Glossary of Cultural Anthropology Terms

Cultural AnthropologyTerms
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-Aacculturation
the process by which a culture is transformed due to the massive adoption of cultural traits
from another society--it is what happens to a culture when alien traits diffuse in on a large
scale and substantially replace traditional cultural patterns. See transculturation.
acephalous
society
a society in which political power is diffused to the degree that there are no institutionalized
political leadership roles such as chiefs and kings. Bands and tribes are acephalous. Most
foragers and simple horticulturalists have highly egalitarian, acephalous societies. The word
"acephalous" is Greek for "without a head."
achieved status
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a status that is acquired by doing something. For instance, someone acquires a criminal
status by committing a crime. Likewise, the status of mother is attained by having a baby.
See ascribed status.
actual behavior
what people really do in their lives rather than what they think they are doing or what they
believe they should be doing. In most societies there is a discrepancy between these three
kinds of behavior. It is important for anthropologists to distinguish between actual, believed,
and ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its culture.
adaptive mechanism
a behavior, strategy, or technique for obtaining food and surviving in a particular
environment. Successful adaptive mechanisms provide a selective advantage in the
competition for survival with other life forms. For humans, the most important adaptive
mechanism is culture.
affinity
a kinship link created by marriage, such as the bond between a man and his wife and her
family (in-laws). People who have an affinity relationship with each other are "affines"
.
See consanguinity.
affirmative action
a program or policy intended to correct the effects of past discrimination in employment,
education, housing, etc. Usually affirmative action in the United States includes out-reach
programs, hiring goals, set-asides, and/or extra opportunities for members of
underrepresented minorities.
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age grades
age-based categories of people recognized by a culture. In North America, for example, we
generally label people as children, teenagers, adults, middle aged, and elderly or senior
citizens. See age sets.
age sets
age grades that are clearly recognized in a culture as distinct identifiable groups of people.
They consist of people of similar age and usually of the same gender who share a common
identity and maintain close ties throughout their lives. They also pass through age-related
statuses together as a group. The transition between these statuses is usually marked by a
rite of passage.
agnatic
descent
see patrilineal descent.
ambilineal
descent
a form of cognatic descent in which individuals can

select to trace descent either matrilineally or
patrilineally. The decision may be made each
generation based on the relative wealth and/or
importance of the father's and the mother's family lines.
ambilocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple has the choice of living with or near the
groom's or the bride's family.
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ancestor focused kindred

a kindred in which the person to whom all members trace their kinship ties is dead. An
example would be the descendants of a well known pioneer family. It is rare for a kindred to
continue functioning as an effective kin group after the death of the individual who was its
focus. This usually occurs only when the ancestor was historically important.
ancestral spirits
souls or ghosts of ancestors. A belief in ancestral spirits is consistent with the widespread
belief that humans have at least two parts--a physical body and some kind of non-physical
spirit. The spirit portion is generally believed to be freed from the body by death and
continues to exist. Ancestral spirits are often seen as retaining an active interest and even
membership in their family and society.
androgynous
the characteristic of having a blend of both masculine and feminine personality
characteristics but not strongly either one.
animatism
a belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings. For those who hold this
belief, the power is usually impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good
nor evil, but it can be powerful and dangerous if misused.
animism
a belief that natural objects are animated by spirits. This belief can take diverse forms.
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Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--each rock, tree, and cloud may
have its own unique spirit. In contrast, all things in nature may be thought of as having the
same spirit. In both forms of animism, the spirits are thought of as having identifiable
personalities and other characteristics such as gender.
anomie
a feeling of alienation and isolation from all other people, including family and friends.
anthropology
the broad scientific study of human culture and biology. Anthropologists are interested in
what it is to be human in all of our many different societies around the world today and in the
past. In North American universities, the study of anthropology is usually divided into four
main sub-disciplines: cultural anthropology, physical anthropology, archaeology, and
linguistics.
anticipatory sororate
a cultural pattern in which some sexual permissiveness is allowed between a man and his
wife's sister in anticipation of a future marriage between them. This is usually associated with
sororal polygyny.
anti-miscegenation
laws
laws prohibiting sexual intercourse and marriage between people of different "races".
applied anthropology
the branch of anthropology oriented towards using anthropological knowledge for practical
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purposes. The work of most applied anthropologists has the goal of helping small
indigenous societies adjust to the massive acculturation pressures that they are now
experiencing without their suffering culture death and genocide.
aquatic
foraging
a specialized subsistence pattern that concentrates on fish and/or marine mammal hunting.
Aquatic foraging is usually a far more reliable and productive strategy for obtaining food than
the diversified hunting and gathering of most foragers who live away from the coasts and
major rivers. The most well known aquatic foragers lived on the Northwest Coast of North
America from the Klamath River of California to the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. These
societies specialized in salmon fishing along the rivers and hunting seals and whales off the
coast. The word "aquatic" is derived from the Latin word aqua, meaning water.
archaeology
the systematic study of the material remains of human behavior in the past. Archaeologists
reconstruct the prehistory and early history of societies and their cultures through an
examination and interpretation of such things as house foundations, broken tools, and food
refuse.
arranged marriage
a marriage partner selection process in which the future bride and groom usually do not
participate actively in the decision. Marriages are commonly arranged by parents or their
agents when the marriages are seen as principally uniting two families rather than just
husband and wife. There is also often the rationalization that teenagers and young adults are
too inexperienced to make a wise mate selection. The tradition of arranged marriages has
been dramatically undermined whenever romantic love becomes a popular notion in a
society.
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ascribed status
a status that is the result of being born into a particular family or being born male or female.
Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a family are ascribed statuses.
See achieved status.
assimilation
the absorption of an individual or minority group of people into another society or group. This
is achieved by learning and adopting the cultural traditions of the society to which
assimilation occurs. It is also often hastened by intermarriage and de-emphasizing cultural
and or biological differences.
avunculocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near the groom's
maternal uncle's house. This is strongly associated with matrilineal descent and occurs when
men obtain statuses, jobs, or prerogatives from their nearest elder matrilineal male relative.
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-Bbalanced reciprocity
an economic exchange in which there is an explicit expectation of immediate return. Simple
barter or supermarket purchases involve this understanding. See reciprocity.
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band
the level of political integration in which a society consists only of an association of families
living together. Bands are loosely allied by marriage, descent, friendship, and common
interest. The primary integrating mechanism is kinship ties. There is no economic class
differentiation. All adults of the same gender are more or less equal as far as community
decision making is concerned. However, some individuals in a band may stand out for their
skills and knowledge. These often are the people who have the best memories, are the best
hunters, most successful curers, most gifted speakers, etc. Such people become informal
leaders. Most often they are given authority by community consensus arrived at through
casual discussion without the need for a formal vote. Leaders generally have temporary
political power at best, and they do not have any significant authority relative to other adults
within their band. Subsequently, bands are essentially acephalous societies. The total
number of people within these societies rarely exceeds a few dozen. Bands are found
among foraging societies.
barter
trading goods and services directly for other goods and services without the use of money as
a medium of exchange. See dumb barter.
believed behavior
what people honestly believe that they are doing in their lives rather than what they think they
should be doing or what they actually are doing. In most societies there is a discrepancy
between these three kinds of behavior. It is important for anthropologists to distinguish
between actual, believed, and ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its
culture.
berdache
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see two-spirited.
bewitching
using magical acts and/or the assistance of supernatural beings to cause something to
occur. Bewitching is an integral part of witchcraft.
bilateral
descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which every biological ancestor and descendant is a
socially recognized relative. Everyone is a member of both his or her father's and mother's
families. This is not the same as bilineal descent.
bilineal
descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which an individual is both a member of his mother's
matrilineage and his father's patrilineage. Also known as "double descent." This is not the
same as bilateral descent.
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bisexual
an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of the same and the
opposite gender. See heterosexual and homosexual.
Black English
the social dialect spoken by many African Americans. It also known as Ebonics
biological anthropology
see physical anthropology.
body language
see kinesics.
boundary maintenance
(in reference to ethnic groups)
reinforcing an ethnic group's unity and distinctness by emphasizing the traits that set its
members apart from others, rather than what they share in common with them.
bound morpheme
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a morpheme that has meaning but can not stand alone. The prefix dis in the English word
dislike is an example.
bride price
things of high value given by a groom to his bride's father. It is a way of showing respect for
the bride and her parents. At the same time, it is a compensation for the bride's family for the
loss of her economic services. It is also a way of validating the groom's right to future
offspring. Bride price is most common among polygynous, small-scale, patrilineal societies-especially in sub-Saharan Africa and among Native Americans. Bride price is also referred
to as "bride wealth" and "progeny price." See dowry.
bride service
work or services done by a groom for his wife's family instead of paying a bride price. Bride
service is usually for a set period of time, often years. It is a common practice in societies
that have little material wealth and strong rules requiring sharing that prevent the
accumulation of wealth.
bureaucracy
an administrative system that divides governing tasks into specific categories carried out by
different individuals and/or departments. Members of a bureaucracy are referred to as
bureaucrats.
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caste
an individual's rigidly ascribed, or inherited, status within society. The most extensive caste
system is in India where it is associated strongly with the Hindu religion. There are 4 major
Indian castes originally based on vocation: the Brahmans (or Hindu priests), warriors,
farmers, and shop keepers. The castes are all ranked relative to each other with the
Brahmans being at the top. In addition, there are people in India who are outside of the caste
system. These outcasts are at the bottom of society. One's caste is extremely important in
India. People are careful to marry within their own caste and to avoid physical contact with
members of lower castes because of the danger of pollution.
cereals
the edible seeds of grasses. The economically most important cereals include wheat, rice,
and corn (maize), oats, rye, millet, and sorghum. These grains provide the bulk of the
calories consumed by people in the world today.
chiefdom
the level of political integration in which a society has a more or less permanent political
leader (i.e., a chief) but no bureaucracy of professional administrators. The chief provides
direction and authority for the society as a whole. Sometimes there is an advisory council as
well. In a few of the more complex chiefdoms in Africa and Hawaii, there have been
paramount chiefs and lesser chiefs who perform some administrative functions. Chiefs and
their families generally have a higher standard of living than ordinary people within their
society. What makes this possible is that chiefs usually perform a society wide economic
redistribution function that is cloaked in the guise of ritual gift giving. This essentially siphons
off surplus agricultural products from farmers and then redistributes them throughout the
society. In the process, a small amount is held back in order to support the chief's somewhat
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more lavish lifestyle. The ritualized redistribution of surplus food and other commodities in
chiefdoms is, in a sense, the rudimentary beginnings of a taxation system. It is tolerated by
people because of the economic advantages that it can provide in addition to social
stability. The larger territorial size of chiefdoms often encompasses diverse environmental
zones with somewhat different products. The redistribution of agricultural surpluses can
serve as a method of providing greater food variety for the populace as a whole. Chiefdoms
commonly have a population of tens of thousands of farmers. The large population size
generally means that the people have less in common than do those in the smaller societies
of bands and tribes. Disputes inevitably arise that cannot be settled by informal means
based on kinship and friendship. A chief usually functions as an arbitrator and judge in these
cases.
circumcision
removing all or part of the foreskin of the penis. This surgery is usually done with a knife as
part of a rite of passage marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for boys. See
subincision.
clan
a group of people who claim unilineal descent from the same ancestor but who cannot
specify all of the actual links. The ancestor is genealogically so remote that he or she is often
thought of as a mythical being, animal, or plant. Clans usually consist of a number of related
unilineages. See totem.
class
a group of people thought of as a unit because they are similar in terms of social and/or
economic factors. In America, for instance, a class distinction is commonly made between
"white collar" well paid office workers and lower paid "blue collar" factory workers and
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manual laborers. In state level societies of the past, the most important class distinction was
between the ruling elite and the commoners. Bands, tribes, and early chiefdoms did not have
classes, though individuals were often ranked relative to each other.
clitoridectomy
cutting off all or part of the clitoris and sometime all or part of the labia. This surgery is usually
done as part of a rite of passage marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for girls.
In Western Nations, clitoridectomy is often referred to as "genital mutilation." See
infibulation.
cognatic
descent
tracing kinship through both the mother's and the father's ancestors to some degree.
Cognatic descent occurs in four forms: ambilineal, bilineal, parallel, and bilateral descent.
collateral
relative
uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces and other consanguinal kinsmen beyond ego's main
line of descent.
colonial powers
a term referring mostly to the Western European nations that carved out colonies in Africa,
Asia, Central and South America, and the Pacific during the 18th through the early 20th
centuries. The U.S., Russia, and Japan also acquired colonial empires in the late 19th and
early 20th centuries.
commerce
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large-scale buying and selling of goods and services within and between societies that
usually have market economies.
common law
a law that has evolved over time and is part of the cultural tradition rather than being created
by enactment in legislatures or by rulers. In large-scale societies, many laws derive from old
common laws but are now formalized by being written down in penal codes. Virtually all laws
in small-scale societies are unwritten common laws.
consanguinity
a socially recognized biological descent link, such as between a woman and her father, aunt,
or daughter. Individuals who have a consanguinity relationship are "consanguines"
to
each other. Consanguinity literally means "with the blood", reflecting the old incorrect
assumption that biological inheritance is passed on through blood rather than DNA. See
affinity.
contagious magic
magic that is based on the principle that things or persons once in contact can afterward
influence each other. In other words, there is a permanent relationship between an individual
and any part of his or her body. As a consequence, believers must take special precautions
with their hair, fingernails, teeth, clothes, and feces. If anyone obtained these objects, magic
could be performed on them which would cause the person they came from to be affected.
core values
the fundamental values that provide the basis for social behavior in society. They are what
people believe is desirable or offensive, appropriate or inappropriate, and correct or
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incorrect.
creole
a pidgin language that has become the mother tongue of a population. In Haiti, for example,
a French-African pidgin became the creole language that is spoken in that nation today by
the majority of the population as their principle or only language.
crime
a deviation from the social norm that is of such magnitude as to go beyond what would be
considered bad manners or odd behavior. Societies respond to such exceptionally deviant
actions by creating laws to curb and sometimes punish them. There is no universal
agreement between the societies of the world about what constitutes criminal behavior or
how it should be dealt with. Sufficient ethnographic data have been collected over the last
century to show that societies with different kinds of economies have radically different sorts
of laws and legal concerns. See tort.
cross cousin
one's father's sister's children or mother's brother's children. The gender of the children is
not relevant in making this distinction. See parallel cousin.
cross dressing
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see transvestite.
Crow
naming system
a matrilineally based kin naming system in which siblings and parallel cousins of the same
gender are given the same term of reference (5 = male and 6 = female) as are mother and
mother's sister (2). Other people in ego's father's matrilineage are lumped across
generations (1 = male and 3 = female), reflecting the comparative unimportance of the
father's side of the family in societies using the Crow system.
cult
a devoted religious group, often living together in a community with a charismatic prophet
leader. Cults are generally considered to be potentially dangerous, unorthodox, extremist
groups by the dominant religious organizations in a society.
cultural anthropology
the study of contemporary and recent historical cultures all over the world. The focus is on
social organization, culture change, economic and political systems, and religion. Cultural
anthropology is also referred to as social or sociocultural anthropology.
cultural relativity
suspending one's ethnocentric judgments in order to understand and appreciate another
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culture. Anthropologists try to learn about and interpret the various aspects of the culture they
are studying in reference to that culture rather than to their own. This provides a better
understanding of how such practices as polygamy and cannibalism can function and even
support other cultural traditions.
cultural universals
cultural traits that are shared by all of humanity collectively. Examples of such general traits
are communicating with a verbal language, using age and gender to classify people, and
raising children in some sort of family setting. No matter where people live in the world, they
share these universal cultural traits. However, different cultures have developed their own
specific ways of carrying out or expressing these general traits.
culture
the full range of learned behavior patterns that are acquired by people as members of a
society. A culture is a complex, largely interconnected whole that consists of the knowledge,
belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills, and habits learned from parents and others in a
society. Culture is the primary adaptive mechanism for humans.
culture bound syndrome

a disease that has a very limited distribution around the world due to the unique sets of
environmental circumstances and cultural practices that cause it to occur. koro, kuru, and
Widigo psychosis are examples.
culture death
the complete disappearance of a culture as a result of the total acculturation or the death of
all of the people who shared it.
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culture loss
the loss of cultural traits. As cultures change and acquire new traits, old no longer useful or
popular ones inevitably disappear. An example of culture loss is the disappearance over
time of certain words and phrases in a language. In some cases, the words continue to be
used but acquire new, very different meanings. Culture loss is accelerated during periods of
acculturation and transculturation.
culture shock
feelings of confusion, distress, and sometimes depression that can result from the
psychological stress caused by the strain of rapidly adjusting to an alien culture. This is a
common phenomenon for travelers who are totally immersed in the language and customs of
another society, day and night, without a break. It is largely due to being forced to constantly
experience new, unfamiliar cultural practices and traditions. Transculturating people also are
likely to experience culture shock. Until the new culture becomes familiar and comfortable, it
is common to have difficulty in communicating and to make frustrating mistakes. This is
usually compounded by feelings of homesickness. These feelings can be emotionally
debilitating. However, culture shock eventually passes for most people.
curandero
a Latin American folk curer. Cuanderos believe that they have received a divine calling to
their profession, and they may have direct contact with the spirit world. They usually
apprentice for years under an older curandero. In Mexico and Central America, there are
curandero generalists and specialists. Yerberos
are knowledgeable about herbs.
Parteras
are midwifes. Sabadoros
are specialists in massaging patients.
Curanderos may also specialize in particular kinds of illness--e.g., curandero de aire
,
etc. A female curandero is a curandera
.
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cyclical round of migrations

seasonal migrations of foragers or pastoralists between different environments in their
territories. This often involves migrations that take people from spring to summer camps and
then to fall and finally winter ones. This cycle of migrations that is repeated yearly is
determined by the resources that can be exploited at particular times of the year in different
areas. Carrying out such a round of migrations increases the amount of food that can be
obtained by a society. As a result a somewhat larger population can be supported.
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-Ddescent
socially recognized links between ancestors and descendants, such as the bond between
children and their parents.
descriptive kin naming system

see Sudanese naming system.
developed nation (or society)

a nation or society that is relatively wealthy and usually industrialized. Most of the people in
developed nations have adequate access to food, electricity, fossil fuels, education, and
medicine with the consequence that their lives are materially more comfortable and their life
spans are significantly longer than those in underdeveloped nations. The United States,
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Canada, most of Europe, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand are
developed nations.
dialect
a variant of a language. If it is associated with a geographically isolated speech community,
it is referred to as a regional dialect. However, if it is spoken by a speech community that is
merely socially isolated, it is called a social dialect.
diffusion
the movement of cultural traits and ideas from one society or ethnic group to another. While
the form of a trait may be transmitted to another society, the original meaning may not. For
instance, McDonald's hamburgers are thought of as a cheap, quick meal in North America,
but they are generally considered to be a special occasion food in China.
diglossia
the phenomenon in which different dialects of a language or different languages are spoken
by a person in different social situations. Diglossic
people may quickly switch back and
forth between dialects or languages, depending on the person they are talking to at the time.
This is the case with the educated elite of Haiti. They usually speak standard French among
themselves but use the Haitian French creole language on the street dealing with poor
uneducated Haitians. Diglossia is also referred to as "code switching."
discrimination
the act of distinguishing differences between people and showing favoritism or prejudicial
rejection of them. See prejudice and stereotype.
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disease vector
an intermediate host and/or disease transmitting organism for a contagious disease.
Mosquitoes, fleas, lice, ticks, flies, and even snails are common disease vectors.
distribution and exchange
(systems of)
the practices that are involved in getting the goods and services produced by a society to its
people. See systems of production.
diversified foraging
a hunting and gathering subsistence pattern in which there is not a concentration of efforts in
harvesting a small number of species. Rather, virtually all potential food sources in the
environment are exploited. Most pedestrian foragers take a diversified approach. In
contrast, aquatic and equestrian foragers are specialized. A diversified subsistence pattern
has the advantage of relative economic security if there are fluctuations in the weather, water
supply, or periodic die-offs of the food sources. The disadvantage is that the total amount of
food calories acquired is often less and the amount of time required to secure them is
greater compared to specialized foraging.
divination
a magical procedure by which the cause of a particular event or the future is determined.
division of labor
referring to the jobs that are normally assigned to people based on such things as gender
and age. In most foraging societies, large animal hunting is an occupation of adult males,
while domestic tasks, child rearing, and plant food collecting are mostly adult female jobs. In
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the Western industrialized nations today, the division of labor is based mostly on age,
knowledge, skills, and preference. Gender is often rejected as a criteria for job assignment
in these contemporary societies.
double descent
see bilineal descent.
dowry
money, property, or other things of high value given by a bride's family to the groom,
ostensibly to establish a new household. It is her share of the family inheritance. A dowry is, in
a sense, the reverse of a bride price.
drop of blood criterion
(for race classification)
see hypodescent.
dumb barter
barter without direct contact between the traders. Individuals from one group leave trade
goods at a neutral location on the edge of their territory and then leave. Sometime later,
members of the other community pick up the goods and leave something in exchange. The
first group then returns and either picks up the things that were left by the strangers or leaves
them until additions or substitutions are made that are acceptable. In the past, dumb-barter
of this sort occurred in parts of West Africa, Northern Scandinavia, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra,
Timor, New Guinea, and the Amazon Basin of South America. Dumb barter is also known as
"silent trade" and "depot trade."
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-EEbonics
see Black English.
egalitarian
referring to societies in which all people are equal in terms of economic and political rights.
Foraging bands are the most egalitarian societies. However, even in these societies, there
are differences based on age and sometimes gender.
ego
(in reference to diagramming kinship)

in a kinship diagram, the individual to whom all relationships are referred.
emic
categories
referring to the categorization of things according to the way in which members of a society
classify their own world. In other words, this is the way their culture and language divide up
reality. Such emic categories generally differ from culture to culture and provide valuable
insights into the perceptions and world view of other peoples. Discovering, recording, and
analyzing emic categories is the task of ethnoscience. See etic categories.
eminent domain
the right of a government to take legal possession of private property for public use. In most
Western countries, the property owner is financially compensated for the loss based on what
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is considered to be fair market value. An example of eminent domain is a government taking

someone's house and land in order to build a road through the property.
enculturation
the process of being socialized to a particular culture. This includes learning the language,
customs, biases, and values of the culture. Through enculturation an individual learns the
statuses, roles, rules, and values of his or her own culture. The most intensive period of
enculturation is usually during early childhood, but the process continues throughout life.
endemic
a disease that is always present in a community, usually at a low, more or less constant
frequency. Malaria, arthritis, and high blood pressure are examples. See hyperendemic.
endogamy
a marriage partner selection rule requiring that marriage be to someone within a defined
social group such as an extended family, religious community, economic class, ethnic or age
group. Selection is always further restricted by exogamy rules.
epidemic
the occurrence of a disease in a population in which it
appears, rapidly spreads between people, reaches a
high frequency, and then subsides. Contagious
diseases such as influenza, measles, and AIDS
follow this pattern. Epidemics usually appear
seasonally as a result of changing human interaction
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patterns and changes in the environment. See pandemic.
epidemiology
the field of medical research that studies the causes of diseases and how to cure or control
them. Epidemiologists also track the frequency and geographic distribution of diseases over
time. In addition, they study the causal relationships between diseases.
equestrian
foraging
a specialized subsistence pattern in which horses are used extensively in hunting large game
animals. Equestrian foragers evolved in only two areas of the world--the Great Plains of
North America and the sparse grasslands of Southern Argentina. In both cases, pedestrian
foragers acquired horses from Spanish settlers in the early 17th century. Over several
generations, horse breeding and riding skills were honed. This resulted in a revolutionary
change in these Native American societies. The horse became the principle mode of
transportation and dramatically increased hunting success in the pursuit of large animals.
These societies became larger, more mobile, and were now able to travel over larger areas
throughout the year. Horses allowed them to effectively follow the seasonal migrations of
large herbivores over hundreds of miles. In North American the prey of choice was the bison
and in South America it was the guanaco. ("Equestrian" is derived from the Latin word
equus meaning horse.)
Eskimo
naming system
a bilateral descent based kin naming system in which members of the nuclear family are
given terms of reference based only on their gender and generation. Aunts (3) and uncles (4)
are distinguished from parents (1 = father and 2 = mother) and separated by gender. The
spouses of aunts and uncles may also be given these kin terms. All cousins are lumped
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together with one kin term (7) without regard to gender. No kin name distinction is made
between uncles, aunts, and cousins with regards to side of the family.
ethnic group
a category or group of people considered to be significantly different from others in terms of
cultural (dialect, religion, traditions, etc.) and sometimes physical characteristics (skin color,
body shape, etc.). Commonly recognized American ethnic groups include American Indians,
Jews, Latinos, Chinese, African Americans ("blacks"), European Americans ("whites"), etc.
ethnicity
ethnic group identity.
ethnic symbol
selected traits used as symbolic badges of identity to emphasize distinctness from other
ethnic groups. Dialect, religion, and style of dress are common ethnic symbols. Biological
characteristics, such as skin color and body shape, may be used as ethnic symbols as well.
ethnocentrism
the deep felt belief or feeling that your culture is superior to all others. Being fond of your own
way of life and condescending or even hostile toward other cultures is normal for all people.
Alien culture traits are often viewed as being not just different but less sensible and even
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"unnatural." This results in the interpretation of other people in terms of one's own cultural
values and traditions. An example is people from monogamous societies condemning
polygamy as being "unnatural" and immoral. Ethnocentrism is universal and normal but not
necessarily morally defensible or desirable because it prevents understanding other cultures.
It also interferes with meaningful intercultural communication. See cultural relativity.
ethnocide
the act or attempt to systematically destroy another people's ethnicity or culture. Usually the
term ethnocide is applied to intentional acts resulting in culture death. The legalized
"kidnapping" of Native American children so that they could be educated as Europeanized
Canadians and Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries is an example of
ethnocide. See genocide.
ethnography
anthropological research in which one learns about the culture of another society through
fieldwork and first hand observation in that society. Ethnography is also the term used to
refer to books or monographs describing what was learned about the culture of a society.
ethnology
an anthropological study that systematically compares similar cultures. An example of an
ethnological study would be a comparison of what cultures are like in societies that have
economies based on hunting and gathering rather than agriculture. The data for this sort of
ethnology would come from the existing ethnographies about these peoples. In other words,
an ethnology is essentially a synthesis of the work of many ethnographers.
ethnopharmacology
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the scientific study of traditional uses of plants and other organisms for medical purposes.
Ethnopharmacology is a specialization within ethnobiology, which is an interdisciplinary field
of research carried out by people trained in cultural anthropology, biology, and medicine.
ethnoscience
the field of anthropology that tries to learn about how people in different cultures categorize
things in their environment. The focus is on emic categories. This data provides important
insights into the interests, concerns, and values of cultures.
etic
categories
referring to the classification of things according to some external system of analysis brought
in by a visitor to another society. This is the approach of biology in using the Linnaean
classification system to define new species. It assumes that ultimately, there is an objective
reality and that is more important than cultural perceptions of it. See emic categories.
exogamy
a marriage partner selection rule requiring that marriage be with someone outside of a
defined social group such as one's nuclear family. Selection is usually further restricted by
endogamy rules.
extended family
two or more nuclear families tied together by bonds of
descent. Usually an extended family contains living
relatives from three or more generations.
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-Ffamily of orientation
see nuclear family.
family of procreation
see nuclear family.
feuding
prolonged hostility and occasional fighting between individuals and their supporters. It is a
universal form of aggression that mostly occurs between members of the same society,
though it can occur between people from separate societies as well. It is caused by a desire
for revenge for a perceived prior wrong. Usually, both sides in feuds believe that they have
been wronged and seek to settle the score. Inherent in feuds is a failure in communication
between the feuding parties and the belief that there needs to be "an eye for an eye."
Without adequate retribution, there is minimally a loss of face for the families involved.
fictive kinship
a socially recognized link between individuals, created as an expedient for dealing with
special circumstances, such as the bond between a godmother and her godchild. Fictive
kinship bonds are based on friendship and other personal relationships rather than marriage
and descent.
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foragers
people who live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by foraging
wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a passive dependence on
what the environment contains. They do not plant crops and the only domesticated animals
that they usually have are dogs. Most foraging societies do not establish permanent
settlements. Rather, they have relatively temporary encampments with tents or other easily
constructed dwellings. The length of time that they stay in any one location is largely
determined by the availability of resources. Foragers are also referred to as hunters and
gatherers.
formal education
structured and directed teaching and learning primarily under the control and direction of
adult teachers who are professional "knowers." Formal education is usually what happens in
a classroom. See informal education.
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-Ggender
sexual identity as male or female.
genealogy
the family history, or record of descent, of an individual from his or her ancestors.
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generalized reciprocity
gift giving without the expectation of an immediate return. It is understood that at some time
in the future there will be an appropriate repayment. See reciprocity.
general purpose money

a portable, arbitrarily valued medium of exchange. All market economies today use this form
of money. It can have a variety of physical forms--e.g., coins, paper money, or bank checks.
It can also be simply a digital transmission from one computer to another that occurs with the
use of credit cards or the electronic transfer of funds. The key point about general purpose
money is that anything that is for sale can be bought with it--everyone accepts it. General
purpose money is also referred to as "standardized currency." See special purpose money.
genocide
the act or attempt to systematically kill all members of an ethnic group or culture. The Nazi
extermination of Jews and gypsies by the millions before and during World War II is an
example of genocide. See ethnocide.
globalism
the progressive emergence of a single worldwide economic system and the simultaneous
reduction in global cultural and political differences. A presumed result of globalization would
be the merging of previously separate political entities and the growth in power and prestige
of international institutions. Those who advocate globalism generally believe that
ethnocentrism, nationalism, and tribalism are obstacles that must be overcome.
god or goddess
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a powerful supernatural being with an individual identity and recognizable attributes. Another
term for a god is a deity . Like spirits, gods have individual identities and recognizable
attributes (gods are male and goddess are female). However, gods and goddesses are
more powerful than spirits and other lesser supernatural beings--they can effectively alter all
of nature and human fortunes. As a result, they are commonly worshipped and requests are
made of them to help in times of need.
godparent
a person who sponsors a child and assumes some parental responsibility for its upbringing.
A godparent shares this responsibility with the "real" parents. A godparent is a fictive
kinsman who may be either a godmother or a godfather to a godchild.
grammar
the part of language analysis that is concerned with how the sounds are used to make
sense. Grammar consists of morphology and syntax.
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-Hhallucinogen
a mind altering drug that can cause profound hallucinations or an altered state of awareness.
Most hallucinogens used for religious purposes by shamans and others are derived from
plants.
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Hawaiian
naming system
a kin naming system in which relatives are distinguished only by generation and gender. This
results in just 4 different kin terms of reference. Ego's father and all male relatives in his
generation are referred to by the same kin term (1). Likewise, ego's mother and all female
relatives in her generation have the same kin term (2). All brothers and male cousins are
linked by giving them the same kin term (3). Sisters and all female cousins are also referred
to by the same term (4).
herbivorous
eating only vegetable foods. Animals that have this sort of diet are herbivores or
vegetarians.
heterogeneous
society
a society consisting of many different ethnic and/or "racial" groups, social classes,
languages and/or dialects, and cultural traditions. The U.S. and Canada are heterogeneous
societies. See homogenous society.
heterosexual
an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of the opposite gender
from himself or herself. Heterosexuality generally refers to sexual interaction between
members of the opposite gender. See bisexual and homosexual.
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hierarchical society
a society that is divided into unequal social classes and individual statuses. There commonly
is a ranking of classes and statuses in hierarchical societies such that those that are at the
top of the ranking have greater power and wealth. Large intensive agriculture based
societies typically have a social and political pyramid with an elite ruling class at the top and
the majority of the people at the bottom.
Hispanic
referring to Spanish and/or Latin American cultural traditions. In the U.S., Portuguese
speaking Brazilians also are often considered Hispanics for official census recording
purposes while people from Spain and Portugal are frequently excluded. See Latino.
holism
the view that human existence can be adequately understood only as a multifaceted whole.
Human beliefs and actions must be seen in terms of their interrelatedness with all other
aspects of culture, human biology, social interaction, and environmental influences.
homogenous
society
a society that predominantly or entirely consists of people who share the same ethnicity/race,
language, and cultural traditions. Most small-scale societies are homogenous. A few largescale ones, like Japan, are as well. See heterogeneous society.
homosexual
an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of his or her own
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gender. Homosexuality generally refers to sexual interaction between members of the same
gender. In North America, female homosexuals are often referred to as "lesbians" while
males are known as "gays." See bisexual and heterosexual.
horticulturalists
people who obtain most of their food by low intensity farming. This subsistence pattern
involves at least part time planting and tending of domesticated food plants. Pigs, chickens,
or other relatively small domesticated animals are often raised for food and prestige. Many
horticultural societies supplement their farming subsistence base with occasional hunting and
gathering of wild plants and animals. They usually practice slash and burn field clearing
methods and do not add additional fertilizer or irrigate. Multi-cropping is common. They
often have a partial reliance on foraging for wild foods. Their societies are usually larger and
more sedentary than those of foragers but still are at a low technological level and relatively
small-scale.
household
a residential group usually, but not always, consisting of members of the same family.
humoral pathology
a naturalistic medical system based on the idea that our bodies have four important fluids or
humors--blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Each humor is thought to have its own
"complexion." Blood is hot and wet. Phlegm is cold and wet. Black bile is cold and dry.
Yellow bile is hot and dry. These complexions have nothing to do with actual temperature
and humidity. In addition to bodily fluids, three internal organs are considered highly
important in humoral pathology. Each one has its own characteristic complexion. The heart
is dry and cold. The brain is wet and cold. The liver is hot and wet. Specific forms of
illnesses, medicines, foods, and most natural objects also have specific complexions.
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Curing an illness involves discovering the complexion imbalance and rectifying it.
hunters and gatherers

see foragers.
hyperendemic
an endemic disease present at a continuously high
frequency within a population.
hypodescent
the criterion for assigning individuals to specific
"races" based on only a distant hereditary relationship. The Nazis used this criterion for
labeling people as Jews whose only connection with Judaism was a grandparent. Similarly,
it has been used in North America to label people as African American even if they were
mostly European in biological ancestry. Hypodescent is also known as the "drop of blood"
criterion.
hypothesis
a tentative explanation for a set of observable or measurable facts that is tested using the
scientific method.
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incest taboos
rules prohibiting sexual intercourse with close relatives. The prohibition includes at least
members of one's nuclear family and may extend to more distant relatives in some cultures.
ideal behavior
what people believe that they should do in their lives rather than what they think they are doing
or what they actually are doing. In most societies there is a discrepancy between these three
kinds of behavior. It is important for anthropologists to distinguish between actual, believed,
and ideal behavior when they learn about another society and its culture.
imitative magic
see sympathetic magic.
indigenous
referring to the native population of an area.
indigenous
world-view
a world-view in which it is believed that humans are not separate from nature and the
supernatural world. Living creatures and non-living objects in nature as well as supernatural
beings are thought to be human-like in their motivations, feelings, and interactions. When the
characteristics of this type of world-view were first proposed in the early 1950's by Robert
Redfield, it was called a "primitive world-view." See metropolitan world-view.
Industrial Revolution
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the transition from a society primarily dependent on hand tools produced by individual
craftsmen to one with machine and power tools developed through large-scale industrial
production. In Western Cultures, this began to occur during the last half of the 18th century. It
resulted in increased individual wealth, progressive urbanization, and globalization of the
economy.
infanticide
the killing of children. Extreme threat of starvation has at times forced some societies, such
as the Inuit of the North American Arctic, to kill family members. When this occurred, the
decision was usually to eliminate the youngest daughter because she was the least likely to
add to the family's food supply. Though illegal, female infanticide does occur occasionally in
India and mainland China where there is a high value placed on having sons.
infibulation
Infibulation is partially closing off the opening to the vagina by sewing, pinning, or clamping
part of the vulva. This surgery is usually done as part of a rite of passage marking the
transition from childhood to adulthood for girls. See clitoridectomy.
informal education
learning as a result of imitation, experimentation, and repetitive practice of basic skills. This
is what happens when children role-play adult interactions in their games. See formal
education.
informal negative sanction

an "unofficial", non-governmental punishment for violations of social norms. Informal negative
sanctions usually are in the form of gossip, public ridicule, social ostracism, insults, or even
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threats of physical harm by other members of the community. See negative sanction and
positive sanction.
informant
someone who is not only knowledgeable about his or her own culture but who is able and
willing to communicate this knowledge in an understandable way to an anthropologist or
some other outsider. Ethnographers usually try to develop a warm and trusting relationship
with their informants. This makes it more likely that they will learn what the informant's culture
is really like.
ingroup-outgroup dynamics
the social and psychological forces that operate in the interaction between groups of people
and societies. In this interaction, ethnocentrism and the desire to defend ethnic boundaries
generally inhibits clear communication and cultural diffusion.
in-law
a person, other than a spouse, whose kinship relationship to ego is only through a marriage
bond. Brother-in-law and mother-in-law are examples. In-laws are often considered to be
relatives by societies following the Eskimo kin naming system. However, such affinal
relatives are usually considered to be more distant in terms of kinship obligations and
privileges than consanguinal ones.
inner-directed personality
a personality that is guilt oriented. The behavior of individuals with this sort of personality are
strongly controlled by their conscience. As a result, there is little need for police to make sure
that they obey the law. These individuals monitor themselves. The inner-directed personality
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is one of the modal personality types identified by David Riesman in the early 1950's.
intensive agriculture
a subsistence pattern characterized by full-time farming in which large beasts of burden or
highly mechanized farm equipment (e.g., rototillers and tractors) are used to prepare the land
for planting and later to harvest crops. Intensive agriculture usually involves the use of
irrigation or other forms of water management. Often there is mono-cropping with heavy
applications of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. This form of agriculture is highly
productive but generally capital intensive.
interaction distance
the distance our bodies are physically apart while talking with each other. If two speakers
have different comfortable interaction distances, a ballet of shifting positions usually occurs
until one of the individuals is backed into a corner and feels threatened by what may be
perceived as hostile or sexual overtures. As a result, the verbal message may not be
listened to or understood as it was intended. Interaction distance is an aspect of proxemics.
internalization of the moral code

the situation in which people accept societys moral code and do not need police or other
external means of social control to get them to follow it. They feel guilty if they do something
wrong and punish themselves or turn themselves in for punishment.
invention
something new that is created. Invented cultural traits may be new things or ideas. It is rare
for inventions to be based on entirely new principles, functions, and forms. Most often, old
principles are applied to new functions and/or forms. Inventions may also result from stimulus
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diffusion
Iroquois
naming system
a kin naming system in which the same term of reference is used for father and father's
brother (1) as well as mother and mother's sister (2). Parallel cousins from both sides of the
family are lumped together with siblings but distinguished by gender (5 = male and 6 =
female). All cross cousins are similarly lumped together and distinguished by gender (7 =
male and 8 = female).
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-Jjoint family
two or more relatives of the same generation living together with their respective spouses
and children. Joint families typically consist of 1-2 generations. See extended family.
judgment sample
a probability sample that includes only a limited number of key people selected by an
anthropologist to be his or her informants based on the likelihood that they possess
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knowledge concerning the research questions and will be most able to communicate it. For
example, religious leaders would be the most likely informants if research concerns religious
beliefs and practices. The judgment sample approach works best if the focus of research
concerns cultural information that only some members of the host society possess.
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-Kkindred
a family group bound together by their kinship ties to one person. An individual's kindred
consists of all of the people who are related to him or her through consanguinal ties and
possibly affinal ones as well. That is, it includes one's biological relatives and sometimes
spouses and in-laws.
kinesics
the part of non-verbal communication consisting of gestures, expressions, and postures.
This part of paralanguage is also known as body language.
kin naming system

a culturally defined set of rules for terms of address and reference to be used for specific
categories of relatives. There are 6 different kin naming systems in use around the world:
Eskimo, Hawaiian, Sudanese, Omaha, Crow, and Iroquois. Kin naming systems are also
referred to as "kin terminological systems."
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kinship
culturally defined relationships between individuals who are commonly thought of as having
family ties. Kinship is based on marriage, descent, and, occasionally, fictive relationships as
well.
koro
an irrational perception that one's prominent sexual body parts are withdrawing into the body
and subsequently being lost. In the case of men, the concern is that their penis and testes
are shrinking. For women, the focus is on the perceived shrinking of the vulva and nipples. In
both cases it is a fear of the loss of masculinity or femininity followed by premature death.
Koro is traditionally believed to be caused by "unhealthy sex" (e.g., masturbation or sex with
prostitutes). It also thought to be caused by "tainted" foods. Koro is found in China and
areas of Southeast Asia where Chinese culture has diffused (especially Vietnam, Malaysia,
and Singapore).
Kula Ring
the complex system of inter-island commerce that existed among the Trobriand
Islanders
of the Southwest Pacific Ocean. The Kula Ring was a closed trading system in which only
established senior male trading partners from each island could participate. The trade was
carried out with large outrigger sailing canoes. On the surface, it appeared to be primarily an
exchange of gift items and ceremonial feasting organized to reinforce bonds between senior
trading partners. The trade network was essentially circular. If a trader was traveling in a
clockwise direction around the circuit, he would give long necklaces of red shells (soulava)
as gifts to his trading partner. If he was traveling in a counterclockwise direction, he would
give armbands of white shells (mwali). These necklaces and armbands were the kula items.
While the senior trading partners were formally greeting each other and reinforcing their
friendship by giving kula gifts, the younger men were usually unloading more practical trade
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items on the beach to be bartered. These were mostly surplus luxury items from their home
islands. While the kula items were exchanged via a system of generalized reciprocity, the
regular trade goods were mostly traded in a manner that resulted in balanced reciprocity.
kuru
a fatal disease caused by prions that was found among the South For
people of the
eastern New Guinea Highlands. The symptoms include palsy, contracted face muscles, and
the loss of motor control resulting in the inability to walk and eventually even eat. Kuru victims
become progressively emaciated. Death almost always occurs within 6-12 months of the
onset of symptoms. This disease was spread among the South For as a result of
cannibalism. Kuru is a variant of Kreutzfeld-Jacob disease in humans as well as scrapies
and mad cow disease in livestock and some wild animals.
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-Llanguage
a specific set of rules for generating speech.
large-scale farming
see intensive agriculture.
large-scale society
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generally, a society with cities, industry, intensive agriculture, and a complex international
economy. Such societies have socio-economic classes and a government with hierarchies
of officials. The importance of kinship is diminished in social, economic, and political
matters (in comparison to small-scale societies).
latent functions
functions that are less apparent and more difficult to uncover (e.g., building a bridge to keep
workers employed and provide a recognizable symbol of a city). See manifest functions.
Latino
in contemporary American usage, this is a person of Hispanic ethnic identity. The feminine
form of "latino" is "latina"?
law
a society's rules of conduct that are usually based on social norms and generally recognized
by its members as binding or enforceable. See common law.
lesbian
a woman who is sexually attracted to other women--a female homosexual.
levels of political integration

a term referring to general types of political systems used to organize and manage
societies. As a society's population size and territory grow, it must develop new political
solutions to keep from splitting apart. In the 1950's, the American Anthropologist, Elman
Service described four levels of political integration that have have been used around the
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world to solve this problem--band, tribe, chiefdom, and state. While there are some unique
cultural variations of each of these levels, they are remarkably similar from one society to
another. Subsequently, classifying a society in terms of its level of political integration has
proven to be a useful tool in comprehending the wide range of human cultures and societies
from small foraging communities to modern nation states.
levirate
a rule specifying that a widow should marry the brother of her deceased husband. This keeps
the dead man's wealth and children within his family. It also continues the bond between the
husband's and wife's families. This rule is most common in societies that have patrilineal
descent and polygyny.
linguistics
the comparative study of the function, structure, and history of languages and the
communication process in general. Linguistics is also referred to as linguistic anthropology.
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-Mmachismo
the Spanish and Latin American ideal of men being confident, strong, dignified, brave, overtly
masculine, and sexually active. This ideal of a macho
, or "real man", was brought to the
New World from Spain and Portugal. Its ultimate origin is probably to be found in the Islamic
cultural traditions of North Africa that heavily influenced the culture of the Spanish Peninsula
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until the end of the 1400's A.D. See marianismo.
magic
using ritual formulas to compel or influence supernatural beings or powers to act in certain
ways for good or evil purposes. By performing certain magical acts in a particular way, crops
might be improved, game herds replenished, illness cured or avoided, animals and people
made fertile. This is very different from television and stage "magic" that depends on slightof-hand tricks and contrived illusions rather than supernatural power.
majority group
an ethnic/racial group that has the largest population and usually the greatest economic and
political power in a society. The majority group in North America today consists mostly of
European Americans. See minority group.
mal de ojo
(the "evil eye")
a kind of personalistic illness in Latin America and parts of the Mediterranean Basin resulting
from soul loss. The cause is traditionally thought to be a strong person staring at a weak
individual. The eyes of the strong person drain the power and/or soul from the weak one.
Proof that this has occurred to someone is that he or she cries inconsolably without a cause,
has fitful sleep, diarrhea, vomiting, and/or a fever. It is thought that powerful people can
cause this draining of the soul intentionally or unintentionally. In traditional Mexican and
Central American culture, women, babies, and young children are thought of as being weak,
while men as well as rich and politically powerful people of either gender are strong. People
who believe in the existence of mal de ojo are likely to seek out a curandero to cure it.
marianismo
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the Spanish and Latin American ideal of women being modest, restrained, virtuous, and
nurturing. Women are expected to be sexually abstinent before marriage and passive in
response to their husbands' demands after marriage. Women are expected to have sexual
intercourse only with their husbands. "Marianismo" comes from the Virgin Mary, whose life
women are encouraged to emulate as a model of "proper" femininity. See machismo.
marriage
the socially recognized union of two or more people. It is a universal method of regulating
heterosexual intercourse by defining who is acceptable as a sexual partner and who is not.
Marriage establishes social relationships that are the foundation for families and households.
manifest functions
functions that are obvious and easily discovered even by strangers (e.g., building a bridge to
get to quickly get across a narrow waterway). See latent functions.
market economy
an impersonal but highly efficient system of production, distribution, and exchange that is
principally characterized by: 1) the use of money as a means of exchange, 2) having the
ability to accumulate vast amounts of capital (i.e., wealth that can be used to fund further
production), and 3) having highly complex economic interactions that are ultimately
international in the scale of their inter-relatedness. See non-market economy.
matricentric
family
a nuclear family in which there is no continuing adult male functioning as a husband/father.

This man is missing due to death, divorce, abandonment, or no marriage having taken
place. In such families, the mother raises her children more or less alone and subsequently
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has the major role in their socialization. Matricentric families are also referred to as being
"matrifocused"
matrilineage
a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by matrilineal descent. Matrilineages
usually consist of a number of related nuclear families descended from the same woman.
matrilineal
descent
unilineal descent that follows the female line. With this pattern, people are related if they can
trace descent through females to the same female ancestor. Both males and females inherit
membership in a matrilineal family line, but only females can pass it on to their descendants.
matrilocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near the bride's
mother's house. This keeps women near their female relatives, while men must leave their
natal households. Matrilocal residence is strongly associated with matrilineal descent.
mechanized grain farming

intensive farming for the production of cereals (e.g., corn, wheat, oats) in which hundreds and
even thousands of acres are planted, tended, and harvested by a small number of people
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using large machinery (e.g., tractors and combines). There usually are heavy applications of
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. This highly productive form of intensive monocropping agriculture is capital but not labor intensive. The Great Plains of North America is
predominantly a region of mechanized grain farming.
medical system
a system of explaining, diagnosing, and curing illness. There are two broad types of medical
systems in the world--naturalistic and personalistic.
Melanesia
New Guinea and other nearby islands in the Southwest Pacific
Ocean west of Polynesia. Indigenous people from this region are
referred to as Melanesians.
melting pot
a society in which immigrants and native ethnic/racial minorities are assimilated into the
dominant national culture. Those who prefer this model for America generally advocate
encouraging assimilation in order to reinforce national unity. See multiculturalism.
messianic movement
A millenarian movement led by a prophet who is either perceived as a new messiah or who
predicts the imminent arrival of one.
Mesoamerica
Southern Mexico and northern Central America. This was the main center of early plant
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domestication and ancient civilizations in North and Central America.
metropolitan world-view
a world-view in which people have an emotional detachment between people and the realms
of nature and the supernatural. Animals, trees, rocks, and other things in nature are "its"
rather than "thous" and do not have human personalities. This separation of people
emotionally from nature allows them to exploit it with little care for its well being. When the
characteristics of this type of world-view were first proposed in the early 1950's by Robert
Redfield, it was called a "civilized world-view." See indigenous world-view.
millenarian movement
a conscious, organized movement that attempts to revive or perpetuate selected aspects of
an indigenous culture or to gain control of the direction and rate of culture change being
forced on them. These movements have also been referred to as messianic, nativistic, and
revitalization movements. They were especially common among indigenous societies of
European colonies. The Cargo Cults of New Guinea and the Ghost Dance Movements of the
North American Plains Indians are examples. Millenarian movements typically have a
prophet leader and religious beliefs requiring a major leap of faith by their followers.
millennium
a golden age of great happiness, peace, and prosperity expected in the near future. This
sort of belief is characteristic of millenarian movements. Literally, "millennium" refers to a
period of 1000 years or the ending of such a period.
minority group
an ethnic/racial group that has a smaller population than the controlling majority group in a
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society. Minority groups may also be based on shared gender, age, disabilities, political
views, etc. See majority group.
minor supernatural being

supernatural beings who are not spirits, gods, humans, or other natural beings. They usually
have a human-like appearance and/or personality but can do things that are beyond the
abilities of humans. Minor supernatural beings often have a "trickster" role--they fool people,
do outlandish things, and disappear. In European folk tradition, leprechauns, elves, and
pixies were minor supernatural beings.
modal behavior
the statistically most common behavior patterns within a society. Those who do not exhibit
these patterns are usually labeled as social deviants. What is defined as modal behavior
varies from society to society.
modal personality
the most common personality type within a society. In reality, there is usually a range of
normal personality types within a society. See inner-directed personality, other-directed
personality, and tradition-oriented personality.
moiety
one of two unilineal divisions of an entire society. Moieties have reciprocal privileges and
obligations with each other, such as providing marriage partners and assisting at funerals.
The founding moiety ancestor is often so genealogically remote that he or she is now
mythical. Societies with moieties usually consist of a few thousand people or less. Societies
with phratries instead of moieties are often larger.
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money
anything that serves as a medium of exchange for buying and selling goods and services.
See general purpose money and special purpose money.
mono-cropping
planting a crop of only one species in a farm field. This is a common practice with intensive
agriculture. While this can be a highly efficient farming strategy, it results in crops that are
more susceptible to being wiped out by insects and other parasites. Mono-cropping is also
known as "mono-culture". See multi-cropping.
monogamy
marriage of one woman to one man at a time. This is the most common marriage pattern
around the world today. If remarriage is allowed following divorce or death of a spouse, the
marriage pattern could be defined as being "serial monogamy."
monotheism
a belief that there is only one god. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are usually considered to
be monotheistic religions. However, the distinction between monotheism and polytheism can
be a matter of focus. For instance, some scholars have argued that monotheisms, such as
Catholicism, are actually de facto polytheisms for many of the faithful if Jesus, the Virgin
Mary, and the saints are prayed to for guidance and help as if they were minor gods
themselves.
morpheme
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the smallest combination of sounds (i.e., phonemes) that have meaning and cannot be
broken into smaller meaningful units. Words can be one or more morphemes. For example,
hot is one morpheme while hotdog is composed of two (hot and dog).
morphology
the term in linguistics for the study of how sounds (i.e., phonemes) are combined by language
into larger units called morphemes.
multi-cropping
planting a farm field with more than one species. This is a common practice among
horticulturalists. Multi-cropping reduces the chances of total crop failure due to insects and
other parasites. However, it is far more labor intensive to plant, tend, and harvest. See
mono-cropping.
multiculturalism
a "salad bowl" model of society in which the permanent existence of unassimilated and
partially assimilated ethnic/racial minorities is accepted and encouraged. Those who
advocate this model for America generally advocate providing special attention and
assistance to minorities that had been underrepresented in the past. See melting pot.
multinational corporation
a corporate business that has outgrown its national roots and identity as it became
multinational with facilities in many countries and no overriding feeling of obligation or loyalty
to any one of them. Such companies typically move their production facilities from nation to
nation in response to labor costs and tax advantages. As a result, they are generally
independent and beyond the control of any one national political system. Multinational
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corporations have had a major impact on previously isolated indigenous societies in the late
20th century. Multinational corporations are also known as transnational corporations.
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-Nnationalism
extreme loyalty and devotion to a nation and its interests, usually at the expense of other
nations or societies.
national personality type

a distinct culturally specific personality pattern acquired during the process of being
enculturated. The notion of national personality types implies that personality is almost
entirely learned rather than genetically inherited. This is no longer widely believed in
anthropology and psychology.
nativistic movement
see millenarian movement.
natolocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a bride and groom remain in their own separate family's
households or compounds after their marriage rather than occupy a residence together. The
children born of this union usually stay in their mother's home, which becomes a de facto
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matricentric residence.
naturalistic medical system

a medical system that explains illness as being due to impersonal, mechanistic causes in
nature that can be potentially understood and cured by the application of the scientific
method of discovery. Typical causes accepted in naturalistic medical systems include
organic breakdown or deterioration, obstruction, injury, imbalance, malnutrition, and
parasites. Students learning to be doctors or nurses in medical schools throughout the
modern world are taught this kind of naturalistic explanation. However, there are other kinds
of naturalistic medical systems also in use today. In Latin America, many people still also
rely on humoral pathology to explain and cure their illnesses. This is especially true in rural
areas. See personalistic medical system.
negative reciprocity
an attempt to get someone to exchange something he or she may not want to give up or an
attempt to get a more valued thing than you give in return. This may involve trickery, coercion,
or hard bargaining. At times, negative reciprocity does not involve taking advantage of
someone. In fact, someone may willingly give you more than you believe that you are giving
in return. For example, a poor student wanting to go to an expensive university might be
polite and respectful toward a rich uncle with the hope that he will help out financially. That
uncle may gladly pay for his nephew's or niece's education in return because of the attention
and recognition that he receives. The money is relatively unimportant to him compared to the
respect and attention that is offered. See reciprocity.
negative sanction
a punishment for violations of social norms. In large-scale societies, formal negative
sanctions usually take the form of fines or prison sentences. In small-scale societies,
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informal negative sanction are more commonly used against those whose behavior is
unacceptable. See positive sanction.
neolocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a married couple establishes a new residence independent of
both their relatives. This pattern is now common in North America and other industrialized
nations in which the importance of kinship is minimized.
nomadism
see pastoral nomadism.
non-market economy
an economy with a low level of technological knowledge and a preoccupation with the daily
and, at most, seasonal food supply because techniques for long term preservation of food
are generally inadequate. Work teams are small and usually only include members of the
local community. Large-scale collaboration on subsistence jobs is of short duration if it
occurs at all because most tasks are relatively simple and require only a few people. Work
related interactions between people are of a face-to-face personal kind. People who work
together hunting, gathering, herding, or tending crops are usually kinsmen or lifelong friends
and neighbors. Little or no attempt is made to calculate the contribution of individuals or to
calculate individual shares. Social pressure generally obligates individuals to freely share
food and other products of their labor with whomever needs it or asks for it in the community.
This operates as an economic leveling mechanism. As a result, there is little or no possibility
of saving and becoming more wealthy than anyone else. Subsequently, the incentive to work
is not only derived from a desire to acquire what is being produced. There also is the
pleasure of working with friends and relatives. In addition there is potential for increased
social prestige from doing the job well. Impersonal commercial exchanges rarely occur in
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non-market economies. They usually take the form of either barter or gifts. Every household
usually provides for its daily needs from its own production. Non-market economies can only
function successfully in isolation. They have always been destroyed by prolonged contact
with societies that have market economies.
non-verbal communication
see paralanguage.
norms
the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most members of the
society. Norms are also referred to as "social norms."
nuclear
family
a family consisting of a man, woman, and their children. We are born into our "nuclear family
of orientation" and we have children in our "nuclear family of procreation." Parents may think
of themselves as being members of both of these families at the same time. See
matricentric family.
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-OOld World
The Old World is Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Americas are conventionally referred to as
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the New World. This distinction is largely an ethnocentric reflection of the European origin of
our modern sciences and geography.
Omaha
naming system
a patrilineally based kin naming system in which relatives are lumped together on the basis
of descent and gender. Siblings and parallel cousins of the same gender are given the
same term of reference (5 = male and 6 = female). Father and father's brother also have the
same kin term (1). Other people in ego's mother's patrilineage are lumped across
generations (2 = female and 4 = male).
other-directed personality
a personality that is shame oriented. People with this type of personality have ambiguous
feelings about right and wrong. When they deviate from a societal norm, they usually don't
feel guilty. However, if they are caught in the act or exposed publicly, they are likely to feel
shame. The other-directed personality is one of the modal personality types identified by
David Riesman in the early 1950's. See inner-directed personality and tradition-oriented
personality.
otiose deity
a supreme god who established the order of the universe in the distant past and is now
remote from earthly activities and concerns ("otiose" is Greek for "at rest). As a result, otiose
deities are usually almost ignored in favor of lesser gods who take an interest in the everyday
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affairs of humans.
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-Ppandemic
an epidemic that becomes unusually widespread and even global in its reach.
pantribal association
groups that cross-cut a tribal society by bringing together a limited number of people,
typically at least one from each family. Pantribal associations often are in the form of
councils, groups of elder men or women who are members of the same age set, warrior
societies, religious cults, or secret societies, . While these groups have specific purposes,
they also serve to create order and a sense of unity for a tribe. Pantribal associations are
also referred to as sodalities.
paralanguage
auxiliary communication devices that generally assure clarity by transmitting the same
message in different ways at the same time. These include variations in tone and character
of voice along with such non-verbal forms of communication as kinesics, proxemics, clothing,
and makeup.
parallel cousin
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one's father's brother's children or mother's sister's children. The gender of the children is
not relevant in making this distinction. With unilineal descent, parallel cousins are members
of the same unilineage. See cross cousin.
parallel
descent
the cognatic pattern of descent in which males trace their descent through the male line of
their father and females through the female line of their mother. Unlike bilineal descent, every
individual is a member of only one unilineage.
participant observation
physically and emotionally participating in the social interaction of another society on a daily
basis in order to learn about its culture. In practice this usually requires living within the
community as a member, learning their language, establishing close friendship ties, eating
what they eat, and taking part in normal family activities. By becoming an active participant
rather than simply an observer, ethnographers reduce the cultural distance between
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themselves and the host society.
pastoralists
people who make their living by tending herds of large animals. The species of animals vary
with the region of the world, but they are all domesticated herbivores that normally live in
herds and eat grasses or other abundant plant foods (e.g., cattle, horses, sheep, reindeer).
Traditional pastoralists are essentially subsistence herders who form small-scale societies.
There are essentially two forms of pastoralism--nomadism and transhumance.
pastoral nomadism
traditional pastoralists who follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to
year. The timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the needs of the
herd animals for water and fodder. These nomadic societies do not create permanent
settlements, but rather they live in tents or other relatively easily constructed dwellings the
year round. Pastoralist nomads are usually self-sufficient in terms of food and most other
necessities. See transhumance.
patrilineage
a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by patrilineal descent. Patrilineages
usually consist of a number of related nuclear families descended from the same man.
patrilineal
descent
unilineal descent that follows the male line. With this pattern, people are related if they can
trace descent through males to the same male ancestor. Both males and females inherit a
patrilineal family membership but only males can pass it on to their descendants. Also
known as "agnatic descent."
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patrilocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a newly married couple moves in with or near the groom's
father's house. This keeps men near their male relatives, while women must leave their natal
households. Patrilocal residence is strongly associated with patrilineal descent. Just over
half of the world's societies have patrilocal residence.
pedestrian
foragers
people whose subsistence pattern involves diversified hunting and gathering on foot rather
than horseback. The pedestrian hunting and gathering way of life was mobile. Most of these
societies moved their camps several times a year and had temporary dwellings. The number
of people living in a camp also often varied throughout the year depending on the local food
supply. Material possessions were generally few and light in weight so that they could be
transported easily. Subsistence tools included such things as simple digging sticks,
baskets, spears, and bows and arrows that could be easily replaced when needed. This
settlement flexibility is an efficient way of responding to changing environmental
opportunities. (The word "pedestrian" is derived from the Latin word pedester meaning "on
foot"). See foragers.
personalistic medical system

a medical system that explains illness as being due to acts or wishes of other people or
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supernatural beings and forces. There is no room for accidents. Adherents to personalistic
medical systems believe that the causes and cures of illness are not to be found only in the
natural world. Curers usually must use supernatural means to understand what is wrong with
their patients and to return them to health. Typical causes of illness in personalistic medical
systems include intrusion of foreign objects into the body by supernatural means, spirit
possession, loss, or damage, and bewitching. Most of the non-western world traditionally
accepted a personalistic explanation for illness. Today, it is mostly found among people in
small-scale societies and some subcultures of larger nations. See naturalistic medical
system.
personality
all of an individual's complex of mental characteristics that makes him or her unique from
other people. It includes all of the patterns of thought, emotions, and other mental traits that
cause us to do and say things in particular ways.
personality type
a set of personality traits and behavioral tendencies which are shared by a group of people.
phoneme
the smallest unit of sound that can be altered to change the meaning of a word. In English, for
example, the words pan and can have different meaning due to the fact that the initial sound,
or phoneme, is different. Phonemes do not have meaning by themselves. The sounds
represented by the p and c in the words above are meaningless alone but they can change
the meaning of words.
phonology
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the study of phonemes, or sounds, of language.
phratry
a unilineal descent group consisting of a number of related clans. The phratry founding
ancestor is so remote genealogically that he or she is usually mythical. Phratries are larger
and more inclusive kinship groups than unilineages and clans.
physical anthropology
the study of the non-cultural, or biological, aspects of humans and near humans. Physical
anthropologists are usually involved in one of three different kinds of research: 1) non-human
primate studies (usually in the wild), 2) recovering the fossil record of human evolution, and 3)
studying human biological diversity, inheritance patterns, and non-cultural means of adapting
to environmental stresses. Physical anthropology is also referred to as biological
anthropology.
pidgin
a simplified, makeshift language that develops to fulfill the communication needs of people
who have no language in common but who need to occasionally interact for commercial and
other reasons. Pidgins combine a limited amount of the vocabulary and grammar of the
different languages. People who use pidgin languages also speak their own native
language. Over the last several centuries, dozens of pidgin languages developed as
Europeans expanded out into the rest of the world for colonization and trade. There have
been pidgins developed by non-European cultures as well.
placebo
a harmless medical treatment that should have no effect on a patient's disease but actually
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improves his or her condition as a result of the belief that it will help. For example, a doctor
could give patients harmless sugar pills and tell them that they are a powerful medicine. This
placebo may actually make some of them feel better and even help them recover from their
disease. It is assumed that the belief in the efficacy of a treatment can reduce the production
of stress hormones and improve the immune system in some cases. The kind of placebo
that works is highly culture related.
plantation agriculture
large, labor-intensive farms that mostly produce fruit, sugar, fiber, or vegetable oil products
for the international market. The laborers usually work for very low wages that keep them in
poverty. Many of the plantations of Indonesia, the Philippines, Central America, the
Caribbean, and West Africa are owned by multinational corporations such as Dole and the
National Fruit Company. The net effect of this form of agriculture generally has been the flow
of wealth from poor nations in the Southern Hemisphere to rich ones in the Northern
Hemisphere.
political symbol
an idea or physical thing that is used by politicians as a tool for focusing the attention and
emotions of people. It can be something as simple as the phrase "a chicken in every pot and
a car in very garage" which was used by Herbert Hoover in his 1928 U.S. presidential
election. It can be a call for change such as the replacement of a king with a legislature or
conversion of "non-believers" to the "true-religion." National flags are often powerful political
symbols.
politics
competition for power over people and things.
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polyandry
the marriage of one woman to several men at the same time. This is a rare type of polygamy.
It usually takes the form of "fraternal polyandry", which is brothers sharing the same wife.
polygamy
the generic term for marriage to more than one spouse at the same time. It occurs as
polygyny or, more rarely, polyandry.
polygyny
the marriage of one man to several women at the same time. This is the most common form
of polygamy. It often takes the form of "sororal polygyny", which is two or more sisters
married to the same man.
Polynesia
a major division of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the
International Date Line, extending from Hawaii in the north to New
Zealand in the south. In addition to these islands, Polynesia
includes Samoa, Tonga, the Society, and Marquesas Islands.
The indigenous peoples of Polynesia speak similar Polynesian
languages.
polytheism
a belief in more than one god. Hinduism is usually considered a polytheistic religion.
However, the distinction between polytheism and monotheism can be a matter of focus. In
India and Bali, Hindus can be observed fervently worshipping hundreds of different gods.
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This fits the classic description of a polytheistic religion. However, since the many gods are
only different manifestations of the supreme god, Shiva
(or Vishnu
or Krishna
),
Hinduism can also be interpreted as a monotheism.
positive correlation
a strong association between two different phenomena such that when one is the present, the
other is as well. For example, in the United States today, people who have college degrees
usually earn more money during their lifetimes than do people who have only gone to high
school. It is important to keep in mind that a positive correlation does not necessarily imply a
cause and effect relationship between the co-occurring phenomena.
positive sanction
a reward for appropriate or admirable behavior that conforms with the social norms.
Common positive sanctions include praise and granting honors or awards. See negative
sanction.
post partum sex taboo

a prohibition against a husband and wife having sexual intercourse for a specified period of
time following the birth of a child.
potlatch
a complex redistributive system that existed among some of the Indian cultures of the
Northwest Coast of North America. This was a complex system of competitive feasting,
speechmaking, and gift giving intended in part to enhance the status of the giver. For the
Kwakiutl
society, potlatches were important social gatherings held to celebrate major life
events such as a son's marriage, the birth of a child, a daughter's first menses, and the
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initiation of a sister's son into a secret society. They also were used to assert or transfer
ownership of economic and ceremonial privileges. It sometimes took years to accumulate
the things needed for a big potlatch. Loans (with interest) had to be called in from relatives
for this purpose. When all was ready, high ranking, influential people from the local and other
communities were invited for several days of feasting and entertaining. Guests were seated
according to their relative status. The host made speeches and dramatically gave gifts of
food, Hudson Bay Company blankets, canoes, slaves, rare copper artifacts, and other
valuable items to the guests. Those of higher status received more. The host was likely to
also destroy money, waste fish oil by throwing it on a fire, and do other things to show that he
was willing to economically bankrupt himself in order to increase his social status. The
acceptance of the gifts was an affirmation of the host's generosity and subsequently of his
increased status. The feast and the gifts essentially placed the guests in debt to their host
until they could at some future time invite him to their own potlatch and give him more than he
gave them--in essence a return on an investment. The potlatch served as a tool for oneupmanship for important Kwakiutl men.
prejudice
the act of judging someone or some thing before the facts are known. Assuming that
someone of a specific ethnic group or "race" will act in a particular way is an example of prejudging them. When people from different groups have little or no contact with each other,
they are likely to hold prejudicial views about each other and to act upon them. If the
prejudicial views are inaccurate, they can be obstacles to productive dialog and
understanding. See stereotype and discrimination.
priest
a religious leader who is part of an organized religion. Different religions have different
terms for these individuals--they may be known as rabbis, ministers, mullahs, Imams, or other
terms. They are the keepers of the sacred law and tradition. They are found mostly in largeopen in browser PRO version
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scale societies. A female priests is often referred to as a priestess
prion
a protein that has the ability to cause the cells that it invades to repeatedly duplicate it.
Prions are responsible for causing kuru and other similar diseases. Apparently, prions are
not effectively attacked by their host's immune system nor can they be killed with existing
antibiotics, extreme heat, cold, or other normally lethal conditions. The word prion comes
from "proteinaceous infectious particle."
probability sample
a sample of people that is carefully chosen so that it will be representative of the entire
community or population. Choosing who will be in the sample can be difficult, especially at
the beginning of an ethnographic research project when the first contacts are made and the
composition of the society and its culture are still poorly understood. Depending on the
nature of the society and the research questions, one of three different kinds of probability
samples may be employed. They are random sample, stratified sample, and judgment
sample.
production
(systems of)
how food and other necessities are created in a society. See systems of distribution and
exchange.
progeny price
see bride price.
prophet
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an individual who receives divine revelation concerning a restructuring of religious practices

and usually of society as well. Prophets call for dramatic change while priesthoods usually
act as conservative forces in preserving long-standing traditions. Not surprisingly, prophets
are usually outside of the priesthood and are seen by priests as irritating, disruptive troublemakers. See millenarian movement.
proprietary deed
the concept of ownership in which an owner of property has the right to keep it whether or not
it is being used or actively possessed. For instance, an individual may own several houses
or land and never use them. In addition, the owner has the right to pass the property on to
descendents or to others chosen by the owner. In fact, ownership is not always absolute in
large-scale societies today. In the United States, for instance, ownership may be forfeited to
the government under certain circumstances (e.g., eminent domain, failure to pay taxes, or
use in the commission of a felony). See usufruct.
proxemics
the study of interaction distances and other culturally defined uses of space that affect
communication. Most people are unaware of the importance of space in communication
until they are confronted with someone who uses it differently. Proxemics is a form of
paralanguage.
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-Rrace
a biological subspecies, or variety, that consists of a more or less distinct population with
anatomical traits that distinguish it clearly from other races. The human "races" commonly
assumed to exist are mostly socio-cultural creations rather than biological realities. They are
ethnic groups that are defined on the basis of both physical and cultural characteristics.
racialism
a relatively benign form of using "racial" distinctions, such as skin color and facial
characteristics, for reference purposes. An example of racialism is identifying an accident
victim as "an elderly Asian male." In America, "racial" traits are commonly used along with
age and gender distinctions when referring to people who we do not know personally. See
racism.
racism
harmful prejudice, discrimination, and/or persecution based on presumed ethnic/racial
differences. An example of racism is not hiring someone for a job because of his or her skin
color. Similarly, giving someone a preference in hiring due to skin color can be racism if
people with other skin colors are disadvantaged by this act. See racialism.
raiding
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surprise predatory attacks directed against other communities or societies. The primary
objective of raiding usually is to plunder and then to escape unharmed with the stolen goods.
In some societies, the goal is also to kill men in the target community as well as kidnap
women and children. Raiders are virtually always men. Raiding is a more organized form of
aggression than feuding. Violent encounters are often the result of opportunistic meetings in
the case of feuding. In contrast, raids are planned in advance. Another difference is that
raids occur in a finite time period. They are rarely sustained activities like feuds.
random sample
a probability sample in which people are selected on a totally random, unbiased basis. This
can be accomplished by assigning a number to everyone in a community and then letting a
computer or hand calculator generate a series of random numbers. If a 10% sample is
needed, then the first 10% of the random numbers will indicate who will be the focus of the
research. This sampling approach is reasonable for ethnographic research only when there
does not seem to be much difference between the people in the population. Since this is
rarely the case, random sampling is not often used for ethnographic research.
"reasonable man" standard of law

the idea that legal judgments should be made based on what would be acceptable to a
reasonable man in the society. Jury systems in the Western World are based on this
assumption.
reciprocity
(or reciprocal exchange)
a relationship between people that involves a mutual exchange of gifts of goods, services, or
favors. Inherent in reciprocal gift giving is the obligation to return a gift in a culturally
appropriate manner. Failure to do so is likely to end the reciprocal relationship. Reciprocity
requires adequacy of response but not necessarily mathematical equality. Reciprocity is a
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common way of creating and continuing bonds between people. See generalized
reciprocity, balanced reciprocity, and negative reciprocity.
redistribution
(or redistributive exchange)
an economic exchange intended to distribute a society's wealth in a different way than exists
at present. In the Western World, charity and progressive income tax systems are examples
of redistributive exchanges. Progressive income taxes are intended to make people with
greater wealth give at higher rates than those at the bottom of the economic ladder. Some of
the tax money is then allocated to help the poorer members of society. The intended net
effect is to reduce or prevent extremes of wealth and poverty. Some of the most elaborate
redistributive systems have been in small-scale societies with non-market economies (e.g.,
potlatch).
regional dialect
a dialect associated with a geographically isolated speech community. An example is the
Texas in contrast to the upper midwestern American dialect.
religion
a system of beliefs usually involving the worship of supernatural forces or beings.
revitalization movement
a millenarian movement in which the followers focus on recreating and revitalizing their
indigenous culture in response to tremendous pressure to acculturate to the culture of another
society that dominates them.
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rites of passage
ritual ceremonies intended to mark the transition from one phase of life to another.
rituals
stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They almost
always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example, going to church
on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the world.
role
the part a society expects an individual to play in a given status (e.g., child, wife, mother, aunt,
grandmother). Social group membership gives us a set of role tags to allow people to know
what to expect from each other.
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-SSapir-Whorf hypothesis
the early 20th century idea of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf that language predetermines
what we see in the world around us. In other words, language acts like a polarizing lens on a
camera in filtering reality--we see the real world only in the terms and categories of our language.
This hypothesis was objectively tested by anthropologists in the 1960's. That research indicated
that Sapir and Whorf went too far. It is now clear that the terminology used by a culture primarily
reflects that culture's interests and concerns. All normal humans share similar sense perceptions
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due to the fact that their sense organs are essentially the same. Therefore, they can understand
and perceive the categories of reality of another culture, if they are explained.
scientific method
the method of learning what is unknown in the natural world by formulating a hypothesis to
explain observable or measurable facts and then collecting data through experiments and
further observation to answer research questions based on the hypothesis. If the results of
the tests support the hypothesis, it may become a theory. If the tests do not support the
hypothesis, new hypotheses are developed and tested. The scientific method is the
objective method by which old assumptions are challenged and scientific knowledge grows.
secular
relating to worldly rather than religious things.
shaman
a person who is not part of an organized religion and is in direct contact with the spirit world,
usually through a trance state. A shaman has spirit helpers at his or her command to carry
out curing, divining, and bewitching. Shamanistic power is acquired individually, usually in
physical and/or mental solitude and isolation from other humans. Spirits or some other
supernatural entities are revealed to the shaman and he or she learns how to control them.
Training by older shamans usually occurs to help the apprentice shaman understand and use
his or her powers.
sexism
discrimination based on gender. An example of sexism is excluding people from promotion
to executive positions in a corporation due to their gender.
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shifting agriculture
the horticultural practice of shifting from one field to another when crop production drops due
to the inevitable depletion of soil nutrients. Shifting agriculture is also referred to as "swidden
cultivation"
. See slash and burn.
siblings
brothers or a sisters.
slash and burn

the method used by horticulturalists to clear fields of heavy vegetation in preparation for
planting new crops. Brush and small trees are cut down and allowed to dry out in place.
They are then burned. This simultaneously clears the field of all but large trees and adds ash
to the soil surface. The ash acts as a fertilizer. No other fertilizer is applied to the field. As a
result, soil productivity lasts only for a few years. Subsequently, horticulturalists practice
shifting agriculture.
small-scale farming
farming using horticultural techniques.
small-scale society
generally a society of a few dozen to several thousand people who live by foraging wild
foods, herding domesticated animals, or non-intensive horticulture on the band or village
level. Such societies lack cities as well as complex economies and governments. Kinship
relationships are usually highly important in comparison to large-scale societies.
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social anthropology
see cultural anthropology.
social dialect
a dialect spoken by a speech community that is socially isolated from others. Social dialects
are mostly based on class, ethnicity, gender, age, or particular social situations. The upper
class English "public school" way of talking is an example of a social dialect.
socialization
the general process of acquiring culture as you grow up in a society. During socialization,
children learn the language of the culture as well as the roles they are to play in life. In
addition, they learn about the occupational roles that their society allows them. They also
learn and usually adopt their culture's norms through the socialization process. See
enculturation.
social norms
see norms.
social velocity
the common social phenomenon in which disruptive interpersonal conflicts increasingly occur
as the number of people in a society grows. Richard Lee coined this term as result of
observing the phenomenon among the ju/'hoansi
of southwest Africa. Band fissioning
occurred before a community reached the full carrying capacity of the environment. Families
decided to leave and form their own bands because the conflict settling mechanisms were
not adequate to resolve differences. It was not food scarcity but, rather, social discord that
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was the cause of the break-up.
society
a group of interacting organisms. In the case of humans, societies are groups of people who
directly or indirectly interact with each other. People in human societies also generally
perceive that their society is distinct from other societies in terms of shared traditions and
expectations.
sodality
see pantribal association.
sororate
a rule specifying that a widower should marry the sister of his deceased wife. This is usually
favored by their respective parents because it continues the bond between their families.
Where polygyny exists, an "anticipatory sororate" is often practiced. That is to say, there is a
degree of sexual permissiveness allowed between a husband and his wife's younger sister in
anticipation of a presumed future marriage between them.
specialized foraging
a foraging subsistence pattern in which a limited number of species are hunted or gathered.
Aquatic and equestrian foragers usually are specialized in their food quest. Specialized
foraging can be highly productive but is risky in environments that experience periodic
droughts or other significant environmental changes that affect the food supply. See
diversified foraging.
special purpose money

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objects that serve as a medium of exchange in only limited contexts. In societies that have it,
usually there are certain goods and services that can be purchased only with their specific
form of special purpose money. If you don't have it, you cannot acquire the things that it can
purchase. You may not be able to easily obtain the special purpose money either. The Tiv
people of central Nigeria provide an example. In the past, they used brass rods to buy cattle
and to pay bride price. These rods were acquired by trade from Sahara Desert trading
peoples who ultimately obtained them from the urbanized societies of North Africa. If a man
could not acquire brass rods by trade or borrowing them, he would be prevented from
acquiring cattle and getting married. See general purpose money.
speech
a broad term referring to patterned verbal behavior. See language.
spirit
a supernatural being who has less power than a god or goddess. It may be an ancestral
spirit or simply a spirit that inhabits a natural object or even all of nature. A belief in spirits is
the central tenet of animism.
state
the level of political integration in which a society has a permanent, highly centralized political
organization with an elite social class of rulers at the top. The bulk of the people are at the
bottom of the pyramid of power. Between them and the rulers is a bureaucracy of officials
who run the state on a daily basis. States with hereditary rulers first appeared 4000-5000
years ago in intensive agricultural societies of 10's to 100's of thousands of people. These
were the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq), India, China,
Mesoamerica, and the Andean mountain region of Western South America. Modern nations
also have state levels of political organization, but rulers are generally elected now.
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status
the relative social position of an individual. For instance, student, teacher, child, and parent
are easily identifiable statuses in most cultures. Each of us has a number of different
statuses. We usually acquire new ones and lose old ones as we go through life. See role.
stereotype
a fixed notion or conception of people based on their group identity. For instance, assuming
that a particular Chinese businessman is going to be greedy and dishonest because you
believe that all Chinese businessmen are. Stereotyping is often at the base of prejudice and
discrimination resulting from it.
stimulus diffusion
a genuine invention sparked by an idea that diffused in from another culture. The invention of
a unique Cherokee writing system by Sequoyah around 1821 after seeing English is an
example.
stratified sample
a probability sample in which people are selected because they come from distinct subgroups within the society. This approach may be used by ethnographers if the information
that is being sought is not specialized knowledge such as the esoteric activities of a secret
organization with restricted membership.
subarctic
the area surrounding the arctic circle. In the Western Hemisphere, this includes the northern
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regions of Alaska and Canada. Subarctic also refers to the cold climates of these regions.
Most subarctic regions are tundra.
subculture
a regional, social, or ethnic group that is distinguishable from other groups in a society.
Members of a subculture often share a common identity, food tradition, dialect or language,
and other cultural traits that come from their common ancestral background and experience.
Subcultures are most likely to exist in complex, diverse societies, such as the U.S. and
Canada, in which people have come from many different parts of the world.
subincision
cutting into the side of the penus or making a hole entirely through it. This surgery is done as
part of a rite of passage marking the transition from childhood to adulthood for boys in some
cultures. See circumcision.
sub-Saharan Africa
the region of Africa south of the Sahara desert.
subsistence base
the main sources of food used by a society. The term "subsistence base" is often used
interchangeably with subsistence pattern.
subsistence pattern
the methods a society uses to obtain its food and other necessities (e.g., foraging,
pastoralism, horticulture, and intensive agriculture). The term "subsistence pattern" is often
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used interchangeably with subsistence base.
Sudanese
naming system
a kin naming system in which kinsmen are not lumped together under the same terms of
reference. Each category of relative is given a distinct term based on genealogical distance
from ego and the side of the family. Also referred to as the "descriptive kin naming system."
susto
literally "fright or sudden fear" in Spanish. It is a kind of personalistic illness found among
some Latinos in the United States and parts of Latin America. The presumed cause is the
loss of one's soul due to incidents that have a destabilizing effect on an individual (e.g., being
thrown from a horse, having a nighttime encounter with a ghost, or being in a social situation
that causes fear or anger). Typical symptoms of susto are restlessness during sleep as well
as being listless and weak when awake, lack an appetite, and little interest in one's own
personal appearance. Susto is also known as perdida de la sombra
(literally "loss of the
shadow" in Spanish).
symbol
a sound or thing which has meaning given to it by the user. Human languages are systems
of symbols.
sympathetic magic
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magic based on the principle that "like produces like." For instance, whatever happens to an
image of someone will also happen to them. Sympathetic magic is also referred to as
"imitative" magic.
syncretism
an amalgamation or incorporation of traditional and introduced alien culture traits. In
Southern Mexico and Guatemala, the Maya Indian combination of mutually exclusive
indigenous religious and European Christian beliefs to create a new composite religion is an
example. Syncretism is often a psychologically more satisfying alternative to rapid
acculturation that totally replaces indigenous cultural beliefs and customs since one's own
cultural identity is maintained.
syntax
the standardized set of rules that determine how words should be combined to make sense
to speakers of a language. Along with morphology, syntax makes up grammar.
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-Ttemperate
referring to the regions of the world mostly in the middle latitudes where winter temperatures
regularly fall below freezing and summers are warm. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
temperate regions are south of the colder subarctic and north of the subtropics. Temperate
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regions often have deciduous and evergreen forests, but they are too cold to grow such tree
crops as oranges and avocados outside of a greenhouse.
theory
a set of facts or principles that explain phenomena in the natural world. For instance the
heliocentric theory in astronomy proposes that the sun is at the center of our solar system and
that the earth and other planets revolve around it.
third world
Societies that are underdeveloped.
tort
a crime against individuals or their property rather than against the society as a whole. In
modern Western societies, torts are settled in civil cases rather than criminal ones. Torts
include any damage or injury done willfully or negligently that harms another individual. See
crime.
totem
a mythical clan founding ancestor. Totem origins are so far back in time that they are often
believed to be non-human. Totems are used as symbols of clans. When they are believed to
be particular kinds of animals or plants, killing or eating them is usually not allowed. Totems
are also referred to as "totemic emblems"
.
tradition-oriented personality
a personality that has a strong emphasis on doing things the same way that they have always
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been done. Individuals with this sort of personality are less likely to try new things and to
seek new experiences. The tradition-oriented personality is one of the modal personality
types identified by David Riesman in the early 1950's.
trancing
activity that results in an altered state of consciousness in which an individual is in a hypnoticlike mental state or at least profoundly absorbed. This is a common tool used by shamans
and others all over the world to enter the spirit world. Common techniques used to achieve a
trance state include fasting, self-torture, sensory deprivation, breathing exercises and
meditation, prolonged repetitive ritual dancing and/or drumming, and hallucinogenic drugs.
transculturation
what happens to an individual when he or she moves to a new society and adopts their
culture. See acculturation.
transhumance
a cyclical pattern of migrations made by some pastoralists that usually take them to cool
highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is seasonal
migration between the same two locations in which they have regular encampments or stable
villages often with permanent houses. See pastoral nomadism.
transnational corporation
see multinational corporation.
transvestite
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a person who wears the clothes and bodily adornment normally associated with the other
gender. Transvestitism, or cross dressing, is not necessarily connected with homosexuality.
tribalism
a profound loyalty to one's tribe, ethnic group, or nation and a rejection of others. Those who
promote tribalism generally believe that globalism is a threat that must be overcome. A
pattern of establishing ethnically "pure" nations through aggressive "ethnic cleansing"
occurred in the former Yugoslavia during the 1990's. Similar attempts to carve out tribal
based nations have occurred in the former republics of the Soviet Union and in a number of
African nations. Tribalism is a counter force to globalization.
tribe
the level of political integration in which a society uses pantribal associations in order to
provide unity and common interest. Tribes are more complex acephalous societies than
bands due largely to the fact that they have more people and this new integrating mechanism
that helps to prevent the disintegration of society. Tribes often have a headman who must
lead through his powers of persuasion rather than clear authority to enforce his decisions.
Tribes have been common among horticultural, pastoral, equestrian foraging, and rich
aquatic foraging societies.
tribute
payments made by a defeated people to their conqueror.
tundra
treeless regions with permanently frozen soil. Tundra environments are found in the subarctic
regions of the world and in some high mountains.
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two-spirited
a term used to refer to North American Indian homosexual men of the Great Plains and
elsewhere in the West. In the past, two-spirited men led their lives as transvestites and were
given respected social statuses within their societies. Formerly, they were known by the
somewhat derogatory French term "berdache", which in turn came from an Arabic word
meaning a slave. Today, some homosexual Native American women also refer to
themselves as being two-spirited.
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-Uunderdeveloped nation
a nation or society in which most of the people are persistently poor due to the way they are
integrated into the world economic system. They usually provide cheap raw materials and
labor for the rich, developed nations and purchase their manufactured goods at high prices.
The economies of underdeveloped societies are largely dependent on the richer nations.
Bangladesh and Guatemala are examples of underdeveloped nations. They are also
referred to as "third world" or "developing" nations. See undeveloped nation.
underrepresented minority
a minority group that has a significantly smaller ratio of its members in education,
government, business, etc. than other groups. Underrepresentation usually results from
poverty and/or discrimination. African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, Pacific
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Islanders, and some Asian Americans are considered by the national government to be
underrepresented minorities in America today.
undeveloped nation
a largely isolated nation or society that has a low technological level but is economically selfreliant. They are not participants in the world economic system. Such societies mainly
consist of indigenous peoples who have subsistence economies. By definition,
undeveloped nations are not underdeveloped. Tibet and Afghanistan up until the 1950's are
examples of undeveloped nations.
unilineage
a multi-generational group of relatives who are related by unilineal descent. Unlike clans,
phratries, and moieties, members of unilineages usually know the precise genealogical link
to the founder. Unilineages usually consist of a number of related nuclear families. See also
matrilineage and patrilineage.
unilineal
descent
tracing kinship only through a single line of ancestors, male or female--that is, descent links
are traced only through ancestors of one gender. See also matrilineal, patrilineal, and
cognatic descent.
usufruct
the concept of ownership in which an owner normally can "own" land and other substantial
property only as long as it is being used or actively possessed. The society as a whole is the
real owner. The individual "owner" is responsible for looking after the property for the
society--he or she essentially only has stewardship over it. If the "owner" no longer needs the
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property or dies, it is reallocated by the society to others. Usufruct is most commonly found in
small-scale societies with non-market economies. See proprietary deed.
uxorilocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a man moves into his wife's home. If it is with her mother
instead, the residence pattern is called matrilocal.
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-Vvirilocal
residence
the residence pattern in which a woman moves into her husband's home. If it is with his father
instead, the residence pattern is called patrilocal.
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-Wwarfare
organized, large-scale combat usually between clearly recognizable armies. A significant
portion of a population takes part in combat or support activities, often for years. Soldiers
are trained and equipped for combat. Warfare is a larger scale, more organized and
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sustained form of fighting than feuding and raiding.
weregeld
(also weregild and wergeld; literally "blood money")
the material payment that a murderer must pay to the relatives of his or her victim as
compensation for the crime. Once the weregeld has been paid, the crime is essentially
expunged and there is no other punishment. The term comes from Old English words
meaning "man" + "gold". In small-scale societies, all crimes are usually considered to be
torts and weregeld is viewed as the appropriate resolution for them. Weregeld is still an
important legal principle for murder cases in some conservative Moslem nations today.
Survivals of this legal concept also can be seen in financial settlements for civil suits in the
United States and other Western nations.
western cultures
European cultures and cultures derived from Europe, such as the United States and
Canada. Western societies predominantly speak a European language and maintain
European-like economic, political, legal, and educational systems. These societies have
been the principle sources of pressure towards globalization in the late 20th century. The
western cultures are also referred to as the "western world."
Windigo psychosis
a culture bound syndrome reported occasionally among the Northern Algonkian
language
group of Indians (Chippewa
, Ojibwa
, and Cree
) living around the Great Lakes of
Canada and the United States. Windigo psychosis usually developed in the winter when
families were isolated by heavy snow for months in their cabins and had inadequate food
supplies. The initial symptoms of this form of mental illness were usually poor appetite,
nausea, and vomiting. Subsequently, the individual would develop a characteristic delusion
of being transformed into a Windigo monster. These supernatural beings eat human flesh.
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People who have Windigo psychosis increasingly see others around them a being edible. At
the same time they have an exaggerated fear of becoming cannibals.
witchcraft
actions involving magic or supernatural powers usually undertaken for the purpose of doing
harm. This is a limited anthropological definition that does not describe the activities of
modern Western European and North American so-called witches or Wicca. The latter are
members of an organized religion.
world-view
the complex of motivations, perceptions, and beliefs that we internalize and that strongly
affect how we interact with other people and things in nature. World-view is a set of feelings
and basic attitudes about the world rather than clearly formulated opinions about it. These
feelings and attitudes are mostly learned early in life and are not readily changed later. They
have a determinate influence on our observable behavior, both verbal and non-verbal.
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Copyright 2002-2012 by Dennis O'Neil. All rights reserved.
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Glossary of Cultural Anthropology Terms

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Cultural AnthropologyTerms

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see patrilineal descent.

a form of cognatic descent in which individuals can

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ancestor focused kindred

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(in reference to ethnic groups)

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culture bound syndrome

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cyclical round of migrations

descriptive kin naming system

developed nation (or society)

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distribution and exchange

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drop of blood criterion

(for race classification)

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(in reference to diagramming kinship)

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is considered to be fair market value. An example of eminent domain is a government taking

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patterns and changes in the environment. See pandemic.

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general purpose money

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hunters and gatherers

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informal negative sanction

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internalization of the moral code

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