Design flaws

occurs because
the designers and
tool fabricators
never use the
product common in large
corporations.

Material
characteristics that
relates to the
structure of
materials, its
formation from the
elements, and its
reactivity with
chemicals, other
materials, and
environment.

The
characteristics of
a material that
are displayed
when a force is
applied to the
material.

Characteristics
of materials that
relate to the
interaction of
these materials
with various
forms of energy
and with human
senses.

The properties
of a material
change with
temperature,
usually for worst.
Start to creep or
oxide/degrade.

Procurement/Manufacturing considerations are not listed in property handbooks

and not even legitimate category by most standards. However the available shapes,
sizes, surface Texture, tolerances on materials are often the most important selection
factors.

METALS

Composition
Microstructure
Phases
Grain Size
Corrosion Resistance
Inclusions

POLYMERS

Composition
Fillers, Crystallinity
Molecular weight
Flammability
Spatial configuration
Chemical resistance

CERAMICS

Composition
Porosity
Grain size
Crystal Structure
Corrosion Resistance

COMPOSITES

CHEMICAL

Composition
Matrix/reinforcement bond;
Volume fraction of
reinforcement;
Reinforcement nature

PHYSICAL
Specific heat
Coefficient of
Thermal
Expansion
Thermal
conductivity
Heat
distortion
temp
Glass
transition
temp
Magnetic
Electrical
Optical
Acoustic
Gravimetric
Color

MECHANICAL
Tensile/compressive
Toughness
Ductility
Fatigue
Hardness
Creep resistance
Shear strength

Procurement/
Manufacturing
considerations

Available Shapes,
Sizes, Surface
Texture
Manufacturing
Tolerances

Tensile/compressive
Heat distortion
Pressure-velocity limit
Toughness, Stress
Rupture, Creep

Manufacturing tolerances,
Stability, Available Sizes,
mold ability, surface
texture

Tensile/compressive
Fracture toughness
Transverse rupture
Hardness

Available Shapes,
Sizes, Surface Texture
Manufacturing
Tolerances, Stability

Tensile/compression
Fracture toughness
Creep resistance
Reinforcement orientation

Available shape and Sizes

Manufacturing tolerances
Stability

Properties

INTRINSIC

ATTRIBUTIVE

The key mechanical properties obtained from a Tensile Test:

1-Modulus of Elasticity (E);
2-Yield Strength (Y.S).
3-Tensile Strength (TS);
4-Ductility, 100xfailure (elastic recovery occurs after fracture);
5-Toughness (measured under load; hence the dashed line is
vertical)

The tensile test is the most common test for determining such
mechanical properties of materials as strength, ductility,
toughness, elastic modulus, and strain-hardening capability.

P
Ao

P
Engineerin g Stress,
Ao

(l lo )
Engineerin g Strain, e
lo

with a

Youngs modulus

Modulus of elasticity, E

Hookes law

Poissons ratio

Poissons
ratio may be
calculated from
the stress
strain test by
measuring the
ratio of
transverse
strain to axial
strain.

Determine: (a)E; (b)YS; (c)TS;

(d)% elongation at failure
(a) E: at elastic region, note that the
strain at 300 MPa is 0.0043. Then:

300 106 Pa
E
70GPa

0.0043
(b) YS: The 0.2% offset construction
gives YS = 410 MPa
(c) TS: The maximum for the curve
gives: T.S = 480 MPa

Stress-Strain Curve produced from Tensile

Test of Aluminum 2024-T81 specimen

(d) The strain at fracture is f = 0.08,

giving % elongation at failure =
0.08 x 100 = 8%

Quiz #2

Elongation

(l f lo )
lo

x100

Reduction of area

A0

Af

( Ao Af )
Ao

Quiz #3

d=

=
HB =

2P

D D

D 2 d 2

(2)(1000 kg)

()(10
mm) 10 mm

(10 mm) 2 (2.50 mm) 2

= 200.5

2P
D 2 D

(HB)
D

(10 mm) 2 10 mm

2
(2)(500 kg)
= 1.45 mm
(300)()(10 mm)

Figure 419
Specification of
hardness
numbers for
metals
(ASTM E 10,
E 384, and E
18).
See ASTM E
140 for scale
conversions.

are indications of metals

Toughness

Charpy

Izod

E.g: Sinking of Titanic: Titanic was made up of steel which has ductile brittle
transition temperature 32oC. On the day of sinking, sea temperature was 2oC
which made the structure highly brittle and susceptible to more damage.

Note the region of constant maximum

bending moment in (b); by contrast, the
maximum bending moment occurs only at the
center of the specimen in (a).

3FL
Flexural strength , FS
2wh 2
F: fracture load
L: distance between support points
w: width of the specimen
h: height of the specimen

FL3
Flexural Modulus
Ebend
3
4 wh

Quiz #4

Quiz #5

Kc is useful selection in
designing for prevention of
mechanical failure.
Measured by using tensile
m/c-ASTM E399 with known
size crack:

K1C

K1C

Table 45 Fracture toughness of various

engineering materials

Kc
B a

c: critical stress that will

produce fracture;
Kc: crit. stress intensity factor
B: a dimensionless parameter
(function of type of crack)
a: edge crack size

K1 Y a
K1 = Stress intensity factor
= Applied stress
a = edge crack length
Y = geometric constant

K1c Y f a

K1c

m
m

KIc
KIc

Quiz #6
m

 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning


K1c

K1 Y c K1c

General classification: ductile and brittle.

tmaterial

 Classification:
Fracture
behavior:

Very
Ductile

Moderately
Ductile

Brittle

%AR or %EL

Large

Moderate

Small

Ductile fracture is
usually more desirable
than brittle fracture!

Ductile:
Warning before
fracture

Brittle: No
warning

65

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

66

Irregular &
fibrous
appearance

 Evolution to failure:

Resulting

Photograph of a brittle fracture surface showing radial fan-shaped ridges.

304 S. Steel
(metal)

316 S. Steel
(metal)

160 mm

4 mm

Polypropylene
(polymer)

Al Oxide
(ceramic)

3 mm
1 mm
71

a
m 2 o Kt o
t
1/ 2

2 E s
c

1/ 2

where

E = Modulus Elasticity

a = half length of an internal crack

72


1 2

a

t

m
o

1 2

a
m
Kt
2
o
t

A measure of the
degree to which
external stress is
amplified at the tip
of a cracks

73

 Avoid sharp corners!

max
o
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
o
w

max

r,
fillet
radius

2.5

h
increasing w/h

2.0
1.5
1.0

0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius

r/h

74

 A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the crack.

75

tip

tip

K
2 x

increasing K

Very
expensive!
(need more
samples)

Fracture started here

Fatigue fractured
surface of keyed
shaft

Final rupture

Reversed Stress Cycle

(max tensile & min compressive
stresses are equal)(R= -1)

Mean stress = m

Repeated Stress Cycle

max min

Random Stress Cycle

Stress amplitude = a

max min

Stress range = r max min

min
Stress ratio = R
max

Quiz #7

Persistent slip bands

In copper crystal

K
Fatigue crack propagation at Stage II
is a function of not only a stress level
and crack size but also material
variables mathematically this rate
may be expressed in term of Stress
Intensity Factor, K, as:
da
Log( AK m )
Log
dN
m.Log( K ) Log( A)
*Straight line with slope m under
the (da/dN) vs K diagram
Limiting value of K below which there is
no measurable crack growth is called
stress intensity factor range threshold Kth

Region 1
Non
propagati
ng
fatigue
crack

Region 2
Linear relationship
between Log K and
Log da/dN

Region 3
Unstable
crack
growth

a
a

da
f ( , a)
dN

da

dN

N da

dN

da
AK m
dN

A,m = Constants depending on

material, environment, frequency
temperature and stress ratio.

a is small, da/dN
da/dN

da
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate
dN
(increase in crack length per loading cycle)

K K max K min Stress Intensity Factor

K Y a Y max min a

da
AK m
dN
But

Integrating from initial crack

size a0 to final crack size af
at number of fatigue cycles Nf

K Y a

(The stress intensity factor range at the crack tip)

Therefore

m
2

K m Y m m a
m

m
2

af

m
2

m m
da

A
Y
a

a0
Therefore da A(Y m m 2 a 2 )
af
dN
Nf
Integrating and solving for Nf
a0

af

Nf

AY
m

m
2 a0

m
)
2

da

Nf

af

m Nf
2

dN
0

da
m
2

AY m m a

m
) 1
2

a0
m
2

m
2

m
) 1
2

m
AY ( 1)
2
m

*
*

Compute the critical crack length (ac), the

integration upper limit. Assuming the
stress level (maximum tensile stress) of
100 MPa. Therefore,

K IC Y ac

Solve the fatigue equation, Nf using 0.002 m as

the lower integration limit (a0) as stipulated in
the problem. The value of is just 100 MPa,
the magnitude of the tensile stress, since min is
compressive. Therefore integration yields,

ac

Nf

AY
m

m
2 a0

da
AK m
dN

m
)
2 da

m=3.0 and
A= 1.0 x 10 -12

 Creep in a plastic fence after two years in service.

Jet Engine Turbine

Ce

Q / RT

R
T

Rupture Test

Example

P( L.M .) T ( K )(20 log tr )

T 980o C 273 1253 K

27.8x103 1253(20 log tr )

log tr 22.19 20 2.19
tr 155 h

UTS
N
Allow

N)
The need for a factor of safety is most evident when knowledge
is sketchy about:
1. Possible unexpected high load on a structure.
2.The degree of residual stresses within a material due to
manufacturing processes.
3. Homogeneity of the internal structure of a material
throughout its entirety.

4. Loading history of the material since its fabrication.

5. Numerous but necessary assumptions used in the analysis
and design procedures that can lead to appreciable errors.

Design

Design

UTS
4

YS
2

Properties Product Design Relationship

Elastic means it springs

Properties Product Design Relationship

getting stronger (work

hardening) but there is limit called

ductility.

Properties Product Design Relationship

Properties Product Design Relationship

Properties Product Design Relationship

Inadequate Stiffness
(E too low)

Inadequate
Fracture &
Toughness
(K1c too low)

Inadequate
Strength (y low)

Inadequate
Density
( too high)

Properties Product Design Relationship

High
Maximum
Service
Temp, Tmax

Low
Maximum
Service
Temp,
Tmax
creep

Properties Product Design Relationship

High Expansion
Coefficient,

Low Expansion
Coefficient,

Properties Product Design Relationship

High Conductivity,

High Thermal
Diffusivity, a, (ice
cream melts)

Low Conductivity,

Low Thermal Diffusivity,

a, (very slow effect)

3. Some materials-metals-feel cold; others-wood-feel warm. This feel has to do with two
thermal properties of materials: Thermal Conductivity, and Heat Capacity. -measures the
rate at which heat flows through the material when one side is hot and the other cold:
High is needed in conducting heat from one place to another (cooking pans, radiators,
heat exchangers). Low is useful in insulate homes, reduce energy consumptions of
refrigerators and freezers and enable space vehicles to re-enter the earths atmosphere.
When time is limited, Heat Capacity, Cp is matter. It measures the amount of heat that it
takes to make the temp. of material rise by a given amount.

Properties Product Design Relationship

High Maximum
Service Temp, Tmax
High Expansion
Coefficient,
High Conductivity,

High Thermal
Diffusivity, a, (ice
cream melts)

Low Maximum
Service Temp, Tmax
Low Expansion
Coefficient,
Low Conductivity,

Low Thermal Diffusivity,

a, (very slow effect)