GEOTEXTILES

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
According to the historical record, it is believed that the first applications of
geotextiles were woven industrial fabrics used in 1950s. One of the earliest
documented cases was a waterfront structure built in Florida in 1958. Then,
the first nonwoven geotextile was developed in 1968 by the Rhone Poulence
company in France. It was a comparatively thick needle-punched polyester,
which was used in dam construction in France during 1970.
In fact, the geotextile is one of the members of the
geosynthetic family. Those members include the following items
as shown in Fig.1:

1.1.

Purpose
This manual
describes
geotextiles,
methods for
evaluating
properties,
recommended
and
installation
procedures.

various
tests
their
and
design

1.2.

Scope
This manual
physical
properties,
functions,
methods,
details
and
construction

covers

design
design
1

GEOTEXTILES
procedures for geotextiles as used in pavements, railroad beds, retaining wall
earth embankment, rip-rap, concrete revetment, and drain construction.
Geotextile functions described include pavements, filtration and drainage,
reinforced embankments, railroads, erosion and sediment control, and earth
retaining walls. This manual does not cover the use of other geosynthetics
such as geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, plastic strip drains, composite
products and products made from natural cellulose fibers.

1.3. Geotextiles
As we know, the prefix of geotextile, geo, means earth and the textile
means fabric. Therefore, according to the definition of ASTM 4439, the
geotextile is defined as follows:
"A permeable geosynthetic comprised solely of textiles. Geotextiles are
used with foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other geotechnical engineeringrelated material as an integral part of human-made project, structure, or
system."
The ASAE (Society for Engineering in Agricultural, Food, and Biological
Systems) defines a geotextile as a "fabric or synthetic material placed between
the soil and a pipe, gabion, or retaining wall: to enhance water movement and
retard soil movement, and as a blanket to add reinforcement and separation."
A geotextile should consist of a stable network that retains its relative
structure during handling, placement, and long-term service. Other terms that
are used by the industry for similar materials and applications are geotextile
cloth, agricultural fabric, and geosynthetic.

1.4. Types of Geotextiles & Construction

a. Materials.
Geotextiles are made from polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene,
polyamide (nylon), polyvinylidene chloride, and fiberglass.
Polypropylene and polyester are the most used. Sewing thread for
geotextiles is made from Kevlar1 or any of the above polymers. The
2

GEOTEXTILES
physical properties of these materials can be varied by the use of
additives in the composition and by changing the processing methods
used to form the molten material into filaments. Yarns are formed from
fibers which have been bundled and twisted together, a process also
referred to as spinning. (This reference is different from the term
spinning as used to denote the process of extruding filaments from a
molten material.) Yarns may be composed of very long fibers (filaments)
or relatively short pieces cut from filaments (staple fibers).
b. Geotextile Manufacture.
1. In woven construction, the warp yarns, which run parallel with the length
of the geotextile panel (machine direction), are interlaced with yarns called
till or filling yarns, which run perpendicular to the length of the panel.
Woven construction produces geotextiles with high strengths and moduli in
the warp and fill directions and low elongations at rupture. The modulus
varies depending on the rate and the direction in which the geotextile is
loaded. When woven geotextiles are pulled on a bias, the modulus
decreases, although the ultimate breaking strength may increase. The
construction can be varied so that the finished geotextile has equal or
different strengths in the warp and fill directions. Woven construction
produces geotextiles with a simple pore structure and narrow range of pore
sizes or openings between fibers. Woven geotextiles are commonly plain
woven, but are sometimes made by twill weave or leno weave (a very open
type of weave). Woven geotextiles can be composed of monofilaments or
multifilament yarns. Multifilament woven construction produces the
highest strength and modulus of all the constructions but are also the
highest cost. A monofilament variantis the slit-film or ribbon filament
woven geotextile. The fibers are thin and flat and made by cutting sheets of
plastic into narrow strips. This type of woven geotextile is relatively
inexpensive and is used for separation, i.e., the prevention of intermixing
of two materials such as aggregate and fine-grained soil.

GEOTEXTILES

Figure
1.2- woven geotextile
2. Nonwoven geotextiles are formed by a process other than weaving or
knitting, and they are generally thicker than woven products. These
geotextiles may be made either from continuous filaments or from staple
fibers. The fibers are generally oriented randomly within the plane of the
geotextile but can be given preferential orientation.

Figure 1.3- non

woven geotextile

In the spun bonding process, filaments are extruded, and laid directly on a moving
belt to form the mat, which is then bonded by one of the processes described
below.

GEOTEXTILES
(a) Needle punching
Bonding by needle punching involves pushing many barbed needles
through one or several layers of a fiber mat normal to the plane of the
geotextile. The process causes the fibers to be mechanically entangled .The
resulting geotextile has the appearance of a felt mat.
(b) Heat bonding
This is done by incorporating fibers of the same polymer type but
having different melting points in the mat, or by using heterofilaments, that
is, fibers composed of one type of polymer on the inside and covered or
sheathed with a polymer having a lower melting point. A heat-bonded
geotextile is shown below.
(c) Resin bonding
Resin is introduced into the fiber mat, coating the fibers and bonding
the contacts between fibers.
(d) Combination bonding
Sometimes a combination of bonding techniques is used to facilitate
manufacturing or obtain desired properties.
(3) Composite geotextiles
They are materials which combine two or more of the fabrication
techniques. The most common composite geotextile is a nonwoven mat that has
been bonded by needle punching to one or both sides of a woven scrim.

Figure 1.3- composite geotextile

1.5. RAW MATERIAL OF GEOTEXTILE

5

GEOTEXTILES
The four main polymer families most widely used as the raw material
for geotextiles are:
Polyethylene
Polyester
Polyamide
Polypropylene

H- high ; M- medium ; L- low

GEOTEXTILES
The oldest of these is polyethylene, which was discovered in 1931 in the research
laboratories of the ICI. Another group of polymers with a long production history
is the polyamide family, the first of which was discovered in 1935.The next oldest
of the four main polymer families relevant to geotextile manufacture is polyester
which was first announced in 1941.The most recent polymer family relevant to
geotextiles to be developed was polypropylene, which was discovered in 1954.
The comparative properties of these four polymer are shown in very general items
in Table 1.

1-6. Geotextiles functions

Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups of geosynthetics. Their rise in
growth during the past fifteen years has been nothing short of awesome. They are
indeed textiles in the traditional sense, but consist of synthetic fibers rather than
natural ones such as cotton, wool, or silk. Thus biodegradation is not a problem.
These synthetic fibers are made into a flexible, porous fabric by standard weaving
machinery or are matted together in a random, or nonwoven, manner. Some are
also knit. The major point is that they are porous to water flow across their
manufactured plane and also within their plane, but to a widely varying degree.
There are at least 80 specific applications area for geotextiles that have been
developed; however, the fabric always performs at least one of five discrete
functions:
(a). Separation
Geotextiles function to prevent mutual mixing between 2 layers of soil having
different particle sizes or different properties.

Figure 1.4: Illustration of a geotextile fabric separating a gravel layer

from the underlying soil material.

(b). Drainage
7

GEOTEXTILES

The function of drainage is to gather water, which is not required functionally by

the structure, such as rainwater or surplus water in the soil, and discharge it.

Figure 1.5- Drainage

GEOTEXTILES

(c) Filtration
Filtration involves the establishment of a stable interface between the drain
and the surrounding soil. In all soils water flow will induce the movement of fine
particles. Initially a portion of this fraction will be halted at the filter interface;
some will be halted within the filter itself while the rest will pass into the drain.
The geotextile provides an ideal interface for the creation of a reverse filter in the
soil adjacent to the geotextile. The complex needle-punched structure of the
geotextile provides for the retention of fine particles without reducing the
permeability requirement of the drain.

Figure 1.6- Filtration

GEOTEXTILES

(d). Reinforcement
Due to their high soil fabric friction coefficient and high tensile
strength, heavy grades of geotextiles
are used to reinforce earth structures
allowing the use of local fill material.

Figure 1.7- reinforcement

(e). Protection:

10

GEOTEXTILES
Erosion of earth embankments by wave action, currents and repeated
drawdown is a constant problem requiring the use of non-erodible protection in the
form of rock beaching or mattress structures. Beneath these is placed a layer of
geotextile to prevent leaching of fine material. The geotextile is easily placed, even
under water.

Figure 1.8- protection

CHAPTER 2
11

GEOTEXTILES
GEOTEXTILES
APPLICATIONS

IN

PAVEMENT

2-1. Applications
This chapter discusses the use of geotextiles for asphalt concrete (AC) overlays on
roads and airfields and the separation and reinforcement of materials in new
construction. The functions performed by the geotextile and the design
considerations are different for these two applications. In an AC pavement system,
the geotextile provides a stress-relieving interlayer between the existing pavement
and the overlay that reduces and retards reflective cracks under certain conditions
and acts as a moisture barrier to prevent surface water from entering the pavement
structure. When a geotextile is used as a separator, it is placed between the soft
subgrade and the granular material. It acts as a filter to allow water but not fine
material to pass through it, preventing any mixing of the soft soil and granular
material under the action of the construction equipment or subsequent traffic.

2-2. Paved Surface Rehabilitation

a. General.
Old and weathered pavements contain transverse and longitudinal cracks
that are both temperature and load related. The method most often used to
rehabilitate these pavements is to overlay the pavement with AC. This temporarily
covers the cracks. After the overlay has been placed, any lateral or vertical
movement of the pavement at the cracks due to load or thermal effects causes the
cracks from the existing pavement to propagate up through the new AC overlay
(called reflective cracking). This movement causes raveling and spalling along the
reflective cracks and provides a path for surface water to reach the base and
subgrade which decreases the ride quality and accelerates pavement deterioration.
b. Concept.
Under an AC overlay, a geotextile may provide sufficient tensile strength to
relieve stresses exerted by movement of the existing pavement. The geotextile acts
as a stress-relieving interlayer as the cracks move horizontally or vertically. A
typical pavement structure with a geotextile interlayer is shown in figure 2-1.
12

GEOTEXTILES

Figure 2.1- asphalt concrete overlay

Impregnation of the geotextile with a bitumen provides a degree of moisture
protection for the underlying layers whether or not reflective cracking occurs.

2-3. Crack treatment for pavement

General.
Geotextiles can be used successfully in pavement rehabilitation projects.
Conditions that are compatible for the pavement applications of geotextiles are AC
pavements that may have transverse and longitudinal cracks but are relatively
smooth and structurally sound, and PCC pavements that have minimum slab
movement. The geographic location and climate of the project site have an
important part in determining whether or not geotextiles can be successfully used
in pavement rehabilitation. Geotextiles have been successful in reducing and
retarding reflective cracking in mild and dry climates when temperature and
moisture changes are less likely to contribute to movement of the underlying
pavement; whereas, geotextiles in cold climates have not been as successful.
Figure 2-2 gives guidance in using geotextiles to minimize reflective cracking on
AC pavements. Geotextiles interlayers are recommended for use in Areas I and II,
but are not recommended for use in Area III. Since geotextiles do not seem to
increase the performance of thin overlays, minimum overlay thicknesses for Areas
13

GEOTEXTILES
I and II are given in figure 2-2. Even when the climate and thickness requirements
are met, there has been no consistent increase in the time it takes for reflective
cracking to develop in the overlay indicating that other factors are influencing
performance. Other factors affecting performance of geotextile interlayers are
construction techniques involving pavement preparation, asphalt sealant
application, geotextile installation, and AC overlay as well as the condition of the
underlying pavement.
Surface Preparation.
Prior to using geotextiles to minimize reflective cracks, the existing
pavement should be evaluated to determine pavement distress. The size of the
cracks and joints in the existing pavement should be determined. All cracks and
joints larger than inch in width should be sealed. Differential slab movement
should be evaluated, since deflections greater than 0.002 inch cause early reflective
cracks. Areas of the pavement that are structurally deficient should be repaired
prior to geotextile installation. Placement of a leveling course is recommended
when the existing pavement is excessively cracked and uneven.
Geotextile Selection.
Geotextile interlayers are used in two different capacities-the full-width and
strip methods. The full-width method involves sealing cracks and joints and
placing a nonwoven material across the entire width of the existing
pavement. The material should have the properties shown in table 2-1.
Nonwoven materials provide more flexibility and are recommended for
reflective crack treatment of AC pavements.
The strip method is primarily used on PCC pavements and involves
preparing the existing cracks and joints and placing a 12 to 24 inch wide
geotextile and sufficient asphalt directly on the cracks and joints. The
required physical properties are shown in table 2-1, however nonwoven
geotextiles are not normally used in the strip method. Membrane systems
have been developed for strip repairs.

14

GEOTEXTILES

Property
Breaking load,

Requirements

Test methods

80 minimum

ASTM D 4632

Percent

50 minimum

ASTM D 4632

Asphalt retention, gallons

0.2 minimum

AASHTO M288

300 minimum

ASTM D 276

Pounds /inch of width

Elongation-at-break,

per square yard

Melting point, degrees
Fahrenheit
Weight, ounce per square
Option yard

3-9

ASTM D 3776

Table 2-1. Property Requirements of Nonwoven Geotextiles

Asphalt Sealant
The asphalt sealant is used to impregnate and seal the geotextile and bond it
to both the base pavement and overlay. The grade of asphalt cement specified for
hot-mix AC pavements in each geographic location is generally the most
acceptable material. Either anionic or cationic emulsion can also be used. Cutback
asphalts and emulsions which contain solvents should not be used.

15

GEOTEXTILES
AC Overlay
The thickness of the AC overlay should be determined from the
pavement structural requirements outlined in TM 5822-5/ AFJMAN 32-1018, TM 5-825-2/AFJMAN 321014 and TM 5-825-3/AFJMAN 32-1014, Chap. 3 or
from minimum requirements, whichever is greater. For
AC pavements, Area I shown in figure 2-2 should
have a minimum overlay thickness of 2 inches;
whereas, Area II should have a minimum overlay
thickness of 3 inches. The minimum thickness of an
AC overlay for geotextile application on PCC
pavements is 4 inches.
Spot Repairs
Rehabilitation of localized distressed areas
and utility cuts can be improved with the application
of geotextiles. Isolated distressed areas that are
excessively cracked can be repaired with geotextiles
prior to an AC overlay. Either a full-width membrane
strip application can be used depending on the size of
the distressed area. Localized distressed areas of
existing AC pavement that are caused by base failure
should be repaired prior to any pavement
rehabilitation. Geotextiles are not capable of bridging
structurally deficient pavements.
Figure 2.2- Illustration

Chapter 3
16

GEOTEXTILES
Geosynthetics
Introduction
Geosynthetics are the generally polymeric products used to solve civil
engineering problems. This includes eight main product categories: geotextiles,
geogrids, geonets, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners, geofoam, geocells and
geocomposites. The polymeric nature of the products makes them suitable for use
in the ground where high levels of durability are required. Properly formulated,
however, they can also be used in exposed applications. Geosynthetics are
available in a wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a slightly different
end use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently used in
many civil, geotechnical, transportation, geoenvironmental, hydraulic, and private
development applications including roads, airfields, railroads, embankments,
retaining structures, reservoirs, canals, dams, erosion control, sediment control,
landfill liners, landfill covers, mining, aquaculture and agriculture.
3-1. Products used on geosynthetics
1. Geotextile :- Geotextiles form one of the two largest groups
of geosynthetics. Their rise in growth during the past 35
years has been nothing short of extraordinary. They are
indeed textiles in the traditional sense, but they consist of
synthetic fibers rather than natural ones such as cotton,
wool, or silk. Thus bio degradation and subsequent short
lifetime is not a problem. These synthetic fibers are made
into flexible, porous fabrics by standard weaving machinery
or are
matted
together
in
a
random non
Figure
3.1- Geotextiles
woven manner. Some are
also knitted.

17

GEOTEXTILES
The major point is that geotextiles are porous to liquid flow
across their manufactured plane and also within their
thickness, but to a widely varying degree.
2. Geogrids :- Geogrids represent a rapidly growing segment
within geosynthetics. Rather than being a woven, nonwoven
or knitted textile fabric, geogrids are polymers formed into a
very open, gridlike configuration, i.e., they have large
apertures between individual ribs in the transverse and
longitudinal directions. Geogrids are
either stretched in one or two directions for improved
physical properties,

made on weaving or knitting machinery by standard

textile manufacturing methods, or by bonding rods or
straps together.
There are many specific application areas, however, they
function almost exclusively as reinforcement materials.

Figure 3.2- Geogrid

18

GEOTEXTILES
3. Geonets :- Geonets, called geospacers by some, constitute
another specialized segment within the geosynthetics area.
They are formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel sets of
polymeric ribs at acute angles to one another. When the ribs
are opened, relatively large apertures are formed into a
netlike configuration. Two types are most common, either
biplanar or triplanar .Their design function is completely
within the drainage area where they are used to convey
liquids of all types.

Figure 3.3- Geonets

4. Geofoam :- Geofoam is a product created by a polymeric
expansion process resulting in a foam consisting of many
closed, but gas-filled, cells. The skeletal nature of the cell
walls is the unexpanded polymeric material. The resulting
product is generally in the form of large, but extremely light,
blocks which are stacked side-by-side providing lightweight
fill in numerous applications.

Figure 3.4- Geofoam

5. Geocells :- Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement
Systems) are three-dimensional honeycombed cellular
19

GEOTEXTILES
structures that form a confinement system when infilled with
compacted soil. Extruded from polymeric materials into strips
welded together ultrasonically in series, the strips are
expanded to form the stiff (and typically textured and
perforated) walls of a flexible 3D cellular mattress. Infilled
with soil, a new composite entity is created from the cell-soil
interactions. The cellular confinement reduces the lateral
movement of soil particles, thereby maintaining compaction
and forms a stiffened mattress that distributes loads over a
wider area. Traditionally used in slope protection and earth
retention applications, geocells made from advanced
polymers are being increasingly adopted for long-term road
and rail load support. geocells are also made from stiff
geotextiles.

Figure 3.5- Geocell

6. Geocomposites :- A geocomposite consists of a
combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets and/or
geomembranes in a factory fabricated unit. Also, any one of
these four materials can be combined with another synthetic
material (e.g., deformed plastic sheets or steel cables) or
even with soil. As examples, a geonet with geotextiles on
both
surfaces
and
a
GCL
consisting
of
a
geotextile/bentonite/geotextile
sandwich
are
both
geocomposites. This specific category brings out the best
creative efforts of the engineer and manufacturer. The
application areas are numerous and constantly growing. The
20

GEOTEXTILES
major functions encompass the entire range of functions
listed for geosynthetics discussed previously: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, drainage, and containment.

Figure
3.6- Geocomposite in drainage layer
3-2. Advantages
1. The manufactured quality control of geosynthetics in a
controlled factory environment is a great advantage over outdoor
soil and rock construction. Most factories are ISO 9000 certified
and have their own in-house quality programs as well.
2. The thinness of geosynthetics versus their natural soil
counterpart is an advantage insofar as light weight on the
subgrade, less airspace used, and avoidance of quarried sand,
gravel, and clay soil materials.
3. The ease of geosynthetic installation is significant in
comparison to thick soil layers (sands, gravels, or clays) requiring
large earthmoving equipment.
4. Published standards (test methods, guides, and specifications)
are well advanced in standards-setting organizations like ISO,
ASTM, and GSI.

21

GEOTEXTILES
5. Design methods are currently available in that many
universities are teaching stand-alone courses in geosynthetics or
have integrated geosynthetics in traditional geotechnical,
geoenvironmental, and hydraulic engineering courses.
6. When comparing geosynthetic designs to alternative natural
soil designs there are usually cost advantages and invariably
sustainability (lower CO2 footprint) advantages.
3-3. Disadvantages
1. Geo Synthetics are widely used natural soil contamination
which was not existing since ages, the Natural form of soil is not
available to Nature
2. Long-term performance of the particular formulated resin being
used to make the geosynthetic must be assured by using proper
additives including antioxidants, ultraviolet screeners, and fillers.
3.
Clogging
of
geotextiles,
geonets,
geopipe
and/or
geocomposites is a challenging design for certain soil types or
unusual situations. For example, loess soils, fine cohesionless
silts, highly turbid liquids, and microorganism laden liquids (farm
runoff) are troublesome and generally require specialized testing
evaluations.
4. Handling, storage, and installation must be assured by careful
quality control and quality assurance about which much has been
written.
3-4. Functions of Geosynthetics
1. Separation :- Is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic
material, like a porous geotextile, between dissimilar materials so
that the integrity and functioning of both materials can remain
intact or even be improved. Paved roads, unpaved roads, and
railroad bases are common applications. Also, the use of thick
nonwoven geotextiles for cushioning and protection of
22

GEOTEXTILES
geomembranes is in this category. In addition, for
applications of geofoam, separation is the major function.

most

Figure 3.7of
fabric

separation
layer

2. Reinforcement :- Is the synergistic improvement of a total

systems strength created by the introduction of a geotextile,
geogrid or geocell (all of which are good in tension) into a soil
(that is good in compression, but poor in tension) or other
disjointed and separated material. Applications of this function
are in mechanically stabilized and retained earth walls and steep
soil slopes; they can be combined with masonry facings to create
vertical retaining walls. Also involved is the application of basal
reinforcement over soft soils and over deep foundations for
embankments and heavy surface loadings. Stiff polymer geogrids
and geocells do not have to be held in tension to provide soil
reinforcement, unlike geotextiles. Stiff 2D geogrid and 3D geocells
interlock with the aggregate particles and the reinforcement
mechanism is one of confinement of the aggregate. The resulting
mechanically stabilized aggregate layer exhibits improved
loadbearing performance. Stiff polymer geogrids, with rectangular
or triangular apertures, in addition to three-dimensional geocells
made from new polymeric alloys are also increasingly specified in
unpaved and paved roadways, load platforms and railway ballast,
where the improved loadbearing characteristics significantly
23

GEOTEXTILES
reduce the requirements for high quality, imported aggregate fills,
thus reducing the carbon footprint of the construction.

Figure 3.8- Geosynthetic reinforcement

3. Filtration :- Is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that
allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss, across the plane
of the geotextile over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Filtration applications are
highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage, landfill
leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as
flexible forms for bags, tubes and containers.
4. Drainage :- Is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that
allows for adequate liquid flow without soil loss, within the plane
of the geosynthetic over a service lifetime compatible with the
application under consideration. Geopipe highlights this function,
and also geonets, geocomposites and (to a lesser extent)
geotextiles.
Drainage
applications
for
these
different
geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields, dams, canals,
reservoirs, and capillary breaks. Also to be noted is that sheet,
edge and wick drains are geocomposites used for various soil and
rock drainage situations.
24

GEOTEXTILES
5. Containment :- Involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay
liners, or some geocomposites which function as liquid or gas
barriers. Landfill liners and covers make critical use of these
geosynthetics. All hydraulic applications (tunnels, dams, canals,
reservoir liners, and floating covers) use these geosynthetics as
well.

3-5. Demand and production

Table 3-1. Demand for geosynthetics (in million)

25

GEOTEXTILES
3-6. Worldwide sales of Geosynthetics

Table 3-2. Sales of geosynthetics world wide

26