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Mechanical Properties
Why mechanical properties?
Reading: Chapter 7
materials for
skyscrapers
in the Windy
City
NASA
materials for
space
exploration
materials for and designing
MEMs and NEMs
Space elevators?
MSE280
Issues to address
Stress and strain
Elastic behavior
Plastic behavior
Strength, ductility, resilience, toughness,
hardness
Mechanical behavior of different classes
of materials
Design/safety factors
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stress = =
force
area
Tension
Shear
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
MSE280
Compression
Torsion
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Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
Ao
Ski lift
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Ao
Canyon
y Bridge,
g Los Alamos, NM
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
F
Ao
Note: compressive
structure member
( < 0 here).
From Callister 6e resource CD.
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<
h 0
(photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)
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Engineering stress = =
F
Ao
Engineering strain = =
li lo l
=
lo
lo
Compression
Same as tension but in the opposite direction (stress and strain defined
in the same manner).
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By convention, stress and strain are negative for compression.
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
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Shear
F
Ao
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Elastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
Linearelastic
Non-Linearelastic
From Callister 6e resource CD.
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Plastic Deformation
1. Initial
2. Small load
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear
3. Unload
p lanes
still
sheared
plastic
elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic
linear
elastic
plastic
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Stress-strain test
tensile stress,
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
p lastic strain
Figure 6.3 Callister
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Elastic Deformation
-a non-permanent deformation where the material completely
recovers to its original state upon release of the applied stress.
= E
Hookes Law:
strain
stress
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tension
compression
Equilibrium bond length = ro
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S co (s
Silicon
(single
g e ccrystal)
ysta )
Glass (pyrex)
SiC (fused or sintered)
Graphite (molded)
High modulus C-fiber
Carbon Nanotubes
120
0 - 190
90 (depe
(depends
ds o
on ccrystallographic
ysta og ap c d
direction)
ect o )
70
207 - 483
~12
If we normalize to density: ~20 times
400
that of steel wire.
~1000
Density normalized strength is ~56X
15
that of steel wire.
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
MSE280
100 inches
1 inch
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Poisson Ratio
So far, weve considered stress only along one dimension
Along
g z: tension
z =
l
lo
Along x: compression
z
x
do
x =
lo
lo+l
Isotropic x and y: =
y
x
do+d
Poisson ratio =
Compression
d
do
y
x
=
z
z
Elongation
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Poisson Ratio
Poisson Ratio has a range 1 1/2
Look at extremes w /w = l /l
No change in aspect ratio:
w /w
=
= 1
l /l
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W
0.26
Ni
0.29
Cu
0.31
Al
0.34
Ag
0.34
Au
0.38
0.42
Si
0.27
MgO
Ge
0.28
Al2O3
0.23
TiC
0.19
0.19
(Natural) 0.49
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z
x
do=10 mm
d = -2.5 x 10-3 mm
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Plastic Deformation
Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress
tensile stress,
stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
engineering strain,
p lastic strain
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Tensile properties
A. Yield strength (y): the strength required to produce
a very slight yet specified amount of plastic deformation.
Whatt iis th
Wh
the specified
ifi d amountt off strain?
t i ?
Strain offset method
1. Start at 0.002 strain (for most metals).
2. Draw a line parallel to the linear region.
3. y = where the dotted line crosses
the stress-strain curve.
Elastic region
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Tensile properties
Yield point phenomenon occurs when elastic-plastic
transition is well-defined and abrupt.
p
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Fig. 6.10 Callister
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Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
20 00
300
Yield strenggth,
200
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
W (pure)
Cu (71500) cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd
Al (6061) ag
Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr
100
70
60
50
40
Al (6061) a
30
20
Tin (pure)
dry
PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
humid
PVC
PP
HDPE
Harrd to measure,
700
600
500
400
LDPE
10 00
Hard
d to measure ,
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
y (MPa))
Steel (4140) qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(
y(metals))
>> y(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
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Tensile Properties
B. Tensile Strength (TS): stress at the maximum of
stress-strain curve.
TS
P = proportional limit
y = yield strength
TS = tensile strength
M = max. stress
F = fracture point
0.002
Elastic region
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Necking
engineering
stress
TS
strain
Necking: at maximum stress, a small constriction (a neck)
appears.
Subsequent deformation is confined to this neck.
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2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
MSE280
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TS
strain
F
Ai
True Strain = T = ln
li
lo
F
Ao
Ai = instantaneous area
li = instantaneous length
If no net volume change (i.e. Ai li = Ao lo)
T = (1 + )
T = ln(1 + )
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Example problem
Calculate/determine the
following for a brass
specimen
i
th
thatt exhibits
hibit
stress-strain behavior
shown on the left.
1) Modulus of elasticity.
2) Yield strength.
3) Maximum load for a
cylindrical specimen
with d = 12.8mm.
4) Change in length at
345MPa if the initial
length is 250mm.
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Tensile properties
C. Ductility: measure of degree of plastic deformation that
has been sustained at fracture.
Ductile materials can undergo significant plastic
deformation before fracture.
Brittle materials can tolerate only very small plastic
deformation.
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Measure of ductility
% elongation =
% reduction in area =
l f lo
lo
100%
Ao A f
Ao
Lo
Ao
Af
Lf
100%
Ao and lo are initial.
Af and lf are at
fracture.
N
Note:
t %AR and
d %EL are often
ft comparable.
bl
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Typically, materials are considered: brittle if %EL < 5%
ductile if %EL > 5%
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engineering
stress
TS
strain
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Ductile failure
Brittle failure
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Tensile properties
D. Resilience: the capacity to absorb energy when
deformed elastically and to have the absorbed energy
recovered upon unloading.
Modulus of Resilience =U
= d
0
Ur =
y2
2E
Ur = area under
the elastic region
y
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Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to p
plastic deformation or cracking
g in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere
measure size
of indent after
removing load
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.
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Hardness scales
Indentation with
diamond pyramid tip
Indentation with
spherical hardened
steel and conical
diamond (for
hardest materials)
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Qualitative scale
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F L3
4bd 3
F L3
=
4R 4
Erectt . =
Ecirc.
fs = 2
fs =
3F f L
4bd 2
Ff L
R 3
Rectangular
Circular
Ff = force at fracture
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A
R2 = d2
L
F
Sample B
L
Compare the ratio of flexural strengths
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
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Plastic polymers
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Polymer (PMMA)
As T increases:
E decreases
TS decreases
Ductility increases
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Semicrystalline polymer
Upper
yyield p
pt
Neck formation
(chains become
aligned in the neck)
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Viscoelastic deformation
Amorphous polymers may act like:
- Glass at low T (T < Tg Glass transition temperature).
- Rubbery solid (Tm > T > Tg).
- Viscous
Vi
liliquid
id (T > Tm).
)
Viscoelasticity: mechanical characteristics exhibiting both viscous
flow and elastic deformation (rubbery solid).
Elastic
Instantaneous
response w/
complete
recovery.
y
Delayed
response.
Viscous Not reversible.
Viscoelastic
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= E
E r (t ) =
(t )
o
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Polystyrene (t = 10s)
3 orders of magnitude
change
Glass transition
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Polystyrene
Crystalline isotactic PS
Highly crosslinked PS
Amorphous PS
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Viscoelastic creep
Time dependent deformation when stress is kept
constant (as opposed to constant strain for viscoelastic
rela ation)
relaxation).
Creep modulus:
E c (t ) =
o
(t )
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Example problem
crystalline
crosslinked
amorphous
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Concepts to remember
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