CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Soil Mechanics as an early branch of engineering relied on the process of trial and error
in construction of geotechnical structures. Empirical equations were used to design structures
some of which are still being used today (Arvelo, 1994). The increased availability of computers
changed the basis of calculations of geotechnical engineers. Numerical techniques were
introduced to predict the behaviour of geotechnical structures. To be able to simulate soil
behaviour, constitutive models were developed to account for a more accurate prediction of soils,
hence leading to a more economic and safe design (Masin, 2004).
Constitutive modelling is a relatively new branch of soil mechanics that has been utilized
to find solutions to various unknowns. Soil behaviour is described in terms of constitutive
equations which are idealized (Arvelo, 1994). The developments of the models were delayed due
to high computational cost and varying model parameters. An increase in computer resources and
accurate testing of soil parameters made it practical for geotechnical engineers to use these
models. The application of these models requires an experimental study to be certain that all
phenomena are accounted (Jakobsen, 2002). Numerical prediction of the constitutive model
depends highly on appropriate selection of model parameters (Devi, 2013). An iterative approach
may be conducted to optimize the model parameters to gain an optimum match between the
model and the experimental data. (Wood et al, 2016).
One of the earliest models used is the works of Coulomb (1776) and Rankine (1857)
called Mohr-Coulomb Model. It is an integration of Hookes and Coulombs Law assuming

linear elastic and perfectly plastic soil which have relatively simple applications. Naturally, soils
are non-linear and varied in terms of actual behaviour even under working loads. The
complicated behaviour of soil cannot be accounted in a simple Mohr-Coulomb Model. Various
constitutive models were developed by engineers and researchers and apply such models in finite
element analysis and finite element modelling for geotechnical applications. (Ti ,2009). One of
these models is the Modified Cam Clay Model developed by researchers in Cambridge
University, UK.
The Modified Cam Clay Model is an elastic-plastic strain hardening model based on
critical state theory. This model is used to predict the behaviour of normally consolidated clays
that is validated by experimental results (Munda et al, 2014). It is mostly used in analysis of
geotechnical problems requiring realistic soil models. The virgin compression curve and
recompression curve are linear in void ratio vs Logartihmic of effective stress which is most
realistic in normally consolidated clays. The model performs well on loading conditions of
embankment and foundation (Ti, 2009).
In the present study, the researcher aims to determine the soil parameters needed to
generate the Modified Cam Clay Model using Philippine soil. A conventional Tri-axial test will
be conducted to determine the parameters namely isotropic logarithmic compression index,
swelling index and slope of critical state line. A constant value will be assumed for the Poissons
Ratio and Shear Modulus. A parameter optimization technique will be adapted if the estimated
parameters does not produce proper correlation with the experimental data.

1.6 Conceptual Framework

INPUT
Isotropic Logarithmic
Compression Index,
Swelling index,
Poissons ration, shear
modulus, slope of
critical state line

PROC
ESS
Modified Cam Clay
Model

OUTP
UT
Optimized model
parameters

CONSTITUTIVE MODELLING OF SOIL

The increased availability of computer resources in the last decades has allowed
geotechnical engineers to change their basis of calculation. The development and utilization of
constitutive models for describing soil behaviour are based on experimental data to completely
model the essential phenomena. A more complete description of soil is through combined
conditions of linear elasticity and plastic elasticity model called elasto-plastic constitutive model
that would then be implemented in finite element analysis (Jakobsen , 2002). Finite element
simulations of well-established constitutive models would lead to a more economic and safe
deisgn (Masin, 2004).
Initially, soil mechanics was a practical branch of engineering that relied on the process
of trial and error in geotechnical structures construction. Empirical equations were used as means
of designing in which some are still being used in the present. The implementation of different
disciplines related to soil mechanics paved way to establishing models that simulate soil
behaviour. Constitutive modelling is considered as a new branch in geotechnical engineering.
Constitutive equations are employed to better describe the stress-strain behaviour of soils that
were initially idealized in previous mechanisms (Arvelo, 1994).
The model to be used in conducting numerical analysis of boundary value problems
needs to be selected properly to accurately describe the real behaviour of the medium analysed.
Numerical prediction depends highly on the parameters used on the model which are determined
from the experimental data. The complexity of soil demands a more complex model that is
continuously improved. However, the more complex the model is, the more difficult to estimate

the parameters for numerical analysis. Simple laboratory test should be enough to determine the
parameters with relatively straightforward numerical treatment (Devi, 2013)
The development of constitutive models in soil has been in advancement since 1950s. The
computational difficulty made the models developed impractical to engineers. Since then,
computers overcame these barriers and different models were proposed. The first popular model
was developed by Tresca and Von Mises for metals. These models were improved and several
theorists focused on the special characteristics of soil. One of which is the Mohr-Coulomb
models that have been widely used in different categories. The capabilities of the early models
developed are very limited and Critical State Concept (Cam Clay) proposed by Schofield and
Wroth (1968) was widely adapted. The critical state theory provided the theoretical basis for
many models in the last 30 years (Kavvadas, 2000). The Original Cam Clay describes well the
behaviour of soil under monotonic loading and moderate unloading but proves as a disadvantage
in stress induced anisotropy and cyclic loading (Jakobsen, 2002).

Experiment Procedure
Soil Classification
The soil from the study site would be classified based on Sieve Analysis and
Hydrometer Analysis: ASTM D422-63, Liquid Limit Test and Plastic Limit Test: ASTM
D4318-10 to verify if the soil is composed of clayey minerals.
Isotropic Consolidation Test
The isotropic consolidation test will be performed at PGATECH Center located
at Kamuning Rd., Quezon City. This test would be conducted to determine two
parameters namely, swelling index and compression index. The two indices are two
of the five parameters needed to model the soil using Modified Cam Clay Model. The
swelling index represents the volume recovery capacity of soil associated to its
elastic behaviour and compression index is a measure of the unrecoverable
volumetric soil deformation (Arvelo, 1994). To perform an isotropic consolidation
test, the sample is compacted to its optimum moisture content and extruded from
the mould. The soil sample would then be placed in the Tri-axial Apparatus pedestal
and be subjected to a series of back pressure and cell pressure. The soil should be
saturated up to a B-Check Value of 0.93-0.95 and consolidation phase would
proceed. An effective cell pressure should be maintained and the graph of void ratio
vs logarithmic of pressure would be generated. The graph of loading phase would
approximate the compression index of the soil while the unloading phase would
generate the swelling index.
Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil

To be able to determine the void ratio of soil the, its moisture content should
be determined using ASTM D2216. Specifying a constant Specific Gravity of Solids,
the initial void ratio can be determined by applying the equation e=w*Gs.
Consolidated-Undrained Triaxial Test
The test will be conducted at PGATECH Center in Quezon City. After the
consolidation phase in Isotropic Consolidation Test, the shearing stage would then
proceed. Following ASTM D4767 for Consolidated-Undrained, a shearing rate would
be specified at each test. A stopping condition criterion of 20% strain would be set
and the graph of general deviator stress (q) vs. general volumetric effective stress
(p) would be generated. The slope of the critical state line can be determined from
the plot. In consolidated-undrained test the shearing rate specified could be larger
than in consolidated-drained test since drainage is not allowed and pore-water
transducer would measure the corresponding pore-water pressure developed during
shearing.

Finally the moisture content of the specimen should be determined

through ASTM D2216.

Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test
This test will also be performed at PGATECH Center. Same procedures will be
followed until the consolidation phase of the Tri-axial Testing. According to ASTM
D7181, the shearing should be applied at a slow rate to prevent development of
pore-water pressure in the specimen. The same stopping criteria of 20% strain will
be set to determine the slope of the critical state line. The final moisture content of
the specimen will be determined for estimation of the final void ratio.