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Punctuation I
Period
Periods
A period (.) is most often used to mark the end of a statement, command, or
request.
I need more information about your finances.
Send me your financial records.
Could you please send me your records.
Indirect questions are also punctuated with a period. A direct question,
however, should end with a question mark.
The bank manager asked why it had taken so long.
The bank manager asked, Why did it take so long?
A request should be punctuated with a period even if it takes the form of a
question.
Will you please fill out this form.

Comma
Commas
The comma (,) is the most commonly usedand misusedpunctuation
mark. It represents a brief pause, but not every pause in a sentence needs to
be marked with a comma. The sentence below shows how an overuse of
commas can make a sentence difficult to read.
Awkward: The report, which, at face, seems encouraging, is, in fact,
disheartening.

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Although none of these commas are incorrect, together they make the
sentence so choppy that it is hard to understand. This problem can be easily
solved by eliminating some of the less crucial commas.
Better: The report, which at face seems encouraging, is in fact disheartening.
As this example illustrates, you often have a fair amount of latitude in
determining where commas belong. In some cases, though, a commas
presence or absence can dictate the meaning of a sentence.
Letty visits your brother John.
Letty visits your brother, John.
In the first sentence, Letty is Johns guest; the second, she is the guest of
Johns brother.

Commas between Adjectives

A comma can be used in place of the word and between two or more
adjectives of equal weight that modify the same noun.
a dark and stormy night
Or: a dark, stormy night
Not all adjectives should be separated by a comma.
Incorrect: a little, red schoolhouse
Correct: a little red schoolhouse
If you are in doubt about whether a comma is necessary, try inserting and
between the adjectives. If it sounds awkward (as a little and red
schoolhouse does), you can safely omit the comma.

Commas between Independent Clauses

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Place a comma before a coordinate conjunction (e.g., and, but, or, nor) when
it links two independent clauses. (A clause is independent if it could stand
alone as a sentence.)

Mitchell spent a fortune on his computer, but his desk was a bargain.
Use a semicolon instead if a comma appears within one of the clauses.
Mitchell spent a fortune on his computer; but his desk, which he found in a
thrift store, was a bargain.
If the clauses are short and closely related, you may omit the comma
between them.
Mother talked and I listened.

Commas in Lists
In a list of three or more things linked by a conjunction, you should place a
comma after each item except for the last. Be careful not to omit the serial
commathat is, the comma before the conjunction.
Incorrect: We need a hammer, saw and screwdriver to finish the project.
Correct: We need a hammer, saw, and screwdriver to finish the project.
If, for emphasis sake, a conjunction appears between each pair of items, you
can omit all commas from the list.
I am tired of your tears and insults and accusations.
Items with Internal Commas
If a comma appears within any of the items in a list, use semicolons instead
of commas to separate the listed items.
Incorrect: Our best players are Bobby, the shortstop, Joyce, the catcher, and
Becky, the left fielder.

Becky, the left fielder.

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Correct: Our best players are Bobby, the shortstop; Joyce, the catcher; and

Lists with Compound Nouns

Be careful not to add an unnecessary comma within a compound noun,
particularly one that includes the word and.
Incorrect: We have three types of sandwichesroast beef, peanut butter, and
jelly, and turkey.
Correct: We have three types of sandwichesroast beef, peanut butter and
jelly, and turkey.
Lists Ending in Etc.
If a list ends with etc., insert a comma after the abbreviation.
Bring your tent, sleeping bag, backpack, etc., to the rangers station.

Commas in Place of Missing Words

If the same word or phrase appears in several clauses in a sentence, you can
often avoid needless repetition by omitting the common element in all
clauses but the first. To alert readers that something has been omitted, insert
a comma in place of the missing words.
Repetitious: Yancywasawarded the trophy for first place; Cythniawas
awarded the trophy for second place.
Better: Yancywas awarded the trophy for first place; Cythnia, for second
place.
In a short sentence with a simple construction, however, the comma can be
left out if the missing element is obvious.
The wind was cold, and the sky dark

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Commas with Appositives

An appositivea word or phrase that further identifies a noun that comes

before itshould be set off in commas only if the information it includes is
nonessential to the meaning of the sentence.
Mrs. Thornsworth, my new neighbor, invited me to a housewarming.
But: The movie Citizen Kane is a masterpiece.
In the first example, the appositive my new neighbor gives additional
information about Mrs. Thornsworth, but the sentence would still make sense
without it.
In the second, however, the appositive Citizen Kane is necessary to identify
which movie the sentence refers to. Because it is an essential part of the
sentence, this appositive is not enclosed in commas.

Commas with Interrupting Words and Phrases

Commas are often inserted before and after a word or phrase that interrupts
the flow of a sentence.
Jaime claims hes bored with school; he has, nevertheless, signed up for yet
another class.
Your opinion, I believe, has no merit.
Parentheses and em dashes can also be used to set off an interruption.
Commas suggest only a brief pause, so if the interruption is jarring consider
using one of these punctuation marks instead.
Weak: Robert, I saw him only yesterday, has left the city for good.
Better: RobertI saw him only yesterdayhas left the city for good.

Commas with Introductory Clauses, Phrases, and Words

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When a clause or a phrase introduces a sentence, insert a comma after it.

Because he was late for the game, they had to forfeit to the other team.
Having seen the movie eight times, Bob could recite the dialogue verbatim.
If an introductory phrase is short, you may omit the comma unless the
sentence could be misread without it.
On Monday I paid my weekly visit to the hospital.
But: While cooking, the chef likes to listen to Mozart.
A comma is also used to set off a mild interjection or a transitional word at
the beginning of a sentence.
Oh, Im not sure what time it is.
Indeed, the evidence contradicts this theory.

Commas with Other Punctuation Marks

When a comma follows a parenthetical phrase, it should be placed outside
the closing parenthesis.
Although the stock price is now on the rise (see chart 3), we expect it to drop
next month.
A comma, however, belongs inside a closing quotation mark, even when it is
not part of the quotation.
He never had a chance, the soldier muttered.
Note that in the example above, the comma takes the place of the period
that would normally appear at the end of the quoted statement. If the
quotation was a question or an exclamation, the question mark or
exclamation mark at its end would replace the comma.
Did he ever really have a chance? the soldier asked.

Commas with Parenthetical Phrases

sentence.

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Commas can be used to set off an explanation or aside inserted into a

I flew to Pittsburgh, my first trip there in four years, and left for Albuquerque
the next morning.
Parentheses and em dashes can also be used to enclose parenthetical
information. You can determine which form of punctuation is most
appropriate by deciding how abruptly the aside interrupts the sentence.
Choose commas if, as in the example above, the parenthetical barely breaks
the flow of the sentence. Consider using parentheses if the material
represents a more substantial interruption.
I flew to Pittsburgh (I hadnt set foot there for four years) and left for
Albuquerque the next morning.
Em dashes are the best choice if the parenthetical is lengthy, includes other
punctuation, or represents a dramatic shift in thought.
I flew to PittsburghI hadnt set foot there since Grandpas funeral four years
agoand left for Albuquerque the next morning.

Commas with Quotations and in Direct Address

A comma is usually used to separate a quotation from a phrase that
identifies the speaker.
Penny explained, I didnt see a thing.
If an identification follows a quoted statement, the comma should take the
place of the period at the end of the sentence.
Incorrect: Its not on the map., Cary told the driver.
Correct: Its not on the map, Cary told the driver.
However, if the quoted sentence ends in a question mark or exclamation
point, retain that punctuation mark and do not use a comma.

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Incorrect: Did you finish your homework?, Mother asked.

Correct: Did you finish your homework? Mother asked.
Incorrect: Thats enough!, Dad yelled.
Correct: Thats enough! Dad yelled.
The name of a person addressed directly should also be set off with commas.
Please, Margie, tell me what you think.

Commas with Which and Who clauses

A comma should appear before and after a dependent clause beginning with
which or who if the clause offers information that could be deleted from the
sentence without completely altering the meaning of the sentence.
The investor, who understands the market, made a huge profit on the sale.
In this example, the who clause provides additional information about a
specific investor. Without it, the meaning of the sentence would still be clear.
A dependent clause introduced with who should not be set off by commas if
it provides information that is essential to the sentences meaning.
The investor who understands the market is likely to make money.
Here, the who clause defines the type of investor the sentence is referring to.
The central idea behind the sentence would be lost if the clause was deleted.
In some cases, the presence or absence of commas alone determines how a
clause will be read.
The student who studies hard will make good grades.
The student, who studies hard, will make good grades.

Commas, Miscellaneous Uses of

To enhance readability, commas are used to separate certain abbreviations,
numbers, and words from one another or from the surrounding text.

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With Abbreviations

Place a comma before the abbreviations Jr. and Sr. in personal names and
Ltd. and Inc. in company names.
Roscoe Martin, Jr.
LitWare, Inc.
In Numbers
In a numeral with at least four digits, insert a comma after every three digits,
counting from the right.
3,407
90,887
1,200,548
Commas should not be used in the following numbers: telephone numbers,
street numbers, box numbers, ZIP codes, and decimals.
1984
555-9034
6378 Pleasant Valley Road
Box 89000
Room 1244
76032
16.73277
With Dates
When a date is written out in a month-day-year sequence, place commas
after the day and the year.
The meeting was held on July 7, 1994, in Philadelphia.
Omit the comma after the year if the date appears at the end of a sentence.
The meeting was held on July 7, 1994.

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No commas are needed when a date is given in a day-month-year sequence

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or when only a month and year are noted.

The meeting was held on 7 July 1994 in Philadelphia.
The meeting was held in July 1994 in Philadelphia.
With Names of Cities, States, and Provinces
When a city and a state or province name appear together in a sentence,
separate them with a comma. Insert a second comma after the state or
province name unless it appears at the end of a sentence.
We changed planes in Seattle, Washington, before taking off for Calgary,
Alberta.
But: We changed planes in Seattle, Washington.

Question mark
Question Marks
A question mark (?) is used to express doubt or to punctuate a direct
question. At the end of an indirect question, however, you should use a
period or an exclamation point instead.
She asked, What has become of you?
But: She wants to know what has become of you.
Questions Within Statements
If a sentence includes a phrase such as can I, will you, or should we, place a
comma before and after the phrase and end the sentence with a question
mark. (If the phrase falls at the end of the sentence, omit the second
comma.)

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You know, dont you, how much we care about you?

Questions in the Form of Statements

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We shouldnt leave the office yet, should we?

Even if a sentence is in the form of a statement, if it is used to ask a

question, it should end in a question mark.
You really want to know?
Speculations Mistaken for Questions
Be careful not to mistake a speculation for a question.
Incorrect: Wilma wondered whether she would pass the entrance exam?
This sentence does not ask a question; it states that Wilma had a question in
her mind. It is, therefore, a statement and should be punctuated with a
period.
Correct: Wilma wondered whether she would pass the entrance exam.
Misplaced Question Marks
Be sure to position a question mark directly after the question it punctuates.
Incorrect: What are you going to do they asked?
Correct: What are you going to do? they asked.
Question Marks to Express Doubt
If a fact is disputed by experts, you may insert a question mark after it to
express doubt about its accuracy.
As Phyllis Wheatley (1753?-1784) wrote
You may also place a question mark enclosed in parentheses after a word or
phrase if you question its validity.

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for nearly twenty minutes.

12

She told the interviewer about the respect she had earned from her peers (?)

Use this device with caution because your readers are likely to find it overly
snide. It is usually better to either explain your opinion in words or keep it
out of your work altogether.
Question Marks with Other Punctuation
If a quotation is a question and it appears at the end of a statement, place
the question mark inside the closing quotation mark. If there would normally
be a period at the end of the sentence, omit it.
He asked, Where are you going?
If a quotation is a statement and it appears at the end of question, place the
question mark outside the closing quotation mark. Omit the period that
would normally appear at the end of the quoted statement.
Are you sure she said, Were going to Albuquerque?
If a question ends with a parenthetical phrase, the question mark belongs
outside the closing parenthesis.
Will he be here before midnight (or at least before dawn)?
A question mark that is used to punctuate a parenthetical, however, should
be placed within the closing parenthesis.
Fred picked me (why me?) to lead the discussion.

Exclamation mark

Exclamation Points

13

An exclamation point (!) is used to communicate enthusiasm, excitement, or

end of a sentence.

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disbelief. It can appear after a word or phrase (see Interjections) or at the

Well! That is the most disgusting thing Ive ever heard!
Exclamation points are rare in good writing because few sentences are
charged with enough emotion to need them. Before ending a sentence with
an exclamation point, ask yourself whether it expresses something truly
exciting or extraordinary. If not, use a period instead.
When a quotation ends with an exclamation point, place it within the closing
quotation mark.
Oh, no! she screamed when she found the corpse.
When a quotation appears at the end of exclamatory sentence, however, the
exclamation point belongs after the second quotation mark.
I cant live a day without hearing Begin the Beguine!
Place an exclamation point inside parentheses only if it punctuates the words
within the parentheses.
I passed the exam (finally!).
But: Im so excited (about graduating, that is)!

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Punctuation II
Colon
Colons
A colon (:) can be used to introduce a quotation, a list of items, or an
explanation of the clause that precedes it.
Quotation: In his novel The Marble Faun, Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote the
following: Nobody has any conscience about adding to the improbabilities of
a marvelous tale.
List: Martin despises only three things: dishonesty, stupidity, and cruelty.
Explanation: Our options are clear: We must either sell more units or raise
our prices.
Capitalize the first word following a colon only if it begins a complete
sentence or is a proper noun.
Explain one thing: How do you expect me to believe you?
Popular vacation spots include these cities: Rome, Paris, Venice, and Naples.
But: I packed only the essentials: a toothbrush, toothpaste, and underwear.

Colons as Conjunctions
A colon is often used to connect two clauses when the second clause
explains or expands on ideas introduced by the first.
Maria had a goal: receiving her doctorate before she turned twenty.
There is one piece of advice everyone should heed: Be honest with those you
love.
In the second example, a period or a semicolon could be used in place of the
colon. The period, however, would divide the sentence into two, thereby
creating too absolute a break between the related clauses. A semicolon

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would imply a connection between them but would not communicate how
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they are related. Only with a colon is it clear that the thought presented in
the first clause is completed by the second.
If the explanatory clause is lengthy, the colon is almost always the better
choice.
Mr. Howard made three demands of his students: He wanted them to study
four hours every night, ask questions about any material they did not
understand, and apply to a good college.
Used in this way, a colon stands in for the words that is or namely. To avoid
redundancy, you should therefore not use a colon in a sentence that includes
these words.
Incorrect: She had only one thing in mind: that is, to pass the test.
Correct: She had only one thing in mind; that is, to pass the test.
Or: She had one only thing in mind: to pass the test.

Colons with Lists

A colon should follow a complete sentence that introduces a list of things.
Be sure to bring the following to class: a pencil, a notebook, and a compass.
You should not use a colon, however, if the items in the list are objects of a
verb or a preposition.
Incorrect: To succeed, you need: talent, strength, and determination.
Correct: To succeed, you need talent, strength, and determination.
Incorrect:
The report condemned violence in:

movies

commercials

television shows

movies

commercials

television shows

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The report condemned violence in

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Correct:

A colon is also unnecessary if the list is introduced by for example, for

instance, or such as.
Incorrect: The children played games such as: hopscotch, four-square, and
tag.
Correct: The children played games such as hopscotch, four-square, and tag.

Colons with Other Punctuation

If a colon follows a quoted or parenthetical phrase, place it after the closing
quotation mark or parenthesis.
Mrs. Johnson asked the class to bring the following on their festive outing:
a notebook, a pencil, and a love of nature.
There was one thing he hated about Portland (in Oregon): It always seemed
to rain.
Similarly, position a colon following a question after the question mark.
What do you really mean?: It was a question she often asked herself while
talking with her father.
If a colon appears directly after an abbreviation, omit the period after the
abbreviation.
James wanted more than a Ph.D: He wanted a career.

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Colons with Quotations

A colon is often used in place of a comma after an introduction to a long runin quotation.
On dissembling, Oscar Wilde once wrote: Man is least himself when he talks
in his own person. Give him a mask, and he will tell you the truth.
A colon should also be used before a block quotation if it is introduced by a
sentence fragment.
In act II, scene 2, Caesar declares:
Cowards die many times before their deaths;
The valiant never taste of death but once.
If the introduction is a complete sentence, you can usually follow it with
either a colon or a period. If the words as follows or the following are part of
the introduction, however, a colon should always be used.
The memorandum read as follows: The office will be closed on Tuesday,
Thursday, and Saturday morning.

Miscellaneous Uses of Colons

Colons are used to separate the following elements:

the hour and minutes in a time of day

7:35

the chapter and verse of a passage from the Bible

John 3:16

the title and subtitle of a book, a painting, or another creative work

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Enemies: A Love Story

the speaker and the words spoken in a line of dialogue

Hamlet: To be or not to be. That is the question.

the two quantities in a ratio

2:1

the salutation and the body of a formal letter

Dear Mr. Miller:

It has come to my attention that

Comma Splices
You should not use a comma to connect two complete sentencesa common
mistake known as a comma splice.
I didnt call him again, he didnt seem to mind.
You can eliminate a comma splice by adding a conjunction after the comma
or by replacing the comma with a semicolon.
I didnt call him again, but he didnt seem to mind.
Or: I didnt call him again; he didnt seem to mind.
Unless the sentences are very closely related, often the best option is to
substitute a period for the comma, thereby creating two separate sentences.
I didnt call him again. He didnt seem to mind.

Semicolon
Semicolons

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A semicolon (;) represents a longer pause than a comma but not as complete
complex clauses.

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a stop as a period. It is most often used to connect two independent or

Between Independent Clauses

A semicolon can be used in place of a conjunction to connect two
independent clauses.
The clock read 12:03; it was time to go.
It is also used between independent clauses joined by a conjunction when at
least one of the clauses includes a comma.
Orville, who arrived late with Betty, Morris, and Faith, missed my solo; but I
was surprised he came at all.
With Conjunctive Adverbs
Adverbs such as however, therefore, and thus can be used to connect two
independent clauses. In compound sentences in which these adverbs serve
as conjunctions, the two clauses should be separated by a semicolon.
The weather report predicts snow; the marathon, therefore, has been
canceled.
With For Example and Similar Phrases
A semicolon should precede a word or phrase such as for example, that is, or
namely when it introduces a list of items.
An artist must have certain traits; for example, perseverance, confidence,
and courage.
Between Items in a List
Semicolons should replace commas to separate items in a list if at least one
of the items includes a comma.

With Other Punctuation Marks

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92; and Frederick, with a 99.

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The students with the highest test scores were Joe, with an 87; Amy, with a

Semicolons should always be placed outside closing quotation marks and

parentheses.
She tried to find the right words; nothing would dissuade him.
In first place was a palomino (a tan horse with a white mane); he won by a
nose.

Apostrophe

Apostrophes
An apostrophe () is used to mark where letters have been omitted from a
word or to indicate possession or ownership. Followed by an s, an apostrophe
is also used to form the plural of some abbreviations.
With Possessives
The possessive form of most singular nouns ends in s.
the babys bottle
the buss destination
Most possessive plurals end in just an apostrophe.
the babies bottles
the buses destinations
For more information on possessive forms, see Possessives.

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To Mark Omissions

An apostrophe should be inserted in a word wherever letters have been

omitted.
dont = do not
oclock = of the clock
Apostrophes can also be used to mark unpronounced sounds in dialect or
colloquial expressions.
spose
rock n roll
This use, though, is appropriate only for very informal writing.
With Abbreviations
Apostrophes are not needed to stand in for omitted letters in abbreviations.
Incorrect: acct., dept., pkg.
Correct: acct., dept., pkg.
In Plurals
The plural forms of most abbreviations, numbers, symbols, and letters used
as letters should end in an s, rather than an s. If just an s could be
confusing, however, an s may be used instead.
Confusing: plurals ending in ss or ess
Better: plurals ending in ssor ess
Abbreviations punctuated with more than one period are another exception.
M.D.s
With Years

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An apostrophe is sometimes used in place of the first two numbers in a year,

class of 79

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particularly the year of a graduating class.

Keep in mind that this use is considered informal. In formal writing, include
all four digits.
If a year is a possessive formed with an apostrophe, you may also use an
apostrophe for the first two digits. A better choice, however, is to change the
possessive into an ofphrase.
Unwieldy: the 90s fashions
Acceptable: the 90s fashions

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Punctuation III
Hyphen
Hyphens
A hyphen (-) is used to link two closely related words or to connect a prefix or
suffix to a word. It can also appear at the end of a line to show that part of a
word has been carried over to the following line.
In Compounds
Hyphens are sometimes used link two or more words that form an adjective.
two-inch nail
sugar-coated tablet
They also may connect two nouns that define a single thing.
secretary-treasurer
city-state
See Compounds for detailed rules for hyphenating compound adjectives and
nouns.
With an Adjective Followed by Two Nouns
When an adjective precedes two nouns, insert a hyphen after it if it modifies
only the first noun.
young-dog trainers [The trainers work with young dogs.]
But: young dog trainers [The dog trainers themselves are young.]
With Prefixes and Suffixes
A hyphen is used to join some prefixes and suffixes to root words.

24

president-elect

Page

self-employed

For more information, see Prefixes and Suffixes.

At the End of a Line
When text is aligned on both the left and right margins, it is sometimes
necessary to even out the spacing between words by hyphenating a long
word at the end of a line.
Without Hyphenation:
Our profits this year have been disappointing, but we are confident that they
will rise in the fourth quarter.
With Hyphenation:
Our profits this year have been disappointing, but we are confident that they will rise in the fourth quarter.
See Word Division for information on determining where hyphens should be
placed.
In Surnames
A hyphen can be used to link the parts of a compound surname.
Jeremy Smythe-Jones
No hyphen is needed, however, if a woman uses her maiden name as a
middle name.
Carolyn Thomas Moore
In Numbers and Fractions
Hyphenate numbers and fractions when they are spelled out in text.

25

Forty-seven people came to the conference.

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Nearly one-third of the group voted against his proposal.

Dash
Em Dashes
An em dash () is a dash that, in traditional typefaces, is the same width as
the letter m. In text, it is most commonly used to mark an abrupt change in a
sentences construction or a sudden shift in an authors train of thought.
The em dash is a special character in most word-processing programs. If your
program does not have an em dash character, you can use two hyphens ()
to represent one.
Do not add a space before or after an em dash when inserting it between two
words.
Incorrect: I suddenly had an idea an idea that would change everything.
Correct: I suddenly had an ideaan idea that would change everything.
With Shifts in Thought
Use an em dash before and after a phrase that represents a sudden shift in
thought.
I believeor at least I want to believethat he is innocent.
With Explanatory Phrases
You may use an em dash in place of a comma to set off an explanatory
phrase inserted into a sentence. An em dash implies a longer pause than a
comma; if the explanation is fairly long, it is usually the better choice.
Acceptable: Mr. Albert was a wonderful teacher, the type of teacher who truly
cares about his students.
Better: Mr. Albert was a wonderful teacherthe type of teacher who truly
cares about his students.

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or parentheses.

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If the explanation is an entire sentence, enclose it within a pair of em dashes

Incorrect: Gail saw the movie, she did not read the book, and wrote a
scathing review.
Correct: Gail saw the movieshe did not read the bookand wrote a
scathing review.
Or: Gail saw the movie (she did not read the book) and wrote a scathing
review.
With Phrases Including Commas
Use em dashes in place of commas to set off an explanatory phrase that
includes a comma within it.
Basic science coursesChemistry, Physics, and Biologyare required for
pre-med students.
Omitting Em Dashes
Be careful not to leave out the second em dash when a pair is required.
Incorrect: The point of this exerciseif I understand it correctly, is to learn
self-reliance.
Correct: The point of this exerciseif I understand it correctlyis to learn
self-reliance.
In Interrupted Speech
An em dash can be used to indicate interrupted speech.
Tucker began, I dont want to harp on this, but
Then dont! John snapped.
When an em dash appears at the end of a quotation, as in the example
above, omit the comma that would ordinarily come before the closing
quotation mark.

27

Incorrect: What in the, Beverly gasped.

After Quotations

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Correct: What in the Beverly gasped.

In an epigraph, an em dash can be used to separate the quotation from its

authors name.
There is no sadder sight than a young pessimist, except an old optimist.
Mark Twain
In Bibliographies
When several bibliography entries listed in a row have the same author, give
the authors full name only in the first entry. In all others, substitute three em
dashes for the name.
Hochschild, Arlie Russell. The Managed Heart.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
The Time Bind. New York: Metropolitan Books, 1997.

En Dashes
An en dash () is a short dash that, in traditional typefaces, measures the
width of the letter n. It is shorter than an em dash () but longer than a
hyphen (-). (See Em Dashes and Hyphens for how to use these punctuation
marks.)
Most word-processing programs feature the en dash in their menus of special
characters. If yours does not, you can use a hyphen in its place.
As a Substitute for To
In informal writing, an en dash can take the place of the word to in ranges of
page numbers, years, times of day, and days of the week.

28

Refer to pages 65108.

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He served as company president during the years 195864.

The store is open 8:004:30, MondaySaturday.
Note that the word from should be omitted when an en dash is used.
Incorrect: The study covers the years from 198594.
Correct: The study covers the years 198594.
With Prefixes and Compound Words
Use an en dash, not a hyphen, to connect a prefix to a compound that is
spelled as two words.
postCivil War era
An en dash should also be used to form a hyphenated compound if one of its
parts includes two words.
New YorkDallas flight

Quotation mark
Question Marks
A question mark (?) is used to express doubt or to punctuate a direct
question. At the end of an indirect question, however, you should use a
period or an exclamation point instead.
She asked, What has become of you?
But: She wants to know what has become of you.
Questions Within Statements
If a sentence includes a phrase such as can I, will you, or should we, place a
comma before and after the phrase and end the sentence with a question

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comma.)

29

mark. (If the phrase falls at the end of the sentence, omit the second
You know, dont you, how much we care about you?
We shouldnt leave the office yet, should we?
Questions in the Form of Statements
Even if a sentence is in the form of a statement, if it is used to ask a
question, it should end in a question mark.
You really want to know?
Speculations Mistaken for Questions
Be careful not to mistake a speculation for a question.
Incorrect: Wilma wondered whether she would pass the entrance exam?
This sentence does not ask a question; it states that Wilma had a question in
her mind. It is, therefore, a statement and should be punctuated with a
period.
Correct: Wilma wondered whether she would pass the entrance exam.
Misplaced Question Marks
Be sure to position a question mark directly after the question it punctuates.
Incorrect: What are you going to do they asked?
Correct: What are you going to do? they asked.
Question Marks to Express Doubt
If a fact is disputed by experts, you may insert a question mark after it to
express doubt about its accuracy.
As Phyllis Wheatley (1753?-1784) wrote

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phrase if you question its validity.

30

You may also place a question mark enclosed in parentheses after a word or
She told the interviewer about the respect she had earned from her peers (?)
for nearly twenty minutes.
Use this device with caution because your readers are likely to find it overly
snide. It is usually better to either explain your opinion in words or keep it
out of your work altogether.
Question Marks with Other Punctuation
If a quotation is a question and it appears at the end of a statement, place
the question mark inside the closing quotation mark. If there would normally
be a period at the end of the sentence, omit it.
He asked, Where are you going?
If a quotation is a statement and it appears at the end of question, place the
question mark outside the closing quotation mark. Omit the period that
would normally appear at the end of the quoted statement.
Are you sure she said, Were going to Albuquerque?
If a question ends with a parenthetical phrase, the question mark belongs
outside the closing parenthesis.
Will he be here before midnight (or at least before dawn)?
A question mark that is used to punctuate a parenthetical, however, should
be placed within the closing parenthesis.
Fred picked me (why me?) to lead the discussion.

Quotation Marks with Other Punctuation Marks

Commas and periods should be placed inside closing quotation marks, even
if they are not part of the quotation.

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Id be happy to do the job, he volunteered.

constituents.

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The council member promised to work day and night to serve my

Colons and semicolons, on the other hand, always belong outside closing
quotation marks.
Tully insisted there are two necessities: health and peace of mind.
The girl said, My friends are my family; in fact, they were the only family
she had ever known.
Question marks and exclamation points should be placed inside closing
quotation marks only if they punctuate the quoted material. If they apply to
the sentence as a whole, they should be positioned outside.
Oscar asked, What is your favorite song?
But: Did you know that my favorite song is Night and Day?

Quotation Marks with Quotations

Quotation marks are used to mark the beginning and end of direct quotations
of speech or written material.
Bell said into his telephone, Mr. Watson, come here. I want you.
Do not enclose a paraphrased statement in quotation marks, however.
Incorrect: She said that she will be home by the 4th.
Correct: She said that she will be home by the 4th.
Or: She said, Ill be home by the 4th.
With Block Quotations
If a quotation is set in a block style (see Quotations, Formatting of), omit the
quotation marks at the beginning and end.
In 1848 Edgar Allen Poe gave his fellow writers the following advice:

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The writer who neglects punctuation, or

For the want of merely a comma, it

Page

mispunctuates, is liable to be misunderstood.

often occurs that an axiom appears a paradox,
or that a sarcasm is converted into a sermonoid.
With Dialogue
When quoting dialogue, begin each speakers words with a new paragraph
and enclose them within quotation marks.
Where are we going? Bob asked.
Im not sure, Stacy said. Any suggestions?
How about Tulsa?
Why Tulsa?
Why not, Bob replied with a sigh as he looked for the map.
Using Single Quotation Marks
Use single quotation marks ( ) to mark the beginning and end of a quotation
inside a quotation.
Her assistant explained, They claimed the package was misplaced, but I
think it was stolen.

Quotation Marks with Titles

The titles of the following works should be enclosed in quotation marks:
book chapters, essays, magazine articles, newspaper articles, short poems,
short stories, songs, television episodes, radio programs

Quotation Marks with Words and Terms

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A word or term can be placed within quotation marks to show that it is used

With Figurative Language

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figuratively, ironically, or in another special way.

To tell readers that a word is used figuratively, you may enclose it in

quotation marks.
The neighborhood dogs held a meeting in the park every afternoon.
Do not use quotation marks, however, if the word is preceded by so-called.
I never learned anything at the so-called learning center.
For Irony
A word may be placed in quotation marks to show that it is used ironically.
The teenagers snickered at their teachers stylish leisure suit.
Be careful to use this device sparingly, if at all. Before resorting to quotation
marks to communicate irony, try rephrasing your sentence so that your
words themselves establish the tone you want.
With Slang
Slang is also sometimes enclosed in quotation marks, but it is best to avoid
using this device.
I placed all his memos in my circular file.
In most formal writing, you should not use slang at all (see Slang). If,
however, you decide that only a slang expression truly captures your
meaning, use it without the apology that quotation marks imply.
With Unfamiliar Words
If you use a newly coined or technical word that your readers probably do not
know, you may enclose it in quotation marks at its first use.

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34

Some brain disease may be spread by proteins called prions.

Be careful to set off a word only if it or the way you are using it is unfamiliar
to most people. Even if a word is new, if it is in common use, quotation
marks are not needed.
Unnecessary quotation marks: Anyone with a PC can now explore
cyberspace.
Better: Anyone with a PC can now explore cyberspace.
With Definitions and Translations
If you define a word in text, enclose the definition in quotation marks. The
word itself should be set in italics.
Reboot means restart.
You can also use quotation marks to set off a translation of a foreign term or
phrase.
She graduated summa cum laude (Latin for with highest praise).
For Emphasis
Use italics, not quotation marks, to give added emphasis to a word or phrase.
Incorrect: He is very sorry for what he did.
Correct: He is very sorry for what he did.
With Nicknames
Enclose nicknames in quotation marks only if they appear between a
persons actual first and last names. If a nickname is used in place of a
name, quotation marks are unnecessary.
Thomas Stonewall Jackson

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Formatting of Quotations
or a block style.

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Depending on its length, a quotation can be formatted in either a run-in style

Run-in Format
If a quotation is brief, you should run it into the surrounding text.
The report maintained that the future looks bright but cautioned
stockholders not to become overly optimistic about profits in the short
term.
The beginning and end of a run-in quotation is marked with double quotation
marks.
Block Format
If the quoted material is longer than four typed lines or includes more than
one paragraph, arrange it in a block style.
A block quotation is usually indented from the left margin (and sometimes
the right), and extra space is added above and below it. It is set in a slightly
smaller font size than the text and is single-spaced, even if the rest of the
text has a different line spacing.
In an interview published last month, the actress explained,
I love acting on stage and always have and
always will. Its exhilarating to perform in
front of an audience. But movies are
exciting, too. You can reach so many more
people with one film than you can with an
entire lifetime of stage acting.
Despite her enthusiasm, her movie career has been a disappointment to her
fans.

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Note that quotation marks are never used with block quotations.
Page

If a quotation is excerpted from the middle of a paragraph, do not indent its

first line. Similarly, the first line of text following a block quotation should not
be indented unless it begins a new paragraph.

Capitalization

Capitalization
When a word or sentence is capitalized, its first letter is set as capital. All
letters of a word should not be capitalized in ordinary text.
Names, Terms, and Titles
Many names of people, places, organizations, political bodies, events, eras,
and titles are capitalized. See Company Names, Military Terms, Personal
Names, Religious terms, Titles of People (Courtesy), Titles of People
(Professional and Honorary), and Titles of Works for more information on
capitalizing names, terms, and titles.
First Word of a Sentence
Capitalize the first word of all sentences, including sentences within
sentences.
The rule is, Never run near the swimming pool.
Also capitalize a complete sentence that follows a colon.
He had only one goal: He was going to become president of the firm.
You should not, however, capitalize a sentence that is enclosed within
parentheses and inserted within another sentence.

Direct Quotation

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left for the club.

37

Ellie slipped on her velvet heels (she at last had a reason to wear them) and

Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation even if it is not a complete

sentence.
When I asked Mr. Wilson where he was going, he said, To the mall.
Words Derived from Proper Nouns
Most words that are derived from proper nouns are capitalized:
Platonic love
Russian dressing
Over time, however, some of these words have lost their close association
with the proper nouns from which they were derived. These words are
usually not capitalized.
italic type
venetian blind
If in doubt, consult an up-to-date dictionary to determine the preferred
styling of a word.
Personifications
If human characteristics are attributed to a natural phenomenon or season,
capitalize the personified word or phrase.
We are all the children of Mother Nature.
But: Spending time in nature is the perfect way to relax