Contents

Nomenclature .................................................................................................................. VIII

1 Basic Characteristics
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Application Areas ........................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Engine Operating Parameters ...................................................................................... 7
1.3.1 Geometric and Kinematic Factors .................................................................... 7
1.3.2 Effective Torque and Power ............................................................................. 8
1.3.3 Indicated Cycle ................................................................................................. 9
1.3.4 Organic Efficiency ......................................................................................... 11
1.3.5 Air/Fuel Ratio ................................................................................................. 12
1.3.6 Specific Fuel Consumption ............................................................................ 12
1.4 Filling the Displaced Volume .................................................................................... 14
1.4.1 The Filling Coefficient .................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Influence of Design Parameters ....................................................................... 15
1.4.3 Typical Trend of Filling Coefficient ............................................................... 16
1.5 Engine Operating Characteristics .............................................................................. 17
1.5.1 Torque and Power Curves .............................................................................. 17
1.5.2 Fuel Consumption Maps ................................................................................ 20
1.6 Exercise 1.1: SI Engine Performance ........................................................................ 24
2 Gas Exchange Process
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................
2.2 Four-stroke Engines ...................................................................................................
2.2.1 Valve Flow Coefficient ..................................................................................
2.2.2 Maximum Valve Lift ......................................................................................
2.2.3 Valve Diameter ..............................................................................................
2.3 Timing Diagrams .......................................................................................................
2.3.1 Exhaust Valve Opening ..................................................................................
2.3.2 Inlet Valve Closing .........................................................................................
2.3.3 Valve Overlap Period .....................................................................................
2.3.4 Variable Valve Timing ...................................................................................
2.4 Dynamic Effects ........................................................................................................
2.4.1 Inertial Effects ................................................................................................
2.4.2 Wave Actions .................................................................................................
2.4.3 Variable Geometry Systems ...........................................................................
2.5 Supercharging ............................................................................................................
2.5.1 Methods of Supercharging .............................................................................
2.5.2 Constant Pressure Turbocharging ...................................................................

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2.5.3 Pulse Turbocharging ....................................................................................... 60

2.5.4 Charge Cooling .............................................................................................. 62
2.5.5 Automotive Engines ....................................................................................... 63
2.5.6 Engine Transient Response ............................................................................ 67
2.5.7 Turbocharger Matching .................................................................................. 71
2.6 Two-Stroke Engines .................................................................................................. 74
2.6.1 Scavenging Process ........................................................................................ 75
2.6.2 Port Configurations ........................................................................................ 77
2.6.3 Global Scavenging Parameters ....................................................................... 81
2.6.4 Port Flow Coefficients .................................................................................... 85
2.6.5 Analysis of Actual Scavenging Processes ...................................................... 90
2.6.6 Port and Manifold Design .............................................................................. 94
2.6.7 Scavenging Pumps ......................................................................................... 99
2.7 Exercise 2.1: Valve Design for a Four-Stroke Engine ............................................. 102
2.8 Exercise 2.2: Dynamic Effects in a Four-Stroke Engine ......................................... 104
2.9 Exercise 2.3: Turbocharged Spark Ignition Engine ................................................. 105
2.10 Exercise 2.4: Port Design for a Two-Stroke Engine ................................................ 110
3 Fuel Metering and Gas Motion
3.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................
3.2 Spark-Ignition Engines ............................................................................................
3.2.1 Mixture Requirements ..................................................................................
3.2.2 Gasoline Injection .........................................................................................
3.2.3 Gasoline Injection Systems ..........................................................................
3.2.4 Oxygen Sensors ............................................................................................
3.2.5 Fuel Metering ...............................................................................................
3.2.6 Mixture Formation .......................................................................................
3.3 Diesel Engines .........................................................................................................
3.3.1 Mixture Requirements ..................................................................................
3.3.2 Injection Systems .........................................................................................
3.3.3 Common Rail Systems .................................................................................
3.3.4 Piezo-Injectors ..............................................................................................
3.3.5 Injection Law ................................................................................................
3.3.6 Fuel Spray Characteristics ............................................................................
3.3.6.1 Spray Formation ............................................................................
3.3.6.2 Mean Droplet Diameter ................................................................
3.3.6.3 Spray Penetration ..........................................................................
3.3.6.4 Jet Spreading Angle ......................................................................
3.4 Cylinder Charge Motion ..........................................................................................
3.4.1 Turbulent Flows ...........................................................................................
3.4.2 Swirl .............................................................................................................
3.4.3 Tumble .........................................................................................................
3.4.4 Squish ...........................................................................................................
3.5 Exercise 3.1: Gasoline Injection in SI Automotive Engine .....................................
3.6 Exercise 3.2: Fuel Metering in a Turbocharged Automotive Diesel Engine ............
3.7 Exercise 3.3: Swirl in a Diesel Combustion Chamber .............................................

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4 Combustion Processes
4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................
4.2 Combustion Characteristics .....................................................................................
4.2.1 Autoignition .................................................................................................
4.2.2 Laminar Combustion ....................................................................................
4.2.3 Turbulent Combustion ..................................................................................
4.2.4 Diffusive Combustion ..................................................................................
4.3 Spark Ignition Engines .............................................................................................
4.3.1 Homogeneous Charge Combustion ..............................................................
4.3.1.1 Combustion Phases .......................................................................
4.3.1.2 Flame Speed ..................................................................................
4.3.1.3 Pressure and Temperature Curves .................................................
4.3.1.4 Cyclic Variations ..........................................................................
4.3.1.5 Influence of engine parameters .....................................................
4.3.2 Stratified Charge Combustion ......................................................................
4.3.3 Surface Ignition ............................................................................................
4.3.4 Knock ...........................................................................................................
4.3.5 Controlled Auto-Ignition (CAI) Combustion ................................................
4.4 Diesel Engines .........................................................................................................
4.4.1 Combustion Phases .......................................................................................
4.4.2 Ignition Delay ...............................................................................................
4.4.3 Premixed and Mixing Controlled Comb . .....................................................
4.4.4 Combustion Chambers Geometry ................................................................
4.4.5 HCCI Engines .............................................................................................
4.5 Exercise 4.1: SI Engine Combustion .......................................................................
4.6 Exercise 4.2: Diesel Engine Combustion ................................................................

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5 Pollutant and Noise Control

5.1 Environment Impact ................................................................................................
5.1.1 Pollutant Emissions ......................................................................................
5.1.2 Pollutant Regulations ...................................................................................
5.2 SI Engine Emissions ................................................................................................
5.2.1 Formation of Pollutants ................................................................................
5.2.2 Carbon Monoxide .........................................................................................
5.2.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons ..............................................................................
5.2.4 Nitrogen Oxides ...........................................................................................
5.2.5 Emission Control ..........................................................................................
5.2.6 Catalytic Converters .....................................................................................
5.3 Diesel Emissions ......................................................................................................
5.3.1 Formation of Gaseous Pollutants ..................................................................
5.3.2 Control of Gaseous Pollutants ......................................................................
5.3.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) ................................................................
5.3.4 Formation of Diesel Particulate ....................................................................
5.3.5 Control of Diesel Particulate ........................................................................
5.3.6 After-Treatment Processes ...........................................................................
5.4 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles ...................................................................................

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5.4.1 Plug-in Electric Cars ....................................................................................

5.4.2 Hybrid-electric Cars .....................................................................................
5.5 Noise Emissions .......................................................................................................
5.5.1 Fundamentals and Definitions ......................................................................
5.5.2 Control of Gas Dynamic Noise ....................................................................
5.5.3 Transmission and Insertion Loss ..................................................................
5.5.4 TL curves of Basic Elements ........................................................................
5.5.5 Practical Silencer Design ..............................................................................
5.6 Exercise 5.1: Car Engine Emissions ........................................................................
5.6 Exercise 5.2: Gas Dynamic Noise Reduction ..........................................................

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6 Heat Transfer and Cooling

6.1 Energy Balance ........................................................................................................
6.2 Heat Transfer in Engines .........................................................................................
6.2.1 Time and Space Averaged Flux ...................................................................
6.2.2 Effect of Operating Variables .......................................................................
6.3 Liquid Cooling Systems ...........................................................................................
6.3.1 Cooling Liquid .............................................................................................
6.3.2 Cooling Circuit .............................................................................................
6.3.3 Radiator Design ............................................................................................
6.4 Air Cooling Systems ................................................................................................
6.4.1 External Surface Efficiency ..........................................................................
6.4.2 Optimum Fin Proportions .............................................................................
6.4.3 Heat Transfer Coefficient .............................................................................
6.4.4 Required Finned Surface ..............................................................................
6.5 Thermal Loads and Stresses ....................................................................................
6.5.1 Temperature Distributions ............................................................................
6.5.2 Local Temperature Gradients .......................................................................
6.5.3 Time Temperature Gradients ........................................................................
6.6 Heat Transfer Modeling ...........................................................................................
6.6.1 Radiative Heat Transfer ................................................................................
6.6.2 Instantaneous Space Averaged Flux .............................................................
6.6.3 Instantaneous and Local Heat Flux ..............................................................
6.7 Exercise 6.1: Liquid Cooling System Design ..........................................................
6.8 Exercise 6.2: Air Cooling System Design ...............................................................

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7 Fossil Based and Renewable Fuels

7.1 Requirements for Fuels ............................................................................................
7.2 Fossil Based Fuels ...................................................................................................
7.3 Gaseous Fossil Fuels ................................................................................................
7.3.1 Effects on Engine Performance ....................................................................
7.3.2 Fossil Natural Gas ........................................................................................
7.3.3 Liquefied Petroleum Gas ..............................................................................
7.4 Technical Properties of Fuels ...................................................................................
7.4.1 Stoichiometric Air/Fuel Ratio ......................................................................
7.4.2 Fuel Heating Value .......................................................................................

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7.4.3 Knock Rating of Fuels ..................................................................................

7.4.4 Ignition Quality Rating .................................................................................
7.4.5 Volatility of Liquid Fuels .............................................................................
Renewable Fuels ......................................................................................................
7.5.1 Biofuels for Engines .....................................................................................
7.5.2 Bio-alcohols .................................................................................................
7.5.3 Biodiesel .......................................................................................................
7.5.4 Biogas ...........................................................................................................
Hydrogen .................................................................................................................
Future Trends ...........................................................................................................
Exercise 7.1: Comparisons between Contributions of Different Fuels to CO2
Emissions ................................................................................................................

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8 Modeling Termo-Fluid-Dynamic Processes

8.1 Introduction to Engine Modeling .............................................................................
8.2 Gas Dynamic One-Dimensional Models .................................................................
8.2.1 Basic Assumptions .......................................................................................
8.2.2 Governing Equations ....................................................................................
8.2.3 Solution of Equation System ........................................................................
8.3 Thermodynamic Models ..........................................................................................
8.3.1 Phenomenological Models of Turbulence ....................................................
8.3.2 Quasi-Dimensional Combustion Models ......................................................
8.4 Gas Dynamic Multi-Dimensional Models ...............................................................
8.4.1 Basic Conservation Equations ......................................................................
8.4.2 Turbulence Modeling ...................................................................................
8.4.2.1 RANS Simulation Approach ..........................................................
8.4.2.2 k - Turbulence Model .................................................................
8.4.2.3 LES Simulation Approach .............................................................
8.4.3 Spray Evolution Modeling ...........................................................................
8.4.3.1 Primary Droplet Break-up .............................................................
8.4.3.2 Secondary Droplet Break-up .........................................................
8.4.3.3 Droplet Collisions .........................................................................
8.4.3.4 Wall Impingements .......................................................................
8.4.4 . Combustion Modeling ..................................................................................
8.4.4.1 Chemical Reaction Mechanisms ...................................................
8.4.4.2 Flame Regimes ..............................................................................
8.4.4.3 Phenomenological Models ............................................................

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7.5

7.6
7.7
7.8

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Appendix Ideal and Real Flows

A.1 Ideal Flows .............................................................................................................. 435
A.2 Real Flows .............................................................................................................. 437
Index ............................................................................................................................... 439