Chapter 3.

Transformers and Per-Unit Systems

(My Bin p v H n V Tng i)

A primary function of the transformer is to convert electrical energy at one voltage level
to voltages at another level. The transformation may be to increase voltages or to
decrease voltages, depending on the application. Transformers are essential parts of most
power systems since they are utilised to interconnect different parts of transmission and
distribution power grids that operate at different voltage levels. Transformers also are
found in almost all power supplies for small power electronic equipment such as TV sets,
laptops, chargers A key application of power transformers is to reduce the current
before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through conductors. Most
conductors have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the
square of the current through them. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage,
and therefore low-current form for transmission and back again afterwards, transformers
enable the economic transmission of power over long distances. Consequently,
transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be
located remotely from points of demand. All but a fraction of the world's electrical
power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. In
this chapter, we will deal with some simplified models of transformers without discussing
the electromagnetic elements in details.

3.1

The Ideal Transformer

For analysis of transformers, it is convenient to start by using the ideal transformer

relations. Suppose we consider two coupled coils on a steel core of high magnetic
permeability, a simplified model for this transformer can be shown in Figure 3.1.
i1
N1 : N2

i2

v1
_

v2
_

Figure 3.1 Ideal Transformer

If the flux varies sinusoidally, there will be a sinusoidal voltage generated in each turn of
each coil according to Faraday. This quantity is called volt-per-turn and occupies an
important role in transformer design. If windings 1 and 2 have N1 and N2 turns,
respectively, then:

v1
v
2
N1 N 2

(3.1)

One of the ideal transformer relations is that there can be no energy absorbed, stored or
lost in the device. Whatever complex power enters one winding must leave the other.
Therefore, we have
v1i1* v 2 i2*
(3.2)
and
i1 N 2
(3.3)

i2 N 1
The transformer also tends to transform impedances. In Figure 3.3, some impedance is
connected to one side of the ideal transformer. We can find an equivalent impedance Z '
viewed from the other side of the transformer.
I1

I2
N1 : N2

V1
_

Figure 3.2 Impedance Coupling

Noting that
N1
I 1 and V2 ZI 2
N2
The ratio between input voltage and current is:
I2

N
N
V1 Z I 1 1 V2 1 ZI 1
N2
N2
We may derive the expression of the equivalent impedance viewed from the primary side
of the transformer:
'

N
Z 1
N2
'

(3.4)

From the ideal transformer relations we see that the voltamperes into one winding of a
two-winding transformer must equal the voltamperes out of the second winding. The
voltampere rating of a two winding transformer is then given as the voltampere rating of
either winding since the two are equal. In large power transformers the nameplate gives a
voltamperes (or kVA or MVA) rating for the device as well as the voltage ratings of the
two windings. The current ratings then follow from these data since S = VI. Small
transformers, for example, those used in electronic power supplies, are often rated by

giving the voltage and current ratings of each winding, from which the voltampere rating
would follow if desired.
No mention was made of power in the above statements. In a practical transformer the
relative phase angle of voltage and current has almost no effect on the voltage and current
capabilities of the windings, and hence the magnitude of S is the important factor and
how S is divided into P and Q is immaterial to the rating.

3.2

Three-Phase Transformer

A three-phase transformer is conceptually the same as three single phase transformers.

There are a number of ways of winding them, and a number of ways of interconnecting
them. On either side of a transformer connection (i.e. the high voltage and low voltage
sides), it is possible to connect transformers windings either line to neutral (wye), or line
to line (delta). Thus we will allow four connecting combinations: wye-wye, delta-delta,
wye-delta, delta-wye.
Ignoring all the imperfections, connection of transformers in either wye-wye or deltadelta is reasonably easy to understand. On the other hand, the interconnections of a wyedelta or delta-wye transformer are a little more complex. Figure 3.3 shows a delta-wye
connection, in what might be called wiring diagram form. A more schematic (and
more common) form of the same picture is shown in Figure 3.4.

Yc

Yb

Ya

Figure 3.3 Delta-Wye Transformer Connection

Assume that N and NY are numbers of turns. If the three individual transformers are
considered to be ideal, the following voltage and current constraints exist:
N
vaY Y va vb
N
N
vbY Y vb vc
N
N
vcY Y vc va
(3.5)
N

NY
iaY icY
N
N
ib Y ibY iaY
N
N
ic Y icY ibY
N
where each of the voltages are line-neutral and the currents are in the lines at the
transformer terminals.
ia

Now, consider what happens if a -Y transformer is connected to a balanced three-phase

voltage source, so that:
va ReV e jt
j t 2
vb ReV e 3

j t 23

vc ReV e

Where: Re denotes the real part; V is the line-neutral (phase) voltage amplitude, an
underline beneath the variable means it is a vector. Then the complex amplitudes on the
wye side are:
2
j
NY

1 e 3

NY
6

V aY
3 N Ve

2
2

NY j 3
NY j 2
3

V bY
e
Ve
e 3
N
N

2
5
j

NY j 3
NY

V cY
e 1 3
Ve 6
N
N

Two observations should be made here:

The ratio of voltages (that is, the ration of either line-line or line-neutral) is
different from the turns ratio by a factor of 3
All wye side voltages are shifted in phase by 30o with respect to the delta side
voltage.
It can be proved that impedances transform across transformers by the square of the
voltage ratio, no matter what connection is used.
As an example of some of the things said above, suppose that we read from the
nameplate of a large three-phase transformer at a hydroelectric generating station the
following rating data: 40 MVA, 115/24 kV. These data now tell us other things by using
the ideal transformer relations, for example:

N 1 / N 2 115 / 24 4.79
since the voltage ratio and the turns ratio are the same under rating standards of large
transformers. Also the rated current of the high voltage winding, which we call I1 is given
by
I 1 40 10 6 / 3 115 10 3
200.82 amperes rated current

and

I 2 40 10 6 / 3 24 10 3
= 962.25 amperes rated current for the low voltage winding
It will be noted that this latter figure for I could also have been obtained by using the
ideal transformer relation I1/I2 = N1/N2 if more convenient.

3.3

An Actual Transformer

The ideal transformer relations give very good answers to many transformer problems,
as in the examples preceding this section. For some problems, however, we must take
account of the departures from perfection to get an adequate answer to a transformer
problem. The first imperfection we will discuss is that of the core. The core is not
infinitely permeable, it does require ampere turns to establish the flux, and in addition,
there are internal energy losses in the core when the flux varies with time.
Figure 3.4 shows the hysteresis properties of a transformer core. Each time the magnetic
field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a
given core material, the hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function
of the peak flux density (Bm) to which it is subjected.

Figure 3.4 (a) Hysteresis Loops of Steel; (b) The Normal Magnetization Curve
Transformer losses arising from the magnetic circuit, are sometimes called iron loss.
These losses are independent of the load current, and may furthermore be expressed as

"no-load" loss. Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the
core, and tend to be proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given
frequency.
The hysteresis loss occurs as an inherent property of the magnetic material. The internal
structure of a ferromagnetic material is organized into domains and these domains are
reoriented as the magnetic flux density, B vector, goes through a cyclic change in
magnitude or direction. An internal energy loss appears as a result. The energy loss may
be minimized by suitable alloying and heat treatment of the metal. The treatment
processes may also affect the mechanical properties, however, so compromises must be
made.
If the frequency of the applied voltage were reduced but the range of B in the core
maintained (by applying lower voltage), a similar loop would be observed but with
smaller area than that originally observed. The reason for the larger area with higher
frequency is the effect of eddy currents in the steel. The steel is a conductor and, as the
flux in the steel varies, voltages are induced within the closed contours in the material.
Currents flow as a result of the voltage and an I2R loss occurs known as eddy current
loss. The loss is reduced by building the core from sheets of steel called laminations and
by increasing the resistivity of the material by alloying.
Since the core flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented
by a resistance Rc (or a conductance Gc=1/Rc) in parallel with the ideal transformer. A
core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain the mutual
flux in the core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; saturation effects
cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect
tends to be ignored in most circuit equivalents. With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux
lags the induced EMF by 90 and this effect can be modeled as a magnetising reactance
Xc ( or a susceptance Bc=1/Xc) in parallel with the core loss component. Rc and Xc are
sometimes together termed the magnetising branch of the model. If the secondary
winding is made open-circuit, the current I0 taken by the magnetising branch represents
the transformer's no-load current. Figure 3.5 shows the use of a fictitious circuit added to
the ideal transformer to account for exciting current.

Iex
Gc

Bc

Figure 3.5 Transformer Equivalent Circuit Accounted For Exciting Current

The equivalent circuit of Figure 3.5 is an approximation, but it is valid for most purposes.
The advantages of using a linear model far outweigh the slight error introduced by a
linear model. In any case the exciting current of a modern transformer of any size at all
is only a very small percentage of the full load current, so if there is a slight error in the
linear representation, it amounts to very little in terms of the total current passed by the
transformer. The model to use for a certain study is of course a matter of experience and
engineering judgment. For heavy load or short circuit studies the exciting current branch
is normally omitted entirely. For light load or no load the exciting current branch may be
included. For studies involving the wave form distortion of the exciting current the linear
model is completely inadequate.
Evaluation of Gc and Bc of Figure 3.5 involves an approximation to best model the actual
transformer in some sense of a most useful model. The usual method of evaluating the
parameters is to choose Gc and Bc so that the exciting current has the same rms value as
the actual exciting current and the power loss in Gc is the same as the actual core loss.
For example, suppose that a certain transformer is tested by applying rated voltage to a
10.5-kV winding with no load on the other winding, and it is observed that a current of
10 amperes flows and a power of 10000 watts is drawn. We solve for Gc and Bc as
2
follows:
Iex EYc ;
P Gc E 2 ; 10000 Gc 10500 ;
Gc 90.7 10 6 siemen ;

Yc 952.38 10 6 siemen ;

10 10500Yc ;

Yc2 Gc2 Bc2 ;

Bc Yc2 Gc2 948.05 10 6 siemen .

In addition to the core loss and the requirement for exciting current, there are other ways
in which an actual transformer differs from the ideal transformer model. For one thing,
some of the applied voltage is absorbed in IR drop in the winding resistance. We can
modify the ideal transformer model to account for winding resistance by adding two
series resistors R1 and R2 in either side of the windings. Now, each winding has a
resistance which, while not zero, is kept low in order to minimize copper losses and
increase efficiency.
Flux leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to
the mutual coupling, and thus can be modeled as self-inductances Xl1 and Xl2 in series
with the perfectly-coupled region. These series reactances (leakage reactance equivalent)
play a significant factor in transformer performance.
R1

Xl1

N1
Iex
Gc

Bc

N2

Xl2

R2

Figure 3.6 The Equivalent Circuit of An Actual Transformer

The secondary impedance R2 and Xl2 are frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary
N
side after multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor ( 1 ) 2
N2
2

R1

Xl1

N1

N Xl2
2

N1

N
2

R2

N1

N2

Iex
Gc

Bc

Figure 3.7 Alternative Equivalent Circuit for the Transformer

The net series resistance and reactance are known simply as the impedance of the
transformer. This is an item of data that is available from the manufacturer of the
transformer. We designate the net resistance and reactance by the symbols Req and Xeq in
the figure where:
2
Req R1 N1 / N2 R2
and

Xeq Xl1 N1 / N2 Xl 2
2

Open and short-circuit tests:

The parameters of the equivalent circuits of Figure 3.8 may be determined by the
designer from the physical dimensions and material properties of the transformer. On the
other hand, an actual transformer may be tested electrically to determine these values.
For the test, we apply rated voltage to the left side of the transformer of Figure 3.8(a)
with the right side open-circuited. Since the output current is zero, the current through
Req and Xeq is zero from properties of an ideal transformer. We thus "see" only the shunt
branch and determine Gc and Bc from the instrument readings.

To determine the series impedances Req and Xeq, we short-circuit one side, and it is
convenient to use the model of Figure 3.8(b) in this case. In order to limit the short-circuit
current, this test must be conducted at reduced voltage. With a short circuit on N2, the
voltage is zero on this winding and also is zero across N1 according to the properties of an
ideal transformer. As a result we can ignore the shunt exciting current branch and we
"see" only Req and Xeq.

Xeq

Req

Iex
Gc

Bc

(a)
Req

Xeq
Iex
Gc

Bc

(b)
Figure 3.8 Simple Equivalent Circuit for the Transformer

3.4 Introduction to Per-Unit Systems

Per-unit systems are nothing more than normalizations of voltage, current, impedance
power, reactive power, and apparent power (volt-ampere). These normalizations of
system parameters provide simplifications in many network calculations. As we will
discover, the transmission system and several portions of the distribution system are
operated at voltages in the kV range. This results in large amounts of power being
transmitted in the range of kilowatts to megawatts, and kilovoltamperes to
megavoltamperes. As a result, in analysis, it is useful to scale, or normalize quantities
with large physical values. This is commonly done in power system analysis and is
referred to as the per-unit system. This helps in understanding how certain types of
system behave. The numerical per-unit value of any quantity is its ratio to the chosen
base quantity of the same dimensions. Thus a per-unit quantity is a normalized quantity
with respect to a chosen base value.
Normalization of Voltage and Current:

The basis for the per-unit system of notation is the expression of voltage and current as
fractions of base levels. Thus the first step in setting up a per-unit normalization is to
select base voltage and current.

Consider the simple situation in Figure 3.9. For this network the complex amplitudes of
voltage and current are: V IZ (an underline beneath the variable means it is a vector).
We start by defining two base quantities, Vbase for voltage and Ibase for current. In many
cases, these will be chosen to be nominal or rated values. For generating plants, for
example, it is common to use the rated voltage and rated current of the generator as base
qualities. In other situations, such as system stability studies, it is common to use a
standard, system wide base system.
i1
+
V

+
v1
_

Figure 3.9 Example

The per-unit voltage and current are then simply:

V
I
v
, i
Vbase
I base
With V IZ , we have
v

IZ
I Z I base

iz
Vbase I base Vbase

Where the per-unit impedance is:

I base
Z

Vbase Z base
This leads to a definition for a base impedance for the system:
zZ

Vbase
I base
And there is also a base power, which for a single phase system is:
Pbase Vbase I base
Z base

where Vbase and Ibase are expressed in RMS (Root Mean Square). It is interesting to note
that, as long as normalization is carried out in a consistent way, there is no ambiguity in
per-unit notation. That is, peak quantities normalized to peak base will be the same, in
per-unit, as RMS quantities normalized to RMS bases. This advantage is even more
striking in polyphase systems.

Three Phase Systems:

In power system calculations the nominal voltage of lines and equipment is almost
always known, so the voltage is a convenient base value to choose. The apparent power
(volt-ampere - S) is usually chosen as a second base. In equipment this quantity is
usually known and makes a convenient base. The choice of these two base quantities will
automatically fix the base of current, impedance, and admittance. In a system study, the
volt-ampere base can be selected to be any convenient value such as 100 MVA, 1000
MVA, etc.
The same volt-ampere base is used in all parts of the system. One base voltage in a
certain part of the system is selected arbitrarily. All other base voltages must be related
to the arbitrarily selected one by the turns ratio of the connecting transformers.
For single-phase systems or three-phase systems where the term current refers to line
current, where the term voltage refers to line to neutral voltage, and where the term voltamperes refers to volt-amperes per phase, the following formulae relate the various
quantities:
S base ( )
I base
Vbase ( L N )
Z base

Vbase ( L N )
I base

base ( L N )

I baseVbase ( L N )

base ( L N )

S base ( )

In performing per-phase analysis, the bases for the quantities in the circuit representation
are volt-amperes per-phase or kilo-volt-amperes per phase, and volts or kilovolts from
line to neutral. System specification is usually given in terms of total three-phase voltamperes or kilo-volt-amperes or mega-volt-amperes and line-to-line volts or kilovolts.
This may result in some confusion regarding the relation between the per-unit value of
line-to-line voltage and the per-unit value of phase voltage (line to neutral voltage). In a
per-phase circuit, the voltage required for the solution is the line to neutral voltage even
though a line-to-line voltage may be specified as a base. The base value of the line to
neutral voltage is the base value of the line-to line voltage divided by 3 . Since this is
also the relation between line-to-line and line to neutral voltages of a balanced threephase system, the per-unit value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage
base is equal to the per-unit value of the line-to-line voltage at the same point on the lineto -line voltage base if the system is balanced. Similarly, the three-phase volt-amperes is
three times the volt-amperes per-phase, and the base value of the three-phase voltamperes is three times the base value of the per-phase volt-amperes. Therefore, the perunit value of the three-phase volt-amperes on the three-phase volt-ampere base is
identical to the per-unit value of the volt-amperes per-phase on the volt-ampere perphase base.
In a three-phase system, normally, a given value of base voltage is a line-to-line voltage,
and a given value of base kilo-volt-amperes or base mega-volt-amperes is the total threephase base.

The values of base impedance and base current can be computed from base values of
voltage and volt-amperes as shown earlier in the section. If the base values of voltamperes and voltage are specified as the volt-amperes for the total three phases and
voltage from line-to-line in a balanced three-phase system respectively, we have
S base ( 3 )

I base
Z base

Vbase ( L L )

3I base

3Vbase ( L L )

base ( L L )

3I baseVbase ( L N )

base ( L L )

S base (3 )

Networks With Transformers:

One of the most important advantages of the use of per-unit systems arises in the analysis
of networks with transformers. Properly applied, a per-unit normalization will cause
nearly all ideal transformers to disappear from the per-unit network, thus greatly
simplifying analysis.

I1

I2
1 :N

V1
_

V2
_

Figure 3.10 An Ideal Transformer

To show how this comes about, consider the ideal transformer as shown in Figure 3.10.
The ideal transformer imposes the constraints that:
1
V 2 NV 1 , I 2 I 1
N
Note that an underline beneath the variable means it is a vector. Normalized to base
quantities on the two sides of the transformer, the per-unit voltage and current are:
V
I
v1 1 , i 1 1
Vbase1
I base1
v2

V2
I
, i2 2
Vbase 2
I base 2

Note that if the base quantities are related to each other as if they had been processed by
the transformer:
1
Vbase 2 NVbase1 , I base 2 I 1
N
then v 1 v 2 and i 1 i 2 , as if the ideal transformer were not there.

Transforming From One Base To Another:

In most instances, the per-unit impedance of a component is specified on the rated
component base which is different from the base selected for the part of the system in
which the component is located. When performing calculations, all impedances in any
one part of the system must be expressed on the same impedance base. As a result, it is
necessary to have a means of converting per-unit impedances from one base to another.
The process of changing this per-unit value of impedance to per-unit on a new base can
be done as follows:
Note

that

Z z old Z base _ old

impedance

in

(ordinary
units)
is
given
2
V
z new Z base _ new . Here, replace Z base base , we can write:
S base
z old

Ohms

base _ old

S base _ old

z new

base _ new

S base _ new

This yields a convenient rule for converting from the old base to the new one:
z new

S base _ new
S base _ old

In other word: Per Unit Z new Per Unit Z old (

base _ old

base _ new

2
2

z old

baseVold 2 baseVAnew
) (
)
baseV new
baseVAold

by: