a cosine-carrier, where the amplitude and phase of the carrier is
determined by sI,k and sQ,k . Hence, the transmitted information can aect both
the amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal.

Common IQ Signal Constellations

We can choose the signal constellation such that the amplitude is the same for
all signal alternatives by placing the signal vectors on a circle in the signal space.
This implies that A1 = A2 = = AM , and the transmitted information is then
carried by the phase of the carrier. Phase-shift keying (PSK) is an example of
such a modulation scheme.
Conversely, if the signal vectors are placed on a straight line that crosses the
origin in the signal space, then the carrier phase will be the same for all signal
alternatives. (Which follows from the fact that sI,k /sQ,k is the same for all k.)
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is an example of such a modulation scheme.
The general case when both amplitude and phase is allowed to change between
signal alternatives is called quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). There exists many QAM constellations, but we will limit our discussion to the case when
the signal points are placed on a regular rectangular grid in the signal space, see
Figure 4 for two examples. Moreover, we will only consider constellation sizes
such that M = 2k , where k is an integer. That is, each symbol represents k bits.
A general rectangular M-ary QAM constellation has MI amplitudes along the
inphase axis and MQ amplitudes along the quadrature axis. We will sometimes
use the notation (MI MQ )-QAM to denote this type of constellation. Now, we
have M = MI MQ , and
sI,k {A, 3A, . . . , A(MI 1)}
sQ,k {A, 3A, . . . , A(MQ 1)}.

When
M
is
an
even
square,
i.e.,
when
M is an integer, we can set MI = MQ =

M . In Figure 4, we see a square 16-QAM constellation and a rectangular

(4 2)-QAM constellation.
As seen from Figure 4, the signal vectors are spaced with the distance 2A
along the axes. Hence, the minimum distance of the constellation is dmin = 2A.

Error Probability for M -ary QAM

Regardless if M is an even square or not, the maximum likelihood decision regions

will be rectangular-shaped. The regions can be squares (type a), squares with
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5 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

16-QAM

8-QAM

Q (t )

3 A

Q (t )

3A

3A

I (t )

3A

3 A

3 A

3 A

3A

I (t )

Figure 4: Constellations for square 16-QAM and rectangular (4 2)-QAM

one open side (type b) or squares with two open sides (type c), see Figure 5.
To compute the symbol error probability, we therefore need only to compute
the conditional error probabilities for the three types of decision regions. Conditioned on that we send a symbol that has a decision region of type x, the
probability of wrong decision is denoted Pe|x and the probability of correct decision is denoted Pc|x. Since the elements of the noise vector, nI and nQ , are
independent Gaussian random variables with zero mean and variance N0 /2, we
can write
Pc|a = Pr{A < nI < A, A < nQ < A}
= Pr{A < nI < A} Pr{A < nQ < A}
= [Pr{A < nI < A}]2 .
From Figure 6, we see that Pr{A < nI < A} can be written in terms of the
Q-function as


2A2
.
Pr{A < nI < A} = 2 = 1 2Q
N0
Hence,


Pe|a



 2
2A2
= 1 1 2Q
N0





2
2A
2A2
2
= 4Q
4Q
.
N0
N0

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(1)

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Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Q (t )
type a

3A
type c

type a

type b

A
type b

3 A

3A

I (t )

A
type c

3 A

Figure 5: ML decision regions for 16-QAM

Proceeding with the type b region, we note that

Pc|b = Pr{nI > A, A < nQ < A}

= Pr{nI > A} Pr{A < nQ < A}
= (1 1 )2


 


2A2
2A2
= 1Q
1 2Q
N0
N0




2A2
2A2
+ 2Q2
,
= 1 3Q
N0
N0

and

Pe|b = 3Q

2A2
N0




2Q2

2A2
N0


.

(2)

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7 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

x2
1
exp
f nI ( x ) =

N0
N0

N 0 / 2

2 = 1 2Q

1 = Q

N 0 / 2

N 0 / 2

3 = Q

Figure 6: The probability density function for nI and nQ is a zero mean Gaussian
distribution with variance N0 /2. The areas 1 , 2 , and 3 represents the probabilities 1 = Pr{nI < A}, 2 = Pr{A < nI < A}, and 3 = Pr{nI > A}.
Finally,
Pc|c = Pr{A < nI , A < nQ }
= Pr{nI > A} Pr{nQ > A}
= (1 1 )(1 1 )


 2
2A2
= 1Q
N0





2
2
2A
2A
+ Q2
,
= 1 2Q
N0
N0


and
Pe|c = 2Q

2A2
N0




2

2A2
N0


.

(3)

Suppose that all symbols are transmitted with the same probability 1/M. If
nx denotes the number of type x regions in the constellation then nx /M is the
probability that a symbol with a type x decision region is transmitted. Hence,
we can compute the (average) symbol error probability as
1
(na Pe|a + nb Pe|b + nc Pe|c ).
(4)
M
To complete the derivation, we note that for a general (MI MQ )-QAM constellation with MI > 1 and MQ > 1, we have
Pe =

na = (MI 2)(MQ 2)
nb = 2(MI 2) + 2(MQ 2)
nc = 4
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(5)

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Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

A general expression for the symbol error probability can now be formed by
combining (1)(5). However, for the expression to be really useful, we need to
relate A2 to Es .
For an MI MQ rectangular constellation, there are MI possible values of sI
T

and MQ possible values of sQ , where s = sI sQ . Due to symmetry, we can
compute Es by only considering the signal points in the rst quadrant, which are
of the form

s
2i 1
I = A
,
for i = 1, 2, . . . , MI /2 and j = 1, 2, . . . , MQ /2,
sQ
2j 1
Hence, sI = A(2i 1) and sQ = A(2j 1) and the energy of the corresponding
signal alternative is
s2I + s2Q = A2 [(2i 1)2 + (2j 1)2 ].
Since there are M/4 signal vectors in the rst quadrant, we can compute Es as
MI /2 MQ /2
4 2 
Es =
A
(2i 1)2 + (2j + 1)2 .
M
i=1 j=1

This can be simplied to (see Appendix A)

Es =

Es
A2
2A2
6
(MI2 + MQ2 2)
= 2
.
2
3
N0
MI + MQ 2 N0

(6)

As shown in Appendix B, we can now combine (1)(6) to form the symbol

error probability for (MI MQ )-QAM (assuming MI > 1, MQ > 1, equally
likely transmitted symbols, ML detection, and AWGN channel with noise power
spectral density N0 /2) as


2(2M MI MQ )
Es
6
Pe =
Q
M
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0


Es
6
4(M MI MQ + 1) 2
Q

.
(7)
M
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0
Now, since the second term in (7) is negative, we can form a bound on Pe as


Es
6
2(2M MI MQ )
Q
Pe <
M
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0


Es
6
(8)
< 4Q
2
2
MI + MQ 2 N0
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9 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

For square constellation, M = MI = MQ , the symbol error probability

expression in (7) simplies to

4
(M M )Q
Pe =
M



3Es
(M 1)N0


4
(M 2 M + 1)Q2
M

3Es
(M 1)N0


(9)

and the bound in (8) becomes




3 Es
4(M M )
Q
Pe <
M
M 1 N0


3 Es
< 4Q
M 1 N0

(10)

The bound in (8) is valid for any rectangular constellation; however, the
bound (10), which is equivalent to equation (7.6.71) in Proakis and Salehi [1], is
only valid for square QAM1 .
Finally, we recall that the minimum distance of a QAM constellation is dmin =
2A, and a standard union bound therefore yields

Pe (M 1)Q

= (M 1)Q

= (M 1)Q

d2min

2N0

2A2
N0

Es
6
2
2
MI + MQ 2 N0


,

(11)

which is not as tight as (8) or (10).

As an example, consider the (4 2) constellation in Figure 4. Plots of the
exact error probability (7) and the bounds (8) and (11) are found in Figure 7.
1

By computing the exact symbol error probability according to (4) for the M = 4 2 = 8
constellation in Figure 4, we find that for Es /N0 slightly larger than 9.5 dB, (7.6.71) is actually
smaller than the exact symbol error probability. Hence, (7.6.71) is not a upper bound for this
constellation.
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10 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Symbol error probability for rectangular (4 2)QAM

10

Standard Union Bound

Bound
Exact

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10
12
10 log E /N
10 s 0

14

16

18

20

Figure 7: Plots of the exact expression and some upper bounds on the symbol
error probability for rectangular (4 2)-QAM (see Figure 4). The curve marked
Bound is dened by (10), and the Standard Union Bound is dened by (11).

Error Probability for M -ary Pulse Amplitude

Modulation

If we restrict the signal constellation to be placed equidistant and symmetric

around the origin, see Figure 8, we get what known as bandpass pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM) or amplitude shift keying (ASK). We will use the term PAM
here. The signal points are spaced with 2A, and the mth signal amplitude is
(2m M 1)A.
There are two types of decision regions, type a and type b, as show in Figure 8.
Following the same procedures as in the previous section, we can compute the
conditional error probabilities as


Pe|a

Pe|b


2A2
= 2Q
N0



2A2
=Q
N0

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11 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Q (t )
5 A

3 A

type a
2A

I (t )
3A

5A

type b

I (t )

I (t )

Figure 8: A PAM constellation and its ML decision regions

and, since na = M 2 and nb = 2, the symbol error probability is







2A2
2A2
2A2
1
2(M 1)
(M 2)2Q
Q
+ 2Q
=
Pe =
M
N0
N0
M
N0
Using the result in (13), the symbol energy can be found to be
M/2

1 
A2
(2i + 1)2 A2 =
Es =
2
(M 2 1),
M i=1
3
and we can write the symbol error probability as


6
Es
2(M 1)
Q
Pe =
.
M
(M 1)2 N0

(12)

Error Probability for M -ary QAM Revisited

An elegant derivation of the symbol error probability for M-ary QAM can be
found by recognizing that a QAM constellation is essentially the combination
of two PAM constellations. That is, an (MI MQ ) constellation consists of an
MI -PAM constellation along the I (t)-direction and an MQ -PAM constellation
along the Q (t)-direction.
To decode a QAM symbol correctly, we need to decode both PAM constellations correctly. Hence, the probability for correct decision is
Pc = Pr{correct decision for MI -PAM and MQ -PAM}
= Pr{correct decision for MI -PAM} Pr{correct decision for MQ -PAM}.
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12 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Now, the error probabilities for the PAM constellations are



2A2
2(MI 1)
Pe,I =
Q
MI
N0


2A2
2(MQ 1)
Q
Pe,Q =
MQ
N0
and the symbol error probability for the QAM constellation is
Pe = 1 Pc = 1 (1 Pe,I )(1 Pe,Q ) = Pe,I + Pe,Q Pe,I Pe,Q




2
2
4(M MI MQ + 1) 2
2(2M MI MQ )
2A
2A

.
=
Q
Q
M
N0
M
N0
The relation between A2 and Es for a QAM-constellation is in (6). Using (6) in
the above equation, we arrive at the nal expression


Es
6
2(2M MI MQ )
Q
Pe =
M
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0


Es
6
4(M MI MQ + 1) 2
Q
,

M
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0
which is the same equation as (7).

Summary

In these notes, we have developed two methods for computing the exact symbol
error probability for rectangular QAM (assuming ML detection, AWGN channel,
and equally likely transmitted symbols). The general expression, found in (7),
can be further simplied for the case when M is an even square, see (9). A
number of upper bounds on the symbol error probability has also been presented
in (8), (10), and (11), and it was noted that (7.6.71) in Proakis and Salehi [1] is
only valid for square constellations.

Derivation of (6)

First of all, we recall the following formulas (see, e.g., [2, p. 189])
n


j=

j=0
n

j=0

j2 =

n(n + 1)
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6

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13 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Hence,
n
n


2
(2i 1) =
4i2 4i + 1
j=1

j=1

=4

n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n(n + 1)
4
+n
6
2

2
= n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 2n(n + 1) + n
3
n
= [2(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6(n + 1) + 3]
3
n 2
= [4n + 6n + 2 6n 6 + 3]
3
n
= (4n2 1).
3
In particular,
MQ /2


j=1

1 MQ
(2j + 1) =
3 2
2



MQ2
MQ
(MQ2 1).
4 2 1 =
2
6

(13)

The symbol energy is

MI /2 MQ /2
4 2 
A
(2i 1)2 + (2j + 1)2
Es =
M
i=1 j=1

MQ /2
MQ /2
MI /2



4 2

A
=
(2i 1)2 +
(2j + 1)2
M
i=1
j=1
j=1


MI /2 
MQ
4 2  MQ
2
2
A
(2i 1) +
(MQ 1)
=
M
2
6
i=1

MI /2
MI /2


MQ
MQ
4 2
A
(2i 1)2 +
(MQ2 1)
=
M
2
6
i=1
i=1


4 2 MQ MI
MI MQ
2
2
=
A
(MI 1) +
(MQ 1)
M
2 6
2 6
4 2 MI MQ 2
A
[MI + MQ2 2]
=
M
12
A2 2
=
[MI + MQ2 2],
3
where we have used that MI MQ = M. This completes the derivation of (6).
The formula holds forany rectangular QAM; in particular, if M is an even
square and MI = MQ = M , the formula reduces to
Es =

A2
A2 2
A2
[MI + MQ2 2] =
[M + M 2] =
2(M 1).
3
3
3

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14 (14)

Notes on Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Derivation of (7)


We dene
q=Q

Es
6
2
2
MI + MQ 2 N0


.

From (1)(6) we have

MPe = na Pe|a + nb Pe|b + nc Pe|c
= (MI 2)(MQ 2)(4q 4q 2 ) + [2(MI 2) + 2(MQ 2)](3q 2q 2 ) + 4(2q q 2 )
= q[4(MI 2)(MQ 2) + 6(MI 2) + 6(MQ 2) + 8]
+ q 2 [4(MI 2)(MQ 2) 4(MI 2) 4(MQ 2) 4]
= q[4M 8MI 8MQ + 16 + 6MI 12 + 6MQ 12 + 8]
+ q 2 [4M + 8MI + 8MQ 16 4MI + 8 4MQ + 8 4]


Es
6
= 2(2M MI MQ )Q
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0


E
6
s
.
4(M MI MQ + 1)Q2
MI2 + MQ2 2 N0
which proves (7).

References

[1] John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi. Communication Systems Engineering.

Prentice-Hall, second edition, 2002.
[2] Lennart R
ade and Bertil Westergren. Beta, Mathematics Handbook. Studentlitteratur, fourth edition, 1998.

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