8.deformation and Strengthening PDF

MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials
Deformation and Strengthening

Reading:
g Chapter
p 8 Callister
Plastic deformation at the atomic level.

Why is dislocation motion primarily in metals
(why not in ceramics and covalent solids)?
Relation between strength and dislocation
motion.
Strategies for strengthening.
2008 Moonsub
Shim,
University
of Illinois
2007,
2007 University
of Illinois
Board
of Trustees.
All rights reserved.
MSE280
Recall dislocations
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
Plastic deformation corresponds to motion of dislocations!
2
2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois
MSE280
Why are dislocations important in

plastic deformation?
Perfect crystal
Shear force
All bonds on this

plane need to be
broken and new
ones made at the
same time.
With a
dislocation
dislocation,
break and make
bond along one
line at a time.
MSE280
Slip: plastic deformation by dislocation motion.

Slip plane: crystallographic plane on which dislocation line traverses.
http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/monarch/LarvaLocomotion.html
From Callister 6e resource CD.
MSE280
Why mainly in metals and not other materials?

electron cloud
Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding
+ + + + + + + +
-close-packed
close packed directions for slip.
-dislocation density ~ 103 to 1010 mm-2). + + + + + + + +
ion cores
Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding.
-dislocation density ~ 0.1 to 1 mm-2 for
single crystal Si.
Ionic Ceramics: Motion hard.
-need to avoid ++ and -neighbors.
-dislocation density ~ 102 to 104 mm-2.
From Callister resource CD
MSE280
Lattice strain around dislocations

Edge dislocation:
Screw dislocation:
Pure shear strain.
MSE280
Interacting Edge Dislocations

Stress fields from dislocations with no applied stresses.
Like ones Repel
Opposites attract
Two halves make a whole. No
strain from missing half row.
Dislocation pile-ups: traffic jam
Obstacles,
e.g. GB, twins, particles
Larger back stress w/ many.
(precipitates).
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Interacting Edges
Different slip planes and less than 450,
like ones still repel.
Different slip planes and greater than 450,

like ones attract.
Final configuration that is stable (w/o applied stress).

Low-angle grain boundary (Collection of edges).
D. Johnson
MSE280
Interacting Oppositely Oriented Edges

Less than 450, opposites attract.
Final stable configuration
g
that minimizes local stress.
Greater than 450, opposites

repel.
Array of opposing edges.

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Slip system
Slip system = slip plane + slip direction
z
e.g. slip in
FCC
Slip direction
Slip plane
y
x
For metals: slip plane is the

most close-packed plane.
(Why?) Burgers vector
Slip on (111) along direction indicated

Slip system = (111) [1 0 1]
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Slip in FCC
However, there are equivalent planes and directions (i.e. families).
Therefore the actual slip system = {111}<110>
{111} = (111), (11 1), (111), ( 111), ( 111), (1 11 ), ( 111 ), ( 1 1 1 )
8 planes in this familyy but not all are unique.
e.g. (111) and ( 111) are parallel to each other.
In this case, we have:
(111) = ( 111)
(111) = (1 11 ) Only 4
(111) = ( 11 1) unique slip
planes!
((11 1) = ( 11 1)) p
3 possible slip directions
per plane.
Total 12 slip systems in
FCC
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Many more slip systems then HCP.

FCC and BCC are typically more
ductile then HCP.
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Slip in single crystals
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Even with pure tensile stress, shear component may also exist
Applied stress
Slip plane
Note: R will lie in the slip direction.

In general, + does not have to
equal 90o.
Slip direction
Resolved shear stress:
R = cos cos
Schmid factor
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= F/Ao
R = F cos/ (Ao/cos)
= F/Ao (cos cos)
R = cos cos
Ao
As
R = Fs/As
Fs=Fcos
As = Ao/cos
Slip direction
Fs
As
Ao
Note: in metals, although there are different slip systems, once a
stress axis is specified, one slip system is most favorably oriented
(for a fixed stress direction, each slip system has different and ).
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Critical resolved shear stress (crss): minimum shear stress required
to initiate slip: This is when yielding begins (i.e. yield strength).
C diti ffor di
Condition
dislocation
l
ti motion:
ti
R > crss
y =
crss
(cos cos ) max
Crystal orientation can make it easy or difficult to move dislocations.
a)
b)
R = 0
=90
c)
R = /2
=45
=45
R = 0
=90
What happens in cases a and c (w.r.t. plastic deformation)?

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MSE280
Example1
Determine the Schmid factor for an FCC single crystal oriented
with its [100] direction parallel to the loading axis.
Example 2
Tensile stress is applied along [010] direction of a single crystal of BCC
iron.
a) Calculate the resolved shear stress along slip system (110)[ 111] when
tensile stress = 52 MPa.
b) Calculate the magnitude of applied stress to initiate yielding if critical
resolved shear stress is 30 MPa.
Example 3
For an FCC Ag single crystal, slip initiates at 1.1 MPa of
applied tensile stress along [001] direction.
Calculate the critical resolved shear stress.
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MSE280
Plastic deformation in
polycrystalline materials
Similar to single crystals,
slip systems that have the
most favorable orientation
w.r.t. applied stress are where
dislocation motions occur.
More complex then single
crystals: direction of slip
varies from grain to grain due
to random crystallographic
orientation.
Which do you expect to be
stronger: single crystalline or
polycrystalline?
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MSE280
Single vs. polycrystal

polycrystalline
Single crystal
e.g.
Center grain
R = /2
=45
=45
R = /2
=45
=45
For each grain,
y =
y = 2crss
crss
(cos cos ) max
But and are different for each grain.

Which will require more stress to slip single crystal or the center
grain in polycrystal?
19
Before
&
After
MSE280
Plastic Deformation
Grains elongate in the direction of stress but grain boundaries remain intact.
In order for the center grain in the previous slide to slip,
surrounding grains, which may have higher yield strengths,
also have to slip.
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10
Strengthening mechanisms
Grain size reduction

Solid solutions
Precipitation strengthening
Strain hardening (cold working)
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MSE280
1. Strengthening via grain size reduction
ain
gr
grain A
bou
in
ar
nd
y
Hall-Petch Equation:
g ra
Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.

Barrier "strength increases with
slip plane
misorientation.
Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip
slip.
Grain size may be controlled by solidification
process and by plastic deformation followed
by appropriate heat treatment.
y = o + k y d 1/ 2
Fig. 7.13 Callister 6e
Material-dependent constants
Average grain diameter
What happens at very small or
very large grain sizes?
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11
2. Strengthening via solid solutions

Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
Smaller impurity atoms
Larger
g impurity
p y atoms
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2. Strengthening via solid solutions
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12
3. Strengthening via precipitation

precipitate
Large
g shear stress needed
to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
Side View
Top View
Uns lipped part of slip plane
Dislocation
advances but
precipitates act as
pinning sites with
spacing S .
S lipped part of slip plane
Result:
y ~
1
S
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MSE280

Simulation
Precipitate volume fraction: 10%
Average
A
precipitate
i it t size:
i
64 b (b = 1 atomic
t i slip
li di
distance)
t
)
Simulation courtesy of Volker

Mohles, Institut fr Materialphysik
der Universitt, Mnster, Germany
(http://www.uni-munster.de/physik
/MP/mohles/). Used with
permission.
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MSE280
13

Example: aluminum alloys used for airplanes
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MSE280
4. Strengthening via strain hardening

Strengthening by plastic deformation.
Called cold working because deformation is carried out at a
low
low temperature (i
(i.e.
e below melting temperature)
temperature).
Usually at RT for metals.
Percent cold work = %CW =
Ao Ad
x100
Ao
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14

Forging
Extrusion
Rolling
Drawing
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MSE280
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15
Example problem
Of the 3 metals from previous slide (Cu,
b
brass
and
d 1040 steel),
t l) which
hi h can b
be cold
ld
worked to give yield strength > 345 MPa
and %EL > 20%?
31
MSE280
Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
extra half-plane
of atoms
Disl.
annhilate
and form
a perfect
atomic
plane.
atoms
diffuse
to regions
of tension
extra half-plane
of atoms
3 . Climbed disl. can now

move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
vacancy diffusion
allowing disl. to climb
1. dislocation blocked;
cant move to the right
R
4 . opposite dislocations
meet and annihilate
obstacle
dislocation
32
From Callister resources CD
MSE280
16
Recovery by Edge Climb Process

Dislocations can avoid obstacles.
Scenario 2
-- Dislocation is block by obstacle (precipitate or another dislocation).
-- Edge moves to another slip plane by vacancy-assisted climb, which is
temperature-dependent process.
-- Climbed dislocation can now move on parallel slip plane and annihilate, as in
scenario 1.
Inclusion,
Precipitate.
t=0
t= t1
t= t2
D. Johnson
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MSE280
Can screw dislocations annihilate one another?

Recall two edges dislocations (positive and negative)
Screws also have positive and negative sense.
Disl. Motion
Burgers Vector
Line direction of screw
Whats left when the two screw dislocations meet?
D. Johnson
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17
Recrystallization
New crystals are formed that:
--have a small disl. density
are small
--are
--consume cold-worked crystals.
0.6 mm
0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (a),(b),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
33% cold
worked
brass
New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580C.
35
MSE280
Further recrystallization
All cold-worked crystals are consumed.
0 6 mm
0.6
0 6 mm
0.6
Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (c),(d),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J E Burke,
J.E.
Burke
General Electric
Company.)
After 4
seconds
After 8
seconds
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MSE280
18
Grain Growth
At longer times, larger grains consume smaller ones.
Why? Grain boundary area (and therefore energy)
i reduced.
is
d
d
0.6 mm
0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.19 (d),(e),
Callister 6e.
(Fig. 7.19 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 8 s,
580C
After 15 min,
580C
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam.
dn dno = Kt
at time t.
coefficient dependent
on material and T.
elapsed time
37
MSE280
Effects on mechanical properties
38
MSE280
19
Example problem
10.2 mm
7.6 mm
Brass
Brass
How do we achieve the above change while maintaining

y>380MPa & ductility > 15%EL?
39
MSE280
Deformation in Ceramics
Crystalline: plastic deformation via dislocation
motion However,
motion.
However more difficult for dislocations
to move and smaller number of them to start
with.
Ionic ceramics: electrostatic repulsion makes it
difficult to generate and to move dislocations.
Covalent ceramics: relatively strong bonds, limited
number of slip systems, and dislocation structures are
often complex.
Noncrystalline: plastic deformation by viscous

flow (like liquids).
40
MSE280
20
Deformation in polymers
Semicrystalline polymers
Elastic deformation:
Elongation of polymer chains along load axis.

Bending and stretching of bonds (some displacement of
neighboring molecules).
Elastic Modulus: combination of crystalline and
amorphous regions.
Plastic deformation:
1. Separation of crystalline regions via elongation of
p
regions.
g
amorphous
2. Distortion of crystalline regions (alignment along load axis).
3. Segmentation of crystalline blocks.
4. Alignment of crystalline blocks along load axis.
Note: may be reversible by heating to recover original
configuration.
41
MSE280
Semicrystalline polymer deformation
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21
Factors that influence mechanical properties

Molecular weight
Tensile modulus: usually independent of chain length.
Tensile strength: longer chains tend to have more entangled
chains
h i which
hi h iincreases TS
TS.
TS = TS
A
Mn
TS in the infinite
MW limit.
Degree of crystallinity
Crystalline regions are more densely packed: more secondary
bonds.
Tensile modulus increases with increasing crystallinity.
Tensile strength also increases with increasing crystallinity
crystallinity.
Brittleness increases with crystallinity.
e.g. Polyethylene.
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MSE280
Factors that influence mechanical properties

(continued)
Predeformation by Drawing
Neck extension.
extension
Analogous to strain hardening.
Anisotropic properties:
Tensile modulus parallel can icrease up to ~3x
TS parallel can increase ~ 2 to 5x
TS perpendicular can decrease by about 1/3 ~
Heat treating (annealing)

Increase modulus & yield strength.
Decrease ductility.
Opposite effects to annealing metals.
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MSE280
22
Deformation of elastomers
Disorder
Ordered
Elastomers
Driving force for elastic deformation: ENTROPY
Criteria to be an elastomer:
1. Amorphous
2. Easy chain bond rotation (e.g. single vs. double bond)
3. Delayed onset of plastic deformation (e.g. via crosslinking preventing
slipping of chains)
4. Glass transition temperature (above it: otherwise becomes brittle).
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MSE280
Cis vs. trans isoprene

2
1
H2C
C
H
CH3
CH3
H2C
CH2
C
H2
C
H
CH2
trans-isoprene
CH3
cis-isoprene
H2
C
H
H
trans-1,4-polyisoprene
CH3
C
H
H
C H
cis-1,4-polyisoprene
Which one will be a better elastomer?

46
MSE280
23
Vulcanization
Crosslinking process in elastomers.
Enhances elastic modulus
tensile strength
resistance to degradation
Typically ~1 5 wt% sulfur in useful rubbers.
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MSE280
Concepts to remember
Dislocation motion and plastic deformation.

y is dislocation motion p
primarily
y in metals?
Why
Lattice distortions around dislocations.
Interaction between dislocations.
Slip system.
Single crystal slip.
Single crystalline vs. polycrystalline deformation.
Strengthening mechanisms.
Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth.
Deformation in ceramics.
Deformation in polymers (different factors that contribute
to mechanical properties).
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MSE280
24

8.deformation and Strengthening PDF

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MSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials

Deformation and Strengthening

Plastic deformation at the atomic level.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Why are dislocations important in

All bonds on this

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Slip: plastic deformation by dislocation motion.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Why mainly in metals and not other materials?

From Callister resource CD

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Lattice strain around dislocations

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Interacting Edge Dislocations

Different slip planes and greater than 450,

Final configuration that is stable (w/o applied stress).

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Interacting Oppositely Oriented Edges

Greater than 450, opposites

Array of opposing edges.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

For metals: slip plane is the

Slip on (111) along direction indicated

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Many more slip systems then HCP.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Slip in single crystals

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Slip in single crystals

Note: R will lie in the slip direction.

Resolved shear stress:

Slip in single crystals

Slip in single crystals

Crystal orientation can make it easy or difficult to move dislocations.

What happens in cases a and c (w.r.t. plastic deformation)?

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Single vs. polycrystal

For each grain,

But and are different for each grain.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

Grain size reduction

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

1. Strengthening via grain size reduction

Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2. Strengthening via solid solutions

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

2. Strengthening via solid solutions

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

3. Strengthening via precipitation

Uns lipped part of slip plane

S lipped part of slip plane

From Callister resource CD

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

3. Strengthening via precipitation

Simulation courtesy of Volker

From Callister resource CD

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois

3. Strengthening via precipitation

2007, 2008 Moonsub Shim, University of Illinois