THE

fc
"

MECHANIC'S

CALCULATOR;

coMPftSHwroizfa

Of

THE

AND

RULES,

PRINCIPLES,

MECHANICS;

AND

TO

U8BFUL

Row

have

work, for many

wo

GENERAL.

BNantSBR

i;M"*

flfTH^HMBBVEtolTION,

THE

obtained this gnat

to diminish
centuries,

"operiorlfy
over
the amount

of

these poor savages ? Because science has been at

mental labour by teaching us the easiest mode

our

Randt*

of calculation

PHILADELPHIA
THOMAS

IN

GRIER,

WILLIAM
CIVIL

FROM

ARTISANS

AND

ENGINEERS,

BY

OP

D1PARTMKNT8

VARIOUS

MATHEMATICS

MILLWRIGHTS,

TABLES

WARDLE,

MINOR

15

Stereotyped

183

by

of Machinery.

L.

STREET.

Johnson.

9.

"j

151

ADVERTISEMENT.

endeavour

every

All

rules

the

have

windmills,

new

have

theorems

revised

made

with

and

steel

water

Mechanic's

the

been

examples

entirely

illustrated

of

has

been

articles

several

is

the

and

additions

edition

this

preparing

In

made

been

insure

to

computed

The

re-written.

of

together

Many

besides,

work,

the

and

volume,

engine,

steam

with

numerous

diagrams.

9*.

.^-

and

anew,

the

throughout

engravings

ness.
correct-

compared.

and

wheels,

lator,
Calcu-

INTRODUCTION.

is

It

observations
useful

to

clearly

the

in

the

on

the

of

adoption
can

observations

knowledge

of the

foundation

on

terminate

in

rendered

there

useful

no

the

solid

time

his

as

relate, is the

raised

be

can

him

Such

necessary,

they

more

of

result

more

be

may

guarding

in

wasting

the

or

which

to

and

volume,

theory,

subjects

which

the

which

understand

to

few

ductory
introcorrect

only

sure

superstructure

science.
It is

all other

its cultivation
and

is also

All

men

scientific

pursuits

eminence

him,

honest

of
in

who,

that

of the

of

knowledge

to

of

not

knowledge

the

the

one

is in

the

every

made

differs

science
1*

here

is

made*
for

reaching

better

wealth
to

this

to

than

equal

make

any

squalid

most

comparison
case

the

indeed

of

the

by

the

relinquish

no

of

of

of

not

men

cease

bring

the

with

the

godlike employ*

of vice.

concomitant
be

born,

hope

state

invidious

should
of

with
is said

no

understood

be

into

is often

man

from

for

would

share

requires

few

Davy,

it

who

land, would

of the

would

or

ferent
dif-

capacities

are

had

obtaining

himself

rake

other

Watt,

ever

mechanic

young

there

he

entirely

met

is

he

with

man

is

what

that

but

The

be

to

and

endowed

because

inheritor

of wealth"

the

of

only

of mankind

knowledge,

Newton,

We

acquisition
but

rich

exertion

acquisition

The

mind

equally

merely

despair

wretchedness.

ment,

of

that

or

philosopher"

not

of scientific

knowledge

knowledge

totally unprivileged.

are

the

of the

certainly

are

of

family

great

thought

acquisition
who

kinds

scientific

constitution

in the

there

poet

that

general opinion

from

to

in

false

are

him

enabling

in

make

to

knowledge,

scientific

reader

young

inquiries which

of

of

nature

subjects contained

the

against

introductory pages,

intention, in these

our

well
from

that

the

knowledge

of

aware

the

INTRODUCTION.

ordinarymen,

not

which

his

his

do

boys
better

weight

of

view

cord, which

hempen

he

employs

extensive

more

has

been

the

he

as

the

be, is in

the

that

as

when

the fish,while

and

that

fly
the

far

so

of

employing
of the

boy,

by experience
the

earth, and
of

knowledge

as

the

will
thus
is

man

the

as

way
Even

knowledge
knowledge of

the

Indian, unlearned

philosopher.

is to appearance

He

sees

broken

when

for

only

to

appearance,

the

paddle

is

as

He

knows

also, by repeated trials,

that

of it.

out

will

raises it with

he

instead

to

respects
it is

other

but this additional

same

canoe

save

kite

atmosphere

clouds

the

; but

water

the

but

he knows

boy,

some

of his

finds

trials,he

the

by experience.

paddle

puts it into

water

exactly in

is to say,
to

seems

daily that
he

that of the

than

obtained

boy, that

In this respect the

design.

boy

light,and he regulates
little philosopher. A man

purpose,

the

The

too

of

wire, which

from
electricity

the

effects his

metallic

best

by seeing

so

sufficient for the purpose

was

summer-

in view

perfectcalm,

or

state

end

that

boy knew,

for which

electricityis concerned,

conduct

the

determining

the

heavy

all that the

knowing

far he is

so

do

to

finds

in

than

be too

accordingly:

kite

trials he

by

tail may

at the

of his

guides the

other

no

learned

has

the knowledge

splendid edifice.

the most

wind

moderate

his actions
raises

and

the same,

in

of

he

amusement"

own

and

degree ;

in the erection

hoy

in the air, with

kite

paper

in

as

part of that knowledge which

in the erection

architect
raises

the little

guides

house, constitutes

in kind

much

so

whole

when

by

peated
re-

in the

it shoots

along through the clear flood, does

it reallyis ; for though the most
not appear to be where
unerringof
his dart directly
marksmen,
at the point where
yet if he throws
the fish appears, he will certainly
miss it. In vain will he try to
strike the fish

the

on

principlesas

same

in the air ; but he finds,that when

is

to him

than

strike the fish.

The

nearer

paddle,and
when

are

place in which
this principle,
he

the

The

man

substances

of

is

of science

indeed,

much
have

more
a

as

we

than

so

do not

he knows
far

as

commonly
this

like effect in

line which

he

move,

he

will

of his

concludes

kind, and

When

flying

circumstance

through water, they

man

to

seems

the

like

they reallyare.

of science,

knows
appellation,

other

viewed

the fish

remembers

other circumstances

bodies

the bird

he directs his dart to

that in which

Indian

he strikes

that,

to be

seem

and

acts

in

upon

this is concerned.
understand
knows

changing

that
the

that
many

apparent

INTRODUCTION.

positionof objectswhen
greater and
the

another

actual

subject

can

knowledge
is

the

is obtained

science

They

be

of

compared

facts

chain

is called

when

framed
been

sucking

tend

the term

to

take

to

have

we

long time
height of more

afterwards

water.
lifting

About

and

found

higher

fluids

that

in

proportionas they

facts

together,he concluded
pressure of the atmosphere,

important
which

of

laws

refers

to

physical

the

and

thus

is called

theory,properly so

called,is founded

it is

no

have

longer

of
been
a

examined

theory,

but

useful, as

in

our

an

endeavours

in

and
were

knowledge

the

of pumps

century,

the

subject,
pumps

collectingall
forced

by

up

the
the

of the most

one

of such

collection

of

objects,when

on

this

The

sucking

theory. Thus

we

an

examination

to

any

other

laws

properly
that

see

of particular
but

those

or, if it is

Hypotheses, although they ought

rise in

vacuum.

refer

cannot

course

laid down

sciences

what

facts which

fluids

that

arranged,becomes
facts,and

or

express

not

experiments on

particularclass

some

to

facts to agree.

false,yet

lighter;

were

this law

thirty-two feet, and

rise in tubes

would

which

of the seventeenth

Toricelli,the pupil of Galileo, made

has

examined

in the construction

the middle

This

this law

would

water

to be

exceedingly useful

was

becomes,

have

we

abhorred

nature

general

one

that all bodies,

invented

than

found

law

innumerable

that

very

is

earth ; and

name

have

we

together.

gravity,by

found

place because

given was

of the fact

than

facts.

expressed in language,

which

cases

of

circumstance

when

to the

in all

science

When

that there

instance, it is

; and

case

for

pump

said

reason

for

For

in which

known

was

which

stance
general circum-

the

all linked

are

of agreement,

designated,is nothing else

circumstance

other,and

they

freely,will

the

of all true

carefullymarked.

us, because

by

and

Indian, but

examination

mere

each

which

law.

together,and find
they agree, this one

by

left to fall

this has

was

that of the

as

way

in

with

agreement

in which

it were,

is what

It

same

consist

compared

general circumstance

is

most

in the

not

several

circumstance

been

changes by measurement,
rigid calculation; all of

of facts is the foundation

their

tains
ascer-

does

must

he

of their

to

examination

An

as

produces a

one

extensive.

more

but

; that

change, and by repeatedtrials

amount

them

through them

seen

less

not

attempted so to do,
hypothesis or supposition.
to be relied

to discover

upon,

whether

are

theless
never-

they

be

INTHODUCTION.

true

false,we

or

may

at last

ascertain the class of facts to which

thus

arrive

at the true

they belong, and

In the examination

depend

on

senses,

that is,the

"and

the

mind

does

is to

mast

we

of the fire
through the medium
seeing hearing" touching" tasting

of

for it is

propertiesof

that

observed,

be

to

derived

senses

"

the

facts,it is

the information

smelling;

that

of

theory.

"

bodies

only by
become

matter

known

to

classifydie

and

compare

these organs
affecting
all that

; and

as

information

thus

derived.
It is

common

inventions

and

wonderful

show

to

and
a

circumstance
that

prove

examination.

commonly
merits

knowledge

that

great

who

men

are

wonder
of

; but

is sufficient

course

of facts

our

be adduced

might

is

regularlyprogressivethan

more

be

Far

imagined.

of those

is

Many

experience,
received,they ought to undergo

common

multitude

accident.

by

exciting our

of the

out

that,therefore,before they

careful

to

they are

greatest

our

support of this assertion

in

of their

of

many

made

were

told

are

that

suppose

discoveries

anecdotes

the very

to

error

it from

to

us

have, from

time

detract
to

from

the

time, benefited

by their important discoveries ; but from a survey of

led to the conviction,thai whereare
historyof science,we

mankind
the
ever

path

new

has

been

struck

in the great field of truth,

out

path has been previously prepared by former inquirers. Had

laws of the planetary
Kepler not discovered the three fundamental
motions, it is highly probable that the Principiaof Newton
never

that

would
had

issued

have
it not

it is

improvements

of power.

the

on

It is not

discoveries
Watt

probable that
the steam

illustrious

of that

pen

for the brilliant

been

subject of heat,
his

from

of

never

engine,that

unlikely,however,

Black

Dr.
would

on

have

invaluable

from

; and

man

the

made

distributer
of knowledge

the state

days of Newton, that, independent of the exertions

in the Principia
mighty mind, the knowledge contained
after have been
soon
one
or
given to the world by some

in the
of his
would

individuals"

more

great lesson

The

these

learn

from

made

without

turn

And

the like may

inventions

be said of the

of

Watt.

James

to

and

what

when

which

we

observations

would
is"

wish

mechanic

the young

that great discoveries

that previousknowledge
preparation-"
are

called

accidental

he is told that the law

occurrences

of

to

are

never

is necessary

good

was
gravitation

to

account.

suggested

"

INTRODUCTION.

to Newton

ground

Hargreave

discoveries

would

never

introduced
as

valves, and

the

to the

while

is not
but

the year

Brighton, about
-

While

we

on

that

some

or

men

take

that

they

stating,that
books

no

; and

him

in the

geometry
Elements,
of

Euclid

availed

would

himself

have
of the
like

has

doubt,
H.

Mr.

We

allude

been

remark

of

nature

meager

and

discoveries
may

department of knowledge

of his
be

; and

made

The

the

use

; and

sisted
unas-

compared
before

gone

little of

know

must

man

similar

have

of
the

Euclid's
Elements

confined, had

he

not

contemporaries and
on

to those

the
whom

or

of the individual

feeble, when

himself

words,

teachers

indeed.

who

pride
ginal
is ori-

knowledge

knowledge

of the many

the

to

from

very

tendency

is, in other

limited

That

hurtful

either

he, very

availed
of

taken

another

over

very

that all their

very

discovery.

work

of

romantic,

however

pass

that the

must

man

not

cannot

been

be

must

of

some

or

to

exertions

has

who

every

prove,

career

rise

said, gave

thorough mechanic,

self-taught. This

only

collected

the

boasting

are

one

it is

and

attendance

This,

mechanic.

has

of

exertions
with

in

circumstanced

so

we

assistance

goes

boy,

shut

the machine

leave

the constant

conceive

of the young

the progress

and

opened

originatedin necessity,no

subject we

which
prejudice,

common

engine

fastened

boy having

to

idle

an

ingenious

the

1717.

this

on

are

time

perfected by

and

begun

was

trious
illus-

twq

of the steam

which

work.

at

was

invention

fact*" the

the

it

engine

the

him

superseded

which

idle

an

handles

the

trick of

simple

apparatus

person

to

allowed

thus

This

play.

to

go

the accident of

by

that

valves

shuttingthe

counterweight

good

to

of these

it is related

of Nations

apparatus for opening and

brick

times, but

circumstances

minds

the

and

Apples

thousand

these

knowledge,

of mankind.

Wealth

Smith's

was

in

first concentrated

was

and

of Newton

them.

by

the

fallingto

minds

the

with

these

turn

of

state

made

thousand

to

to Har-

nuing
spinning-wheelcontiin

been

necessary

benefactors
In

while

garden

suggested

was

common

have

fallen

had

spinning wheels
the knowledge

jenny

in bis

tree

previously stored

been

not

from

assured, that, had

be well

let him

"

account

of

its ordinary motion

in

apple

ah

cotton

circumstance

the

by

greave

*nd

of the

the invention

that

or

fallingof

the

by

decessors.
pre-

cultivation
we

are

now

of

10

INTRODUCTION.

addressing we

say"-

and

have

when

you

if
originality,

such

how

any

should

not

make
old

an
a

man

In the

and
we

dee,

who

But

had

or

with

to

has

of

made

seen

the utter

which

would

he

in

have

for the

in

country"
billow

in

"

perpetualmotion
this

of

monument

the

is

preserved
For

of

the

of Dun*

of his

tools.

mechanics,
had

he would

of this

These

construction
to the

have

spent the

have

employment.

the

to

of

truly
seven

timepieces
and

commerce

guiding the lonely mariner

determining

the

preserved

clock-maker's

whereas,

in the

when

distance

exact

is bound"

he

trivance
con-

attempts which

would

the

workmanship,

use

purpose,

of infinite service

been

is

in the construction

devoted

direction of the part for which

of his

same

useful

more

been

his

the

on

be

universityfounded

the first principles

of

occupied

some

have

navigation of
far away

in

master

and
follyof his enterprise,

model

might

will

ingenious clock-maker

to an

his time

which

years

workman

specimen

failure of the various

and

before

been

beautiful

that

perpetualmotion.

acquainted with

been

years

oft"riginality.With

there

Glasgow,
a

procure

himself

proven

the nature

seven

and

applicationof

new

class of the

of this beautiful

execution

he

knowledge,

enterpriseswhich may ruin him

speculationswhich are unsupported by the

believe,indebted

we

are,

conceive

to

in

Anderson

machine

done,

of the mechanics9

museum

of

model

in

constituent

disposed

particleof

easy

acquiring

are

one

useful

it ; and

have

we

you

science.

venerable

the

by

others
his time

failure,or

it is not

possession of

applicationof

waste

principlesof

for

it

what

of

means

contain

not

possibly can,

improve

meet

we

it should

in

be

and

correct

wherever

possible;

of what

likelyto

to

dishonourable

no

principleis certainlyone

their

by

be

new

some

knowledge

less

of

know

all that yon

others

try

so,

though

respect it,even

to

from

therefore

and

knowledge,

done

We

obtained.

hare

learn

museum

as

and

model

the

lasting

and

ignorance, perseverance,

handicraft.
It is another

make

man

thing. Some
than
the

half

great mechanic,
one

humanity

makes
; and

degrees of knowledge

difference of

to

error

common

the
we

genius

great chemist,
that

remark,
do

that

suppose

believe

of different

men

every

that

the

arise

or

man

alone

can

great any
is more

differences
more

from

of

their

applicationthan .from originaldifferences of capa-

11

INTRODUCTION.

and

do

we

This

book

connected

with

parts of arithmetic

they

wondered

they give,and

divisions

explanation.of

and
have

The

of

habit

mere

without

the

of but

recent

to

would

require the

thrown

about
at

rules,and
of these
the most

may,

to a far

far

so

them,
few

regardedas
The

invented

to

by

which

machine

task which

years.

way worthy
of the Parisians

barbers, and
He

has

ever

been

been

countryman,

by which

set

the

of

hands

tables,

made.

of the

under

simple

into the

months, produced a

at

digestedthe

into short and

he gave

machines,

our

of

every

these

tables

principlehas

same

greater extent

was

the construction

mere

immense

for many

of science.

that

as

tables

wig-makers idle, and Pronney

of these

and extensive

occurrence

also

tables ;

in the fashions

the purposes

an

avail

no

the government

by

of such

give employment

in

is of

by

mathematician

five hundered

workmen, who,

Pronney.

desired

was

change

of

constitute

to

of mathematical

set

expedientwhich

an

printed forms

concerned, be

of

the calculation

correct

illustrated

large set

very

to serve

peruke-makers

has

construct

labour

to

once

time

same

de

of science.

man

said

be

easilyobtained, but

is well

Pronney

fell upon

principlesof

who

is perfectly

leadingprinciples

but
knowledge of principles,

construct

Pronney

contrived

M.

many

so

this is the great instrument

cannot

; it is

To

De

M.

France

the

As

calculation

date.

calculation.

had

system.

principles. This

requires,not only

of the great

of arithmetic

knowledge

of

with

the scholar

mind~of

rules

of the

nature

it lay hold

whole

pervade the

the

its use
to make
throughout the book, we have endeavoured
The
examples which we
easily understood.
management
dered,
given are indeed few and simple ; but, if carefullyconsithey will be found sufficient to establish the principle.

used

But

can

language contain,

our

embarrassed

moreover,

are,

subdivisions, that the

and

perplexed,nor
which

in

books

school

generally speaking, no
which

such

to

generallyrequire,and in which
deficient.
Nor is this deficiencyto be

the

at, since

the calculations

of

workmen

as

commonly

most

are

assistingthe

first part is devoted

The

machinery.

of

view

the

obtaining a knowledge

in

workman

young

with

written

been

has

will be

application.

his

proportionalto

learn,

to

which

advances

that he will make

him

assure

earnestlytry

workman

city. Let, therefore,the young

The

tables

was

guidance of

of late years

Professor

logarithms and

ried
car-

Babbage,
astrono-

12

INTRODUCTION.

mical tables may

thus
certainty,

be calculated and

obviatingthe

printedwith the

necessityof

either calculators

employing

compositors. Let not these statements

however, to neglectthe practiceof calculation ;

induce

or

improve yourself in it wherever

learn the principle.
In that part devoted
without

as

of the book

said

be

may

It is

mathematics.

will not

new,

be

to

and

be contented

desirous

of

nothing

be

togetherby
offer
of

with

met

chain

of certain

stop here

but

of the most

beautiful
advice

The

the

is

In

Engine,

from
the

degree
the

desire
of

pressure

the

experiments
the

between

formula,
of

proceeding.
;

high
To

and

thus

an

far

so

be

with.

proposition

relation

the

surface

of

the

on

will

found

may

of

the

in

sufficiently
prove
water,

having

found

abscissae,and

equation gave
but
boilingpoint. No man
have

add, that
has

thought of
is

mechanics

defined

it,
"

such
branch

mechanics

bore

to

he

made

the

tion
rela-

different

ebullition,under
as

highest

boilingpoint
the

scended
de-

was

the

whose

curve

would

Newton

down

instance

Watt

inherited

to

necessary
The

assertion.

and

temperature

equation of

we

to

means

to be met

instance.

apothecaries'phials,and

attainments
this

intend

it should

is not

instance

One
what

atmosphere

tor, as Sir Isaac

of motion."

mathematicians,

laid ,the temperatures

the

as

author's

the

to determine

ordinates, and

as

is cited

Watt

bis ancestors.

with

connected

self-evident,there is often

mathematics

that

for

pressure

he

circumstances,

of

family

genius of

With

several

known

it is stated

unfortunate

is most

is

work, recently published, " Stuart's History of

great mechanic, and

chosen

this.

"

to

as

creditable

very

Steam

make

simple

so

almost

there

be studied

of which

course

be

may

the order and

to

as

believe, this,that, to

be

induced

as

relations,we

nothing reallydifficult

is, we
greatest difficulty

which

for such

of Euclid

in the

book,

in mind, that there is

borne

of the first

end

the

studies

such

of

course

prosecutingsuch studies.*
In the first place,let the Elements

as

of the

will be

; but

and

theory ;

branches

whom

reader, to

far the

Thus

curves.

study, where
unsophisticatedtruths

of well-meant

words

few

such

entering on

to

in

be said of the

the like may

useful

to

investigatethese subjects

to

; and

that the

hoped

tion
given such informastanding
to the right under-

necessary

compend

have

we

was

sections,mensuration,

book

are

geometry,

demonstration

of the rest
conic

to

you,

the contrary,

on

be also careful to

but

can,

you

unerring

most

the

sures
pres-

that

well

matician
mathe-

method

of

matics
of mathe-

is the

metry
geo-

13

INTBOD0CTION.

attached

that there

suppose
does

long demonstration,which

is

understand.

not

is apt to lead

the reader

to

reallysomething mysterious in it,which he

This
proceeds from the fact,that it often

the connection
to show
requiresa greater deal of circumlocution
of simple propositions
with first principles,
compared with propositions
which

are

saying,that

complex

more

; hut

have

we

in

hesitation

no

if the steps of the

dered,
propositionsare carefullyconsione
by one, they will be easilyunderstood, and will lead
at last to perfect conviction
Lord
Brougham has well
; for, as
observed, Mathematical
language is not only the simplest and
most
easilyunderstood of any, but the shortest also ;" and Euclid
"

has

transmitted

to

language.

Of

Those
and

of

and

Simpson
work, and

valuable

workman

both

Euclid's

Elements,

the

edition

theory

various

are

Robert

never

of Euclid

has

very
to

Glasgow,

of

Wallace,

demonstrations

The

and

added,

propositionsare

practiceis

country,

is

to recommend

beg

we

editions.

in this

Thomson

Dr.

cheapness.

new

with

But

of Mr.

and

short ; many

of

there

of

That

correct.

very

for its execution

clear and

of the purest mathematical

Playfairare generallyused

deservedly popular.

are

the

posteritya specimen

omitted

are

the
it

where

nection
con-

can

be

introduced.
When

the first book

should

treatises
of

be commenced,

book

Euler, a

is therefore
book
or

which

is

if

they

which

has

subject

that account,
of Euler
will
difficulty
that attention

receive
be

had, be

of

read

If any

either

few

are

one

have

gebra
of al-

good

is the treatise
a

master, and

of these

good
works,

far

carefullyso

to

as

ment
part of this depart-

is that of powers

greatest importance

the most
we

best

the hand

Let

it
difficult,

of the

used,

think

study

by great simplicity. Another

degree.

to be

the

subject there

we

from

come

be

cannot

the second

be said
a

which

treatise of Saunderson.

equationsof
can

which

characterized

is the

others

That

found.

to be

on

read,

been

and

and

roots,

should,

on

careful attention ; and, if the treatise

no

hesitation

in

saying,that little

experienced. It may be necessary

should
be paid all along to the intimate
be

observe,

connection

standing
algebra,which will tend to the better underof them f"oth.
Having advanced thus far, Euclid must
again be returned to ; and, after revisingthe first book, read on
of the algebra is
revision
Occasional
the sixth inclusive.
to
far as equations of the
as
recommended, and an advancement
of arithmetic

and

to

14

INTRODUCTION.

third

degree ;

The

study

subject

after which

of

various

prefixedto Brown's
tables

acquired,the works

understood,

and

trigonometry,Simpson's
it may

of the

of

be

kind

work

the

Hutton's

of Keil

of

Hay

exceedingly well.

But

Thomson

After

the

will

for the purpose

may
of

study

with

tage.
advan-

see

thing
some-

and, for

the article Mechanics,

edition.

Tegg's

Edinburgh

or

mechanics,

to

and

logarithmic

this stage, to

Physics, or

on

treatise

employed

be read

may

mathematics

Mathematics,

treatise of Mr.

sections

which

on

The

of the

simple.

of relief at

of

be

may

management

most

conic

application

this purpose,

Tables

merits.

Gregory, Lardner,

last is the

; the

Perhaps

the

termination.

to the

introduced

be

of various

Logarithmic

it is

be consulted

then

works

when

be read

may

trigonometrymay

have

we

Euclid

The
the

answer

little

neat

same

purpose

of

ledge
obtaininga good knowof theoretical
extensive
mechanics, a more
knowledge of
mathematics
than we
have hitherto supposed becomes
absolutely
A knowledge of the method
of fluxions and fluents,
necessary.
the differential and

or

each

to

Thomson's

is

Leslie

work,

neither

contains

much

said

all the

will not

much

valuable

has

in

books
future

advanced

of

worthy

as

to

to

has

these

advanced

and

cause

as
inquiries,
to the pointwe

have

With
first

the

lume
vo-

believe,he

we

ever.
whatdifficulty

no

strictlypopular, yet

nor

in both

although
of

their
of

much

ways.

has

been

theless,
style,will, nevera

perusal.

we

far he will be

himself

our

by

will have

it is

the

of this excellent

volume

directions,as

things to guide

read

to

communicated

thus

information, and

be followed

which,

the trouble

repay

believe

we

perusal,is that of Sir

Philosophy ; a book which,

the floridness

amply

on

go

book

information

lengthen out

the student

say

now

logy
ana-

for similar

integralcalculus.

of this great man,

works

when

We

and

strong

employed

this may

to his Natural

valuable

be found

of both

; and

may

bear

fluxions, and

on

strictlymathematical,

against them

We

well

allude

: we

though
Indeed

been

ample satisfaction. The second

almost
entirelypopular,and can

Another

John

student

Gregory's Mechanics,

will find
work

have

differential

the

preparation
of

which

simplest work*
treatise of Simpson

the

pen"tttof
this

other, and

The

purposes.

best, is

integralcalculus,which

conceive

possessed

sufficient

in his future

firm conviction

considered, will

that
of

knowledge
inquiries.

that
be too

he

who

deeply

15

INTRODUCTION.
%

with

imbued

from

cease

its

cherishingone
As

the workman

Society for

and

of

their

cheapness

mode

society forms

; and

fondly hope,

we

this

recommending

insist

the

that

lighterwalks
will

as

of its talented

exertions

In

important
members

should

of literature.

find directions

In

for the

do

reading we

leave

the volumes
construction

and

cess.
suc-

mean

to

not

have

we

with

works

unopened

kind
man-

the benevolent

crowned

will be

of

course

mechanic

the foundation

firmlybelieve, that

we

from

access

history of

in the

era

treatises

Knowledge

of

easy

are

publication. Indeed,

most

; and

of

capable

The

of Useful

the Diffusion

to

ever

extensive, the

be well chosen.

should

recommended

be too

is

be very

cannot

warmly

cannot

sake,

own

long as bis mind

benign influence.

it contains

the

published by

he

of its

ray

which

few books

for its

science, even

cultivation,so

libraryof

the

of this

of

love

in

the

mentioned
of

management

the steam
but

engine,and other powerful and complicated machines

;
it should
of Shakspeare,
not be forgottenthat in the dramas

and

the

illustrations
the

of

novels

Fielding,Smollett,

of the

will

Scott, he
of

economy

of all.

machine

powerful

most

and

structure

and

and

These,

human

the

the

find

mind,

poetry and

periodicalliterature of the day, together with4fflg6tieal and

biographicalworks, will often afford agreeable and flMHMve
the

from

relaxation
The

useful

found
ever

of the

author

to

as

so

artisan

work

of

failure,it

and

in

to a class

of

welfare,'the prosperityof
of the

improvement

Britain still stands

yet she

must

not,

improvement,
When

we

that

we

arts

and

this

on

that

on

have

the
ever

account,
she

will

depends.
and

other

manufactures

relax
be

the nations

pre-eminentamong

otherwise

reflect

between

her

seen

indebted

trusts

he

daily
than

has

been

for

There

left

is,

kingdoms

in

and, although
in this respect,

endeavours

circumstance, that it is
been

was

exertions,
intelligence,

nation

the

book

be deemed

its aim

that

will be

compass

this book

whose

on

men

no

it,which

smaller

acknowledged

indeed, a strong competition

the

within

Work

yet he

man,

in

Should

nature.

at least be

that

information

compressed

similar

of every

views

the

meet

and

must

utility
; and

hopes that his

general; and though

will find much

collected
requires,
in any

following pages

to workmen

written

that the

studies.

severer

toward

lagging behind.

to workmen

selves
them-

improvements

in the

16

INTHODTJCTIOH.

it

arts,
such
it

is

reasonable

to

will

improvements
be

may

be

the

safely

likely

most

Add

of

as

of

only

this,

of

its

has

right

of

act

an

of

by

facilitate
the

author

of

the

shall

progress
be

ZlWAugust,

the

of
in

fulfilled.

1832.

in

your
science
that

the

make

manly

and

pleasure
of

and

enliven

should

this

society

knowledge,

then

we

employment,

or

of

cases,

should

exertion

earnest

besides

but,

however,

mechanic

mind

thus

multitude

diffusion

an

young

improve

cultivation

your

avail

becomes

individual,

any

well

diffusion

administer

pendent
inde-

as

The

workingman,
of

pleasure

man

poor

country,
to

in

exertion

any

his

tends

who,

The

shall

to

will

perfectly

classes

to

it

is

enjoyment.

owes

as

is

there

the

working

men,

To

endeavour
hours

the

no

that

its

in

man

that

science.

workmen

intelligent

most

which

and

partake

to

workingman

of

pursuit

whence

among

that

fact,

advantages,

useful

be

the

science,

benevolence,

can

the

of

every

aware,

individuals,

unless

the

privations.

well

is

who

and

from

source

improvements.

among

most

grievous

made

other

which

duty

class

suffer
be

is

he

study

knowledge
a

it

the

all

scientific

not

to

rich

the

make

to

from

inseparable

that

the

flow

to

considerations

these

to

continue

affirmed,

is

this

that

expect

in

nestly
ear-

say"

spare

your
little
the

the

volume

desire

of

18

ARITHMETIC.

had

3. If the numerator

(foot;)and

whole

the value

fraction

quotient.

denominator,
have

been

divided

one

by
||

In die fraction

the
of

denominator,

and

for the

foot

one

and fourteen
equal parts, (inches,)
being expressed by this fraction, its
parts (inches)
is

value

divided

than

more

by

dividedinto

-",

to

when

that

conclude,

the

which

jj

foot

T6?.

From

we*

may

equal to, less,

is

the value

of the fraction
It is,then, not

whole.

one

this

or

is
the

the numerator
of
and denominator
express
the relation they bear to each
other, that

fraction, but

the real value

determines

to

numerator

equal to, less,or greater than

numbers

of

foot ; and had

the foot been
of
these
have
parts, one
parts would

denominator,

the

greater than

being

numerator

gives 1T27. Again,

J is equal

or

the

one-half

equal

two

equal

or

and

foot;

one

the denominator,

just six inches,

would

being

numerator,

as

the

into twelve

being divided

been

the

to

is greater than the

numerator
of the fraction is greater than

foot, the

is

the

gives 1

denominator,

such

of

the value

then
"}-$,

as

equal

been

of

fraction.

equal, although expressed by different numbers,

of all the

all

", f ", T8Z,are

minators
the deno-

"

of

being respectivelydoubles

fractions

their numerators.

if

we

same

that,
divide both
of any fraction by the
terms
fraction will be found, equal to the
new

has been

what

4. From

multiply or
number,
thus, "

said, it will easilybe

multiply
divide
them
by 2, |, and
know
an^ thing of a common
at sight.

first ;

5. The

bring

to

two

take

f and I of

foot-rule will understand

shall make

of the

fractions

to

terms

it will

Now

be

minator,
deno-

same

of the second, 4

of the first fraction, that is, "

denominator

the

of the second

seen

(from No. 4) that

For

of the
we

fraction

by

this,

principlelast

alteringtheir real values.

foot.
Multiplyboth terms

f by the denominator

multiply both

"j%. Next

by 2, we
get T87,or
again by 2, ". All who

terms

these

more

or

that without

first fraction

both

we

and

example,

7\.

which

first use

stated,is

is

seen,

by

get
the

the result

these

two

equal to the two f and }, with

this additional advantage,however, that they have the same
fractions,T8"and
denominator,
A
more

"

of which
will be seen
the great use
after.
hereof three or
is employed in the case
process

12

like

fractions

first fraction

TSp are

by

I, -J,"-multiplythe

thus, f

4 and

5, the denominators

terms

of

the

of the

second

VULGAR

third, we

and

get ""

5, the denominators

19

FRACTIONS.

of

third,we

the first and

lastly,
multiply the third

by
second,
4, we
get ||-. It will be
done.
have
In obtainingthe
what
we
have
fractions, we
new
multiplied each
former
fractions by all the denominators
also for the

so

denominators.

to look

over

of the

numerators

the

in

numerator

its

except

But

of the firstand

useful

"

3 and

get "$

next

the denominators

3 and

and

f by

multiply the second

next

o wn

multipliedby 4,

wise,
: so, likesame
multipliedby 3, are
3 multipliedby 4 multipliedby 5 is 60, and will be 60 in
order we
take thetia" 3 by 4 by 5, or 4 by 3 by 5, or
whatever
minator,
5 by 3 by 4 ; when,
therefore,we have obtained one denoand

the

Hence

it is sufficient.
fractions

to

all the denominators'

by

and

all the

usual

the

denominator

common

thing, viz. 12

each

Multiply

except its

for

own

rator
nume-

new

rators,
nume-

together for the

denominators

reduee

rule to

common

denominator.
6. We

It is very easy to
inch, and that their sum

together.
of

an

evident

how

we

of

vanish.

No.

By

stand

they

1-j^,or

them
unlike

to

common

In

place the
and

numerators,

(No. 6) #

J, by No.
To

(No

show

reason

subtracted

add

the

not

1 ,)the

of

reason

tient
quo-

ing
bring-

cannot

we

add

add

the denominators,

kind the quantities

of what

bring the fractions to a

numerators
together, and
denominator.

bring

we

The

do

common

denominator, TV from
8.

to

taking the
place under

The

denominator.
from

being

"

subtraction

9 inches

is, that

we

rule, then, is
add
the
denominator,

denominator,
two

denominator

only use

would
difficulty
denominator"

the denominator,

by

foot five inches.

one

sum

and

had

we

placethe denominator, f|

sum

The

their

common

quite so

If

foot.

and

may
it is not

the

fractions

more

add

we

I of

to

-j^,or

or

; but

and

quantitiestogether: and
are.

7.

is

"

their

common

their

under

and

T\

how

see

them

5, bring

thus

two

denomination,

one

and under
numerators,
divide the numerator
is

add

to

are

them, however,

add

prepared to

now

are

fractions

the

common

the greater of
difference the common

their

of this may
from
", when
the

from

lesser

T\

to

the

be

easily inferred
brought to a common
difference is T*g-,
equal to

4.

take

another, is

to

one

number

multiply the

multiply 4 by 3,

is to

as
one

take the

often

as

there

number

by

number

four

are

units

the other.
two

times,

in
To
as

20

ARITHMETIC.

there

units in 2 ; and to multiply 4 by

times, or the half of four, as there

two

are

four one-half

unit in the fraction

".

to

take

is

only half
thought so simple,

This

be
may
that it need
stated ; but, let it be
not be
explains a fact in the multiplicationof
a

|, is

observed, that it
fractions, which

excellent practical
do not
arithmeticians
understand
many
;
viz. how
the
when
that,
we
multiplyby a fraction,
product
is less than
the number
If
the
fraction
is to
multiplied.
5
be

multipliedby J, (letthe fractions both refer to an inch,)

this is taking J (inch)i times, or taking the one-fourth
part
of one-half
is
The
which
inch,
one-eighth.
product J is
obtained
this
the
numerators
by
simple process : multiply
for
and
denominators
the
gether
toa
new
together
numerator,
for

denominator

new

; the

fraction will be the

new

product. That this is true in general may be shown

by
other
thus:
of
the
fractions,
taking
"
product by the
f,
rule is ^, which
be simplifiedby dividingthe numerator
may
and denominator
number, on the principle
by the same
of No. 4 ; if 4 be the divisor,the result is ", which
is the
same
as
^y. Now, that J-is the real product of J by f may
"

be shown

thus

divide

into six equal parts

take

these

parts, and

joia

CD.

Divide

into

and

it will be

equal
to

to

" of AB
9.

CD

division
that

; so

by

parts of this line CD

the line AB

on

parts,
two

" of f is ".

is the

Division

four

of

two

them

that the

seen

one

line AB

The

or

of

just

are

CD

is

equal

rule, then, is general.

of

multiplication;hence, to
divide in fractions," invert the divisor, and proceed as in
multiplication. Thus, to divide \ by ", invert the divisor
it becomes
by \ gives 2 multipliedby
\ which, multiplied
*,
the fraction less,
to make
\, equal to " ; and by dividing,
obtain f-,which, by No.
This is
1, is just 2 or twice.
we
reverse

the

quotient ; and

it is

foot, that there

one-half
foot, or j.
to

10.

We

have

the fundamental

now

easily seen,

are

quarters

endeavoured

rules of

if these
or

twice

fractions

of

relate

foot, in

explain the nature

vulgar fractions, as simply as
to

of

sible
posit
often
where
is
but
instances
occur,
;
necessary to
where
for these operations; -first,
whole
numbers
prepare
"

secondly, where the fractions

and, consequently, not so easilymanaged.

are

concerned

11.

As

to

; and

the first,
where

whole

numbers

are

are

large,

concerned,

it is

be observed, that when

to

1, is used, either

unit, or

to

number, it does not change the value

Thus, 6 multipliedby 1 is 6, and 6 divided

divide

multiply or

21

FHACTIONS.

VULGAB

of that number.

in No. 1, we
principleshown
6 in this way,
the number
write
altering
f without
may
in
have it now
with this advantage, that we
its real value
few
We
shall illustrate this by a
the form of a fraction.
tional,
fracwhole
or
examples, and show that numbers, whether
in this department of arithmetic
managed by the
are

According

1 is 6.

by

to

the

"

rules.

same

Add
to

1, divide

No.

and
of
a

third, may

and

whole,

whose

sum

and

is read

seven

in the form

principlebe put

same

added

to

-I part of

the

is 7s,

simple principleis often used,

multiply the whole
following rule

in the

under

and

very

"

the denominator

by

J, which

for it is 7 wholes

This

is embraced

number

get

we

be thus written, \ and ", equal to

may
is 2/; divide the 22 by the 3, the result

the first number.

and

"

from.

out

the

on

fraction

common

set

we

J, which, brought
their sum
is \5; then

and

3^, J
by the denominator,

are,

the numerator

8|, the number

them

write

we

denominator,

common

by

|, here

to

the fraction, add

of

rator,
nume-

the denominator.

place

sum

the

sary
neceslarge,it becomes
that
to a simple form, not
to bring them
we
only
may
their
but
that
be
value,
more
more
easily see
they may
is
not
Thus, -fe
so
simple nor so
readilyoperated upon.
the
is
and
fraction
one
just equal in
easilymanaged as TV"
and denominator
value to the other ; for, by No. 4, the numerator
of -fa being both
divided by 6, gives -fa. Also,
used
100
is
a divisor, gives""$. Whenever
as
aVySp when

When

12.

we

the

find

can

number

fraction without
the

make

are

The

simpler
divisor

very

will divide

which

remainders,

fraction

value.

same

fractions

ought

we

in

thus

to

both

employ

it,and

used

simplify fractions,is
and may
frequentlybe

to

can

in the fraction

; but

be

more

found

such

no

consequently, the

simple. Sometimes,

thus

form, though of exactly the

usuallycalled the common

measure,
there is no such
found at sight,although sometimes
in f it is seen
that 2 is the
at once
at all. Thus,
measure

of the

terms

also, two

or

more

common
measure

common

fraction

number

cannot

be

numbers

made
will

the fraction ; thus, $-may

be divided by 4 or by 2"
it brings the fraction to
the greatest is preferred,
because
divide

the lowest

terms

at once.

When

this cannot

be

obtained

at

22

ARITHMETIC.

sight,the following rule may be employed : Divide the

by the less; if these leave any remainder,
greater term
divide the last term
by it ; and thus go on dividing the last
divisor by the last remainder, and that divisor which leaves
remainder

no

be

may

is the

greatest
the

appliedto

following example

1470

By

2205

1470

This

measure*

common

rule

the above

rule.

) 2205

(1

1470

"735 )

(2

1470
1470

is the

735

measure

common

735

~"

'2205v*

( I,

Let

three
but

hundred,

for every

is increased
the left hand

the number

thirtyand
times

side, and

; and

go

value

figurehas a
placedone place nearer
every

on

ten

the

3333,

same

with

still have

would

are
a

same

tenth

it to the left.

same

Hundreds

are

dreds;
parts of hunthe
parts of tens, "fec. Now,
; tens

are

point placed before

the

figureis used,
die left,its value

"

next
parts of the number
justtenth parts of thousands

units

The

towards

consequently, if we
begin at
towards
the right,we
that
see
times less than the same
figure
left, each number
expressing

tenth

and

(threethousand,

3333,

three.)

place it is removed
ten

of the fraction.

FRACTIONS.

examine

us

form
simple
r

the

DECIMAL

13.

therefore,

tenth

of

any

its

figures,

figure towards

property of each

the

have
right,having a tenth part of the value it would
the left : that is to say, the point
had in the next place towards
has no effect in alteringthe relative value of the figures; but
stands at its right
it has this effect,that the figure which

would

hand
the

same

middle

signifyunits

figuresas before,
two,

and

from

what

thus, 33*33,

with

where

we

point placed betwixt

has been

said,we

conclude

have
the

that

DECIMAL

the 3

the left of the

to

the

that

next

have

been

that follow

hundredth parts. Had

last three to the rightof

tenth

the

less

point to

again, "c ;
the right are

they are fractional

each place,they are

tenths

word

the Latin

decern, ten.

It is to be

14.

numbers,

where

"

and

less than

from

called

point would
all the figures

the

that

so

quite

fractions

its only

is to

use

from
'3.

be written

of the

cipher
whole

figurefrom

some

remove

quently,
conse-

"

it is in

what

to

units,

decreasing by

their

Decimal

similar

written

it been

Thus, then, T3Tmay

here, that the use

observed

decimals

(0) is in

this it follows

From

units.

rightof the point is tenth parts of

following that again tenth parts of a tenth

the

3.333,

pointis

the

on

unity, and the 3

part of unity, or
thus

23

FRACTIONS.

place,and therefore alter its value tenfold. Thus,

in the number
40, the cipher of itself signifies
nothing, but
the 4 to the tens' place. Had it been 04
to remove
serves
there is no figureto
here the cipher is of no use, because
is true of
remove
beyond it from the units' place. The same
of units.
that '3 is just x%
Now, we have seen
any number
the units'

"

what

and, from
hundredth
a

parts, or yf^-,as
from

place farther

(No. 13) makes

had

been
tenth
the

same

of

cipherin

place

tenth

place towards

less in value

times

one

*03

nearer

For

part.

than

the

the

.03 is three

the *3

removes

the

right,and

it would

have

left ; or, it is

same

now

is

'003

reason

T7377.

as

The

is read

the

the units'

it ten

it been

parts

15.

said,it will follow, that

has been

number

three

is read

33

tenths

and

three

thirtyand
hundredths,

three, and
or

*33

sometimes

hundreds.
to T$7 give (No.
Now, T% added
thirty-three
wished
is 1^r, (No. 4.) If we
to
6)-rinnr, w^cn" simplified,
write

-nnnr

tne

other

form, it is done simply thus

point (J

place,and 3 in thousandth's
Take, now,
place; that is,*003.
T^ and Tfo ; adding,then,
which, written with the
by No. 6, we get-^fo, simplified^fr,
We
is
*46.
number
now
point, simply
see, that any
may
the
decimal
point is a fraction ; which may be
placedafter
and a dewhich
is that number,
nominator
expressed by a numerator
consisting of 1, with as many
ciphers annexed
is the
there are
as
figures in the numerator
: thus, *3034
same
thing as Jffifc.
16. These
simple statements
being understood, all that
follows will be easy.
The
principlebeing kept in mind,
in tenth's

place,0

that the numbers

in hundredth's

to the

one

side of the

ppinthave

the

same

24

ARITHMETIC.

relation
the

on

one

the

to

well

it would

as

have

figure

the other, being

on

been

less than

times

ten

the other," every

on

point as

greater than

right,and

those

as

side of the

times

ten

another

to one

in the next

place

in that to the left.

add decimal

To

fractions,we proceedjustas in whole

numbers, placingunits under units, and consequentlypoints
column
under points,and carrying to each new
to the left,
17.

1 for every

by

be written

T5Tor

be written

may
the

rule

result

*5 ;

have

may,
Now, add

given,and

alreadyadded.

As " may
be
written 7*5 ; 4-J
therefore,
7*5

and 4*5

by

will obtain

7*5

be
correct," as
may
principleslaid down in the former

4*5

we

which

we

be

must

have

we

other, and

others, and

7"

4*5.

proved by
chapter. Here
each

in the column

ten

put

T^o

kept the points under

just under
point in the answer

the

is 12, with no decimal fraction. Take

sum
7"
form
it
the
of
the
to
a
common
bring
vulgar fraction,
by

and

the

No.l 1 and
principle,
we
get | ; they have
by No. 6, we have y
to ^
or
12, the same

it will be

and

-764, and

sum.

Here

now,

"

as

Take

before.

9-102, and

likewise

4" and

with

denominator, and add them

this fraction,by No. 4, is equal

common

; do so

135*7, and 1 *23,

-035 ; to find their

now

8-003, and

place,as before, all the points under

we

each

other, and proceedas in addition of whole numbers, carrying

the
other
the
line
in
under
the
and
tens
sum
by
pointing

points:
135-7
1-23

"764
9102
8-003
-035

154-834

Subtraction is managed in like

18.

the

numbers,
Thus, subtract

they
in

are

whole

others.

from

33-785

more

being paid

and

subtracted

numbers,

the

point

It is to be

decimal

as

to

in

common

the

points.

1967-32;

placed thus,

being placedin

answer

are

attention

same

manner

as

in

the

line with

the

1967*320
33*785
1933*535

observed, that there

placesin

the under

number

than

in the

26

ARITHMETIC.

there

because

divisor.

four

are

in

dividend

the

and

none

in the

We,

therefore,place the quotient thus," -0044

this is the true quotient, we
have only
to prove
multiplyit by the divisor,and the product being the same
the dividend, the operation must
be correct.
as
and

that

From

21.

be

may

to

the great facility

with which
decimal fractions
managed, it is very desirable that we could bring

form, in order that they might

vulgar fractions to the same
this may
be done on
Now,
more
easilybe wrought with.
the principlesalreadylaid down
take the fraction ", and,
:
the principleof No. 4, multiply both terms
on
by 1000, it
"

then becomes

|""$
and

numerator

last fraction

is

which

denominator

expressed

the

principleof

been

derived,

No.

in the

to

from

15,) *125, which,

be

must

by

; divide

(No. 4) both
; then 8) """" (tW*" which
decimal
notation thus, (on

equal

is

equal

".

to

thus

This

add

the way

may,

it has

however, be

ciphers to the
and divide by the denominator
numerator
as
you find necessary,
thus,
8)1000(*125. If we have only to add one
cipher before we get a quotient figure,we put a point in
the quotient ; but if more,
then we
ciphers in
put as many
and
the quotient after the point. Thus, -"7; 25)100(*04,
^ is just T$7, or -04.
found

immediately

more

as

many

"

the quotient would

In many
cases
go on without end ;
to continue
it is to be observed, that it is not necessary

22.

but

tions,
calculaoperation in decimals, at least in mechanical
beyond three or four places,as ten thousandth
parts
considered
in
For""
be
seldom
to
are
practice.
necessary
similar reasons,
it is unnecessary
to give rules for repeating
decimals
the
and circulating
: t. e. decimal
numbers, when
in some
order" thus, *3333, or, 142142,
same
figuresrecur
it is all that is necesto four places,and
sary.
"c, carry them
any

applicationsof these principleswill

chapter,on compound numbers.

Other
next

NUMBERS.

COMPOUND
23.

with
to

In

mechanical

weights and

be found in the

calculations, we

measures,

operate with the numbers

are

often concerned
to

know

express these.

The

and it is necessary

which

how
rules

COMPOUND

books

given in

of

therefore, not

27

NUMBERS.

arithmetic

generallyvery long,and,

are

easily understood

very

yet the steps of the

of

operationare simple. We shall therefore show the mode

procedure,in some
very easy examples, and the reader
find no difficulty
he may
in applying the principles
thus
to cases
more
complex.
feet
ydsIf we
24.
have to add 9 yards 2 feet 6
9
2
inches, to 2 yards 1 foot 3 inches, 8 yards
0 feet 1 1

Then
inches, long measure.
we
of comin this,as in all other cases
must
pound addition, arrange them in order,
the greater towards
the right; and there
of

weight

or

the left hand,

be

must

and

in which

measure,

20

the

bibe
im-

inch-

6
3
**

towards

lesser

tion
for every denominathe respective
column

column

will

es
stand, so that feet will stand under feet,inchunder
inches, pounds under pounds, and ounces

quantitiesmust
under

"fec.

ounces,

in this

example

therefore

feet ; that is, 1

the column
it is

usually

If
2

to add

lbs.

17

11

oz.

12

will be put down

the right hand
column

to

47

in the column
which

comes

der
un-

yard is added, or carried, as

is 20.
of yards, whose
sum

and
14

in the

as

is 26

19

Then

the

sum

is 1 lb.

10

oz.,

14

margin.
which

oz.,

of oz.,

is next

lbs., that is, 1

of lbs. and
to

put down

2 cwt.

of lbs. which

column

to

comes

tons

the 10 in the column

put down

inches, we
of inches,

10

above,

they

comes

1 foot 8

or

1 foot is

The

the 1

then, from

remarked

was

the

right,which

10

18 lbs. 3 oz.,

lbs.

the

2 tons

2 lbs. 2 oz.,

1 quar.

what

1 foot.

of feet,and

1 quar.

10 cwt.

yard and

to
avoirdupois,

oz.

toward

inches,

to 20

amounts

called, to the column

have

we

cwt.

the column

now

the 8 inches under

the column
put down
the 1 foot to the column
of feet, which

add

and

Add

9, which

quar.

and

and
and

of
we

carry the 1 lb. to

this when
added

19 lbs. ; the

is put

19

the

1 is carried to that of quar

not

amounting

to

cwt.

s.,

put

we

the 3 in the column

of quars.
and
carry nothing to
the column
of cwts., which, when
to 14, this
added, amounts
to 20 owt.
1 ton,
we
or
put down, and, as it does not amount

down

we

carry

lumn
25.

is

nothing to
added, its

In Subtraction

sum

the column

of tons

and

when

this

co*

is 14.
the

same

principleof arrangement

is to

28

ARITHMETIC.

observed, and the lesser quantity is

be

If

greater.
12

have

we

from

oz.,

1 quar.

to subtract

9 tons

4 lbs 7

1 ton

8 cwt.

subtract

the

at

add

lb.

borrowed

oz.

16

or

from

12

"

the

which

being

lbs.

28

from

18

back

paid

quar.

and

cannot,
from

5 and

that

was

borrow

20

from

whieh

cwt.

is

28, then

borrow

the next
back

oz.

is

supposed
stands

cwt.

Add

8,

then

column,

and

of tons

1,

1 to 13

we

for the
but

cannot,

we

from

14

the 1

therefore

quars.,

is put down.
then 14 from

quar.

from

we

fore
32, there-

are

down,

quars.;

oz.

Here

and

16

or

4.

and

Now

oz.

pound

quars.,

or

next

of

28

be

to

it,
from
12
and,
23,

from

18

but

cannot,

we

of

of

to the column

borrowed,

we

TT

is put

column

borrowed,

Pay

14

of lbs. the

column

remains, which

1 cwt.

"g

in the column

14, which

the

to

must

remains.

the

leaves

32

77

therefore, it is

borrow

we

12

to 7 makes

to the column

from

borrow

to

17

of lbs. which

column

borrowed,

we

have

back

pay

the 7, which

to

oz.

the left ; now

16 added
is put down
23 leaves 11, which
must

oz

14

j3

from

oz.

towards

we

lbs

"~

17 lbs.

2 quars.

cwt.

the

lowest

denomination, viz.
we

put under

cwt

pois,they are arranged as

in the margin.
We
begin
to

13

tons

avoirdu-

oz.

to be

the

and

28

1 ton,

14
20

or

then 2 from 9 and 7 remains, which

put down.
The

principleholds

same

being

similar

thus,

multiply 3
arranged

to

by 3 ; they are
in margin. Then
as
product is 30 oz.

lumn

which
is

the

only a
; the

cases
particular

oz.

which

tons

example

or

to the

of lbs., and

14

the

column

which

of

is 1 cwt.

refer.

performing
principlesare nearly
2

cwt.

quars.

6 lbs. 10

lb.
co-

lbs.
quars.
to

19~

"

14

oz.,

of oz.
in the column
is put down
lb. carried
lbs. is 18, and the one
to 28

may

the first

is carried

amounting

riation
only va-

the next

of

short way

or

1 quar.,

The

be carried

nothing

product
and

productof

The

which
the

from

depend upon the relative values of these

miybe known
by examining a table of the

to
weight or measure
particular
which
26. In Multiplication,

in

the

will

which

addition

examples,

to be borrowed

that the numbers

higher column,
columns,

in other

is 19, which

not

is to be carried

of the

2 quars.

quars.

to be

to

is 6,

put down.

NUMBERS/"

COMPOUND

product of

The

is 6, and

cwts.

the

fl

carried
rried

one

29

the
th"

from
from

lumn
nothing being carried ; the coof tons
the
is 9.
followingexamples,
By examining
the
and
the
of
tables
to
referring
weights and measures,
See Appendix
general applicationmay be easilyinferred.

former

makes

column

7,

Degrees,

min.

seconds.

yds.

feet.

inch.

14

17

17

23

8th

parts.
6

"
139

25

Carry by

L
89

42

60

or

foot is divided

The

are

part again into

small, that they are

so

wish

we

inches,

inches, and

placethe

we

feet under

and

; these

generallyneglectedin
of

in

under

12

calculation.
breadth

plank, whose

feet 5

the other,

length 8

under

inches, "c,

jr

Multiply the inches

the upper
line, by the feet
line, placing the product

"c.

parts,
last,however,

margin.

feet

in the

seconds

12

under

one

feet,inches

in the

as

inches, each inch into

surface

to find the

foot 7

is 1

12

'

general,in measuring timber,

into 12

each

If

Jl

JP

J)

60

is very useful to artificers in

and

_2

19/

mal,
It may
to notice, Duodecinot be out of place here
what is commonly called Cross Multiplication
; which

27.

."

,ft

i"

"

inches, and that of the feet,under

the feet.
Then
multiplythe inches and feet,of the upper
in the under
line, by the inches
line,placing the product
of the

inches, under

where

necessary
twelves

is, two
2

added

56, and
10

over

the

in this
11

the 2 carried
10

These

column.

by

as

and

the

makes

now

example,

put down, and the

column,-" 7 times 8 is

58, that
and

carry by twelves
7 times 5 is 35, that

1 1 is

the next

is put down,
are

right,and

; the

over

product of

the

to

the

towards

further

place

one

is four

twelves

inch.

added, observing again

feet.

inch,

35

parts,
6

12

36

1
38

and

the 4 carried to the next

to

carry

twelves.
feet.

/I

f ij

Arithmetic.

to

434

11

30

ARITHMETIC

The

feet in the

not

are

square,

parts of

the

third

and

so

as

square

example are square feet,but the inches

might be thought at first sight,but 12th
foot ; and also the numbers
standing in
12th

place,are

parts of these

parts of

12

foot,

on.

Before

28.

it will

reduction.

consider

we

be

the Division
to

necessary

This

perplexing,but

is
a

attend

of

compound

bers,
num-

of

little to the nature

be very
viate
will obprinciple,

usuallythoughtby beginners to

little attention

to the

all this apparent difficulty.

In every lineal foot there are
12
there

will

be

times

12

as

inches, and therefore

of
inches, in any number

many

feet, as. there are feet ; thus, in 8 feet there are 8 times 12,
In every lb. avoirdupois there are
that is, 96 inches.
16
therefore

ounces,

288

in 18 lbs. there

So

ounces.

that

18

are

16, that is,

times

multiplythe higher

we

tion,
denomina-

of the
of the lower
which
makes
one
by that number
of the lower contained
higher,and the product is the number
in the number
of the higher,which
we
multiply. In the previous
and
tions,
examples, feet
pounds are the higher denominaand
remarks
the

feet
to

inches

and

ounces

are

the lower.

From

these

proceed in finding
number
of i parts of an
inch contained in 3 yards 2
7 inches, and f parts, long measure.
Bring the yards
it will

be easy

to

feet,3 .multipliedby

feet, which
139,

make

that is, 1112,

1117

the

to

are

This

11.

by 12, or 132,
This brought

see,

which

to

which

we

we

add

the

tiplied
inches, is 11 muladd the 7 inches, making
to

-}"
parts gives 139, multipliedby 8,
add the 5 eighth parts,making
we

answer.

The

examples subjoinedare
the multipliers
varying with

3074

9,

we

brought

to which
to

how

lbs.

managed
the

3664

kind

in

of

poles.

like

weight

manner
or

;
sure.
mea-

COMPOUND

work

The

of

many
of

is reversed, when

will be

foot

that is, 120

feet.

had, it would
quars.

there

is

been

of the

same

In the

that is, inches.

and

Then

have

in 1 lb."

oz.

in cwt.

in 1 ton

cwt.

remainder,

no

kind

)6889

oz.

therefore is 344

answer

which

"

may

the method

by

cwt.

of

fraction
inches

it will be

What

from

what

be

must

the

to

there

inches,

yard being

qrs.

lbs.

14

3 oz.?

This

is the numerator

which

reduced

is 1 cwt.
therefore

T?ff,

think

that

mode

of

these

of
to

which

is

The

be

brought

the

tor
numera-

inches

duced
re-

into

1792

fraction
to

oz.

of

ounces

the
; the

be

it remains

sufficient
for

us

to

terms

30.

It will be

easilyseen,

that

one-half of

is 1123,

tor
denominafraction

show

the

consider

the

to

of

an

inch

; so

that to

in

foot is twelve

inch, or that any

greater than one-half of an
part of a foot,is a twelve times greater part of an inch
foot is

is

We

times

is

cwt.

expresseddecimally0*6264.
will

is

decimal, is 0*8888,

of this ; to estimate the value of such

fractions
of the weight or measure
to which
they refer.

reverse

i of

nominator
de-

or

yard, which

feet 8

the fraction, and

or

unit,

fraction therefore

last reduced

oz.,

examples

procedure,and

the

one

is, 2

feet 8

is 2

course

in

likewise, what

So

1.

of

; that

turned

to ounces

vulgarfractions,

on

fraction,and

inches.

32

or

|f, or simplified", which,

one

work

yard

is here

must

of the

quantity taken

of

inches

36

are

8 lb. 14

1 quar.

compound
express
feet and inches as the

said

yard

one

denominator
the

will be

has been

fraction,which

Now

inches.

9 cwt.

"

to

fraction

that

easilyseen
of the

to

1 quar.

proved by reducingthe
given above.

Now,

8 lbs.

be

yard.

oz.

"

9 cwt.

tons

frequentlyof great use,

fractionally
; thus, so many

numbers

14

"

tons

It is

29.

tons, cwts.

oz.

lbs."

344

The

if there

but

many

)27557 quars.

20

"

of feet,

ounces,

)771604

"

ber
num-

the dividend,

with

)12345678
28

in any

number

same

16

lbs. in 1 quar."
quars.

the

be

rind how
way
contained in 12345678

lbs., are

how

inches, long measure, there

therefore
divide
inches, we

for every
12
one
by 12, and the quotient will

1440

ascertain

to

contained

are

in 1440

Thus,

lower.

wish

we

higherdenomination

31

NUMBERS.

bringany

given
;

thus,

fraction of

32

ARITHMETIC.

by

numerator

"

fraction of

to the

foot
of

and

ounce,

an

So

12.

inch,

an

i of

likewise
of

yard

only to multiplythe
a
pound avoirdupois,is
" of a foot, or 3-fof an

have

we

is

divide the numerator

inch ; and if we
of a
we
get in the last example

denominator,

by the

yard, equivalent to 7f

inches.
What

is the value

principleit
or

quar.,

37 " lbs.

equal

i of I

that

going
the fore-

" of

is

cwt.

greater part of 1 lb.,that is l"2 ; that is

of 1 lb. is 16 times i of an ounce,
or
y,

"

ounces.

mally,
generallybe found best to express these deciof
0.333
cwt
thus, the last example will be "
a
or
of a quar., or 37.666
of a pound. Thus
cwt., or 1.333
It will

31.

of

28

5|

to

will be found

By applying

times

also

"

of j of 1 cwt.

it appears
that any fraction of a cwt.
is 4 times greater than
of a quarter, and any
fraction of a quarter
a like fraction
is 28
similar fraction of a pound;
times greater than
a

hence,

reduce

to

denomination,

lower

contained

lower

the

one

j^j
or

of

weight

On

the other

hand,

expresses how

of

On
or

foot, or

like

which
off the proper

of

0.00924

fraction

is

of

decimal

be

by

is contained

7V "f

0.3333

f"ot" or
of an inch,

number

in

of

ing
multiplynation,
denomi-

of the

one

of decimals

37689

expressing

determined, simply by
may
that number
of the next
lower

is contained

mains
re-

that

yard.

principlethe value

measure,

the decimal

denominator

bring

of the lower

many

in

higher,and cutting
the product," thus :

cwt,

1.50756

quarters.

28
V

14.21168

pottods.

1"
3.38688

Here

it will be

",

observed,that

the

of the lower

higher denomination, the numerator

but we
by
multiply the denominator

higher. Thus " of an inch

yard ; or expressed in decimals

to

in

tion,
of the frac-

how
expresses
many
the higher, while
the

of

one

its value

to

numerator

of the

0.0277
32.

same

which

number
in

to

higher

which

unaltered.

remains
from

in

of

multiply the

we

that number

by
are

fraction

or
integers

whole

nunv

84

ARITHMETIC.

and cube
the square
numbers
that, when
numbers
of 9, and
is the cube

The

and

cube

of 16, "c.

they will not occur

raisingany number
obvious
sufficiently

in

method

of

means

cube

root

of these

; and

roots

beginner

said to be of

; and

root

shall not

there

are

The

method

the square
and cube powers,
from what
has been said above
and

square

shall
as

to compare

cube

of

will be
; but

the

is not

by any
for the extraction

roots

the rules

higher
higher

ourselves,

concern

to

We

easy.

are

calculations.

our

extracting the

so

In like manner,
3
of 64, 5 the cube root

root

the square
and square
than these, with which
we

as

such

mean

cubed, will produce these

root of 4, 3 is the square
root

than

orders

the

root

we

or

of 27, 4 the cube

root

of 125, "fec.
order

squared

4 is the square

numbers,

any

2 is the square

thus,

of

roots

give
they are long, we would
carefullyeach step in

recommend
the

example,
by doing

that part of the rule to which

it refers ; and
culty
he will find that the greater part of the diffiattentively,

with
so

will vanish.

of
are

rule for

is this :
root
extractingthe square
/lirsf" Commencing
at the unit figure,point off periods
two
figureseach, till all the figuresin the given number
exhausted.
second
The
point will be above hundreds
The

33.

in whole

Second

by

put its
of

way

square

this,root

the first

from

period

at

root

the square

Square

"

square

in decimals.
the left be

the end

of the

quotient ; and if the first period

take

square,

Third

hundredths

If the first period towards

"

then

square,

next

and

numbers,

for

root

period ;

dividend, and

to

complete

given

is not

ber,
numplete
com-

of the next

found,

now

the

less square.
and
subtract
the

remainder

for part of

annex

the

divisor double

alreadyobtained.

the root

Fourth

"

is contained
annex

the

found,

but

Fifth
"

remainder
divisor

Sixth

the
"

Try
in

found, not only

the divisor, last used.

quotient thus
also to

to

the

root

last

Then

multiply and subtract, as in division ; to the

the next
bring down
period, and, adding to the
figureof the root last found, proceed a;sbefore.
Continue
this process
till all the figures in the

given number
proceed in the

ciphersto

often this part of the divisor now

found
the dividend, omitting the last figure,and
how

have
same

find each

been

used

manner

figure.

to

and

if any

find decimals"

thing remain,
-adding two

AND

POWERS

The

square

of 365

root

is

35

ROOTS.

required.

365(19-1049
1

29

265

261
400

381

381

190000

38204
4

152816

382089

3718400
9

3438801

382098

The

square

of 2

root

279599

to six

places of decimals

is

required.

2(1-414213
1

""

| 100759

2828423

The

34.

is this

easiest

of

the cube

root

trials,take

By

rule for the extraction

the

cube

nearest

to

the

given number,

it be greater or less,and call it the assumed

cube :
if 29 was
the given cube whose
root
to be exwas
tracted,

whether

thus,

then,
cube, and
cube

27

3 times

4 times

is the

cube.

Add

double

multiplythis sum
product divided

3 times

4 times
nearer

of

4,

3,
or

or

27, is the

64, is the

the two,

nearest

nearest

less

greatest

therefore,27 is the

sumed
as-

the

cube,
given cube to the assumed
cube, and
by the root of the assumed
to twice
by the given cube, added

and
this
the

3G

ARITHMETIC

assumed

cube, will give

will

quotient which

be

the

quired
re-

nearly.

root,

By using, in
assumed

an

will get

second

answer

the truth than

nearer

the

as

we

and
first,

on.

so

"

like manner,
the .cube of the last answer,
root, and proceeding in the same
manner,

Find

the cube

If 20

is

the

one

assumed, its cube is

great deal

therefore

try

which

the assumed

; if 30, its cube

8000

is 27000,

and

the other too great : let us

between
them, as 27 ; the cube

small

too

number

some

of this is 19683,
"twice

of 21035*8.

root

shall call the assumed

we

the

twice

is 39366"

cube

cube

then,

given cube is

42071-6.

the

Therefore,
cube
and

of

sum

the

and

is 60401*8,

the

twice

given cube is
Wherefore, by the rule,

the

and

cube

given

the

twice

of the assumed

sum

sumed
as-

cube

61754*6.

61754*6
27
4322822
1235092

) 1667374*2

60401*8
This
the

quotientis

same

We
to

great

Table

SLIDING

indebted

Edmond

table, whose

will get an
of Powers

we

in

by using 27*6047

still

answer

and

Roots,

Diet.

Mech,

are

27,

For

THE

35.

and

nearly ;

used

we

root.

true

Grier's

see

that

way

the

nearer

the root

( 27*6047

for the invention

Gunter.
use

RULE.

It is

is to obtain

of
kind

this useful
of

the solution

strument
in-

logarithmic
tical
arithme-

of

division,
questions by inspection, in the multiplication,
and extraction

of the roots

equal pieces of boxwood,

by
is

brass

brass

of numbers.
each

12

foldingjoint. In

slider.

On

It consists

inches
one

of

of two

long,joined together
those pieces there

the face of this instrument, there

four lines, marked

engraven
at the beginning of each

by

the letters A,

line, the

lines

B, C, and
and

are

being

"JK

THE

marked

on

the wood

SLIDING

37

RULE.

partof the rule,and B and C

on

the

brass slider.
3(h Before

rule can be explained,

the use of the sliding
it is necessary that a correct idea should be formed of the
the values of the several divisions on
method of estimating
these lines. Let it be observed,then, that whatever value
is givento the first 1 from the left,
the numbers
following,
viz. 2, 3, 4, 5, "c, will represent twice,thrice,four times,
"c, that value. If 1 is reckoned 1 or unity,then 2, 3, 4, "c,
two, three,four,"c. ; but if 1 is reckoned
justsignify
10, then 2, 3, 4, "c, will represent 20, 30, 40, "c. If the
first1 is reckoned 100, then 2, 3, 4, "c, will represent200,
The value of the 1 in the middle of the line
300, 400, "c.
will

is

that of the first 1 ; the value of the

: so that if the value
of the first1 be 10, that of the second 1 will be 100 ; the
first2 will be 20, and the second 2 will be 200, "c.
The
value of these divisions beingunderstood, wenmay
tend
atnow

always ten

second

times

2 is ten times that of the first2

to the minute

divisions between

these.
Now, on the
lines A, B, and C, there are 50 small divisions betwixt 1 and
2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4, "c. ; and itfollows,from the nature of
the largerdivisions,
that if the first 1 be reckoned
1, or
of these small divisions between 1 and 2, 2 and 3,
*02 ; and supposingstillthe first 1 to be
unity,then the small divisions from the second 1 to 2, 2 to
3, "fec,will each be ten times greaterthan a -fa,
or '02, that
In the same
is,each df them will be "" , or -},
or *2.
way,
if the first1 represents 100, the first2 will be 200 ; if the

unity,each

"c, will be -fa,

or

second 1 be 1000, the second 2 will be 200Q, "c. ; and on

the same
as above the small divisions or 50th
principle
parts
will representeach -faof 100, or 2, in the firsthalf,or from
the first1 to 2, 2 to 3, "c, and fa of 1000, or 20, in the second
half; or from the second 1 to the second 2, 2 to 3, "c.
37. These divisionsbeingunderstood,
we
may proceecTto

show

the method

of

usingthis rule in the

solution of arithmetical

questions.
find the productof two numbers :
the slider,
Move
that 1 on B stands against
of the
so
one
fectors on A ; then the productwill be found on the line A,
againstthe other factor on the line B.
Thus, to find the productof 3 by 8 :
Set 1 on B to 3 on A ; then against
8 on B will be found
38.

the

To

product24

on

A.

38

ARITHMETIC.

For

the

Set

product of
B

on

against

againstit on

by

16

on

A, then

16

the line A

find the quotient of two

be done in two ways,"
may

This

divisor

against the

look

will be found

To

39.

34

product544.

numbers

either set 1

the slider

on

against the dividend

A, then

on

the

for 34, and

on

on

quotient will be found on B.

Or, set the divisor on B
against1 on A, then the quotient will be found on A against
the dividend on B ; therefore,in general,it is to be remembered,
that the quotient must
always be found on the same
line on
which
1 was
taken, and the divisor and dividend on
the

the other

line.
to

Move

the slider till 1

the

quotient

96

16

quotient of

will be

by 6 :
against6 on A ; then
against the dividend

stands

on

divided

96

found

on

A.

on

In like
we

find the

Thus,

to find

manner,

the

quotient of 108 divided by 12,

take the latter form of the rule, thus :

may
Set 12 on B against1 on A ; then on the line A

found

the

quotient 9 against96 on B.
solve questions in the rule of three

To

40.

will

be

simple proportion

or

Set

then

first term

the

the line A

on

on

will be

againstthe third term

If 4 lbs. of brass
Move
A
on

then

second

the

the fourth

found

36

the slider so,

pence,
that 4 on B

against 36

on

to

term,

A ;

on

standing

B.

on

cost

slider B

will be

what

will

12

will stand

lbs. cost

against 12

the fourth term

found

?
on

108

A.
To

41.

Move

the square
root :
slider
the
so, that the middle
extract

is marked

given

1, stands
C
number
on

It is to be

given number
as

the

two,

against10

the square
before
observed
consists

four, six, "c,

of the line C

; but

of

an

on

division

the line
root

even

it is to be

D, then againstthe

will be

applying

if it consists of any

found,

of

D.

on

odd

places of figures,

the left hand

number

three, five,seven, "c, it is to be found on the

side of C, 1 being the middle
point of the line.

as

of 81 :
find the square
root
Here
the number
of placesare even,
the number
81 is sought for on
the

on

this rule, that if the

number

found

G, which

on

part

of

places,
righthand

To

line C.

therefore,

being two

left hand

side of the

Set 1

on

against10

9, the square

be found

39

CONTRACTION.

OP

MARKS

on

root

against81

; then

on

will

D.

on

of 144 :
the square
root
Set 1 on C to 10 on D ; then
D.
12 on
root
found the square
For

find the

To

42.

The

Set

the
'

on

will

the line A

length in

3 inches

plank :

or

the line B.

on

of

area

the slider

will

10"

square feet.
This may

plank

on

be

so

that 12

broad

inches

18

against 152

stand

proved by

and

feet

10

A, which

10

1
4

6
6

of timber.

the solid content

rule is

on

15

The

on

A ;
15} is

against18

multiplication.

cross

For

stands

on

10

43.

will be

long :

Move

then

feet

find the

To

multiply the length by the breadth, the

the area
; therefore, by the slidingrule,
againstthe breadth in inches on A ; then on
be found
feet, against
the surface in square

will be

12

board

on

is, to

rule

product

of

area

against144

multiplylength,breadth, and thickness

to

all

together.
Set

be found

the

is ten

to

of

12

on

then

square

will

of the

root
square
inches
in
D.
on

log of timber, the length

the side of its square

feet, and

on

againstthe

depth and breadth

is the content

of which

on

in feet

the content

product of
What

feet

lengthin

the

base

is 15

stand

inches.
Set

10

on

againstthe
44.

be

against 12

content

Other

15$

on
particulars

MARKS
45.
to this

We

then

will

15

on

C.

on

given hereafter,when

D;

on

we

OF

request
earnestly

chapter,not because
the greatest importance to

the measurement

of timber

will

to Mensuration.

come

CONTRACTION.
that

particularattention

be

but because
it is difficult,
the clear

understandingof

paid

it is of

what

40

ARITHMETIC.

and

shortness

we

thus, 3 added

the mark

equal

which

"

subtract, thus,

short way

of

is read

5=8,

is

6 and

3 add

to
writing,

be

may

of expressing

is read

2 ; and

equal to

is

short way

3=2,

"

numbers

two

from

tract
5 sub-

thus, 3+6"2=7
2, the result

subtract

to 7.

After

49.

to

8.

to

the difference of

likewise

So

3 the difference

is

other,
an-

8.

the word

thingis equal to

3 added

thus,

one

words, added to, may also be representedby

is read, 3 added to, or plus,5 is
thus, 3+5=8,

representedby

is

that

say

equal

5 is

to

to

48.

its

the

the mark

equal

mark

this

use

to

mean

we

But

greatlytowards

contributes

simplicity.

When

46.

47.

book, and

in this

follows

the

of the words

by

the mark

manner

same

equal

instead

is read

multiply by, thus, 3x2=6,

2 is

is used

plied
3 multi-

6.

to

division

is to be formed
perthis mark
viz.
which
is
short
is sometimes
used,
a
-f-,
of writingthe words, divided by, thus, 15"3=5,
is read
To

50.

show

operationof

that the

way

divided

15

by

the divisor

3 is

below

equal

but

will in

we

the dividend

line with

principle stated

to

general place

above

vulgar fractions,thus,1/=5

in

the

it,on
the

same

15-s-3=5.

as

The

51.

small

of any

square

number

placed at its upper

read, the square of 3 is 9.
in the
The
*

same

is noted

root

square

The

quantityis marked
thus,

corner,

is marked

cube

by

that is, the cube

38=27,

as

way,

or

righthand

in

similar

by

is

3S=9
8

placed

of 3 is 27.

by

manner

the fraction

likewise
the
so
way, as 9*=
cube root, as 27* =3
is often denoted
root
; but the square
3,
byv'placed before the number or quantity,thus,"/9 =9*=
and

placedin

root, in like manner,

Parentheses
() are used

within

them

and

the
was

to be

are

thus, 3+2x5,
means

the

show
as

that all the numbers

if they were
to the

only one ;
product of

of this is 13 ; but (3+2) x5,

2, that is, 5, is to be multipliedby 5, and

that 3 and
will be

amount

25

before, which
in every

to

that 3 is to be added

5, that is, the

result

by -$f,thus, -^27=27^=3.

operatedupon

means

In like
as

same

the cube

52.

the

3, and

very

arises

case,

parenthesesare

different

entirelyfrom

3+2fl=7,

manner

other

the

taken

whole
as

one

but

thing from
the

what

of parentheses.

use

(3+2)9=25

of the

numbers

whole, and

it

as

here,

within
such

are

42

ARITHMETIC

of this property of numbers

three terms
given, as 4 : 2

means

only
proportion, which

is the

Now,

extreme.

multipliedby 4,

the means;
2x8=12,
by the definition of
two

the

will be

the
two

will

6:9::

thus

12

The

18.

stand

let F

for the

"" the last,then

second, T

the

have

we

18,

extreme

expressedsimply

be

rule may
first term,

the

T'

S x

third,and

we

universally6 : 9 : : 12 : where
found, as before, by multiplying the
and dividing the product 108
by

be

productof
have only,

to the

number

that, when

number,

in

is the' first

6, the quotient will be the last

the first extreme

hence

and

fourth

So

12x9=108,

means

find the

hadN

we

division, to divide the product of the

4, and the quotient
by the first extreme

answer.

last term

to

equal

be

to find such

viz* 12

means,

find such

product will

the

6,

: :

last extreme,

must

we

proportion. If

in

", and

this

J?

rule holds
and

whether

true

all cases,
into decimals
occur,

2"=f
3|

6|

2_"

the

is of

and
shall

the

3666

6-25

of
two

I
V

3f

: :

3666
3-1

: :

the

fourth

2-5

determining
being

means

6*

and

Xt

how

pay
pay

in

we

times

proportion

as

we

that is, the

to

625

: :

is the

term

their

product -$-,

to

the

price will

it is clear

quantityof wood
will pay 'so many
in proportion to

feet,we
be

will

much

how

; for

times
the

we

as

40

we

will
many

pence

quantity of

quantity of wood is
another
quantity,so will be the priceof the first quantity
Hence
the terms
in the question
the priceof the second.

wood.
to

have

usually called the rule of three,

We
utilityin practicalarithmetic.
it is to be applied.

pay 40 pence for 2 feet of wood,

Here
rate I
for 6 feet at the same

If

: or

is

This

utmost

show

now

mode

in all ; the
the first term.

by

thus, 2"

=2-5

same

fractional ;

or

in
it may
be observed, that it will in most, if not
all vulgar fractions, when
be best to turn
they

here

Here

be whole

the numbers

So

will stand

is the

that

we

may

arrangedthus

price of

say,

"

feet, and

the

as

::

is found

one

120, which

40

by

the rule

term

120

given above

6*4"

thus,

120.

57.

will
every question in simple proportion, there
kind
is of the same
be three terms, one
of which

In

always

with

the

sought, whether
time, force, or any thing,which
put in the third place ; as in the
40

consider
third

the

other

two

terms

the rule

days, in

Here
the

above

given

the

how

and

the

place,and

other

the

40

answer.

will do

men

piece of

work

in

do the same
days will 20 men
be days ; consequently, 15 goes

must

third term,

will be greater or less

greater or less of the

require ; after which, employ

find the

to

many

answer

place

this is done,

When

answer

may

As, for example,

58.
15

answer

measure,
money,
the question we

last

it in the second

next

the

first,as

one

and

term,

term

third term.

the

whether

in

question the answer

the money
in the question,

therefore

placed as the

was

next

than

and

money,

pence,

we

it be

answer

to be

was

43

PROPORTION.

COMPOUND

20

will take

men

than

time

more

?
in

40

to

do it,therefore

must
we
put the greatest in the second place,
the least in the first ; and
it therefore
stands
thus :-"

and
20

40

15

: :

the

30, which

answer

is

fpund by the rule.

i^LH=3o.
20

COMPOUND
Compound

59.

PROPORTION.

Proportion

of

find

being equal
price of the

the

fir,and

were

is to

therefore

it

third term,

the

put

the

and

state

price of 6 feet of

6::

"4

54

: :

: :

proportions are
multipliedtogether,which
=

54,

where

the

two

40

example

terms

of

new

is the third term

of

to

cost, 3 feet

of fir.

mahogany

Here
if

as

we

they

by the last article,120 pence,

price of fir is to that of mahogany ;
120, the price of 6 feet of fir,in the
the proportion,3 : 9 : : 120
: 360, the
The

by statingit thus

2:

where

value

feet of

mahogany.

easilyfound

more

in

mahogany

out,

comes

as

we

will 6 feet of

what

pence,

mahogany

may
but

40

same

instance, if 2 feet of

For

as
simple proportion.
principles

fir cost

the

on
depends entirely

40

have

been

360.

stated

would

same

Ans.

under

each

other, and

6 and 6x9
produces 3x2
proportion,in the simple rule,
this is only the particular
; and

generalrule, where

we

may

have

as

many

44

ARITHMETIC.
"

proportionsas
question in the
is of

which

rule of three.

the

third

the

in

reduced

please

we

kind

same

the

term,

expressing

two

relation of time, which

When

proportions are

'

required

he

found

is

answer

pairs;
quality,

go
relation of

price, two

put

in

to

must

be

multiplied together for a new

terms
second
togetherfor a new

to

all the second

being placed
proportion,and operated
the

simple

be put in proper
order in
second
for simple proporterms, as directed
tion.
this is done, all the first terms
of these several

the first and

term,
which

the

will

of

relation

two

of

As, therefore, that quantity

with

rest

the form

to

with

the

third, in the

upon

there

as

form

first
term,

of

simple
give

directed,will

answer.

fuls
Forty boys are set to dig a trench in summer
; 14 spade6
be
in
for
winter
do
12
in
can
men
summer
can
dug
;
do it in 104 days in
much
13 boys ; and 16 men
as
can
as
the answer
winter : how
long will the boys take ? Here
is to be, how
have
in the question 104
days ? We
many
14 spadefuls
days ; the third term, relative of difficulty,
and 12 spadefuls; of strength,6 men
to 13 boys ; relation
of numbers,

16

wiil.be stated thus

; which

40

to

161

Relation of

12

Relation

13

Relation

of number,

40

14
difficulty,
of strength, 6

Product,

3360

ARITHMETICAL

AND

The

elementary
we

shall
to the

while,

When

61.

on

draw

the time

makes

the time less.

makes
: :

104

the time greater.

T7"\ days, Ans.

PROPORTIONS

this

mechanical
the

often referred

chapter is

science
of the

attention

and

inquire

we

geometricalratio.

as

difference of

the

to

same

seen,

Thus,

9 is the arithmetical

geometricalratio
be

son,
rea-

little

subject.

inquire for their arithmetical ratio

numbers,
inquire as to the quotient of two
4 ; here

in

to

for this

reader, for

we

their

less.

PROGRESSIONS.

subjectof
books

makes

GEOMETRICAL

AND

60.

2496

104

::

of the

that ratio

and

signification.

same

12

"

ratio of 12

numbers.

relation

are

terms

we

which

we

inquire for
12

3, and

From

bers,
num-

when

; but

9 and

and

two

-f-

4 is the

this it will

have

the

PROPORTIONS

45

PROGRESSIONS.

AND
*

"

When

62.

that the difference

of

other, and

follow each

four numbers

is the

the first two

to, the difference. of the last two,

these

same

numbers

proportion;thus the numbers

arithmetical
the
proportion,because

an

and 7 is the

12

The

5.

varied

numbers
their

in

of 9 and

the difference

as

same

in

arithmetical

an

9, 12, 4,

of arithmetical
first and

last terms

but

the

sum

subtract

second

and

third

difference of the first and

of the second

and

in the first increase

increasingarithmetical

64.

being

written
perty
proof the

sum

of the second
16 ; and

fourth

from

term, we
from
their

the

in succession, the

is the

same

the difference

as

third ;.thus, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
the difference

in the firstis 1, and

decrease, from

numbers

second

14, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, where

called

be

together,and

terms

three

such, that, in taking any

numbers

4, both

of

the first ; the remainder

is the fourth term.
arithmetical
progression is a series of numbers

An

63.

difference

may

to the sum

always equal

third ; thus, 12 + 4 =
16 and 9 + 7
this it evidentlyfollows, that to find the
the

12, 7, 9, 4,

remarkable

most

and

add

said to

are

proportionis this, that the

is

equal

be
may
still the result will be an arithmetical

position,but

or

or

proportion

proportion ; for instance, 12, 7, 9, 4,

12, 9, 7, 4,

such

as,

be in arithmetical

form

are

of the

in the second

from

the

series, or

succeeding

As

2.

or

the

bers
num-

beginning, it is called
progression,and

as

an

they

beginning, in the second

example, it is
a
decreasing arithmetical progression,or series.
Let us
place any one of these progressions above

in this
itself,

manner

16

16

"

"

lfr

16

16

16

16

progression as increasingand decreasing,

writing the same
of the one
the respectiveterms
spective
being directlyunder the reof the other

terms

line of the
which

three
all

are

being

the

be

16.

to

seen

the first column

consists

series,2, 4, 6, "c,
column*

consists

the terms

of the

is likewise
two

and

16.

in columns,

of

sums

Now,

as

of the

above, the lowest

several

it will be

of the first and

columns,
obvious, that

last terms

of the

which
is 16 ; the second
their sum,
and the last but one
of
the first but one

with

same

^The

series, togetherwith their

third column

the last but two

terms, with

consists

sum,

which

of the first but

their sum,

which

again

46

ARITHMETIC.

therefore

We

is 16.

may
the
progression,
which
the

the first and

of

under

line, or

twice

the

of

sum

sixteens,

seven

from

two

of the

one

arithmetical

equally distant from

of any other two

terms
the first and last,or equal to
sum

progressions. Now,

112, which

or

an

It will also be seen,

series, is therefore

last

of the

sum

terms,

two

to the

equallydistant

are

sum

of any

sum

last,is equal

the first and

infer, that, in

is twice

therefore 2)112(56is the

the

sum

of the

sum

that the

equal
there

to
are

of the progression,

progression.

be wanting, that
It is also apparent, that if any term
65.
be found
difference, or
term
by adding the common
may
the
arithmetical ratio,of
fore
progression,to the term going be-

sought, or subtractingit from the term which

but the reverse
if decreasing.
follows, if the series is increasing,
the 4 and 8,
Thus, 2, 4, 8, the term awanting between
either by adding the common
be supplied,
difference,
may
thus get 6.
2, to the 4, or subtractingit from the 8, and we
be found by taking the sum
of the terms
The
same
on
may
each side of the term
sought,and dividingby 2 ; thus, 4 -f 8
the term

a=

2)12(6,the

12, then

To

7, 9, 13.
we

have

number

ratio, and
12, and
We

so

as

before

; so,

awanting

term

likewise, 3, 5,

between

quotient
thus

therefore

of two

fraction,
1

: :

is their

numbers

as
:

T6?,expresses
12

and

is the

same

13,

is the

2)22(11, which

therefore

22,
it
is called the arithmetical
and
sought,

The

66.

th*

fillup

-f 13

same

mean.

geometrical

the ratio

thing asjsr

of 6 to

T^.

ful
get another view of the rule of three, and it is usekind
of
in
this
different
view
to
as
by
any subject
ways,
and
extensive
accurate
ledge
knowa
more
acquire
doing we

thus

application. The limits of this book

will not permit us to dwell on this subject,as we
have discussed
the subjectof proportionin a former
chapter.
of
67. In a series of progression
numbers, as 2, 4, 8, 16,
of its nature

and

the quotient of any term, and that which

lows
folthe
quotient of any other term, and that
it,is equal to
such
follows it,
which
progression is said to be geometrical.

32, 64, where

68.

Let

162, and

take the

us

it'as

write

and

geometricalprogression,2, 6, 18, 54,

did

we

the arithmetical, both

decreasing series, thus

6

18

54

18

2
162

324

324

324

"

54
6

324

162
2
324

as

in increasing

PROPORTIONS

Here
column

is the

arrive

at

first and
two

as

If

in the above

the

the

like

each

on

stance
in-

side of

the square
root
is
called
which
sought,

36,

now

manner

and

18

wanting, for

were

the terms

number

In

geometrical mean.
between
geometrical mean

we

the

product of any other

places distant from the

series

it,and find their product,2x18

this,or 6, will be

the

the

as

the second, that is,6, take

of

take ; and
product of

as
many
from the last term.

is distant

term

one

is

of each

terms

we

fact,that

same

of which

one

the other

69.

is the

the

column

of the

knowledge

of

product

whatever

same,

last terms

terms,

first

that the

observe

we

47

PROGRESSIONS.

AND

162

thus,

find

might

we

18

the

162

is 291 65 =
root of which
2916, the square
54, the number
is sometimes
called the
sought. The
geometrical mean

proportional.

mean

The

70.

thus

of any

sum

geometricalseries

found

be

may

(The greater
2

extreme

ratio)

X
^

les9 extreme,

"

"

ratio

thus the

read

it would

by mechanics, of which

the

and,
signification;

we

give
in

the

as
proportion,

I That is,
X Divided,
{That is,
That

Also,

tThatis,

X That
To

is,

these

may

16

be

16

16

16

: :

:
:

20
16

"

12
4

3 +

16

"

12

bers
num-

12
:

16

four

12

16

be

12

16:

"

If there

16

20

to know

16

useful

be

16

16

in books

occur

12, then,

12

20

is,

C Mixed,

fConverted,....4

16

Compounded,.. .4

sum'

prevent their being misapplied,

to

following illustration.

Directly,
Alternately,
Inversely,
C

242" the

relatingto proportionoften

Terms

series.

-"

(13-i3)~2=
i22T"=i?
71.

of

sum

"

of the last series is"

sum

..

*=the

12

12

15
3

12
12

"

12

12

: :

12

: :

15

::

12

: :

: :

"::

+
15

12

"

"

12

added, duplicate ratio, or ratio of the

48

ARITHMETIC

squares

ratio of the square

ratio of the cube roots.

ratio,

cate

ratio of the

ratio, or
triplicate

ratio, or

roots

or

cubes
;

sub-daplisub-triplicate
;

and

POSITION.
Position

72.
one

or

is

false

more

rule in which,
to

answers

from

the

problem,

assumption of

the

true

is

one

obtained.
It admits

73.

of two

double

varieties,singlepositionand

position.
is obtained
74. In singlepositionthe answer
sumption
by one aspositionit is obtained by two.
; in double
75. Single positionmaybe
applied in resolvingproblems,
"

in which

increased
nished
is any how
required number
or dimiit is increased
or
any given ratio ; such as when
it is multiplied
by any part of itself,or when

the
in

diminished

divided

or

by

number.

any

positionis used, when the result obtained by

in a given
increasingor diminishing the required number
which
is
number
ratio, is increased or diminished
by some
Double

76.

known

no
or

part of the required number

the

of

power

in the

result

Rule.

Assume

"

operationsmentioned
the required number.
to the

assumed

Exam.

"

Then,

be

question.

in the

the result thus

as

is the result

so

given

Required

number

to

one-fifth of

which

number

the

1644

: :

60

of the result is

"c,

be

to

itself be

60

was

720,

the

number

proved by adding

of itself,and
60

in the question

half, oneadded, the sum

if

one

then, if

one-fifth
half, one-third, one-fourth, and
is 137.
Hence, according
added, the sum
:

is

1644.

Suppose

137

obtained

required.

third, one-fourth, and

may

directly
in-

directlyor

and perform on it the

any number,
in the question as being performed on

number,

the number

to

given

root

any

POSITION.

SINGLE

77.

when

or

is either

required number,

contained

here

the

sum

assumed,

not

as

required.

to 720

is found

of
to

60

to

one-

itself

the
The

be

rule, as
truth

one-half, one-third,

to be

1644.

being near

The

ber
num-

the truth, but

50

ARITHMETIC.

subtracted,one-third of the remainder

half the required number.
Here, suppose

the

take 2, and one-third

to be

of the remainder

is two.

Suppose, again, the

of the

8, from which

requirednumber

taken from one-half of 8, the remainder

one-third

will be 5 less than

This

being

is 2, the firstresult.

32, and from it take 2 :

is 10, which being taken from
is 6, the second result. Then,

number

to be

remainder

the half of 32, the remainder

the difference of the results

being 4,

the difference of the

assumed

numbers
24, and the difference between
5, the true
and
result
the
1
4
24
result,
nearest
:
: : 1 : 6,
6,
it,being ; as
the correction to be subtracted from 32, since the result 6
too

was

times

Hence, the required number

great.

Exam.

83.

2."

great

as

If

was

six times

and

there

one

another

as

is 26.

only four

person'sage be now
person's,though 7

years

ago it

is the age of each ?

Here, suppose the age of the younger to be 12 years ; then
will the age of the older be 48.
Take 7 from each of these,

Now,

great ; what

as

will' remain

6 times

5 is

and

41, their ages

7 years

30, which, taken from 41, leaves

an

ago.
error

of 1 1 years.
By supposingthe age of the younger to be 15,
and proceedingin a similar manner,
is found to
the error
be 5 years.
Hence, as 6, the difference of the errors, (both
results being too small,)
is to 3, the difference of the assumed
is 5, the less error, to 2", the correction ;
so
added
to 15, the sum,
which, being
17", is the age of the
be 70.
and consequentlythat of the older must
younger,

numbers,

Both
the

on

the rules above

that
principle,

the assumed

arisingfrom

are

given

the assumed

to
proportional

in the

the results

is quite
principle

This

numbers.

in relation to all questions which

be resolved by simple equations,but not

hence,

the true and

the differences

question and

correct

others ; and

positiondepend

for double

the differences between

numbers,

the result

between

given

in

algebrawould

in relation to any

applied to others, it gives only

to the true results." The
subjectis of too
approximations
in this place.
further
illustration
claim
littleimportance to
84.

Exam.

3.

"

when

Required

number

to

which, if twice

will be 100.
be added, the sum
6 and
be between
It is easy to see that this number
must
of 6
the
These
numbers
7.
sum
being assumed, therefore,
of 7 and twice its
and twice its square is 78, and Jhe sum
its square

square

is 105.

Then,

as

105"78

7"6

: :

105"100

-18 ;

AND

WEIGHTS

51

MEASURES.

which, being taken from 7, the remainder, 6*82, is the

be
required number, nearly. To this let twice its square
added, and the result is
7"6*82

105"100

: :

remainder

the

the former
be found

-1746

105

as

which, being

the

"

99-8448

from

7,

taken

still more

required
repeated with
operation were
the required number
approximate answer,
for seven
true
or
eightfigures.
is

and

nearly ;

Then,

99-8448.

6*8254,

number

this and

if the

APPENDIX

would

ARITHMETIC,

TO
CONTAINING

TABLES

OF

WEIGHTS

MEASURES.

AND

ENGLISH.
AVOIRDUPOIS

WEIGHT.

Drachms.
16
256

16=

7168

35840

Tons

marked

are

pounds,

28

1792

573440

1 Pound.

448

286782

qr.

1 Ounce.

112

2240

hundred

t. ;

lb. ; ounces,

oz.

TROY

80

Quarter.
1 Cwt.

20

weights,
and

cwt.

Ton.

quarters,

drachms, dr.

WEIGHT.

Grains.
24
480

dwt.

are

and

20

5760

Pounds

240

marked,

Pennyweight.
1 Ounce.

lb.;

3
36

ounces,

MEASURE.

1 Inch.

12

1 Foot

108

"

36

594

198

190080

pennyweights,

oz.;

corns.

23760

1 Pound.

grains,gr.
LONG

Barley

12

7920
63360

16-5=
660

=5280

1 Yard.
1 Pole.

55=
=220

==1760

=320

40

Furlong.

1 Mile.

52

ARITHMETIC.

SQUARE

MEASURE.

Inches.
1 Foot.

144

1296

272|=

39204
1568160

6272640

10890

43560

1 Yard.

30^=
1210

4840

SOLID

1 Pole.

40

160

1 Rood.
4

1 Acre,

MEASURE.

Inches.
1728

46656

144

72

18

288

144

36

432

216

54

576

288

72

864

432

108

1 Foot.

27

1 Yard.

1 Kilderkin.

4=2
6=3

1 Barrel.

1-5=

8=4=2
12

=2

Hogshead.

1-5=
=

1 Puncheon.

1-5=1

Butt.

53

MEASURES.

AND

WEIGHTS

TIME.

60

seconds

minute,

24

hours

day,

minutes

60

365J

days

hour,

1 year,

nearly.

CIRCLE.

THE

equal parts, called degrees.

circle is divided into 360

The

Seconds.
60
360

60

32400

90

21600

Degree.

5400

129600

4"

1 Minute.

==

360

Quadrant.
1 Circumference.

Degrees, minutes, and seconds, are marked

5'.6"
4 degrees,5 minutes, 6 seconds.

", ',

"

; as,

"

REMARKS

ON

WEIGHTS

ENGLISH

AND

MEASURES.

Troy weight is used frequentlyby chemists, and also in

weighing gold,silver,and jewels; but all metals, except
gold and silver,are weighed by avoirdupoisweight.
175
troy pounds are equal to 144 avoirdupoispounds.
192
175 troy ounces
avoirdupoisounces.
1 lb. avoirdupois.
14 oz., 11 dwt., 15.j grs. troy
=

dwt., 5j gr. troy

18

3 miles

long

measure

69-JT English miles

1089

Scottish

acres

oz.

league,
geographicalmiles.
1369
English acres.

60

of coals in London

chaldron

avoirdupois.

36

bushels, and

weighs

avoirdupois,or nearly 1 ton, 8 cwt.

cubic inches, and the wine
ale gallon contains 282
The
gallon contains 231 cubic inches" "the wine gallonbeing to
to 1 lb. troy.
the ale gallonnearly as 1 lb. avoirdupois
passed in 1824, and carried
By an Act of Parliament
3136

lbs.

into execution

in 1826,

introduced

this.

by

imperialweightsand

measures

The

pound troy contains 5760 grains.

pound avoirdupoiscontains 7000 grains.

The

imperialgalloncontains

The

The

*bushel

(dry measure)

277*274

contains

cubic

were

inches.

2218*192

cubic

inches.
To
reverse,

find the value

the

of the old in terms

of the

new,

is given.
followingtable of multipliers
5*

or

the

54

ARITHMETIC.

Wine.

Dry.
the 'old into

To

convert

To

convert

into old

new

Examples,

What

"

wine

32

gallonsold

"83311

32

In like

0-96943

0-83311

1-01704.

1-03153

1-20032

0-98324.

is the value

4 bushels

FRENCH

imperial measure,

imperial gallons.
1*03153
imperialmeasure
=

Winchester

or

in

of

26-65952

old

measure

manner

4-12612

new

Ale.

bushels.

WEIGHTS

MEASURES.

AND

Old

System.
English Troy Grains.

The

Paris

Pound

Ounce

472-5625

Gros

59-0703

Grain

"

7561

-8204

Eng. Inches.
The

Paris

The

Inch

The

Line,

Royal

Foot

of

Inches

12

12-7977

==

1-0659

or

of

one-twelfth

inch

an

Eng.
The

Paris

Cubic

The

Cubic

Inch

Foot

Cubical

Feet.

1-211273

-000700

CAPACITY.

OF

MEASURE

-0074

English cubical inches,

pint contains 58-145
cubical inches ;
and the English wine pint contains 28*875
fore
the Paris pint contains 2-0171082
or
English pints; thereThe

to

Paris

reduce

the

Paris

pintto

the

English,multiplyby

2-0171082.

New
MEASURES

System.
OF

LENGTH.

English

Inches.

Millimetre

"

-03937

Centimetre

="

-39370

Decimetre

Metre

"=

Decametre

3-93702
39-37022
393

70226

WEIGHTS

FRENCH

Hecatometre

Chiliometre

=-

Myriometre

Decametre

is***.-

Hecatometre

Chiliometre

Myriometre
Eight Chiliometres

39370-22601
393702*26014

=00
"'"

3937*02260

P.

M.

OF

Ft

10

In.

9*7
-1

00

109

04

213

61

156

-6

English Cubic

Inches.

nearly

MEASURES

Y.

are

55

MEASURES

AND

10*2

English miles.

CAPACITY.

Millilitre

-06102

Centilitre

-61024

Decilitre

"

Litre

""

Decalitre

6-10244

61-02442

Hecatolitre

Myriolitre

61024-42878
610244-28778

nearly 2 J wine pints.

Decilitres are nearly 3 wine
pints.

Litre

14

6102-44288

Chiliolitre

610-24429

"""""

is

Chiliolitre is

tun, 12-75

wine

gallons.

WEIGHTS.

English Grains.

Milligramme
Centigramme
Decigramme

"

"

"""

Gramme

"""

"""

Decagramme
Hecatogramme
Chiliogramme (Kilogram)
Myriogramme"".""

Decagramme
avoirdupois.
A Hecatogramme
A Chiliogramme
A Myriogramme
100

is 3

oz.

Myriogrammes

are

"

*1544

1*5444

15*4440
154*4402
1544*4023

15444-0234

10-44

8-5

is 2 lbs. 3
is 22

-0154

dwts.

is 6

dr.

154440*2344

gr. troy ;

or

5-65

avoirdupois.

5 dr.

avoirdupois.
1-15
oz.
avoirdupois.
1 tons wanting 32*8 lbs.
oz.

dr.

56

ARITHMETIC.

AGRARIAN

Are,

MEASURES.

Decametre*

square

3-95

"""

Hecatare

Perches.

Acres,

Rood,

30*1

cob.

ft.

Eng.

cub.

ft.

Perches.

FIR

Decistre,
Stere,

l-10th

WOOD.

Stere

Cubic

Metre

"""

DIVISION

OF

100

seconds

100

minutes

100
4

DIMENSIONS

THE

CIRCLE.

minute.

degree.

degrees

quadrant.

quadrants

circle.

ENGLISH

60

seconds

60

OF

35*3150

THE

360

3*5315

DIVISION.

minute.

minutes

degree.

degrees

circle.

DRAWING

PAPER

IN

Ft.

FEET

In.

Demy

Medium

Royal

0x17

3X17

Imperial

Elephant
Columbier
Atlas

Super

Double
Wove

royal

elephant
antiquarian

AND

7"

INCHES.

Ft

In.

3|

9|

3|

10|

9|

11

9x22

4x22

4x27

10

58

ARITHMETIC.

An

13.

Angle

of two

is the inclination

ing
opendirections,

or

different

lines, having

and

meeting in a point.
14.
Angles are Right or Oblique, Acute or Obtuse.
is made
15. A Right Angle is that which
Or
by one line perpendicular to another.
when
the angles on each side are equal to
another, they are rightangles.
one
16.
An
Oblique Angle is that which is
made
by two oblique lines ; and is either
less or greater than a rightangle.
17. An Acute
Angle is less than a right
angle.
An

18.

Obtuse

Angle

is greater than

rightangle.
19.

Superficiesare either Plane or Curved.

20.
A Plane
Superficies,or a Plane, is that with which
a
coincide.
Or, if the line
right line may,
every
way,
touch the plane in two
points,it will touch it in every point.
But, if not,

it is curved.

Plane

21.

Figures

are

either

bounded

by right lines

or

curves.

Plane

figuresthat
according to the

22.
names

angles ;
number

for

they have

as

being three.
A figureof three

23.

And

it receives

relations of its sides and

An

24.

whose

has

sides

two

26.

three

27.

which

Isosceles

An

A
has

of their sides,

number

sides

many

are

as

or

angles ;

and

angles.
is

that

all equal.

Triangle is

that which

Triangle
all unequal.

is that whose

Right-angled Triangle is that

one
right angle.

have

of their
the

angles is called a
from
particulardenominations
sides

equal.

Scalene

sides

are

by right lines

bounded

Equilateral Triangle

three sides

25.

are

least

angle.
Tri-

the

59

DEFINITIONS.

28.

and

Other

trianglesare Oblique-angled,

either obtuse

are

acute.

or

Obtuse-Angled Triangle has one

obtuse angle.
30.
An
Acute-angledTriangle has all
its three angles acute.
31.
A figureof four sides and
angles is called
29.

An

or

rangle,
Quad-

Quadrilateral.

has both
Parallelogram is a quadrilateralwhich
sides
of
And
it
takes
the following
pairs
opposite
parallel.
viz.
particular
Rectangle,Square, Rhombus,
names,

32.

its

Rhomboid.
33.

34.

Rectangle
having rightangles.
is

Square

having

is

equilateral rectangle

an

its

parallelogram,

length

and

breadth

equal.
35.

Rhomboid

is

oblique-angled

an

LJ

parallelogram.
is

A Rhombus

36

having all
angles oblique.
A

37.
which

hath

rhomboid;
equilateral

an

its sides

equal, but

two

39.

Trapezium is a quadrilateral
not its opposite sides parallel.

Trapezoid has only

opposite sides parallel.
38.

its

Diagonal

is

opposite angles of

line

a
a

one

pair of

joining

any

quadrilateral.

than four sides are, in

figuresthat have more
general,called Polygons ; and they receive other particular
of their sides or angles.
according to the number
names,
40.

Plane

Thus,

Pentagon is a polygon of five sides ; a Hexagon

of six sides ; a Heptagon, seven
Octagon, eight; a
; an
Nonagon, nine ; a Decagon, ten ; an Undecagon, eleven ;
and a Dodecagon, twelve
sides.
42.
A
Regular Polygon has all its sides and all its
angles equal. If they are not both equal, the polygon is
irregular.
An
43.
Equilateral Triangle is also a regularfigureof
41.

"

60

GEOMETRY.

sides, and the Square is

three

also called

When
45.

by

is

certain
The

circumference

also the

Periphery.

from

Radius

The

the centre

drawn

of

Arc

circle is aline drawn

of

circle

the centre, and

at the circumference

An

of

terminating

circle is any

line

sides.

both

on

is

part of the

Chord

of

extremities

50.

cut

segment
The

52.

an

the
right line joinirfg

arc.

any part of
and its chord.

is

A Semicircle

51.

called

is

Segment
by an arc

bounded

half

off

by

circumference

Sector

is

any

drawn

to

its extremities.

Quadrant,

is sometimes

sector

having

by

an

or
a

part of
arc,

and

Quarter of

the circumference

Quadrant.

circle

two

radii

circle,

ference
quarter of the circum-

its two
for its arc, and
perpendicular to each other.
of

diameter.

is bounded

is

circle

is half the circle,or

which

53.

a
'

the Semicircle.
A

/#*""""*\
/

circumference.

49.

Circle, and

the circumference.

to

through

called

itself is often

Diameter

The

47.

48.

being

Tetragon.

everywhere equidistant from

point within, called its Centre.

which

46.

the former

line, called the Circumference,

curve

the latter

and

Trigon,
all its sides
are
Any figure is equilateral,when
all its angles are equal.
and it is equiangular when
both these are
equal, it is a regularfigure.
A Circle is a plane figurebounded

44.

equal

of four

one

radii
A

is sometimes

are

quarter
called

61

DEFINITIONS.

The

54.

is

Height

perpendicularlet fall from

its vertex,

or

of

Altitude

or

angle,

an

opposite side, called

the

to

figure

the base.
In

55.

opposite the rightangle is called

and

the

Legs,

and

called the
and

side

triangle,the
right-angled

other

potenuse
Hy-

the
sides

two

are

the Base

sometimes

Perpendicular.
When

56.

of which
letters,

stands

one

point, and the other

that which

stands

two

at

A.X

sides,

the two

on

angular point is

the

at

by three
the angular

denoted

angle is

an

read

in the middle.
The

57.

divided

circumference

into 360

Hence

semicircle

The

of

measure

point being the

the

that

contains

when

rant
quad-

two

angle, the angular

it is estimated

; and

of

degrees

number

Lines,

chords,

or

the

contained

in

said

be

are

of
to

the

farther from
61.

An

the

the two

circle,

them

from

which
said

the
to be

centre.

Angle

in

is contained
any

to

equal.

right line on
Greater Perpendicular falls,is
60.

And

are

centre

drawn
perpendiculars

the centre

to

so

arc

an

the

between

centre

Equidistant from

from

seconds, and

arc.

59.

which

60

degrees, and

180

angle,is

an

of any circle contained

lines which
form
that

by

into

minute

degrees.

90
58.

equal

of every circle is supposed to be

gree
parts, called degrees ; and each de-

minutes, each

into 60
on.

DAE.

Thus,

pointin

by
the

extremities

segment
two

is

that

lines,drawn

of the segment,
of that arc.

arc

Angle on a segment, or an arc, is that which is

contained
by two lines, drawn from any point in the opposite
the
of
the
to
mities
extrecircumference,
or
supplemental part
them.
of the arc, and containing the arc between
62.

An

r
62

GEOMETRY.

An

63.
that

whose

Angle at the circumference, is

is
angular point or summit

anywhere in the circumference.

angle at the centre, is that whose
point is

right-lined
figureis Inscribed

circle,or the circle Circumscribes

all the

angularpoints of

the circumference
A

65.

an

angular

at the centre.

64.

And

the

in

it,when

figureare

in

of the circle.

right-lined
figureCircumscribes

circle,or the circle is Inscribed

all the sides of the

figuretouch

in it,when
the circumference

of the circle.
One

66.

another,

right-lined
figureis Inscribed
the latter Circumscribes

or

former, when
former

are

67. A

alHhe

placedin

Secant

is

angularpoints of

the

the sides of the latter.

line that cuts
and

lyingpartlywithin

in
the

circle,

partlywithout

it.

Two

other right-lined
said
or
are
figures,
triangles,
all
sides
of
the
the
when
one
are
mutually equilateral,
equal to the correspondingsides of the other, each to each :
and they are
said to be mutually equiangular, when
the
the
of
those
of
the
to
are
one
respectivelyequal
angles
68.

to be

other.
such as are both mutually equiare
lateral
figures,
equiangular; or that have all the sides and all
the anglesof the one, respectively
equal to all the sides and
each
all the anglesof the other,
to each ; so that, if the one
figurewere
appliedto, or laid upon the other, all the sides
of the one
would
all the sides
exactlyfall upon and cover

6"U Identical
and

of the other

; the two

becoming

as

it were

but

one

and

the

figure.

same

those that have all the angles of

anglesof the other, each to each,
and the sides about the equal anglesproportional.
71. The
Perimeter
of a figure,
is the sum
of all its sides
taken together.
72. A Proposition,
is somethingwhich
is either proposed
70.

the

one

Similar

equal

are
figures,

to

all the

63

THEOREMS.

to be
or

done,

demonstrated, and

to be

or

is either

problem

theorem.

Problem, is something proposed to be done.

ATheorem, is something proposedto be demonstrated.
monstrat
is premised,or deA Lemma,
is something which
A

73.
74.
75.

in order
76.

77.

render

to

follows

what

more

easy.

diately
Corollary,is a consequent truth, gained immefrom some
precedingtruth, or demonstration.

Scholium, is

remark

observation

or

made

upon

somethinggoingbefore it.

THEOREMS.
1. In the

ABC, DEF, if
triangles
equal to the side DF, and
the side BC
equal to the side EF, and the
angle C equal to the angle F ; then will
the two triangles
be identical,
or
equal in
two

the side AC

be

all respects.
2. Let

equal to the

have the angle A

ABC,
DEF,
triangles
angle D, the angleB equal to the angleE, and

the side AB

equal to the side DE

the

two

these two

; then

triangles

will be identical.
3. If

AC

the

equal

angle B
The
of

the

to

be

side BC

equal

line which
isosceles

an

and

triangleABC
to the

have

the

side

will the

; then

angle A.

bisects the vertical

angle

bisects the base,

triangle,

is also

perpendicularto it.
is
Every equilateral
triangle,
its anglesequal.
4. If the triangle
ABC, have
A equal to the angle B, it will
the side AC

equal

to

also

or
equiangular,

the

angle

also have

the side BC.

is also equilateral.
Every equiangulartriangle
5. Let

have

the

two

their three

viz. the side AB

and BC
be

BD

ABC,
triangles

ABD,

sides

equal,
respectively

equal

to

AB,

AC

to

AD,

triangles
; then shall the two
identical,or have their angles equal,
to

has

all

1
134

GEOMETRY.

anglesthat

viz. those
the

oppositeto the equal sides ;

the angleABC
to the angleBAD,
to
the angleC to the angleD.

angleBAC
and

angleABD,
6. Let

are

the line AB

meet

the line CD

then will the two angles

ABC, ABD, taken
he
together, equal to two rightangles.
7. Let the two

lines AB, CD, intersect

E
then
will the angleAEC
point ;
he equal to the angleBED, and the angle
AED
equal to the angleCEB.
in the

8. Let ABC

be

triangle,
having the

side AB

of the

ward
producedto D ; then will the outCBD
than
be
either
angle
greater
inward opposite
A or C.
angles

0. Let ABC

be

triangle,
having the

the side AC

side AB

greater than

will the

angleACB, oppositethe greater

be greaterthan the angleB, opposite

side

AB,

; then

the less side AC.

10. Let ABC

be a triangle
; then will
its
of
of
sides
be greater
sum
any two
than the third side ; as, for instance,AC
-f CB greaterthan AB.
the

be a triangle;
then will the
11. Let ABC
difference of any two sides,as AB
AC,
be less thanthe third side Bp.
"

12. Let the line EF

cut the two

parallel

AB, CD ; then will the angleAEF

be equal to the alternate angleEFD.
lines

13.

Let

the line

EF, cuttingthe

two

AB, CD, make the alternate angles

AEF,
DFE, equal to each other; then
lines

will AB

be

to CD,
parallel

B
F

viz.
the

66

GEOMETRY.

A, B, C, "c,

Let

20.

angles of

any

polygon, made

by producing

sides; then will the

all the

A+B

sum

C -(-D -f E, of all those outward

equal to four rightangles.
the

from
line

angles,be

AC, AD,

of which

BE,
shall

then

"c, be lines drawn

given point A, to the indefinite

If AB,

21.

outward

the

be

the

AB

Ik

IV

perpendicular;

is

perpendicularAB

less

be

SB

than

AC,

and

Let

22.

which

AC

ABCD

less than
be

"c.

AD,

parallelogram,of

the

diagonal is BD ; then will its

opposite sides and angles be equal to each
will divide
it
other, and the diagonal BD
into two
equal parts, or triangles.
If one
angle of a parallelogrambe a right angle, all the
other three will also be rightangles, and the parallelogram
a
rectangle.
of any two
The
sum
adjacentangles of a parallelogram
is equal to two
rightangles.
ABCD
Let
be a quadrangle,having the oppositesides
23.
equal, namely, the side AB equal to DC, and AD equal to
and the
BC
shall these equal sides be also parallel,
; then
figurea parallelogram.
be two
24.
Let AB,
DC,
equal and parallellines; then
will the lines AD,
be also
BC, which
join their extremes,
equal and parallel.
Let ABCD,
be two
25.
ABEF,
lelograms,
paraland ABC,
ABF, two triangles,
base AB, and between
standingon the same
the same
parallelsAB, DE ; then will the
be equal to the paralparallelogramABCD
lelogram
and

ABEF,

triangleABC

the

the

triangleABF.
Parallelograms,or triangles,having

equal

to

altitude,are

equal.

perpendicularor
is

altitude

the

distance

is

the

the two

between

and

base

same

as

same

the

which
parallels,
parallels.

everywhere equal, by the definition of

titudes,
Parallelograms,or triangles,
having equal bases and alare
equal. For if the one
figurebe applied with

its base
because
same

For

the

on

the other, the bases

they

base

are

and

equal

and

altitude, are

so

will coincide

the

equal.

two

or

be

the

same,

figures,having

the

67

THEOREMS.

Let

26.
ABE

ABCD

be

the

on
triangle,

parallelogram,and

and

AB,

base

same

AB, DE ; then
parallels
double
be
will the parallelogramABCD
the triangleABE,
the trianglehalf the
or
B
A
parallelogram.
A triangleis equal to half a parallelogram of the same
the altitude is the perpendicular
base and altitude,because
the parallels,
which
distance between
is everywhere equal,
by the definition of parallels.
If the base of a parallelogram be half that of a triangle,
of the same
altitude,or the base of a trianglebe double that
of the parallelogram,the two
figureswill be equal to each
between

the

same

other.
Let

27.

sides

the

having

sides EF,

rectangle BD

equal

be

equal
; then

each

to

rectangles,

two

BC,

AB,

each

FG,

be

FH,

BD,

the

to

the

to

will the

rectangle

FH.

Let AC

a
parallelogram,BD
diagonal,EIF
parallelto AB or DC, and
GIH
BC, making AI,
or
parallelto AD
the
to
IC, complements
parallelograms
EG, HF, which are about the diagonalDB:

28.

then

be

will the

AI

complement

equal

be

the

to

AH

complement

10.

AD

Let

29.
the

other, divided

FB

AD

will the

then
and

be

AB,

rectangles of
and

EF,

+AD

If

whole

For
root

the
and

AD

expressed,AD

AB=AD
.

AE

FB.*

divided

be

mark

is the

stroke

same

"

as

is often

is the

the square
^y, "c

into any
to both

two

parts, the

the

rectangles of

square

the

of the parts.

each

of the

mean,

thus

by

of

sum

and

AE,

line, is equal

area,

""

the

line and

parenthesis,a
mean.

FB

rightline

Instead

to

and

EF+AD

breadt^

cube

equal

and

AD

one

rectanglecontained

AD

the whole

of

line, and AB
into the parts \AE, EF,
the

be

point
length

root
^

breadth

used ; thus, length X

Instead of the
area.

used; thus, (first

+

thing

same

is often

as

this mark

first -f- last

y/

last)-5-"

is sometimes

2"

metical
arith-

arithmetical

used,and

for the

68

GEOMETRY.

Let the line AB be the sum

lines AC, CB ; then will the

of any

30.
two

of AB

be

equal to the

with
together

CB.

That

square

of AC, CB,
the rectangle
of AC

twice

squares

is,ABa=ACa+CBa+2AC

CB.

line be divided into two equal parts; the square of

line will be equal to four times the square of half
the line.
If

the whole

Let AC, BC, be any two lines,and

AB their difference ; then will the square
of AB be less than the squares of AC, BC,
by twice the rectangleof AC and BC.
AC9 + BCa
2AC
BC,
Or, ABa
31.

"

32. Let AB, AC, be any two

unequal
lines; then will the difference of the
of AB, AC* be equal to a rectangle
squares

under
That
AB

is, ABa

and

sum

AC9

"

difference.

AB

AC

AC.

"

equal
other

Let

ABC

angle,
triright-angled
havingthe rightangle at C ; then
the square
of the hypotenuseAB, be

33.
will

their

to
two

be

of the
the sum
sides AC, CB.

of the

squares

Or ABa=AC9

-f-BC9.
34. Let ABC

be any triangle,
havingCD
then
ence
to AB
will the differperpendicular
;
of the squares of AC, BC, be equal
to

the difference of the

; that is,AC3"

BD

35. Let

ABC

be

squares

BC3=AD9"
a

of

perpendicular

BD

of AC

the
.

and CD

be greater

of AB,
rectangle

BD.

havingthe angleA acute, and

triangle,
to AB ; then will the square of BC, be
perpendicular
of
than the squares of AB, AC, by twice the rectangle

36. Let ABC

less

at B,
obtuse-angled
triangle,

than the squares of AB, BC, by twice

BD.
That is,ACa=ABa+BCa+2AB

CD

AD,

BD3.

; then will the square

to AB

AB, AD.

be

That is,BC3=AB9+AC3"

SAD

AB,

69

THEOREMS.

Let ABC

37.

line drawn

be

the vertex

from

base

DB

be

CB,

of AC,
of the squares
the sum
of the square

the

into

sum

twice

equal to

CD, AD

of

two

the

will

then

the

the middle

to

bisectingit

AB,
equal parts AD,
of the

CD

triangle,and

"

AT"

ACfl

; or

+CB9=2CDa-f2AD9.
Let

38.

and

CD

ABC

be

line

drawn

point

any

of AC,

square

CD,

be

equal

will AE
and

ED;
BD,

be

be

the

will be

of AB,

will

the

square

of

then
the

to

equal

DB.

CD,

parallelogram,

to

each

other

EC,

and

in E

BE

to

of

sum

equal

BC,

and

AD

diagonalsintersect

then

to

vertex

rectangleof

the

ABCD

Let

whose

base

the

is AC3=CD3+AD

That

39.

from

the

togetherwith

DB.

of AC,
the squares
of the squares
to the sum
That
DA.
is,

and BE=ED,
AE=EC,
ACfl+ BD*=AB3+BC3+CD3+DA2

and

Let

40.

CD

and

in a circle,
any chord
C to
line drawn
from the centre
AB

the chord.
in the
to

in

triangle,

isosceles

an

be

Then,

if the chord

CD

point D,

will be

bisected

be

perpendicular

AB.
Let

41.

ABC

be

circle, and

point

within

it ; then if any three lines, DA, DB,

the
drawn
from
cumference,
point D to the cir-

DC,

be

point D

will be
Let

42.

Let

point;

Let

44.

equal
will
to

AB,

distances

these

each

touch

circles

two

other.

touch

CD,

same

the

one

point of

all in the

chords

CD,

those

of

another

externallyat

and

the centres

rightline.

any two
the centre

AB,

internallyin

centres

contact

be

from

another

one

point and
right line.

wilMhe

circles be

two

the centre.

same

two

then

other, the

will the

all in the
43.

each

to

circles

two

point ; then
be

equal

chords
G
be

at

; then

equal

the

circles

the

of the

7
i

70

to

GEOMETRY.

45. Let the line ADB

the radius CB of a

be

circle ; then

touch the circle in the

AB

Let

46.
and

CD

AB

be

pointD

tangent

drawn

chord

perpendicular

from

to

only.
circle,

point of

contact

C ; then is the angle BCD

by half the arc CFD, and the

ACD

measured

47. Let BAC

be

which

arc

and D

segment

same

ACDB,

or,

; then will the

to the angleD.

49.

and D

Let C be
the

standingon

same

AB

; then will the

the angle D, or the
the angle C.

50. If ABC

or

angleD

then* any

which

the

is the

the centre C,
circumference, both
arc

chord

same

or

angleC

double

be

angleD equal to

ADC

be

of
half

semicircle,

in that semicircle, is

rightangle.
51. If AB

and D

be

tangent,and AC

chord,

angle in the alternate segment

will the angle D be equal to
BAC
made
the angle
by the tangent and
ADC

any

; then

chord

of the

ABCD

52. Let
in

the

two

and

D,

arc

AEC.
be any

scribed
inquadrilateral

circle ; then shall the

sum

of

opposite anglesA and C, or B

equal to two rightangles.

be

1?

supplemental
angleC be equal

angle at

an

angleat the

an

half the

the

AEB

arc

the circumference

anglesin

be two

thing,standingon

same

angle

subtends

Let C

48.

angleat

an

sured
mea-

CGD.

arc

for its measure,

it.

; it has

BC

half the

by

shall

the

JL

"

71

THEOREMS.

If the side

53.

inscribed

ABCD,
E

to

the

equal

outward

Let

54.

the

parallel;
equal;

quadrilateral

circle, be

produced

will
angle
opposite angle C.

chords

two

the

arcs

be

AB,

CD

be

AC,

BD,

be

AC=BD.

or

the

the chord

tangent ABC

; then
; that is, BD=BF.

equal

the

DBE

will

then

Let

55.

in

the inward

to

of

AB,

DF

be

the

are

parallelto
BD,

arcs

BF,

"

Let

56.

the

the two

the

measured

and

by half

AC,

EB,

circle at the
E

Let

59.

each

EB,

of

the

be
C

point E,
the

points

EB

and

of the two
the

two

cants.
se-

to

tangents
then

the

the

DE,
comes

EC

the difference of the

CD,

AB,

meet

rectangleof AE,
rectangleof CE,

CE

lines

ED.
in

the

cond
se-

by revolving about
into the position
or

angle

of

tangent
C

by two
angle is

this

two

lines

two

one
as

of

sum

CGA.

Or, AE

case,

formed

be

in E ; then the
will be equal to the

When

the

difference

the

other

ED.

the

ECD

ED,

CFA,

arcs

sect
inter-

angle AEC,

half

by

points A,
by half

is measured

two

the

CD,

intercepted by

DB,

Let

58.

; then

angle

EAB

secants

arcs

AB,

DB.

AC,

arcs

Let

57.

chords

is measured

DEB,

or

point E

the

at

two

ED,

running

the
into

two
one

Ot

72

GEOMETRY.

then the

of CE, ED,
rectangle

becomes

the square

of

CE,

the
and DE
then equal. Consequently,
are
the
AE
is
of
the
of
EB,
equal to
secant,
rectangle
parts
the square of the tangent,CEfl.
and
60. Let CD
be the perpendicular,
CE

because

CE

the diameter of the circle about the

ABC
CA,
triangle
; then the rectangle
CB is = the rectangle
CD
CE.

A*

^B
-

bisect the angleC of the

then
the square CD2-f- the
;
DB
is =
the rectangle
rectangleAD
AC
CB.
61.

Let CD

ABC
triangle

Let ABCD

scribed
inbe any quadrilateral
a
nd
its
two
AC, BD,
circle,
AC
BD is
diagonals
; then the rectangle
62.

in

the

AB
DC
+ the rectangle
rectangle
AD
BC.
63. Let the two triangles
ADC, DEF,
have the same
be between the
or
altitude,
same
AE, CF ; then is the surface
parallels
of the triangle
ADC, to the surface
of the triangle
is
DEF, as the base AD
=

to the base DE.

Or, AD

DE

: :

the triangle

ADC
DEF.
: the triangle
Let ABC, BEF, be two
triangles
havingthe equalbases AB, BE, and whose
altitudes are the perpendiculars
CG, FH ;
then will the triangle
ABC
: the triangle
BEF
: : CG
: FH.
64.

and parallelograms,
when
Triangles
to each

are

other

their bases

are

equal,

their altitudes; and by the foregoing

their altitudes are equal,they are to each other
as

when
their bases ; therefore,universally,
neither
when
as
each
to
in
other
the compound ratio,or
equal,they are
the rectangle
or productof their bases and altitudes.
one,

the four lines A, B, C, D, be

A : B : : C : D ; then
or
proportionals,
will the rectangle
of A and D be equal to
the rectangle
of B and C ; or the rectangle
A.D
B
C.
Let

65.

are
as

PROBLEMS.

To

1.

bisect

line AB

that

is,

divide it into

to

two

equal parts.
c

From

the two

equal radii,describe
intersecting each other
any

and

draw

the

the

given

line

and

centres

in C

CD,

line AB

of

arcs

B, with

circles,

and

which

will

in the

point

^B

a"

sect
biE.
13

To

2.

From

the centre

describe

an

lines AD,

AE

arc

D, E, with

the

which

will

At

3.

and from

the two

centres

radius, describe

same

bisect

draw

; then

the

angle

'

in

AF,
quired.
re-

as

line AB,

to

erect

per-

pendicular.
From

the

given point C,

with

off any
cut
equal parts CD,
given line ; and, from the two

the
D

BAC.

any radius,
cutting off the equal

given point C,

angle

an

A, with

intersectingin

arcs

bisect

.and E, with

any
intersecting in

arcs

which

will

be

any

dius,
ra-

CE,

of

centres

radius, describe

one

F;

then

perpendicularas

join CF,
required.

AD

OTHERWISE.

When
From

the

given point

is

the

near

end

above
point D, assumed
the line, as a centre, through the given
point C describe a circle, cutting the
given line at E ; and through E and
the centre
then

any

D, draw

join CF,

the diameter

which

required.

will

be

EDF;
the

pendicular
per-

of

the

line.

75

PROBLEMS.

the

on
given point A, to let falla perpendicular
a given line BC.

the

given point A

4. From

From
with

cutting
points D and

arc,

the

with

D, E,
which

will be

from

the

at

the

an

two

two

tres
cen-

radius, describe two

F ; then draw
AGF,

any

intersectingat

arcs,

line

given
; and

centre,

radius, describe

convenient

any

as

BC

perpendicularto

quired.
re-

as

OTHERWISE.

When

the

is

given point

nearly oppositethe

of the

end

line.
any point D, in the given line
cle
BC, as a centre, describe the arc of a cirthrough the given point A, cutting
From

BC

in

the radius
the
which

5.

At

From

and

the

describe

EA,
former

will be

from

in

another
then

F;

in

centres

arc,

draw

perpendicularto

given point A,
equal to
the

E, with

centre

BC

ting
cut-

AGF,
as

quired.
re-

line AB,

to

given angle

make

angle

an

C.

and

C, with any
the arcs
DE, FG.

radius, describe
Then, with radius DE, and centre F, describe
in G.
an
arc, cutting FG
Through

one

draw

the line AG,

and

it will form

the

angle required.

6.

Through

given point A,

to draw

given line
From

line

to
parallel

BC.

the

given point A draw a line AD

to any point in the given line BC.
Then
draw the line EAF,
making the angle at A
equal to the angle at D (by prob. 5) ; so
shall EF
be parallel
to BC
as
required.

^-t^
D

76

GEOMETRY.

To

7.

divide

line AB

into

proposed number

any

of

equal parts.
Draw

any other line AC,

with
the given line AB

angle

off

set

DE,

as

many

EG,

FC,

divided
draw

into.

the

of any
the
as

Join BC

other

these will

lines

divide AB

To

find

Place

the

forming
also

equal parts AD,

in

the

find

lines

required. For those

AC, proportionally.
given lines AB,

two

AB,

AC,

A ; and in AB
Join BC,
to AC.

take

AC.

a-

and

AE

be

fourth proportionalto

be

"

proportional to

parallelto it ; so will
proportionalsought.

the third

9. To

manner

the sides AB,

angle at

equal

DE

is to

to which
; parallel
FG, EH, DI ; then

given

two

any

AD

draw

third

any

which

; on

line AB

parallellines divide both

8.

forming

three

lines, AB,

AC,

AD.
Place

AC,

making

placeAD

on

the fourth

To

the

given
angle at

any
AB.

it draw

to

10.

of

two

Join

DE

; and

shall

also

A;

BC

so

AB,

lines

parallel
be

AE

proportionalas required.

find

proportionalbetween

mean

lines,AB,

two

BC.
Place
line

AB, BC,

AC

on

joined in

which,

scribe the semicircle

the

erect

be the
AB

and

mean

ADC

diameter, de-

any

find

chord

with
perpendicularly
a

in

diameter.

AB
the

the centre
;

and

of a

bisect

line CD,

Therefore

.p
/

"
A

To

which

; to meet

BC.

Draw
be

z.

perpendicular BD ; and it will

proportionalsought,between
11.

will

as

straightA-

one

circle.
it

which
CD

O, will give the centre,,

as

sected
biquired.
re-

77

PROBLEMS.

To

12.

three
From

the

BA, BG,

to

Then

the

from

of any

be

will

O,

centre

the

points B, C,

draw

When

required.

as

to

tangent

the

centre

BAC,

and

it will be the

given line

ends

the

of

DBA,
angles DAB,
Then
given angle C.
E, and

centre
a

circle ;

equal

15.

To

chord

DAB

equal

DEA

will
E

describe

be

the

segment

to

be
made

the
the
in

AD

to
to

it

circle,that shall contain

the

make

given angle
segment

circle,

in it will

given angle

tangent AB

the

EB,

offa segment from

any

; and

angle

with

or

EA

Draw

and

as

exit

make

line

of

C.

equal to the
AE, BE perpendicular

AFB

segment

given angle

any angle F made

to the given angle C,

required,
be

BD

the

draw

which

given

draw

radius
shall

so

each

AD,

to

cumference
cir-

and

describe

to

the

given

tangent.

to contain

At

A.

join A

perpendicular to

circle,through

is in the

given point
of the circle

On

distance

points, as OA, describe

it will pass through the two

point

14.

centre.

the

at

of the

one

To

13.

through

point B draw chords

sect
other
two
points,and biperpendicularlyby lines

the

circle,and

other

circle

points, A, B, C.

given

in O, which

meeting

middle

chords

these

circumference of

the

describe

C.

cle
given cirthe angle
C

; then

required, any

being equal

given angle C.
7

to

the

78

GEOMETRY.

make

To

16.

given lines,AB, AC,

three

triangle with

BC.

With

the

describe

an

distance
the

C.

in

will be the

To

17.
Bisect

section

cutting
and

BC,

circle in

BD.

From

will be

the

and

angles

D, which

and

DG,

B, and

arc,

AB,

AC,

A.

trianglerequired.

inscribe

circle, draw

another

Draw

any two
lines AD,

the two

distance

the centre

describe

former

ABC

With

arc.

BC,

and

A,

centre

given triangleABC.
B, with

the

the centre

inter*
of the

perpendiculars DB,
be

they will

DF,

the radii of the circle

required.
To

18.

describe

circle about

given

triangleABC.
Bisect

19.

To

inscribe

Through

centre.

equilateral
trianglein

an

the centre

AB.
centre,

the

will be

From

with

the

two

"per*
their section
inter-

and

DF,

pendiculars DE,
D

with

sides

two

any

ameter
any dipoint B as a

radius

BC

of

arc

an

Join

AD, AE, DE, and ADE

equilateraltrianglesought.
20.

To

given

draw

the

given circle, describe

inscribe

square

the

DCE.
is the

in

given circle.
B

Draw

two

diameters

AC, BD,

ing
cross-

E.
centre
right angles
Then
join the four extremities A, B,
C, D, with right lines, and these will
at

form

in

the

the inscribed square

ABCD.

circle.

79

PROBLEMS.

To

21.

Draw

describe

AC, BD,

diameters

two

about

square

given
F

crosa-

GH,

E.
right angles in the centre
through their four extremities
FG, IH, parallelto AC, and FI,
parallelto BD, and they will

form

the square

ing

circle.
B

at

Then
draw

inscribe

To

22.

FGHI.
circle in

regularpolygon.

Bisect

the

by

their

and

perpendiculars GO,

describe

To

23.

Bisect

will

the

be

OG

D,

of the

make

Let AB

given

; and

OC,

sum

of

two

or

more

be the sides of two

Draw

AQ,

to

described

indefinite

two

at

described
of

the

sum

on

AB

and

square

make

To

25.

will be the centre

equal to the
given squares.

AC

and

square

; then

right angles to each

in which
place the sides AB,
the given squares
; join BC
;

other ;
AC, of

equal

DO

square

squares.

lines AP,

then

CO,

the radius.

will be

To

regularpolygon.

angles, C

the

circumscribingcircle

OD,

24.

circle about

of
two
any
with the lines

their intersection

or

intersection

FO,

will be the radius.

OF

and

gon
poly-

of the

of the inscribed circle, and

centre
or

sides

two

any

on

the

BC
two

will

be

squares

AC.

equal to

the

difference
of two

given

squares.
and

AC, taken in the same

straightline, be equal to the sides of
Let AB

the
centre

given

two

A, with
a

squares.

the

circle ; and
to

AB,

From

distance
make

meeting

CD

AB,

the

scribe
de-

c"
A

dicular
perpen-

the circumference

in D ;

so

shall

so

GEOMETRY.

described

square

AC3,

be

equal

AD2

to

AC8,

"

AB*

or

"

required.

as

To

26.

CD

on

make

triangle equal

to

given pentagon

ABCDE.
D

Draw

CG,

DA

and

parallelto

duced

at F

DG;
equal

To

27.

as

make

be
to

then

the

draw

*"/

proand

triangleDFG

/ / WXC

be

side

one

equal to

square

describe

produced

the side of

at F

given rectangleA BCD.

till BE

AB,

side BC.

the other

to

BC

DF

diameter

EF,

given pentagon ABCDE.

Produce

equal

them, meeting

shall

so

also
AB

and

to the

DB,

and

be
AE

On

ing
circle,meet-

will BF

; then

BFGH,
equal
square
the given rectangleBD, as required.
a

APPENDIX

TO

""""*"""""

GEOMETRY.

INSTRUMENTS.

To

28.

add

we

not

Let

29.
to

descriptionof
belong to the common

short

do

which

one

facilitate the construction

there

be

feet in

two

Gunter's

common

of
few

useful

instruments

pocket-case.

flat ruler,AB,

from
B

length,for

which

scale

be

may

geometricalfigures,

the

tuted
substi-

and, secondly, a triangularpiece

of wood, a% b, c, flat,and about
the same
;

thickness

as

be of which

angle at
a

hole

b.

the

ruler

are

equal

For

sides

the
to

one

the convenience

in the middle

of

the

ab

and

another, and
of

form

there
sliding,

as
triangle,

may

be

is
seen

right
usually
a

in the

figure.
30.
of these simple instruments
By means
many
very
useful geometricalproblems may
be performed. Thus, to
draw a line through a given point parallel
to a given line.

82

long, there

are

F, of which

placed two

wheels,

is fixed

the axle,

one

to

and

ly,
name-

M, and the other is capable of being

shifted

different

to

the axle, and,

thumb-screw, made capable

of being fixed at
the axle.
any point on
by

of

of

parts

means

These

wheels

inches, the fixed

being
roll,and

moved

to

different

wheel

diameters, say of
the

being

the

circles

the

of these

centre

This

largest.

the

on
paper,
circles of different radii

describe

point
this

of

are

and

ment
instru-

and

F will

the axle will always

circles,and there will be

proportion:
As

the diameter

of the

large wheel

Is to the difference of the

So

radius of the circle

is the

of the two

diameters

wheels,
by the

be described

to

large wheel
To

If the diameters

36.

and

it

from
86

the distance of the two

of the

is-requiredto describe

the above

inches

describe

18

are

above

as

radius, then

have

: :

6:6

"

of the two

It may be observed, that it will be best

difference of the wheels
greater if large circles
then

as

We

remarks
of

the

will
the

on

shorter

will

instrument

conclude

this

Diagonal Scale

serve

appendix, by
and

or

wheels,

to

the

to make
are

to

be described,

the purpose.
making a few

Sector, the

especially,is seldom

latter of which,

great

use

explained to

mechanic.

the young
39. The

diagonal scale

pocket-casesof

common

3 feet

circle 6 feet in diameter.

37.

38.

stated,

circle of 3 feet

the distance

the axle.

on

wheels

proportion we
inches

wheels

measuring

very

hundredth

parts of

small
an

to be

found

on

instru:1 ents,

divisions

is

the
a

plain scale

contrivance

in
for

of lines ; as, for instance,

inch.

40.

cut
to
Suppose the accompanying
visions
diof two
enlarged view
represent an
the
of the diagonal scale, and

bottom
two

and

top lines

an

inch.

AD,

be

divided

into

representing the tenth

Now, the perpendicular

parts, each

of
ftart
ines BC,

to

are

each

divided

into

ten

are
joined by the
equal parts, which
crossinglines, t, 2, 3, 4, "c, and the diagonals BF,

DE,

83

INSTRUMENTS.

are

drawn

the

tenth

in the

as

part of

inch, and

an

and

approaches nearer
be

nearer

as

the

to

BC,

FC

the division

as

line

FB

is

continually

tillit meets

B,

it in

part of the line 1 cut off by this

Bl is only onetenth part of FC, because
; so, likewise, 2 will represent two-tenth
the

it will follow, that

diagonal will

figure. Now,

part of BC
parts, 3, three-tenth

tenth

parts, and

to

on

so

9, which

is nine-

tenth

tenth

an

arrive

parts, and 10, ten-tenth parts, or the whole

of this diagonal,we
inch ; so that, by means

divisions

equal

hundredths

of

tenth

to

of the scale itself will

observed,
be divided, in the

inch

an

tenths

of tenths,

hundredth

parts of

This

41.

each

rulers

scales

lines, to

very useful
six inches

instrument

distinguishthem

The

of

Gunter's

common

Those

the instrument, several

from

lines
are

others

A
A
These

is

drawn

ave
to

face

each

twice

say, each

and

on

drawn

are

to

those

on

line of secants, marked

line of polygons, marked
are

the other

on

the

same
on

face
both

are,

marked
there

are

on

the

L,

C,
S,
P,

one

or

Pol.

face of the instrument

following:

line of sines, marked

line of tangents, marked

line of tangents to a less

ceed
pro-

sectorial

called

line is drawn

scale of

sectorial lines

lines

scales

or

which

equal parts, marked

A line of chords, marked

equal

two

scale.

; that

on

four-

and

of

consists

the instrument, similar

sectorial lines

of the instrument

legs.

the face of

edge

the quarter of
and
into tenths

long, joined together by a brass

rulers are generallymade
of boxwood

These

the

matter.

and

two-hundredth

get thus
may
inch.

SECTOR.

on

the whole

manner,

Some
of these
engraven.
of the joint,and
the centre

parallelto
42.

same

are

from

the

an

inch

an

THE

foldingjoint.
or
ivory ; and
or

we

tenth

easilyshow

that if half

be

It may

at

parts of an inch, or
this consideration, an examination

With

inch.

an

parts of

of

S,

T,
radius, marked

t.

84

GEOMETRY.

last line is intended

This

extends

and

from

about

lines of

The

43.

to

45

supply the defect

to 75
degrees.

of the

chords, sines, tangents, and

secants, but
the centre,

of

not

the

and

are

and

it follows

from
polygons, are numbered
disposed as to form equal angles at

line
so

from

this, that at whatever

former,

the

centre

distance

the

tor
sec-

is

opened, the angles which the lines form, will always

10
respectivelyequal. The distance, therefore, between

be
and

10,

distance
to

the

on

of

and

90

opening
Any
a

in

point
similar

the

on

the

on

L, will be

equal

the

to

and

lines of chords,

two

lines of sines, (fee, at any

two

measured

extent

of the

is called

60

marked

also

lar
particu-

of the sector.

44.

the centre

and

60

90

lines

two

jointto

with

division

any

lateral distance;
line

line

the

on

the

on

on

and

taken

any extent
leg, to the like

one

other

from
compasses,
the sectorial lines,

pair of

leg,

called

is

from

point

the

on

transverse

or

paralleldistance.
With

these

of the

use

remarks,

sector, in

shall

we

far

so

proceed
likelyto be

now

it is

as

to

explain the

serviceable

to

mechanics.
USE

This

45.

its

uses

To
the

line, as

the

the line
that

of

touches

the

other

the

of

the

Thus,
the

length of
point

one

other
7

on

on

leg out

7,

given

given
on

will be

the
the

of

the

line

into

line with

on

length

being kept at

given
the

leg ;

of

one

the

line

the

be

passes
com-

to

same

leg,

one

be

of

one

divided.

and

:"

take

setting

legs,move

the

compasses
be called the

Now,

transverse

of the 7

the

on

compasses,

of

one

the

equal parts

seven

point of

opening,

the

give the length

this may
the line of lines.

that

same

of

is to

the line of lines marked

on

the line

on

until the other

distance of 7
at

the line L

of

given line
other point of

the other, will

on

the

the line L

sector

from

divisions

divide

the

the sector

leg ; then,

equal
to

division

same

the line L

on

which
till the

sector

distance

width, the

by

parts into
the

L, and

of equal parts : Take

any number
of
and placing one
the compasses,
denotes
of lines which
in the lme

number

divided, open

to

LINES.

observed, is marked

before

was

line into

number

on

OF

LINE

are,

Divide

length of
pointson

the

THE

OF

the
touch
verse
trans-

keeping
distance

equal divisions

the

of

of the

85

INSTRUMENTS.

givenline

; the

of these

of 2 will be two

distance

transverse

divisions,"c.
It will sometimes

46.

will be
in this
the

as

case

half, a third,or

To

divide

shall have
Take

be ; then

may

47.

take the half, or

we

case

will be

for the

long

too

happen, that the line to be divided

largestopening of the sector ; and

fourth

certain relation

of

of parts that
proportion to each other :

or

the

of 1 to 1,

required equal part.

of the

into

length of the whole

point of the compasses
lines on
one
leg of the

one

distance

the transverse

given line

fourth of the line,

third, or

number

any

line

to

divided, and placing

be

that division

at

the

on

line

which

instrument

expresses
the given line is to be
of all the parts into which
till the other point of the
divided, and open the sector
the

sum

is on the corresponding division on the line of

compasses
lines of the other leg. This is evidentlymaking the sum
of

parts into which

the

the

given

distance ; and
transverse
parts will be found by
the sector, the transverse

taking,with

To

into

divide

of 2, 3, 4

given

a
:

The

line

sum

to

this is done, the

three
is 9 ;
9 and

between

the

of

opening

the
the

on

proportional

same

make

divided

be

of the parts
parts, in the

distances

of these

distance

transverse

when

line is

required.
"

proportion
given line a
lines of

two

lines ; then the transverse

distances of the several numbers
2, 3, 4, will give the proportionalparts required.
To

48.
Take

find

the

fourth

lateral distance
distance

transverse

proportionalto

three

of the second, and

of the first,then

given

lines

make

it the

will the transverse

tance
dis-

the lateral distance of the fourth ; then,

the lateral distance of
6:3::
8,-" make

of the third be
let there be
3

the

given

distance

transverse

distance

of 8 be

of

then

6;

the lateral distance

will

the

transverse

of 4, the fourth

tional
propor-

required.
49.

This

plans.
of

sector

For

steam

will be found

highly serviceable

instance, if it is wished

engine from

to reduce

scale of 1 " inches

in drawing
the drawing

to

the

foot,

in I5 inches there are

to another
to
V2
reduced
in
the
that
will
be
the drawing
parts ; so
proportion
of 12 to 5.
Take
the lateral distance of 5, and keep
of f

the foot.* Now,

the compasses
tillthe
at this opening ; then
open the sector
distance of 12;
mark
the transverse
points of the compasses
taken
the sector
at this opening, and any measure
keep now
on

the

drawing, to

be

copied and
8

laid of!

on

the sector

as

86

MECHANICAL

lateral distance,

the

"

point will give

in the

the

If the

have

taken

distance

transverse

corresponding measure
drawing.

new

50.

DRAWING

length of
drawing, is

the

lengths of the
side given, by

to

of

reckoned

be

sides ?

two

45

Take

the

that

be laid down

triangle,of

the compasses,
and
the transverse
distance

be

measure

other

the side

to

from

which

what

we

the

are

length

of

the

the sector
till the
open
of 45 to 45 ; then
the

lengths of the other sides being applied transversely,will

give their numerical
lengths.
USE

By

51.

degrees :

Thus,

"

at

the

the

marked

lay

to

chords

the

on

an

of

mahogany
sides

the
each

other

be

made

so

that

the

bottom

the

board

or

on

53.

stock
and

from

18

nearly

as

and

PERSPECTIVE.

is first to be

as

to

30

this

inches
of

made

be

planed
and

corner

provided, of
long, and from
fir,plane tree,

smooth

possible

of the board

the bottom

"

sufficient for

found

be

hope,

It may
be
must

broad.
ends

being
taken,

was

of the sectorial lines,

use

AND

from

size, as

; its face

and

tor
sec-

practicalmechanic.

perfectlyso

the

on

the

distance
radius

tance
dis-

degrees.
the

rectangularboard

any convenient
16 to 24 inches
or

degrees,keeping

DRAWING

flat

the transverse

this transverse

said will, we

MECHANICAL
A

farther

enter

of the

take

of the circle whose

arc

have

we

purposes

52.

the

angle

then
of

; and

opening

will not

what

with

dispense

may

an

will be the required number

as

we

down

required number

same

off

We

CHORDS.

OF

the sector,

the line of

of

LINE

of any number
of
take the radius of the circle on
the compasses,
the sector
tillthis becomes
the transverse
distance

open
60 on

of

THE

of

means

protractor.
and

OF

at

and

flat,and

right angles

to

the left side should

should

be

marked,

the square
be always applied to
may
To
left hand side of the board.
prevent
of

casting,it is

usual

to

pannel it on

the

back

the sides.
A

square

must

also

be

provided,such

that

by

of

means

thumb-screw

fixed

either the purposes

the one-half of the stock

and

the other

fixed

being movable
rightangles on the

at

ought to be somewhat
length of the board.
Besides

54.

blade.

these, there will be required

instruments

the

to

matical
of mathe-

case

it should

of which

the selection

; in

length

in

bevel,

the screw,
The
blade

about

equal

flexible,and

or

square,

common

be made

stock, it may

in the
of

to answer
"

87

PERSPECTIVE.

AND

be

that the bow

observed,

ive
frequently defectthan any
After using any of
the ink feet, they should
draw
be dried ; and if they do not
properly, they ought to be sharpened and brought to an
equal length in the blade, by grinding on a hone.
The
colours
55.
Indian
useful
ink, gamboge,
most
are,
is more
compass
of the other instruments.

Prussian

blue, vermilion, and

for

necessary
made
; so
would

drawing

that, instead

advise

that

should

lifetime.

these, all colours

With

buildings

machinery or
of purchasing a
for whom

those

of

box

this

be

may

colours,

book

is

we

intended

separately: the gamboge may

apothecary a pennyworth will serve
be rubbed
choosing the rest, they should

these
procure
be bought from
an
a

lake.

In

against the teeth, and

cakes

"

those

feel smoothest

which

of the

are

best

quality.
56.
Hair pencilswill

hair, and

of various

also be

sizes.

made

necessary,

of camel's

taper gradually
should, after being

They

ought

to

in the mouth, and

wet
point when
pressed against the finger,spring back.
57.
Black-lead
They
pencils will also be necessary.
their
traces
not
canought not to be very soft, nor so hard that
be
In choosing
easily erased by the Indian rubber.
that which
will
of drawing is
best
suit this kind
paper,
to

thick, and

has

hardish

yet free from

58.

be

The

chosen
be

with

side from

that

which

on

the

drawing

qualityand

sponge
which

smooth

very

the

on

face,
sur-

knots.

on
paper
of a good

wet

to

feel, not

and
the

is to be made,

clean

drawing

water,

It is then

size.

convenient

the

on

is to be

must

opposite

made.

When

the

be
the water, which
absorbs
seen
by the
paper
may
viewed
wetted
side becoming dim, a* its surface is
slantwise

against the light,

with

the

must

be

wetted
turned

it is to

side
up

on

next
a

be

the

laid

on

board.

straightedge

the

drawing board

About
all round

half
the

an

inch
paper,

88

DRAWING

MECHANICAL

and

fastened

then

when
wet
paper
the board, act

drying.

To

paste has

been

first

fixed

on

by

contracts

paper

within

to

is

paper

half

the
is

inch

an

of

thoroughly dried,

equallyon

the board,

and

it
is

use.

scale it is

what

from

made

is to be

drawing

consider

to

surface,
the

firmly and

lie

to

If the

59.

the

the

from

the paper

the upper
When

on

fit for

then

edges being

the

when

because

contractingbefore
fastened
sufficiently
by drying, the paper

found

will be

as

mark.

paste

stretchers

is done

This

enlarged, and

is

prevent

usually wet
the

the hoard.

on

ought

we

copy,

drawn

be

to

If it is

to.

to

larger than the copy ; and a scale

the dimensions
of
accordingly,by which
the several parts of the drawing are
to be regulated. The
and
beautiful
contrivance, will be
diagonal scale, a simple
equal in size to,

be

should

of great

found

here

the

whenever
5

or

made

be

for the

use

drawing

inch, " inch

is to be

the foot,

to

made

equal parts ; the last of which

12, and a diagonal scale formed
common

one,

inches and

eighths of an
proportion,the line

to

express
scales to

found
60.

any
very convenient.
Great

outline

accurate

of the

be

be

distinct,yet

not

much

as

of

the

on

The

the

will

sector

penciling, that

pencil

of

marks

of the rubber

be

an

the value

should

be

should

be

frequent application
methods

The

paper.

or

into

principlesas
diagonals,
making such

this much

its

inch,

12

For
the

on

; and

of 20

drawn

same

inch.
L

of

subdivided

be

in the

heavy, and the use

as
possible, as

surface

the

taken
for

drawn,

picture will depend.

avoided
ruffles

should

care

be

should
on

divisions
scale

eight parallelsand

with

but

to

scale should

30

the

minute

more

already

here
constructing geometrical figures
found
of the T square,
parallel
applicable,and the use
themselves
whenever
will
ruler, "c,
they require
suggest
to be employed.
of any machine
61. The
or
drawing thus made
building
of three kinds
is called a plan. Plans
are
a
ground plan,
or
bird's-eyeview, an elevation or front view, and a perspective

given

will

for

be

"

plan.
62.

the
nearer

When

view

towards

circumference
as

they

circumference

is taken

are

removed

opposite

the

of

the teeth

the eye,

from

of

the teeth
the

eye, and

middle
it may

wheel, with
appear

be
the

be out

of

point
not

to

of

.1

90

MECHANICAL

DRAWING

is usual, it will be better

as

the

point of the

off the

fingeron
In using

67.

the colour, and

to wet

forefinger,
lettingthe
to the plate.
the

dissolved

it

on

part drop

found

ink, it will be

Indian

rub

geous
advanta-

quantityof lake,
which
renders it much
more
easily wrought with, and this
is the more
desirable as it is the most
frequentlyused of all
the other colours in Mechanical
Drawing, the shades being
to mix

it with

all made

with

The

depth

various

littleblue and

small

this colour.
and

of

extent

circumstances"

the

on

shades

the

will

figure of the

shaded, the position of the eye

direction

of the

depend
object to

The
"c.
light comes,
the eye will vary the proportionatesize of any
drawn
in perspective. Thus, if a
picturewhen
view
of a steam
engine is given, the eye being
be placed opposite the end nearest
the nozzles,
the nozzle rod will appear
much
largerthan an
rod

pump

to

in which

which
be

the

and

ground plans
to

in any

other

the dimensions

be

the

of

position of
object in a
perspective
supposed to
inch

an

inch

of

of the

scale

being just the

part of
of any

would

in

drawing

elevations

part of the machine

inch or foot in one
part

machinery, every

the compass
to the
the part so measured.

perspective,we

But

case.

the proper

of the machine,

the

is supthe cistern ; but if the eye

posed
other
end
of
the
the
engine,
opposite

placed

reverse

is drawn

be

feeds

the

will

and

observer,

on

the

an

"

size

same

So

machine.

as

that

part of the drawing,

scale, we
Whereas,
be

if the view
make

or

foot

by measuring

and

then

ing
apply-

the real size of

determine

obligedto

inch

an

were

allowance

given

in

for the

effect of distance, "c.

lightis always supposed to fall on the picture

at an
angle of forty-five
degrees,from which it follows, that
the shade of any object,which
is intended to rise from the
plane of the picture,or appear prominent, will justbe equal
in length to the prominence of the object.
69. The
shades, therefore, should be as exactlymeasured
should be taken
as
any other part of the drawing, and care
that they all fall in the
direction, as the lightis supposed
proper
from one
to come
point only.
70. It is frequentlyof great use
to take
for the mechanic
have
been
of a drawing, and
methods
a hasty copy
many
We
given for this purpose
by machines, tracing,"c.
give the followingas easy, accurate, and convenient.
68.

The

"

Mix

equal

lie

to

be

for

the

two

will

paper

if

Thus,

and

Care

perfection
know

should

or

may

to

past

make

make.

be

this

to

of

species

execute

intelligible

of

it,

spare,

at

his

others

that

he

that

may
any

lines

easily
oiled

the

paper.
take

may

leisure.
for

the

may
be

invention

ing
attain-

mechanic

Every

he

will

copied,

be

white

requisites

drawing.

so

on

on

to

chief

plans
to

laid

it

so

be

may

paper

the

lines

is

time

the

is

to

and

it,

recopied

are

perseverance
in

it

it

transparent,

The

when
little

when

drawing

through

has

something
how

him,

it

lay

the

on

pencil.

mechanic

the

and

with

the

allowing

paper,

nearly

seen

distinct

quite

be

and

copy

be

black-lead

it

and

oil,

drying

dry,

to

being

paper
will

with

days
it, lay

use

prepared

silk

good

three

To

drawing

traced

of

or

and

turpentine

sheet

use.

the

of

on

for

by

fit

and

it

lay

rag

of

parts

^91

PERSPECTIVE.

AND

better

derstand
un-

submitted

he

to

self
him-

SECTIONS.

CONIC

DEFINITIONS.

Cone

is

solid

terminated

in

vertex

the

by

revolution

Conic

of

Sections

it

;
a

are

According

cone.

figure having

to

last

three

of

If

the

Sections.
the

and

cone,

triangle ;
to

the

as

base,

circle

is inclined

is cut

by

plane

and

base,

The

side

the

fig.4.

in

The
a

of

the

section

plane

side,
make

cone

cone,

and

the

cone,

this

latter

plane

be

section

And

if all the

will

continued
be

the

the

will

or

the
side

be

equal angles
when
than

base

sides
an

of

the

cone

cutting
the

cutting
side
cone

opposite
the

the

with

the
the

the

of

the

plane

the

when

when

parallel

cone

when

or

than

forming

vertex,
also

the

be

ellipsewhen

an

hyperbola,

an

of

will

section

parabola,

greater angle with

fig. 5.
through the

is

angle

the

the

cut

sides,

less
is

Conic

vertex

section

it, the

with

both

to

is

the

DAB

section

makes,

cone

continued

the

base

parabola :

the

through

pass

base,

section

plane parallel

plane makes
the

The

the

to

is, fig. 3.

cone

angle

no

obliquely through

is cut

cone

the

and

peculiarly called

are

If the

fig. 1.

fig.2.

as

only

part of

make

or

formed

be

to

hyperbola,

cutting plane

VAB,

and

its base

for

of its sides.
triangle about one
the figures made
by a plane cutting a
the different
positions of the cutting
different
figures or sections, namely,

which

any

circle

conceived

be

may

plane there arise five

a
triangle,a circle, an ellipse,an
the

of
be

equal

opposite
opposite hyperbola to
to

cut

former.
93

93

DEFINITIONS.

Vertices

The

cutting plane

the points where

any section, are
the opposite sides of the cone,
or

of

meets

the
the

the vertical

sides of

triangularsection.
and the oppositehyperbolas, have each
Hence
the ellipse
consider
vertices ; but the parabolaonly one
two
; unless we
the other
The

Axis,

the line

And

vertex.

the

section, is

infinite in

length.

of the axis.

distant
parabolais infinitely

ellipse,the axis
an
hyperbola, the

an

of

and

from
lie

centre

axis and

centre

it.
is any right line drawn
each side by the curve
on

Diameter
terminated
of the

of
; but

curve

lie without

and

of

the centre

within

parabola is

of a' conic

the vertices.

between

is the middle

centre

Hence

Diameter,

Transverse

or

th" axis of

The

infinite distance.

an

distance

or

Hence

the

at

as

diameter,

; and

its intersections

or

the centre,
the extremities

through
with

the curve,

are

parallelto

the

its vertices.
Hence

of

all the diameters

parabola are

axis, and infinite in length. Hence

also every diameter of

the ellipseand hyperbolahas two
vertices ; but of the parabola,
nite
only one ; unless we consider the other as at an infidistance.
The

Conjugateto

diameter, is the line drawn

any

the centre, and parallelto the

of the diameter.
vertex

Hence

the

to

or

the diameter

Hence
An

the

to

diameter, is

the tangent
and curve.
or

di nates

is

Absciss

its vertex

any

and

to

Hence, in the ellipseand

two

determinate

the other
The
to

abscisses

of

Parameter

that diameter
and
The

equal

to

Focus
to half

one

and
is the

are

and

jugate,
con-

terminated

perpendicularto

diameter

it.

contained

by
it.

between

ordinate

hyperbola,every
but

in

has

the

parabola only one

distant.
being infinitely

is a third proportional
any diameter
and hyperits conjugate,in the ellipse
bola,

absciss

and

point in

its ordinate

in the

the axis where

parabola.

the ordinate is

the parameter.

ellipseand
parabolaonly one.
The

the

it.

the diameter

of

vertex

at

perpendicularto
line parallel
to its

its vertex,

of the axis

ordinate

an

at

part of any

curve

through

the axis is

conjugate of

Ordinate

An

tangent

of the

hyperbola have

each

two

foci ; but

the

94

SECTIONS.

CONIC

FOR

PROBLEMS

abscisses

two

and

of A, to find the ordinate

B

y/ absciss
"

Ex.

36

6 X
=

"

"

B.

its ordinate
absciss

is 16, it is

required

36.

16

32, the required ordinate.

y/

of another

16

,.

ordinate

is 9, and

to find the ordinate

s/

"

absciss

An

"

B.

absciss

y/

nate
B, togetherwith the ordi-

of

ordinate

"

"

SECTIONS.

PARABOLA.

THE

1. Given

CONIC

THE

3
*

Given

2.

ordinate

the

ordinate
"

"

absciss, required the

meter.
para-

parameter.

and

absciss

Ex.

The

"

ordinate

12s
-2

by

"

24

""

find the

double

6, then,

parameter required.

the

ess

ordinate

to the

(ordin.2
+ f abs.a)x
The
Ex."
lengthof the
absciss

the

lengthof

y/

of

curve

off

parabola,cut

axis.
2

length of

the

double

ordinate

the

being

curve.

and

12

the

2, then,

|2s)x2

\/(69 +
Note.
will

absciss

To

and

12

144
=

"

3.

being

This

"

rule is

apply when

not

12-858

the

lengthof

correct
sufficiently

the

is

absciss

for

the

curve.

practice,but

greater than

the half

ordinate.

THE
1.

To

find

As

the

transverse

root

of

Ex.

the

absciss

one

60

45

ordinate, we

have

the two

transverse

axis

12, and
: :

y/

(48

the other
x

12) :

the

proportion:
conjugate,so is the

axis is to the

productof

The

"

an

ELLIPSE.

abscisses,

being 60,

the

to the

square

ordinate.

conjugate 45,

the

48, then,
18

the ordinate

required.

95

PROBLEMS.

find the

2.

To

y/

(the half

absciss.

conju.*

added

being

the ordinate

between

will

being subtracted,

or

Ex.

One

"

abscisses

axis

-i

"

being

the

of the

centre

axis, which

absciss.

length is

whose
6

shorter

the other

and

20

"

and

give

the ordinate

to

axis, will give the greater absciss,'

the half

to

axis

trans,

axis.

conjugate
distance

*) x

ordin.

"

15, what
6.

from

the distance

the

are

the

centre,

15

wherefore
6

"

10
4

find the

To

As

v/(one

Ex.
one

^/(lOO
To

4.

Take

40)

the

60

find the

axis

: :

200

and

half

conjugate
*-%

"

their

the

being 200,
:

150

ordinate

the

conjugateaxis.

of the squares
of
add to this the half
the half
case

call

transverse

axis.

"

20, the lesser

be

absciss

14, and the

by the above,

then

%/(25s

60,

then,

160,

conjugate, and

If the ordinate

conjugate 50,

ordinate,

the difference

absciss

r.

ordinate

Ex.-"

10

axis.

of

root

to

conjugate if the lesser absciss is used, but subtract

In either
conjugate if the greater absciss is used.
the result of this part of the operation M, then,
"

and

conjugate.

the other

transverse

square

ordinate

the

and

is 40

absciss)is

the

to

transverse

longer absciss,

axis.

other

axis

transverse

absciss

the

"

conjugate

absciss

The

"

16

shorter.

the

3.

is the

so

209)

"

-"

25

+
70

40

M.

the transverse

axis.

20s
5.

To

find the circumference

of the sq. of the two
^"

sum

of

ellipse.

an

axes\

"",,,.

3-1416

circumfer.

E x.

"

24*

The
4-

"

axis

one

being

24

and

the other

18, then,

189\

3*1416

66-643

circumference.

96

CONIC

SECTIONS.

HYPERBOLA.

THE

To

1.

the

As

Ex.

axis is to the

transverse

of the

root

product

The

"

the absciss

"/(32

: :

To

2.

x/(ord.*
+
v

being 24,

8) :

the

so

conjugate 21,

and

"

the ordinate.

axis

trans,

,.

'"*

"

14

the abscisses.

find

conju.9)x

half

~"

axis

conjugate;

then,

21

is the square
abscisses, to the ordinate.

of the two

transverse

8 ;

24

the ordinate.

find

distance

between
4

conjugate
and

ordin.

the

Ex.

The

"

XA

25

20

"

3.

ordinate

84

and

the half

the

the

of

greater

conjugate.

axis
"*

the lesser

absciss

then,

of

root

To

find the

the

conjugate required.

transverse.

conjugate,and, accordingas

"

or

the lesser
it

subtract

of the half

squares

call this

conjugate
r.

it to,

of the

sum

ordinate, and

abscissa

the

is used, add

absciss

of the

45

abscisses)
axis
being 144,

126

4.

square

20

middle

the

144

Take

conjugate 32,

the lesser.

find

84

____=

greater

transverse

its ordinate

48, and

of the

^(product
The

To

25

transverse

the

40,

distance from

Wherefore,

absciss ; and

"

25

transverse.

Ex.

being

then,

12;

"

'

axis

transverse

the ordinate

the

this

it,the less.

from

and

the

gives

half transverse,

distance, added
to the
greater absciss; or, subtracted

Then

centre.

result

771

or

from, the

conjugate

then,

m
,

the

=5

transverse

axis.

ordinate*

Ex.

conjugate being 18,

The

"

its ordinate
9

12;

"

absciss 10, and

then,

v/(9a +

the lesser

12a)
=

30

+
the

15

24

transverse

m;

axis.

98

SECTIONS.

CONIC

the

AB

by
point A

of the

pin

the

maining
re-

bola
parabolaand hyper-

unlimited.

are

USEFUL

The

is

Cycloid
formed

curve

along

moves

very

by

level

paper, thus

on

the

the side of the ruler ; by the

semi-hyperbola will be described.

into itself: but the

ellipsereturns

the

about

coincidingwith

part
The

moved

extended, and

thread

the

T,

to

be

let the ruler

; then

from

motion

pin

CURVES.

useful

nail in

road.

; and

curve

of

the rim

If the circumference

"

wheel, while

be

cycloid may

The

of

be defined,

may

described

circle be

it

rolled

right line, beginning at any point A, and continued

till,the same
point A arrive at the line again,making just
revolution, and thereby measuring out a straightline
one

on

ABA

equal

point
AC

AGA

the

in

A
:

circumference
this

then

of the

circumference

the

to

is

curve

traces

called

out

line

curve

cycloid; and

the

circle, while

some

of its

propertiesare contained in the followinglemma:

If the generating or
revolving circle be placed in the
its diameter
middle of the cycloid,
coincidingwith the axis
AB,

and

from

the ordinate

point there

any

CDE

of the circle AD

be

drawn

tangent CF,

the

perpendicularto the axis, and the chord

then the chief propertiesare these :

The

right line

The

double
the chord
cycloidalarc AC
double
the diameter
semi-cycloidACA=
tangent CF is parallelto the chord

The
The

CD

the

circular

If the ball of

pendulum

be made

in the

curve,

same

through any

The

in

AD

AB,

or,

and

AD.
a

cycloid,
be

formed
perline of

of this
body will
one
given point to another, in less time than
other path. See Centre of Oscillatidh.

descent, or,
from

time.

to move

AD

they will all

cycloid is also the
fall through the arc

its vibrations will be isochronous,

swiftest

arc

The
chord

or

matters

of

left

tight
this

bridges.

hang

to

horizontal
the
is

curve

See

very
the

or

curve

useful

chapter

in
on

is

of

be
the

hung

the

construction
of

chain
two

upon

It

restraint.
be

suspension

catenary.

Strength

by

any

whether

or

will

it

without

points
not,

formed

is

when

freely,

these
line

still

which

curve

texture,

whether

not

same

that

uniform

of
and

points,

or

is

Catenary

99

SECTIONS.

CONIC

chain

the

in
be

slack

knowledge

of

suspension

Materials.

MENSURATION.

DEFINITIONS.

To

definitions

the

in order

prism

1.

the

make

to

and

is

figures. The
prism ; if the
"c.

If the

subject of

ends

the

added,

are

understood.

sides

similar,

equal,

and

parallelograms,
parallel plane
are

3nds

the

of

following

mensuration

which

solid, of

the

the

in geometry

the
to
gives the name
ends
are
triangular,the prism is triangular,
sides and
ends
of a prism he all equal squares,

figure

prism is called a cube ; and if the base or ends be a

parallelogram, the prism is called a parallelopipedon. The
cylinder is a round
prism, having circular ends.
The
2.
pyramid has any plane figure for its base, and
all the vertices
its sides triangles,of which
in a point
meet
of the pyramid.
the vertex
at the top, called
A sphere or globe is a solid bounded
3.
by one continued
surface
is equally distant from
surface, every point of which
diameter
The
a
point within the sphere, called the centre.
of a sphere, is any
line which
axis
or
through its
passes
the

and

centre,

is terminated

prismoid has its

plane figures of the same
sides being trapezoids.
A

4.

5.

but

6.

other

nQt

its sides

spindle

round

curve

7.

its
a

is like

conoid

but

cone,

curved.

but

formed

solid

figure of a sphere,
diameters
being longer

the

by

revolution

of

some

its base.

axis

The

of

one

parallel
upright

the

resembling

straightlines
is

unlike
any
of sides ; the

as

number

and, likewise,

by the circumference.

ends

two

solid

round"

exactly

the

has

is

spheroid

not

than

the

ends

both

at

solid, from

of

solid

the middle

is
of

drawn

straightline

end

one

to

the

through

middle

of

the

opposite end.
8.

height

The

perpendicular
9.

The

the

solid

to the base*

segment

parallelto
after the

of

base

segment

of
;

and

is cut

or

is
the

solid
the

line drawn

plane on
is

which

part

frustum

from

cut

is the

the

vertex,

the base
off

rests.

by a plane,
part remaining

off.
100

101

MENSURATION.
SURFACES.

1. For

the

of a

area

Base
Ex.

The

"

base

16x9

of

height

X
a

rhombus

area.

144

For

rhombus,

square,

the

rhomboid.

or

area.

is 16, the

height 9

of a triangle,
J (base X height)
area.
is 2|, and height74
base of a triangle
Ex.
The
i (2-25 X 7*5)
8-437, the area.
2.

fore,
; there-

area

fore,
there-

"

3. For

Ex.
other

of the two

(sum

In

x
sides)
parallel
height

of the

them

is 7 ;

(16-125 +

4. For

of a trapezoid.

area

trapezoidone
14|, and the height

"

is

the

J, the

perpendiculardistance

or

tween
be-

therefore,

14-25) X

the

1063125,

right-lined
figure of four

any

area.

parallelsides is 16

or

area.

unequal

more

sides.
it into

Divide

angles;
will

be

find the
the

area

triangles,by

of the whole
5.

Inscribe
of

one

Ex."
and

side
In

For

circle ;
number
x
a

of each

area

The

the

then, the

from

various

of these

sum

areas

figure.

regularpolygon.
of insc.
then, " (radius
of sides)
area.
a

circle x

length

polygon

radius of inscribed

1230,

drawn

lines

of 8 sides, the

length of

circle 19*2 ; then

"

(3 X

side is 16,
16

8)

area.

following table

questions connected

will

with

greatlyfacilitate the solution

polygons.

o*

of

102

MENSURATION.

and

rules

by the
of the
Ex.

"

to

length

the bottom
lowing
by the fol-

only

are

for

truth

area.

the

; hence

64

all

64

one

area.

radius

of

radius

column

9-9144

circle will

of
the

12, then

12

circumscribing circle.

multiplied by
length of the side of

that

octagon, the radius

-765

be

octagon

an

circle

which

of

of

B, will give the

polygon
X

the sides

of

one

12*96

The

an

82

of

Area

the

the
from
perpendicular, drawn
of the sides of a polygon, and multiply this
to
one
in column
numbers
A, the product will be the radius
the polygon.
circle that contains
If the length of a perpendicular drawn
the
from

centre

1*08

the

sides

of

uses

at

note

of

equal sides, the length of

10

492-4293632

the

centre

column

No.

"

Take

the

near
sufficiently

come
approximate,
practicalpurposes.
Side of polygon fl X
In a figure of
Ex.
have
side being 8, we
=

the

uses

but

7-6942088

number

of the rest will appear

The
found
answers
examples.

page,* and the

of the

name

explained in

will be

fourth

and

third

the

second,

; the

'polygon

the

of

gives the

of this table

first column

The

circle

length of

the
the

contain.
to

in

corresponding
Suppose, for

12*96, then

be

one

number

12*96

side of the inscribed

of 8 sides.

polygon

length of the side of a polygon multipliedby the

in the column
C, will give the radius
corresponding number
Thus
of circumscribing circle.
the length of one
side of a
then
10 X 1*625
radius
16*25
decagon being 10;
of circumscribing circle*
The

6. For

1st, diameter

The

third and

fourth

facilitate the construction

if it be

requiredto

columns

sector

same

which

line

as

of

radius
the

describe

describe

being repeated round

with

each

other.

circumference?

of the

table of polygons will greatly

figuresby the aid of the sector.
Thus,
polygon of eightsides, then look in column

and
a

you

the
The
two

find 45.

circle,then

sector, mark

of the sides of the octagon.

angle in degrees,which any
make

of these

Angle F, oppositeOctagon,
the

the circle.

3-1416

With

taking

the chord
the

of 60

on

the
on
length
circumference,,
will give the points of
circle,
junction
fourth column
of the table gives the
adjoiningsides of the respectivefigures,
this

distance

off

on

the

45

103

MENSURATION.

circumference
,.

d,amCter;

2d"
^

31416

3d, I circumference
Ex.

In

"

1st, 14

inches,

we

have,

the circumference;

43-9824,

a*

area.

is 14

diameter

circle whose

3*1416

radius

43-9824
...

,.

2"J, -^-ttt^-

3d, diameter

-s- 2

14, the diameter

ftJ

31416
14

radius

="

(43-9824)X

7. For

Radius
"

-079577

8. For

22

the

The

then,

12

9.
TABLE

This

10-504164

For
OF

may

table ; to

radius

use

the diameter

degrees
of

length of arc.
degrees 22, then,
the length.

sector.

length of arc.
being 12, and length of
X

the
THE

area
AREAS

Then,

circle.

of a

circular

of a

radius.

="

area.

21*008328,

*=

area

Radius
Ex."

arc

12, and number

If the radius be

12

of

number

the

153-9384,

"

length of the

the

-079577

Ex.

,' so

126*049968,

of a

circular

OF

CIRCULAR

the

arc

21-008328

area.

segment.
SEGMENTS.

help of the preceding

which, divide the height of the segment by
of the circle, and look for the quotient in the
be

done

easilyby

the

104

MENSURATION.

column

H, opposite

column

which

Area,

will

which

to

found

be

the

multipliedby

number

the

of

square

in
meter
dia-

Should
the height
segment.
of the segment
be
greater than the diameter, find by the
foregoing rule the area of the remaining segment, and by
of the whole
circle, the area
subtractingthis from the area

give the

will

of the

area

of the greater segment

found.

will be

18

Ex.

Let the

"

; hence

to -264178

482

Ex.

diameter

The

"

of

(10 X 3-1416) x V*

(Base
Ex.

The

"

base

20

Ex.

The

"

80, the

cycloid.
of

area

then

cycloid.

axis) X
=

area.

then,

area.

ellipse.

of an

area

-7854

-7854
and

being 300,

axis

the

the
|
height 6

and

short

200

of

area

of a parabola.

area

the

greater

300

235-619,

being 20,
6 X f
X

axis

area.

of a cycloid.

height) X

For

12.

(Long

the

For

11.

the

generating circle being 10,

3

='37;

"

corresponds

608*6661

"-

area

generatingcircle

of

Area

the

48, then

in col. Area,

-264178

For

10.

diameter

marked

in the column

which,

18 and

heightbe

area.

="

lesser
the

47124,

200

then,

area.

SOLIDS.

1.

For

1st.

2d.

area

the

59-7
=

is

; what

The

of
area

the

25-65

=*

of the
area

1st.

cylinder.
=

and

of

two

is 2-85

content
;

therefore

ends, and

the whole

then

5*7

2-85

(6x9)

cylinder. Also,

2*85

content.

For

cone

or

pyramid.

height x perimeterof base)+

(slant

surface.

or

end

each

of a prism

the,surface

2.

ses

circumference

inches

of base

content

surface.
length x perimeter
content.
height
its length 9
of a cylinder is 6, and

ends

of two

Area
Area

The

5-7

surfaceand

the

area

of base

106

MENSURATION.

Ex.

3* 141 6

For

6.

226-1952

0*5236

4*1888

0-5236

ax

of

diameter

If the

"

Ex.

'5236

28

heightof segment1)x

3 +

8x

be 2, and

spheric segment

radius

6, then

of base

(69 X

29) X

Revolving
Note.

-5236

the

The

9x

18

-5236

18

*X

24

*5236

8.

For

the

the

For

(perim*of

end

one

and

fore,
there-

18;

if it be oblate.
if it be

content

half

the

and

oblong.

frustum of a
+

content.

the diameter
is 452*39

of base

24,

; hence

the content.

4071-51

height

therefore

the base

of

24

solidityof a parabolicconoid.

the

452-39
9.

4071*5

the greater axis,

content

height being 18,

area

round

spheroidare

content.

the lesser, oblong.

5428-56

of base

The

Ex."

of

axes

24

Area

-5236

spheroid revolve

two

content.

"

solidityof a spheroid.

it is said to be oblate ; if round

Ex."

117-2864

fixed axis

axis *X

If the

"

For

7.

then

inches, then

be 2

of segment.

content

height of

Ifahe

"

sphericsegment.

the content.

of

content.

sphere

(radiusof segment'sbase
height

surface

of a sphere and sphericsegment.

the content
Diameter

Ex.

the

6, then,

height of segment
6 xl2

sphere being 12, and

the

of

diameter

The

"

perim.of

cone

pyramid.

or

the other

end) x

slant

height

2
=

surface.
In

Ex."
of

the

heightis

10

triangularpyramid

is 25, that of the other

end

one

of

frustum

305

end +

ar.

of

other)+

the surface

area

of

one

end +

height
Ex.

"

ar"

of other
_

meter
peri-

the slant

10

one

the

therefore,

(25 + 36)
v/(area of

36, and

content.

log of

wood

is 20

feet long

; its ends

are

squares,

107

MENSURATION.

the sides

of which

"(i"+iyiy+wx

240

TIMBER

of timber

Examples

and

12
respectively

are

inches

inches

33600

16

fore,
there-

content.

MEASURE.

measuring

have

alreadybeen

given in

allotted to arithmetic, but it is necessary

to
somewhat
more
particular.The surface of a plank

department

the
be

here

is found

:"

When
By multiplying the length by the breadth.
the board
tapers gradually,add the breadth "at both ends
for the mean
together, and take the half of this sum
1st.

breadth.
2d.
B

12

to

the

sliding rule. Set the length in

A, and against the length in feet on

the

By
on

"

inches

broad

decimals

feet and

in square
A board

area

Ex.

"

feet

is 12

on

inches

inches

on

be

will

A.

long

and

1 foot

hence,

12
1
12

6
15

1st. For
breadth

2d.

mean

By

the

to

12

solid

content

reduce
Ex.

being

to
"

each

Find

"

againstthe

C.

the

thickness, then

and

mean

content.

slidingrule.-

on

squared timber, length

thickness

D, and

on

of

content

the breadth

between
C

the

If the

mean

mean

mean

proportional
length on

set the

on
proportional

proportionalbe

the

in feet,

inches.

log
13

is 24

feet

long, the

inches.
1

mean

depth and

breadth

108

MENSURATION.

For

timber.

round
and

girth

one-fourth

Take

1st.

"

of

the

mean

it,this multipliedby the length will give

square

the content.
2d.
12

to

the

By

slidingrule.

will be

the content

This

gives no

deduction

made

The

the

in

feet

length
quarter girthin

inches

for bark, but there

is

againstthe

D, then

on

Set

"

on
on

D,

C.

on

allowance
of about

an

usually a
quarter girth.

to the foot of

inch

gives the customary, but not the true

given
content.
content
; the followinggives the true
One-fifth of the girthsquared and multipliedby twice the
content.
length
The
Ex.
mean
girthof a tree being 5 feet 8 inches, and
rules will apply as below
its length 18 feet, the two
:
rule

above

"

"

4)

(1
1

5) 5

(1

; 3

1:1:7
1

36
46

Trees
end

being

taken
both

seldom

very

generallymuch

ends

It is

girth.

difference
content

method
has

an

equal girth throughout, one

smaller

of
of

the

the

to

observed,

be

the other

tree

as

if it

were

of

using the slidingrule

been given before.

Artificers

the

compute

different

be best

conic

girth
girthsof

to

frustum.

in the measurement

for the

find

the
The

"

of timber

WORK.
contents

of

their

; as, glazing and

measures

the

that, if the

however,

girthsis great, it will

ARTIFICERS'

several

than

is the .mean
girth; that is to say, the
halved
added
together,and their sum

above

mean

have

works

masonry

by

by
the

foot; painting,plastering,paving, "c, by the yard of 9

feet; flooring,partitioning,
square
roofing,tiling,"c, by
the square
of 100 square
feet; and brickwork, either by
9 square
rod or
a yard of
feet, or by the perch, or square
feet, or 30* square
pole, containing 272? square
yards,
being the square of the rod or pole of 16i feet of 5J yards

long.

As

this number

the i is often
divided

omitted

only by

the

272$
in
2T2.

is troublesome

practice,and the
But

when

to

divide

content

the

exact

by,

ity feet
divisor

artificers'

272J is
4, and

to be

then

109

work.

used, it will be easier

divide

to

multiply the

9, 11, and

11.

successivelyby
yards by 30? first multiply them
square
divide twice by 11.

divide

Bricklayers'
of

rate

brick

it,as

follows

the

by
the

and

half thick.

of

number

half

product by 3. The
taken by measuring

round

of

if

sum

of

divide

buildingare

ally
usu-

the outside, and

on

these

two

the

multipliedby

"

they

hearth
And

half round

of the wall

thickness, and
of

to

half

pass
gives the comheight,for the

of the materials.

content
as

in the

dimensions

the inside ; the

the wall,
to be

on

reduced

be

it must

thickness,
bricks

the

at

that, if a wall be more'

So

content
Multiply the superficial

"

to

4, and

is estimated

Brickwork

"

this standard

less than

or

Work.

by

Also

by

then

feet

measured
Chimneys are by some
solid,deductingonly the vacuity from the

were

the

to

mantel,

of

account

on

the

of

trouble

them.

round
for their
they are girtor measured
of
the
height
story is their height,taking
the depth of the jambs for the if thickness.
And
in this
made
for
the
is
the
from
deduction
floor
case, no
vacuity
of the gatheringof the breast
to the mantel-tree, because
others

by

breadth, and

and

wings,

To

measure

the

make

to

the

for the hearth

room

chimney shafts, which

in the next

story.

above

appear
for the

the

breadth, to
building,gird them about with a line
their thickness
multiply by their height. And account
half a brick more
than it reallyis, in consideration
of the
plasteringand scaffolding. All windows, doors, "c, are
be

to

deducted

of

out

the

of

contents

the walls

in which

is made
they are placed. But this deduction
only with
is taken
for
regard to materials ; for the whole
measure
too, namely,
workmanship, and that all outside measure
measuring quite round the outside of the building,being
in consideration
of the trouble of the returns
or
angles.
There

other

some

for feathered

measure

Ex.
and

also

are

55

bricks

"

end

The

wall

feet 8 inches

thick, other

gable ends,
of

feet 8 inches

is

courses

What

of

content

is 28
eaves

feet 10

double

as

inches

; 20

above

which

courses

253*626

2"
the

which

rises

make

measure

Ans.

is

thick, and

thick

thick, and

long,

high

feet

is 2 bricks

every 4
in standard

10

such

"c.

is l" brick

brick

bricks, of which

is the whole

house

high, to the
20 feet high

remaining
a
triangulargable, 1
15

allowances,

42

foot.

yards,

110

MENSURATION.

Masons*

Work."

; and

the

masonry
made
use

measure

solid.

or

To

Cubic

and

solid

or

of is

foot,either superficial

cubic

of stone

foot;

is used

measure

of stonework

marble,

or

and

pavements,

superficialor

the

by

for the

measure

square

all sorts

Walls, columns, blocks

measured
"c,
are
by the
slabs, chimney-pieces, "c,

Toot.

belong

For

the

materials,

In

workmanship.

square

the

solid

length,breadth and thickness, are taken,

and
multiplied continuallytogether. In the superficial,
be taken
there must
the length and breadth of every part
of the projection,
which
the generalupright
is seen
without
face of the building.
In a chimney-piece, suppose
Ex.
the
Length of the mantel and slab, each 4 feet 6 inches ;
Breadth
of both together,
3
2
4
4
Length of each jamb,
Breadth
of both together,
1
9
Ans.
the
21 feet, 10 inch.
content.
Required
superficial
the true

measure,

"

Carpenters'

Jokers'

and

Work.

this

To

"

branch

of a house, such
as
belongs all the wood-work
flooring,
and
"c.
articles
Large
are
partitioning,
plain
roofing,
foot
or
usually measured
yard, "c, but
by the square
other
often
enriched
articles, are
mouldings, and some
and some
estimated
things
by running or lineal measures,
rated by the piece.
are
In measuring of joists,
it is to be observed, that only one
of their dimensions
the other

is the

that of the floor ; for

the length of the room
by the thickness

exceeds

with

same

of

the wall

the wall

and

about

" of the

"

deductions

Nd

additional trouble
Partitions

end

each

is let into

its thickness.

of
are

made

and

waste

measured

are

because

same,

for hearths,
of

of the

account

on

materials.
wall

from

for

to wall

one

sion,
dimen-

and from

floor to floor,as far as they extend, for the other.

deduction
is made
of the
for door-ways, on
account

No

of

trouble

framing them.
measuring of joiners'work,

In
close

to

Hie
a

every

measure

string pass

and

over

stringis

made

to

ply

it passes.
centeringfor cellars is found by making

part of the work

for

the

the

over

which

surface of the

taking the length of

arch

the cellar for the

groin centering, it is usual to allow

of their extraordinarytrouble.
account

for the breadth,

length ;

double

measure,

but

in
on

artificers'
In

roofing,the length of
with

length

down

the

thickness

of

the rafter,and

line

ply close

along

the

this line
the

"

the front

surfaces, or
For

be

to

gether
to-

sidered
con-

and

by the length of

length

the

with

of all the steps, by making

the top to the bottom, and
of

at

returns

the breadth, is to be understood

by

gable,is

one

eaves-board, tillit meets

them, from

over

multiply the length of

the whole
area.
By

lengthof

inside,

the

length ; and the breadth is equal to double

from
the ridge
of a string which
is stretched

the top of the wall.

For staircases, take the breadth
a

in

house

the

as

the

of the

Ill

work.

the

step, for

step is meant
ends
the two

girthof

the
; and

its two

outer

the tread arid riser.

the

balustrade, take the whole length of the upper

its end
tillit meet
the
part of the hand-rail,and girtover
top of the newel

post, for the length ; and

of the baluster

the

upon
for the breadth.

the

landing,with

For

wainscoting, take the compass

length; and the height from the floor
the

stringply close

into all the

Out

of

and

chimneys, "c,

this

whole,
For

on

be made
but

of

account

the

doors, it is usual

it unto
then

must

girthof

of

the

to the

mouldings

deductions

for

to allow

length

the

the handrail,

room

for the

ceiling,
making

for the breadth."

windows,

workmanship is counted
extraordinarytrouble.

the dimensions

both

twice

doors,
for the

for their

ing
thickness, by addof length and breadth, and

If the door
multiply them togetherfor the area.
be paneled on
both
for the
sides, take double its measure
side only be paneled, take
workmanship ; but if the one
the area
For the surits half for the workmanship.
and
rounding architrave, gird it about the outermost
parts for
its length ; and measure
be seen
over
it,as far as it can
to

"

when

the door

is open,

Window-shutters,

for the breadth.

bases, "c,

are

measured

in the

same

manner.

In

measuring of roofing for workmanship alone,

holes
ducted.
for chimney-shafts and skylights are
generally deand
But in measuring for work
materials, they
and
in all skylights, luthern-lights,
measure
commonly
holes for the chimney-shafts,on
of their trouble
account
and

the

of

waste

Ex.

"

To

materials.

how

wainscoting of

much,
a

room

at

the
yard, amounts
height,taking in the cornice

6s. per square

; the

112

MENSURATION.

and

mouldings,being

feet 6 inches, and

12

the whole

pass 83 feet 8 inches ; also three window-shutters

7 feet 8 inches
by 3 feet 6 inches, and the door
feet 6 inches

; the

door

reckoned

sides, are

work

and

half work

of

content

the

ridgeby

for how

or

much

When
a

one

d636,

In

both

on

2id.
articles, the
12*.

these

of slates at the bottom,

double

row

of

slates

is of

true

row

the roof

right angle

tiles is laid

or

pitch,that

over

added,
the ridge to the eaves,
a roof, running from
angle bends inwards, it is called a valley; but

the

other.
an-

is, forming

top, then the breadth of the buildingwith

both sides.
In angles
is the girth over

at

its half
formed

in

it is called

outwards,

by multiplying the length of the

ance
from eaves
to eaves
; making allow-

girthover
girthfor the

in this

by

is found

roof

Work."

Tilers'

and

feet

Ans.
Slaters'

each

are

shutters, being worked

and

com*

Deductions

hip.

when
when

made

are

for

chimney-shafts or window-holes.
Ex."

To

how

much

Qd. per square

the breadth on

255.

and

16
projecting

tilingof
length being 43 feet

; the

side, and

each

on

d624,
Work.

eaves

of

true

bid.

9s.

is of two

Plasterers' work

"

10

the roof

pitch?
Plasterers'

house, at
inches,

feet 5 inches, also the

the flat 27

inches

the

amounts

kinds,

and rendering,
namely, ceiling" which is plasteringupon laths
which
measured
is plastering
are
upon walls ; which
separately.
The
either by the foot or yard, or
estimated
contents
are
of 100 feet. Enriched
mouldings,"c, are rated by
square
running or lineal measure.
dows,
for chimneys, doors, winDeductions
made
to be
are
"

"c.

But

the windows

plasteredreturns

the top and

at

for the window

Ex.

length being

height 9
on

door

allowed

are

feet 5 inches, breadth

14

feet 3 inches

part

upper

7 feet

by

the

as

to

pensate
com-

room,

the

opening.

girts8" inches,

the

sides

Required the quantity of plasteringin

"

which

deducted,

seldom

are

next

to

the

under

13

feet 2 inches, and

side

of

the

cornice,

projects5 inches from the

the ceiling" deductingonly

and

wall
for

4.

Ans.

53

yards 5

18

39

of

rendering,

of

ceiling,

0|"

of cornice.

feet 3 inches

114

lb.

MENSURATION.

to

the

foot.

square

13

to

14

What

Ex.

lb.

And
the

to

lead,
and

breadth

long,
to

the

19s.

at

the

and

square

or

feet

foot

cwt.

girth
wide,
?

yard

in

covering

the

cost

"

the
over

the

length
it

of

pipe

32

former

an

inch

bore

is

monly
com-

length.
and
of

guttering

feet"
9

roof

the
the

lb.,
Ans.

roof

being

the

dB113,

latter
3s.

feet,

43

guttering
and

with

feet

60
8

Sid.

lb.

MECHANICS.

DEFINITIONS.

2.

Whatever

body

to

If

body belongs

to

if two

more

or

rest,

of

The
in

denser

of

the

the
a

the

that
way
remains
at
stances
circum-

the

department

that

quantity

with

its bulk.

of

matter

tained
con-

lead

Thus

is

quantity

of matter,

out
with-

given time,

body

the

velocity

body
is

body
body

it is said

said

have

to

be

in

onward,

the
a

in

to

in
the

of time.

velocity continues

uniform

the

one

foot

increased
second

one

motion

but

velocity continually

accelerated

an

the

moving
velocity

foot

would

have

of

of space
velocity of one

is in motion,

moves

to

feet

two

over

speak
one

have

to

which

space,

we

over

moves

its

passed

given

some

motion

and,

on

of the body in motion,

hand, if during the progress
velocity continually decreases, the body is said to have

other

retarded
8.

by

and

the

increases,

of

time, it is said

If, while

if, while
the

If

if it

same,

in

over

second

7.

of
to

this

body

is the

is its

body,

speak

we

body.

double,

of

its bulk.

to

passes

second

the

or

Dynamics

in such

body

belongs

case,

one

Statics.

weight of

of the

the

cork.

than

When

body

called

consideration

the

of

circumstances

effects, and

in this

called

regard
6.

on

density of matter,
body compared
any

The

5.

act

other's

body,

of Mechanics
4.

forces

equilibrium,

in

or

the

of Mechanics

that branch

each

they destroy

comprehends

which

by the action

of

forces, the consideration

force.

nics.
bodies, is called Mecha-

on

put in motion

be

body

together.
municate
tendency to com-

a
a

of the effects of forces

statement

but

has

or

body, is called
departmentof knowledge

That

more

collected

of matter

communicates,

motion
3.

quantity

is any

1.

The

the

motion.

quantity

of matter

velocitywith

of motion,

or

momentum

which

in

moving

it moves,
of the

body, multiplied

is called

the

quantity

body.
115

116

MECHANICS.

Gravity

9.

is that force

towards

descend

OR

tion, it will

continue

TRUTIJS.

PLAIN

line, if it be

that

; and

at rest

by

the action

of

if in

in

motion, uniformly

disturbed

not

to

earth.

be at rest, it will remain

body

endeavour

all bodies

which

of the

the centre

AXIOM8,
If

by

mo-

straight

external

some

cause.

change of motion takes place in the direction

the moving force acts, and is proportionalto it.

The
which
The

action

and

of bodies

reaction

another,

one

upon

in

are

equal.
LAWS

Uniform

by

motion

OF

is caused

MOTION.

the action

by

of

force,

some

body :" and

signifythe quantityof matter to be moved,
f the force which caused the body's motion,
the velocitywith which
the body moves,
v
of the body in motion,
the momentum
m
8 the space
passed over by the moving body,
t the time of describingthat space ;
the

impulse, on

one

if

and

if b

the

3,

figuresin

6,

="

the

examples

2, f

6,

the

will show

4,

then

applicationof

theorems.
THEOREMS.

EXAMPLES.

_fxt

mxt

6x2

6x9

ft
#

8.8

fimibxv:
J

"

b
~

"

it

6:6:3x2:

"

txf
:

"

"jr-

'

2x6

2X6

4:2x2:

V'

'

'

s*xb

8
M
t

3X4

8
"

txm
8

/:
J

X4

6:6:3x2:

"

*
"

Xb

"

4X3

"
...

4x3

*
^"

-2

the

117

MOTION.

ACCELERATED

OF

If the

force

moving

continues

then

is in motion,

MOTION.

to

that motion

that the

all the while

act

will

be

celerated
uniformly acwith bodies fallingto the earth,
such is the case
:
*as the force of gravity acts constantly. Now,
it has been
found by experiment, that a body falling
through free space,
in the latitude of London,
will, by the force of gravity,fall
through 16*095 feet in the first second of time ; and as forces
measured
are
by the effects they produce, this 16*095
may
of the force of gravity; and as this
be taken as the measure
shall
quantity does not differ materiallyfrom 16 feet, we
stances
neglect the fraction *095 in our calculation of the circumbodies.
of falling
The
subjectsof consideration here are, the time that the
fallingbody is in motion, the space it falls through in that
it has
time, and the velocitywhich
acquired in falling
it would
through that space, or that velocitywith which
continue
its action, and
to move,
supposing gravityto cease
the motion
of the body becoming uniform.
The
time is always supposed to be taken in seconds, and

body

the space
in feet.
The
velocityacquired

32

=^/(64

or

the
mi.

of/.,".falling

."

The

time

of

time
x

velocity acquired

-^
"

l/the st
|/the
space

~\^

/.

The

,,

fallen

space

through
or

If

Ex."

body

^/(64

falls

100)

acquired

time,

as

through

2""

If the space

4K"*)

2*5

described
2

"t

the time

be

the time

=ss

If the space

64

a=

descended

fl

feet, then

velocityacquired,

64

of

falling.

feet, then
of

falling,

lo

32

16.

100

the

fl

80
"

through\

80

fallen

~~16

the velocity
__.,

through).

fallen

space

or

falling,

the

velocityacquired.

be

400, then

118

MECHANICS.
,

"v/(400x 64)

"

'

be

of

velocities will be

And

the spaces as
space for each

as

COLLISION

bodies, A

If two
and

lbs.,and

will 3

then

A, and

BODIES.

OF

B, in motion, weigh respectively5

their velocities ively

respectbefore
2
they strike,

and

and

4, 5, "c.
4, 5, "c.
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, "c.
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, "c.

1,2,3,
1, 2, 3,

as

time

velocityacquired,

falling.

as

The
The

the

the time

sb

If the times

160

=s

5 be

the momentum

3 that of

of

B, before

the stroke ; also, 5 + 3 =

of their weights ; then, 1st. If the bodies move
8 is the sum
the quotient arisingfrom the division of the
the same
way,
of the momentum
the two
of
s of
bodies, by the sum
sum
2

weights, will give

their

after the

bodies

the

then

ways,

of

difference

of

one

velocityof

common

stroke.

2d.

quotient

arising from

their

weights, will give

3d. If

the

If the

common

the bodies

be

the division

rest, then

at

two

contrary

move

by the sum
velocityafter

momentums,
the

bodies

the

of

of
the

the
their

stroke.

quotient of the

the

of the
body, divided by the sum
will
the
common
velocity
give
weights of the two bodies,
numbers
the
the
stroke.
after
Hence, assuming
given above,
of

momentum

the other

have, in the

we

ZL"

lj

"

first case,

; and

in the third

"

25;

"

J,

in the second

as

the

common

velocityafter

the stroke.

the bodies

"When

elastic,the
perfectly

are

weight of the one body

weight of the other body B,

1st.

theorems

come
be-

complicated.

more

If the
the

ft

"

If the bodies

move

in the

be A, and
and
same

its

velocityV
velocityv : then,
the

direction

before

the

stroke,
__

i
"

."

jrrri

(2AxV)
*

+
\

(A" Bxv)
V"

"

the

velocityof

.,.-"-"
the
velocity of B

after the stroke,

i
after the stroke.

If B

2d.

direction

in the contrary

move

119

FORCES.

OF

FARAI%ELOGRAM

before

to

the

stroke,
^

""*

~~

of A after the stroke.

velocity
J

'
=

"

(A-B)xH2+AxV

locit

A
3d.

If the

"

been

before

rest

at

after the stroke

it

was

struck

the

after the stroke.

the velocity of B

after the stroke.

velocityof

2
"

Ex.

If the

"

its

of

weight

velocity 4, and

and

had

body

of B

then

by A,

its

the

weight

; then

velocity2

body A be 6 lbs., and

another
body B be 4 lbs.,

elastic

an

of

have

we

these

results

in the first

case,

(2x4x2) + (6-4x4)=
(2x6x4)
The

and

of

sum

this is
with

the velocities

general law.

the rules

The

"

for the other

It is to be observed, that when

bodies

which

have

in the direction

of

by

A^ to
and

cause

B
the

to

be

move

it to

acted
of

upon
which
from

move

in

given time,
any
other
would
cause
from

6, which

may

non-elastic

bodies, that is,

reader

the

cases.

to

ways.

RESOLUTION

AND

forces, one

two

would

it

body

before

stroke ;
exercise
self
him-

contrary

move

COMPOSITION

If

*8

spring,strike, they will both move

of that body which
has the
the motion
if they are
elastic,they will recoil
; but

after the stroke, and

THE

2 and

5*2 and

no

momentum

greater

velocities,viz.

of these two

"

sum

the

was

(6-4x2)=g^

of A after the stroke.

velocit

in

OF

FORCES.

ISO

MECHANICS.

the

time

same

instant, it will

one

of which

forces

neither

in

move

line AD,

in the

but

if these

then

which

is the

two

lines AB

the

at

This

that if

seen,

have

we

the

forces, the
that it would

urging a body
resultingmotion, both
It will

have

which

act

body,

upon

straight line, and

in

will be in that

motion

instant,

same

we

direction

the

by

carry

it

at

an

angle,but

contrary
straightline, and

in the

over

resulting

in

direction

the

and

"

if

wish

we

great
Also, if
AB, but
to

keep

that

as

diagonalsof

at rest.

DA,

the

make

has

then

acted

body

with

the third

by

to

force'

from

moving,
forming the

force AC,
is

side and

one

the

time,

same

parallelogramrepresent any two of

diagonalof this parallelogram,
together

of

the

them

carry
would

tendency

of the

sides

in

A, these

to

is counteracted
the

another

must

will

the body
parallelogram,

body

DA,

of

force

which

from

apply
other
parallelogramof which AB
AD
the diagonal.
If there be three forces actingon a body at
altogether,w.e
side

body

would

as

same

in the direction

third force in the direction

will remain

move

forces

two

carry it to A, it be
would
force in the direction AC
which

space
the sides and

being

find

can

directions, the

which

AB,

another

C, and

it to

of any

quantity and direction.

not

act

it will

direction

quantity and

the greater force ; but if the forces be equal, the

remain
at rest.
If, while a body A is urged by

on

been

statement

difficult to understand, that if the

be

not

in

this

From

at the

forces

the

parallelogram
containing
body will be

are

or

parallelogram offorces.

two

AC

and

the

C, by the action of either of the forces singly.

science, is usuallycalled
important fact in mechanical

found

be

of

the body at
upon
the lines AB, AC,

diagonal of

sides ; and by the action of the two

found at D, at the end of the time

the

act

force

as

the two

sides of

another

gram,
parallelo-

give a diagonalwhich will be the result of the

the body.
three forces acting at once
on
which
forces
the body, both
If the two
produce a
urge
will
in
be
uniform
motion, the resultingmotion
a straight
would
which
of them
line ; but if one
act by impulse,
duce
promotion, and the other act constantlyso as
a uniform
will
accelerated motion, the resultingmotion
to produce an
will

be
a

in

curve.

horizontal

line
straight

Thus, if the ball of a

never
direction, it would
unless

acted

on

by

some

cannon

deviate
external

sent

were

from

force.

yi
this

The

122

MECHANICS.

the relative

According to
and

fulcrum,

the fulcrum

viz. when

it is of
power,
and
the power
when
is of

the

6.

2d.

7.

3d.
In the first and
but

power,

weight,

to be

of three

betwixt
the

when

the

the

weight

second

and

weight

kinds

there

is

power,

kinds,
and

weight

fulcrum, it is of the second

the power
is between
the third kind : thus,
Ut.

is between
kind

and

the fulcrum, it

advantageof

an

proportionateloss of velocity; and in the third

is an advantage in velocity,
but a loss of power.
the weight X its distance from the fulcrum

a.

kind, there
9.

is somewhere

the first kind

5.

8.

lever, it is said

the

on

the

positionsof

When

the power
the fulcrum, then
its distance from
the lever
X
will be at rest, or in equilibrio; but if one
of these products
be greater than the other, the lever will turn
round
the fulcrum

the direction

in

the greater.
10. In all the three

kinds

of that

side whose

product

is

of

levers, any of these quantities,

the weight or its distance from the fulcrum, or, the
its distance from the fulcrum, may
be found from
or
power
the rest, such, that when
applied to the lever, it will remain
at

rest,

the

or

weight

weight

and

dist. of power
X

dist. of

weight

from

balance

each

other.

fulc.

fulc.

its dist. from

weight from

will

fulc.

its dist. from

power

power

fulc.

dist.weight from fulc.

..

,"

adist.

13.

from nil.

power

power

powerxdist.power

t.
14.

from

fulc.
,.

"~

from

fulc.

In the first kind

15.
=

16.

"

weight.

third

=sdist. weight

the

the fulof lever, the pressure

crum
upon
of weight and power
and
; in the second

sum

their difference.
If there

be

several

weights

on

both

sides

of the fulcrum,

side of
the one
on
they may be reckoned
powers
fulcrum, and weights on the other.
Then, if the sum
the product of all the weights X their distances
from

the
of
the

be

fulcrum
X

to the

their distances

if not, it will
side whose

from

other

weight

or

to

levers

more

the entire

not

just reckoned like any

of gravity.
centre
act

each

upon

mechanical

advantage

other
which

by taking the product of their separate

observed, in general,before

practice,that

to

if the

from

the fulcrum

from

the lines of direction

In

"

distance

from

fore,

No.

by

16

be

must

lever "of

applying these

tances
be bent, the dis-

lever

perpendiculars
of^theweight and power
taken,

lever

12

from

the first kind, the

the fulcrum
of this

13

as

12, and

the

weight

is 16, its

is 8 ; there*

power

chapter,

12

24, the distance of power

of

of that

the fulcrum.
Ex.

In

the

acting at

three, or

found

19. .It is to be

drawn

in the direction

greatest.

power

in succession, then

observations

fulcrum,

but if it is, it is

two,

they give, is
advantages.

all the powers

the lever will be at rest,

calculations,the weight of the lever is

into account

When

productsof

the

the fulcrum

products are

taken

18.

the

round

turn

these

In

17.

of

sum

123

LEVER.

^THE

kind,

of the second
what

weight
?

the fulcrum

the fulcrum.

of 3 acts at a distance
power
balanced
of 4
at a distance

be

can

from

Here, by No.

12,

3X12
.

In

the third

lever of

9, weight.

"

kind, the weight is 60, and

acts
at
12, and the power
fulcrum; therefore, by No. 11,

60

distance

its distance

of 9 from

the

12

80, the power

required.

If there be

7, 8, and

9,

lever of the first kind,

respectivedistances

the

at

having th/ee weights,

side, and

of

6, 15, and

29,

of 17 at the distance
power
of 9 on the other side of the fulcrum
is
; then a power
the fulcrum, on the
to be appliedat the distance of 12 from

from

the fulcrum

last mentioned

side

lever in balance
Here

(6x7)

effect of

the

; and

other side.

17

one

on

what

that power

must

be to

keep

the

(15

+
three
X

Now,

8)

weights

on

(29
the

X
one

9)

side

423

of

the

the
crum
ful-

the effect of the power

the
on
it is clear that the effect of the weight is

as

153

124

MECHANICS.

"

the effect of the power

; and the difference
153
270
=
requires to be balanced
by a power
plied
apwill evidentlybe found
of 12, which
at the distance

far greater than

423

"

by 12, which

by dividing270
The

20.

Roman

contrived
The

The

steel-yardis

only one
weighing

requisitesof

of the beam,
be

they

the beam
the

be

we

then

be

the
:

other, and

the square

of

root

THE

wheel

The

21.

to have

as

the

length

on

which

of

the

the

handspike

motion

other

weight

that

gravityof

of

that

"

"c.

empty,

are

AXLE.

of lever,

about

its fulcrum,

at

so

contrived
centre

or

the circumference

reckoned

of the lever,

arm

one

of the

being the radius of the axle,

arm

end
acts
at the
power
creases
of the wheel, then this in-

If

the

rim

in the

leverage of the power,

the

arms

respect"

kind

acts

acts.

fixed

that the

"

crum
ful-

or

of motion

scales

AND

the power
radius may
be

of

the

points

by
weight of any body even
scale,
weigh the body first in one
multiply their weights together;
this product will be the true weight.

of motion, where

wheel, whose

that the

of motion,

the centre

so

true

axle is

continued

in every
that the centre

WHEEL

and

are

other

"

ascertain

the

each

kind,

employed.

centre

quired.
re-

lever of the first

straightline

one

possible

as

balance, thus

in

then

to

the

very littlebelow
balanced
when

may

false

all in

be

equal

long

beam

But
a

be

as

good

is

is also

balance

of the scales and

suspension

of the beam

weight

balance

weight

of the first

lever

movable

common

kind.
of

that

the

gives 22*5,

by

the

length of

the

handspike.
wheel

The

having

axle consists

The

takes

power
of the

wheel

of the axle.

the wheel

and

axle,

place when

the

power

the radius

of

the wheel,

weight multiplied by
axle ; or, P : W
For the wheel
so

passing through its

is applied to the circumference
wheel, and the weight

the circumference
In

of

cyiindricaxis

centre.

to

and

contrived

as

: :

and
tor

multipliedby rO
is

the

CA

equal
radius

to

the

of the

CB.

axle

have

equilibrium

an

being nothing else

continued

motion

but

about

lever

its ful-

THE.

WHEEL

of which
C, the arms
may
therefore, by the property

cram

BC,

125

AXLE.

AND

representedby AC

be

of the lever, P

and
CA

: :

:CB.
does

If the

power
obliquely,draw

right angles to CB,

perpendicularto the direction of
not

CD

act

then, by the property of the lever, P

power,

but

at

the

CA

: :

CD,
It will

22.

be

that

easilyseen,

if two

wheels

fastened

so
centre,
togetherand turning round the same
adjusted,
that while
round
cumferences
they turn
they will coil on their cirwhich
strings,to
weights are suspended ;
of
those
wheels
than
the other, the larger
one
being larger
wheel
will coil up a greater length of the string than the
will do in the same
smaller one
time, and this will depend

be

either

radii

the

on

of the

circumferences

or

wheels.

two

The

velocity of the weight will be in proportion to the

locity
length of string coiled in a given time ; therefore, the veis larger.
of the weight will be greater as the wheel
that a small weight required a
Now, as in the lever we
saw
city,
a
largeweight with a small velogreat velocityto balance
we

apply
on

wheel

to the

lever

Ex.

infer, that the rules

may

"

jrivenfor

axle ; since the velocityof any body

its distance from the fulcrum.
upon
of 13 lbs. is to be raised at a velocity

and

depends
weight

of 14

feet per second, by a power

whose
that power
per second ; how
great must

"

If the
14

velocityof

20, and

to

coiled be
20
"

the

the

weight, be

feet

20

be ?

required,

to

radius of the axle

is
velocity

that of the power,

which

on

as

weight is

the

then,

7 ;
7

X
"

9*1, the power

ss

"

"

will also

levers

=10,

"

radius

of wheel

which

on

the power

acts.

14

If

weight

diameter

what

must

handspike4 inches
with
Here
power
wheel

hence,

handspike

being

will

increase

the fulcrum, and

will add

twice
14

be the power
long, fixed in the rim

the axle, the wheel

the
from

by an axle
applied at the

of 36 lbs, is to be raised

its
3

: :

36

the

7*77, the power

weight in equilibrio.
U*

of

of

distance

-f 6

required

to

"*

nected
con-

diameter

the diameter

length $ therefore,

own

end

of the wheel

6 inches

to

inches

the

of the
14

keep

;-"

the

126

MECHANICS.

Wheels

23.

easily calculated

be

that

the

as

in* the

same

for

that the

once

of the wheels

the velocities

In like manner,
the smaller
not

of teeth.
drives

wheel

revolutions
Ex.

will be

driven

in another

in

revolutions

it

ber
num-

larger
their

band,

their circumferences.
in

; how

minute

by

that

so

their

inversely as

wheel

one

20, and

are

round

teeth but

by

of teeth

by

be

teeth as
many
turned round
three

it is clear, that if the

inverselyas

number

The

"

wheel

as

is turned

will be

if

teeth, it is evident,

times

largerone

bands, may

or

Thus,

way.
of 10

will

wheel

smaller

teeth

by

three

has

largerwheel

smaller, the

times

12

other

has 30 teeth, drives another

which

the

each

actingon

the

160, and

are

largerwheel
does

many

makes

the smaller

one

make?
20

160

smaller

12

: :

wheel
The

24.

makes

wheel,

Let

the

pinion

12

first wheel

now

time

as

drives

the

the

=s

the
and

the

wheel

act

make,

consequently, the
a

12

: :

makes

106TRT

as

12

35*55

in

act

teeth

the

80

16

of

turns

: :

second
in

106T8^

pinion,

minute,
in

wheel

there

When

are

number

of

c
"

wheels
the

A, B, C, D,

E,

acting on

respectivepinions a, 6,

as

then

be

found

c,

d,

e9

the effect of the whole

thus

may
if the letters which

represent the wheels

understood

to

and

signifythe

pinions be
number

If

of teeth of each,

then

minute
will

wheel

the second

5"

that

wheel.

minute.
26.

so,

the

of

pinion
16

these

the second

of

=*

turns

the

12

the teeth

of

they

revolutions

16

Place

before, 16
:

36

wheel.

that

so

and

same,

therefore,

revolutions
:

the

do

the

Place

being in the same

the pinion drives

one

other, and

in the

axis,

two

teeth,

80

teeth.

36

of

action

contains

same

of the

the second

pinion will make

:

the

the

first wheel

again

wheel

on

pinion will

of the

the firstwheel

36

of

the

be

If the first wheel

second

these

the

pinion, driven

the

first wheel

revolution

velocityof

teeth

would

second

pinion

wheel.

the

what

teeth, and

revolution

minute,

is called

one

driver,

the wheel,

usually called

pinion. I^the

and

the second
in

is

see

together,one

move

the

minute.

the smaller

us

and

wheels

in

which

of turns

number

follower.

or

25.

the

largerwheel

leader, and

or

96

A.A,

be

in

THE

AND

WHEEL

127

AXLE.

xAxBxCxDxE

power

..

"

weight.

ss

axbxcxdxe
If the

velocity of the first wheel

be

power

applied,then

city
velogive,the resulting

of

instead
Ex.

the

If the

"

the,teeth of the wheels are

the pinions 6, 6, 6, 6 ; then
of

of

those

applied be

rule will

act

rule will

by ropes
and pinions

It often

happens,

shafts

two

certain

the

and

wheels

where

case

for the number

used

the

by

of

numbers

of

other

that of the

in

teeth

machinery,

means

shaft's

one

of teeth.

of

the construction

connected

wheels

the

circumferences

straps, if the

that

way,

the

to

are

proportion to

determine

must

14

the last will be 105

speed of

or

in

be

must

wheels, in such
bear

apply

other

each

of the wheels
that

first make

time.

same

27.

rule, if the

the
the

in the minute,

same

on

under

remark

the

revolutions

The

if the

lbs., the weight.

6

105

in the

9, 6,

10X12

6x6x6x6x6

by

the

have

lbs., we

14

14X9X6X9X

And,

of

weight.

numbers

9, 10, 12, and

power

this

instead

used

toothed

velocityshall
shaft

each

of

and

we

the

necting
con-

pinions.

of teeth in the pinions at

respectivenumbers
pleasure,and multiply all these together,and their product
shaft is to make
of turns
that the one
again by the number
for one
this product,
of the other shaft.
turn
Take, now,
Take

and

the

or

excepting

the number

separate them

numbers,

its divisors

divide

observing, that

1.

Arrange

(as they

there

Thus,
once,

if

shaft

one

and

leaves

there

all these
each

be

is to

divided

turn

one

line, and.

one

please ;
there

times

shaft, each

are

in each

respectivewheels.
for another

pinion

720

but

of

shaft's

which

is

having'6 teeth

; all the

divisors

or

3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 5, 2, 2, 3

into 4 bands

teeth in the wheels.

720

mainder,
re-

always

"

you
bands

as

containing as many

interposed4 pinions,one

of the

are

in

as
many
the
numbers
of
product

then, 6x6x6x"X

factors of which
these

remainder

required ; then the

will give the number
of teeth in the

fixed to the end

or

it without

called)as

are

be

must

wheels
band

without

parcels or bands,

into

factors

or

will divide

which

find all the numbers

at

Thus,

pleasure,give the

number

of

'

128

MECHANICS.

{2x3x5
2x2x2x3=24,

0p
wr'

2x2x3x3

36,

2x2x3x3

36,

=45,

3x2x2*2x2

3x3x2

=18,

[.3x2x2x2

48,

=24.

trated.
be thus illusapplicationof what we laid down
may
of an
of teeth in the wheels
In findingthe number
from Marat's Mechanical
extract
we
Philosophy.
is considerable
in
ber
difficulty proportioning the num-

The

orrery,
44
There
of

indeterminate

is

that will
mechanic
orrery,

for clocks, orreries, "fcc.the

in wheels

teeth

indeed

may

planet
planet

hour

hand

The

by

piece

machinery, such

of

times, in what

the

clock

it will

make

fraction

"{-?"take

round
goes
revolutions
in

175f"

as

an

part of its orbit

for

is

in 87 d. 23h.;

sun

problem

ample,
give an exany ingenious

which

following example

round

goes
of a

method

at all

show,

is.

shall, however,

; we

point out
complete

to

as

so

any
this

Mercury;

twice

in

87d.

23h.

the

as

now,

hours,

24

the

For

plus
multiple of the denominator
any
of the proporit the third term
unity, and make

minus

or

T3x3x5

30,

472

tion ;

thus

is

unit less in each

12

as

say,

11

: :

than

515

for

nearly ;

472

^-r
473

one

multipleof |" by

the revolutions

become

175

"

-"

"

515

only difficulty
remaining, is
that
without
teeth

will

divide

and

leaves

the
numerator,
of the numbers
do

method

succeed,

not

to

or

to

Now

"="

the

515

determine

wheels

best

sors
factors or diviproper
and
denominator
numerator

order

the

in

"

find

to

the
in

remainder,

90597

472

hence

43

10,

and

have

of

For

the

pinions.

found

often

as

the number

is to make

we

as

try successivelythe

and

can,

prime

trial
if

numbers

we

3,

7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, "fcc. I find by
trial the numerator
will break iitfp the factors 101 X 39 X
23

23,

I conclude

90597,

the

be

may

103

as

is

answer

1825

teeth

too

the

these
in

numbers

three

another

number

purpose

better.

must

Again

101, 39,
I

wheels.

into the numbers

large for the teeth in

prime number,

will

of

the denominator

easilybreak
but

number

that

then

can

and

103

5 ;

pinion,and being
be sought for that
say,

as

12

11

: :

1673

1673,

the

revolutions

now

become

175

r^r--,

1825

or

130

MECHANICS.

PUELEY.

THE

If

wheel,

rope or stringpass round

round
movable
axle, with
an

of the

stringor

29.

rope,

is called

machine

the groove

either fixed

or

fixed,it only

and

to

The

'If

movable.

serves

weight

Pulley.

change

action ; but if it be movable,

of two
to one.

at the
power
the other,
at

the

axis

of

the direction
the

such

pulley may be
the
pulley be
of the power's

acts

power

end

one

"

axis of
the

rim of

or

with

vantage
ad-

an

The

accompanying engraving exhibits various forms of

from which
pulley. AB is a beam
they are suspended.

the

No.

1, is the fixed

gained
in

than

pulley in
that

the

which

power

No.

contrary direction.

which

2, is

there
and

P
a

is

other advantage

no

weight

movable

move

pulley,

in

P by moving
upwards raises the pulley,
power
is attached
the
the block of which
the weight W
; but

to

the

end

one

of the

string being

attached

the beam

to

AB,

the

fast as the weight, and

twice
there,
as
must
move
power
will be a gain of power
combiproportional. No. 3, is a nation
of two
movable
pulleys,in which the gain of power
will be four ; and No. 4 is a combination
fixed and
of two
movable

two

the

same

as

pulleys, in
in No.

which

the

gain

of

power

will

be

3.

system of pulleys,where
end
cord, attached at one

braced
pulley is emto a fixed
point,and
by a
of the movable
at the other Jo the centre
pulley next above
it, and the weight is hung to the lowest
pulley ; then the
effect of the whole
will be
the number
2 multipliedby
movable
itself,as m an y^ times as there are
pulleys in the

30.*

If in

each

system

thus, if there

be

movable

pulleys,then

2x2

THE

X2

sustained

be

by

When

31.

wherefore, if the weight be

16:

of

power

there

are

weight

is

number

of movable
the

Ex.

In

"

block

being

lbs. is to be

of

number
muffle

is to

fixed
raised

block

each

the
how

the

twice

or

pulleys

mov.

where

and

the

raised

be

to

; and

Muffle

power

weight

the

twice

is called

system

inversely as one
pulleys in the system,

the

to

fixed

lb., it will

one

avoirdupois.
of movable
pulleys on
block, the pulleys are

oz.

number

on

as^many
Sheeves, and the

Called

one

any

block, and

one

131

PULLEY.

other

has

movable,

sheeves,
of

weight

one

1 12

the power

be

must

great

112

If

of 236
lbs. is to be applied to a tackle
nected
conpower
of pulleys, one
blocks
with
fixed, consisting of
two

6, and
raised

required.

lbs., the power

14

-g~"

another

the rule

(Here

"

of 5

movable,

Therefore

236

above
10

what

pulleys ;

lbs., the weight.

2360

be

can

reversed.)

be

must

weight

pulley,the strings,
cords, or ropes, are supposed to act parallelto each other ;
and weight
the relation of power
when
this is not the case,
be found
gram
by applying the principle of- the parallelomay
Remark.

In all the above

"

ab

thus, draw

of forces;

of the

cases

of

direction

the

in

the

power's
a

of

scale

and

action

that power
the

to

horizon,

and

direction

is fastened

then

the

weight, as

as

scale

ad
of

to

db,

ba

at

c:

is to

these

"

expresses
draw
bd

; next,

parallelto be, the

which

is

length, taken

equal parts, which

quantity of
ad

of that

from
of

the

pendicular
perdraw

string,

is to
power
the strain on
the

bd;

and

lines

being

all measured

hook

at

the

on

c,

same

equal parts.

stringis fastened
power

the

the

It may
be further observed, that
kind ; where
of lever of the second
the

from

pulley

the

the other

pulley may
being in the

be

be

may

place
end

of
of

reckoned

middle.

called
the

the

the

weight,

pulley

the

point

fulcrum
and

the lever ; or, the

the length of the

the

is
at

a*

cpecies

wttfch the

the

axis

of

of

the

of

the

place

diameter

lever, the weight

132

MECHANICS.

INCLINED

THE

When

32.

PLANE.

body,
on
plane,so
keep that c
body at rest; then the weight, the
power, and the pressure on the plane,
will be as the length,the height,and
the base of the plane,when the power acts parallel
to
plane; that is,
The weight
f
~)AC,
a

power

inclined

an

The

acts

on

to

as

"

power

will be

as

the

yBC,

J AB.
plane(^
rules :
properties
giverise to the following
The

These

pressure

on

the

"

weight
power
.

plane

"

'
-

lengthof plane

lengthof plane
heightof plane
x

power

,
_

~~

weight

on

pressure
1

height of

the plane
r

"^

base of

plane
"

"

,.

lengthof plane

The force with which a body endeavours

inclined plane,is as the heightof the
an
When
the power does not act parallel
33.

down

to the

from

the

plane,then
plane, draw

plane.

the

angleC of
perpendicular
power's action ;

the

weight, the power,

pressure on the plane,will be

and
as

the

AC, CB,

the line of direction of the power

plane,the power is least.
When

If two

descend

line

to the direction of the

then

to

bodies,on

AB.
is

to the
parallel

inclined

planes,sustain each
of a stringover
a
others by means
pulley,their weights
of
will be inversely
as tjie
lengths the planes.
it is often neces35. In the exercises on inclined planes,
sary
find
the
the
to
or
base, and height,
lengthof
lengthof
34.

two

the plane. Any two of these being given,the third may

metry,
be fo*tod and this is done on the principlestated in Geothat the hypotenusea of a right-angled
triangle
(the
lengthof the plane)is equal to the base * + height9.
Ex.
The heightof an inclined planeis 20 feet,and its
"

"

length100
of

1000

; what

lbs.?
"

is the pressure on the planeof a weight

Here we
first ascertain the base,
must
97-98 =
the base of thejplane
; and from

(1003"208)'"
=

"_j

THE

has

what

said above,

been

133

1000

plane ; also 100

to keep the body

necessary

power

100

th"

upon

pressure

PLANE.

INCLINED

97-98

: :

20

1000

::

200,

rollingdown

from

the

979-8

the
the

plane.
If

of 3 cwt.

wagon

by another

100, be sustained

the

feet

10

of

90

to

incline ; what

an

?
100
Here
: 90
wagon
the second
wagon.
The
36.
space which

to
as

the

time,

same

Ex.
and

If

"

height is

26

feet

plane in

on^

320

This
when

26

of

to treat

come

The

wood

wedge

is

metal, whose

or

stones, "c.
The
circumstances
it is not
amount
over

way

in which
or

almost

any

The

being an
height of
of

two

inclined

railways,will

so

it is

general
wedge

be resumed

rule
has

to
a

that

such

applied are

determine

the

advantage

great

of the

in consequence

powers,
is

applied to it,namely, by percussion,

the
blow
of
a
hammer,,
by

that

pressure

answer.

triangularprism, formed either of

great use is to splitor raise timber,

power

is

the

WEDGE.

stroke,

screw

the

frictionand railways.

THE

38.

foot

in which

constant

long,

it pass down
space
force of gravityalone ?

mechanical

the

feet

plane 320

will

devise a
to
easy
of its action.
The

all the other

will

times

with

THE

37.

freelyin the
the plane ; and
be inverselyin

fall

length of

inclined

an

1-3

plane

the

the

connected

subject,as
we

16

: :

inclined
an
upon
by the force of

describes

it would

to

same,

body roll down

in height ; what
second, by the

the

on

which

space

the spaces being the

this proportion.

body

descending
the

: :

"

plane, when
gravity,is

railway of 10 feet to
on
an
oppositerailway of
is the weight of the second
the weight of
2*7 cwt.

inclined

an

on

be

may

overcome.

SCREW.

kind

of

continued

rolled

inclined

plane,
cylinder the

a
plane
distance
the
between
plane being
threads, and its length the circumference

the

12

about

"

the centres
;

hence,

134

the rule
of

the

find

to

is

screw

the

the
:

150|

: :

of

lbs., the force

Remarks

39.

the

the

is
power
of two
threads

the radius

inches

of

spike
the hand-

; the circumference

nearly :- therefore,
applied be 150
power

if the
will

screw

on

therefore

calculations

be

603|

150

againstanother

have

made

not

arisingfrom

one

chanical
me-

allowance

body rubbing

will be discussed

subjectwhich

"

The

"

and
applied,
variously modified
elements
of all machinery.
In our

the resistance

friction,or

Powers.

be

effects,we

their

of

Mechanical

the

may
powers
the
but still they form
for

and

two

inches,

150f

where

upwards
threads

lbs.

90480

603}

between

the centres

be 24

be

will

screw

of

inch, and

an

to the screw

attached
of

distance

i of

be

screw

pressing either

circumference

the

to

if the

applied: thus,
of

of a screw
power
is as the distance

the

downwards,

or

CENTRES.

MECHANICAL

hereafter.

made
be seen
before, will now
justice of the remark
two"
to hold generally, that of the
velocityand powerwhatever
we
gain in the one, we lose in the other ; or, as
and
weight are opposed to each other, there will
power
the power
them, when
always be an equilibrium between
the weight x its velocity,that is, when
its velocity
X
The

of the

the momentum

is

one

equal

the momentum

to

of the

other.
All

advantage that

the
or

powers,

or,

to

and

this must

generate

at the expense

and

the

bodies

be done

at

rapid velocities, as

or

the
in

this is

centres

CENTRES.
of

gravity,oscillation,percussion,

gyration.
THE

2. There

great weights,

ofpower.

MECHANICAL
are

the mechanical

cotton-spinningmachinery, and

turning-lathes,or

1. These

from

is to raise

their combinations,

of time;

expense

obtain

can

great resistances,

overcome

done

we

is

connected

CENTRE

certain

OF

point in
together; which

GRAVITY.

every

body, or system

point,if suspended,

of
the

THE

body

of

system

or

bodies

by the force of
upon
the Centre
of Gravity.

suspended by
such

body
the

until

forces

will

act,

in the

or,

"

than

lines

of

in

the

meet

vertical

vertical

3. It is often

useful

passes
calculation

in

gravity,
that point,

line with

sustained

from

the

falling

in which

these

two

gravity of
through it.

the

body,

of

centre

be

of

round

move

direction

which

line

bodies

of

the centre

will

acted

is called

point

system

or

gravity be in a
suspension. If a body be
forces, the

two

bodies

this

when

rest

at

of

centre

point of

by

body

point

of

system

or

gravity alone

other

any

remain

will

If

135

GRAVITY.

OF

CENTRE

consider

to

the whole

of

gravity, but it
is to be
that gravity and
remembered,
weight do not
of
signify the same
thing gravity is the force by means
weight

of

body

placed

as

in its centre

"

which

bodies, if left

themselves,

to

directions

perpendicular to

the other

hand,

exerted,

to

is

the

prevent

the

earth's

resistance

given body

fall

surface
force

or

from

the

to

in

weight,

which

obeying

earth

be

must

the

on

law

of

gravity.
4.

To

find the centre

Suspend

and

mark

the

point, then

the

direction

it from

suspend

other

some

point, and

mark

The
plumb-line in like manner.
of gravity of the figure will be in that point where
centre
the marks
For instance,
each other.
of the plumb-line cross
if we
of a
wish
of gravity of the arch
find the centre
to
draw
the plan upon
to a certain
scale,
bridge, we
paper
the figure,and
cut out
proceed with it as above directed ;
and
the points of susof the plumb-line from
pension^
by means
its centre
of gravity will be found ; whence,
by
in
the plan
measuring the relative position of this centre
by the scale, we may determine
by comparison its position
the

direction

chanically
gravity of any plane figure,meits
edge,
figureby any point near
from
that
of a plumb-line hung

of

in the structure
5.

We

can

the

of

itself.
find the centre

of

gravity of

many

figures by

calculation.
6. The

centre

cylinder,
regularpolygon,
respectively.

of

gravity of

line, parallelogram,prism,
of

circle, circumference

7.

from

To
any

is the

find the centre

angle

to

circle* sphere,

geometrical centre
of

gravityof

the middle

of

the

of

these

and

figures

draw
triangle-"

oppositeside,

then

line

f*

136

MECHANICAL

of this line from

the

of

CENTRES.

positionof

be the

angle will

the centre

gravity.

diagonals,and find
trapezium,-"draw the two
of gravity of each
of the four trianglesthus
the centres
of
formed, then join each opposite pair of these centres
gravity,and the two joining lines will cut each other in
of gravity of the figure.
the centre
of gravityis in
the centre
and pyramid,
9. For the cone
8. For

"

the

For

10.

of

radius

of

arc

circle,

"

circle

of

gravity from

11.

For

the sector

chord

of

the centre
For

12.

of

For

axis

14.

circle,

"

radius

arc

length

is

of circle

of

distance

of

arc

of the circle.

centre

of the centre

the distance

$ of the

"

of

axis.

of

centre

gravity is |

of the

which

divides the

common

bodies

if at each

weight be
of gravity will be in that point
centre
ratio that the weights
bar, in the same
each
to
other, and this point will be
body.

bodies,

two

the

bear

the heavier

"

end

Examples." If the line drawn from

a
triangleto the opposite angle

of

,.

"

paraboloid, the

hung,

nearest

the

the vertex.

For

of the

of

of the circle.

centre

"

from

of

the vertex

distance

arc

gravity from the

parabolicspace,

gravity from
13.

,.

arc
=

the

of

of

length
centre

chord

"

the vertex.

of I of the axis from

the axis, at the distance

of

bar

of the base

the middle
be

15, then

have

we

15
-"

the

10

vertical

If the

the distance

of the

centre

of

gravityfrom

angle.

height of

be

cone

24

inches, then

have

we

24
"-

18

the distance

of the centre

of

gravityfrom

the vertex.

If the
chord

length

and

153*07,
200

of the

radius 200

circle be

and

the

the centre

of

157*07,

then,

153-07
1QyiQ
194*9

=
,

of

arc

e"

distance

of

~"

157*07

gravityfrom
If there

the centre
be

the

of the .circle.

sector

of

circle of which

the

chord.

138

MECHANICAL

contained

in

the

force, it would,

same

the

CENTRES.

body

of

centre

which

oscillation

the

to

axis

that the

remarks,

is

through

passes

if attached

its vibrations

perform

motion,

collected, and

were

always

of

of motion.

subjectof

the

same

in the

pendulums

be
must

by
of
The

straightline

gravity, and

It will

upon
axis

time.

same

situated

the centre

the

to

in

acted

seen

is

perpendicular
by these

be considered

here.
In

theory, a simplependulum is a singleweight, considered

at
the lower
as
a point, hanging
extremity of an
inflexible rightline, having no
weight, and suspended from
2.

fixed

about

centre,

or

which

it

lates
vibrates, or oscilthe other hand, consists

compound pendulum, on
several weights, so connected
with the centre
of suspension,
or
distance from
motion, as to retain always the same
;

of

point

it, and
3.

from
If the

oscillation
former

each

other.

pendulum

inverted,

be

shall become

the centre

that

of

the

centre

of

suspension, then

the

so

of

the centre
of oscillation,
suspension will become
and the pendulum will vibrate in the same
time :
this is called the reciprocity
of the pendulum ; and it is a
fact of the greatest utility,
in experimentingon
the lengths
of pendulums.
4. Of
the simple pendulum
observe, that its
we
may
in the first place be
length,when
vibratingseconds, must
determined
by experiment, as it vibrates by the action of
gravity, which force differs at different distances from the
pole of the earth.
By the latest experiments, the length of
the seconds*
pendulum in the latitude of London, has been
centre

"

found

to be

inches,

39*1393

or

feet; the

3*2610

length at

the equator is nearly39*027, and at the pole 39*197

inches.
The
be taken for all
lengthfor the latitude of London
may
places in Britain, without any material error.
5.

The

times

proportionalto
6.

Thus

pendulum
v/391393
If the

of 12
:

The

the square

what

s/

pendulum

^39*1393
7.

of vibration

y/

inches
12

::

be 36
36

::

lengthsof

the

long
I

of

roots

will be

the

time

of

one

vibration

of

at London?

0*5537

inches
1

pendulums, are directly

the lengthsof these pendulums.

of two

time

of

one

vibration.

time

of

one

vibration.

long,

0*9599

pendulums

are

to

each

other

in*

OSCILLATION

versely as the
a given time.
What

is the

making

or

30

in

short

:"

rule

in

39-1393

length in

make

to

inches.

of
given number
by the following

any
found
easily

be

minute, may

9*7848

pendulum

in

vibratinghalf-seconds,

minute

made

of vibrations

pendulum

vibrations

length of

vibrations

of

length

139

PERCUSSION.

of the numbers

squares

(60)a: (30)":
The

AND

U0850
=

Thus

pendulum

make

to

vibrations

50

of vibrations3

number

in

minute,

will

be
140850

140850
"

s=

^"

for

All the rules

follows

as

inches

4,
length.
8

simple pendulums

be

may

expressed

time of

The

2500

50s
8.

Ka
0
56*34

-rr^^r

in seconds

vibration

one

of any

pendulum

is

1
"

"

^"

numkpr
l/the
01

Exam.

length of

\^

the

second

one

pendulum\
'

39*1393

If

"

in

of vibrations

the

of

number

of

vibrations

pendulum

be

-6256, then
1"598

of

the time

vibration.

one

"-g/"

*o2oo

Or, if the lengthof the pendulum

"
The

length of

598.

39*1393

"S3

inches, then

100

39*1393'

pendulum

be

time

is

in inches
of

vibration9;

one

39-1393
o f

. "

Exam."

length.

If the time

of

39*1393

l*598a

Or, if the
'6256, then

-tfi

one

vibration
"

of vibrations

number
we

of vibrations*

number

be

1*598

100,

length

in

second

of

have"

100, length of

pendulum.

be

; find

the

pend.
as

above*

140

MECHANICAL

The

CENTRES.

of vibrations

{lumber

in

second

be found

may

thus

39-1393

*"
-u
ofr vibrations

|.

"

number

"

j-i

\ length of pendulum
of vibrations

the number

or,

in

second

is

of

time

of

If the time

vibration

one

be,

above,

as

number

*6256,

vibration

one

; then

1*598

of vibrations

1-598

length of 100,

or, if the

391393\

x
When
lose

clock

have

we

Toor)

-6256-

fast

too

goes

slow,

too

or

it shall

that

so

gain in twenty-four hours, it is desirable

regulate
length of the pendulum so that it shall go right. The
pendulum bob is made capable of being moved
up or down
If the clock
the rod by means
of the screw.
too
on
goes
or

to

the

fast, the bob

raised ; and
inch of the
loses

or

up

Ex.
the

the

in 24

hours

=s

that the clock shall go

9. It is often desirable

seconds, and
which

may

the centre

yet be
be

threads

that

much

shorter

the

the

cloek

we

must

than
bob

an

clock
will

37

screwed

minutes

the

x
X

should

bob,

it

weight,from
D

"

D8

d +

d*

rod

the

on

vibrate

inches;-

39*1393

weights

""

391393

raise

below

suspension; then,
39-1393

be

is 12

above

then, having

of

suspension,

should

the distance

of the upper

distance

by

must

the centre

from

weights

find the ratio which

may
Call
each other by this rule.
d the

divided

pendulum

we

and

the

right.

done

of the

in

shall go right.
70 threads in the inch, and

by placing one
of suspension, and another

the distances

that

be

have

we

it must

threads

minutes

product

that

long, so

45|4

slow,

that the bob

screw

; then

in

; this

threads

if too

numbejpof

time

that the clock

is too

j-

so

of

so

pendulum

slow

the

If the rod have

"

rule

hours

24

number

down,

this
X

screw

gains in

or

give

have

we

and

be lowered,

must

bear

to

of the lower,
the

centre

of

number

will

the

give

In

Ex."

higher.

pendulum having

below

the

centre

above

the

same

of

and

the lower

inches

the

other

9*6

inches

weight being

ounces

-12"

12

12

weight

391393

one

bobs, the

two

weight,

in inches.

taken

are

suspension,

centre,

is the upper

what

and

lower

the

multiplied by

when

which,

141

PERCUSSION.

AND

OSCILLATION

39-1393

then,

0-696

upper

bob.

If

10.

struck
will

found

be
at

shock.

stone,

hand

part of the

receives

usually defined thus : The

in a body revolving about

the

destroyed,

it would

that

so

length,

when

will

percussion

receive

motion

of

incline

neither

no

and

is that

is

point

if it struck

which,

at

it

it is

of Percussion,

of

axis,

an

obstacle, all the

its

particularpoint,

one

hand

centre

centre

"

immovable

at

of

the

hand, and

the

shock

of

weight

in

points

struck, the

point is called

This

held

stick, but

be

the

different

at

the

if the stick

which,

ounces

walking-stickbe
that

any

-f 9-69

5*568

common

against a

struck
at

9-6

an

would

th^body

be

after

way

the

stroke.
11.

axis

distance

The

of motion,

of

is the

the

of

oscillation

from

rules

for both

centres.

distance

of either

is found

thus

serve

12.

The

of motion,
13.

and

If the

the
14.

motion

centre

of

axis

right line,

In

an

isosceles

In

circle

In

parabola

In

In

circle

of the

In

but

if

=s

same

the axis

of the

vertex

figure,

" of its length ;

f -of its height ;
triangle
=

" of

^ axis

the

of

then,

its radius

of its

height.

side wise,

move

of the

diameter

parabolasuspended by

suspended by

and

from

centres

be in the

rectangle suspended by

S3

centre

Oscillation.

hare

we

angle

axis

its vertex,

parameter

the middle

it

;
one

diagonal.
16.

the

:"

it is

if the bodies

15. But

distance

of these

motion

In

percussion from

suspension ;

See

"

flatwise

be

the

as

same

the

of

centre

of its base,

parameter.

"

of the

142

MECHANICAL

CENTRES.

In the sector

17.

of

circle

In

18.

cone

In

19.

sphere

axis

^^^

chord

(radiusof base)9

J axis +

radius

arc

*"*"

where

d is the

length of the thread by which it is suspended.

20. We
have given these rules for the sake of reference,
useful.
but we
shall illustrate by examples the most
Examples. What must be the length of a rod without a
it shall vibrate
end
weight, so that when
hung by one
"

seconds

To

vibrate

39*1393

the

from

inches

be

must

seconds, the

oscillation

39*1393

be

must

suspension; hence,

of

that

of the rod, 2:3::

length of

What

of

centre

this

as

inches

58*7089

the rod.

is the centre

percussion of

of

rod

46

inches

long?

f inches from the axis of motion.

In an
isosceles
angle, and
triangle,suspended by one
feet
tance
is the disflatwise, the height is 24
oscillating
; what
|

46

of the

30

percussionfrom

of

centre

|
In
the

the

is 14, and

sphere the diameter

sphere is suspended is

inches

20

feet.

18

==

which

stringby

therefore,

98

7s

(20 +

+'

7)

that the centre

so

24

the axis of motion

20

+*

than

27

27*725

"

135

of oscillation

the axis of motion

"

percussionis farther from

of the sphere, by 7*725

or

the centre

inches.

CENTRE

THE

It will

21.

be

round

Bodies in motion
class

same

of

the

saw,

in

there

the

another

is yet

collected, the

motion

motion

was

belonging

practicalmechanic.

of

caused

be

the

by

to

oscillation,that

same

of
as

the action

to

the

be considered,

to

if all the matter

would

refer

centres

two

centre

the

importance to
determining the centre
in which,

last

axis, and

fixed

utmost

findinga point
"which

that

seen,

ROTATION.

AND

GYRATION

OF

the

we

were

body

were

body
gravity; but

that of the
of

We

GYRATION

AND

143

ROTATION.

force than
other
body is put in motion
by some
of Gyrathe centre
tion.
gravity,the point in question becomes
be
therefore
The
of gyration may
defined,
centre
that point in a body or system
of bodies
revolving round
axis, in which
an
in, the body or
point,if all the matter
the

when

of bodies

system

in
of

force
22.

given

given force,

the

The

be found
For

24.

one

rules

cylinder

cylinder,whose

or

gravity.
may

plane of

or

axis of motion

0*5775.

the circumference

the rftxis,
or

and

portional
pro-

:"

straightline
end,
length
a

of oscillation

mean

gyration of the following bodies

For

25.

these

by

lutions
revo-

itself.

gyrationis

of

centre

centres

of

centre

of bodies

system

or

of

number

same

tion
generated by the applicathe
be generated by
same

be

would

as

applied to the body

The
positionof the

23.

would

time

between

is in

collected, the

were

circle,

the

about

revolving

diameter,

about

radius

0-7071.

For

the

plane

For

the

surface

26.

of

its diameter

circle about

radius.
27.

radius

For

radius

What
the

Here

58-7089

of

30.

is 36

of

distance

Effects

acquire

are

weight,
a

lar
perpendicu-

of

the

rod

of

centre

58*7089

gyration
long ?

inches

33-9044.
its

thickness, revolving about

; hence

18

gyration from

of

the

the

12

=*

tance
dis-

axis'.

its diameter, which

about

of

centre

-7071

axis,

gyration

is

is

12

inches.

know

to

of

globe revolving

7-5888

certain

inches

proportionalto their, causes

body is proportional to the

generated in any
produces that motion
be compared to
may
useful

its diameter

circle upon
radius.
the centre

"

of uniform

the centre

feet, the

"6324

globe, about

distance

-5775

solid

of

of motion,

centre

the diameter

is the

wheel

or

the circumference

from

In

sphere

passing through

Ex."

In

solid

For

axis

its diameter

-6324.

29.

about

sphere

'8165.

28.

of

the
acted

; hence

we

in

force

that all constant

which

forces

of

by a
given velocity. The
upon

motion

gravity. And it is often

of a
which
a revolving body

the force
time

see,

; the

known

constant

principleswe

force, will
have

laid

144

CENTRES.

MECHANICAL

in

down

plane, will

inclined

discussing the

here

found

be

serviceable.

weight of the body moved,

Is to the weight or force causing it to move,
inclined
is the length of an
So
plane, such that the
just support the body upon it,
given force would
To
the height of the plane
6 feet diameter, whose
weight, 400 lbs.,
Now, if in a wheel
is turned
by a force of 56 lbs., acting at the distance of 18
of gyration being
of motion, its centre
inches from its centre
the-

As

5 feet from
to

the

give by
of

centre

centre

same

this force

will

; what

Here, by the lever,

gyration.
18

56

,",.,,_
"

to

exerted

know

the

6"

at the

length of

lbs.

1614

"

60

the force

of

centre

time

in

gyration.
which
a
body

velocity of 20 feet per second, on

whose
length is to its height as 400 is
by the laws of fallingbodies, we have
161"
32

acqpire

16J|

plane,

wherefore,

'525,

perpendicularly; therefore, by

have,

All the circumstances

31.

would

32

fall

to

wish

now

16-8

-^=-7^7-=
required
inclined
plane, we
time
required.

to

We

inclined

an

the time

at the

second

feet per

velocityof 20

required

the time

be

20

400

'525

: :

comprehended

10'5

under

the
the

this kind

expressed by the followingrules

weight of a wheel,
acting upon the wheel,

of rotatory motion, may

the
Let W
express

F, the force

be

D, the distance of the force from the axis of motion,

the
of gyration from
G, the distance of the centre
axis

of

motion,
the force

t, the

time

v, the

velocityacquired by

acts,

revolvingbody

the

time.
GxWXv

GxWXt"_^F
D

"F

32

t X

^
""

32
~

""""'"as

i^

"

Ijr

*"."

___

a=

.-,

v
=

32

"

GXW

in that

146

that

of

central

FORCES.

CENTRAL

FORCES.

connected

Intimately

1.

CENTRAL

with

forces, the

the

foregoing subject is

of which

nature

be

may

trated
illus-

a boy causes
by a very simple instance. When
a stone
his hand, the stone
in a slingto revolve round
is kept from
flyingoff by the strengthof the string,which continually

draws

it were,
if the stringis let go,

but

the stone,

off in

to the hand

as

the

of

are

they

force :
centripetal

force

it

when

sometimes

may
the

fly

centrifugal
force ;
restrains this tendency,
both

forces

spoken

are

jointlycalled central forces,

revolves
round
fixed centre,
a body
a

When

2.

will

stone

of its

is called

of motion

centre

breaks, then the

or

straightline, by means
strengthof the string,while

the

or

be

the

the

tripetal
cen-

cohesion

of the ticles
parsometimes
it may

body is composed, or
be the power
of some
attractingbody" such as gravityin
the case
of the planets.
3. In talkingof the angular velocityof a revolvingbody,
is passed over
the space which
in a given time,
not
we
mean
but the number
of degrees, minutes, "c,
that the body describes
whether
the
in a certain time,
circle be large or
small.
Thus, a body moving in a circle of 10 feet diameter,
have
an
angular velocityof 15" in a second, so may
may
also another
body moving in a circle of three feet diameter ;
time,
they will complete their respectivecircles in the same
actual
different
but the
very
;
spaces they pass through are
but their actual
that is, their angular velocities are the same,
of which

velocities
The

4.

not.

are

and
directly,
of

squares

When

through

the
the

times

velocity is
half the

force.
forces

veloc. of

by

the

of

cubes

by

facts the

the

the

distances.

of central

means

constant

circles

inversely,also

forces,

acquire by falling

it would

as

same

body9
J

rev.

M
6.

the

circle

the

action

of the centripetal

following rules for

tral
cen-

derived.

are

radius

in

these

From

times

the

as

radii of

the

as

of the

are

radius

5
T.

are

squares

body revolves

its actual
"

forces

central

weight

of

r-f.

-^

"

centrifugalforce
the circle of revolution.

"-

32
,:

32

weight of bodyJ-

=-^

._

centnf. force.
x

of circle of revolution

of revol. body9
velocity
J-

bodyJ

,.

radius of

CENTRAL

centrif. force

32

147

FORCES.

rad. circle

7.

r~-

of

veloc.

"

,,

ofr the
.

weight

"

rc-

revolving body2

Tolving body.
f/rad. circle

32

NT
said

will be

in applyingwhat
difficulty

no

Vel0Clt3r-

has

been

practice.

to

There

10

in

times

Here

minute?

revolutions

of the other

the diameter

must

weight, one

same

makes

63

33

in

be to revolve

10

: :

of

2-5

the

of the second.

diameter

force
centrifugal

is the

What

its diameter

making

the

feet diameter, and

; what

minute

fly-wheels of

two

are

is

which

height
There

9.

centrifugal force\

being

65

in

turns
2

feet, and

12

3-1416

of

weight of

the

fly-wheel,

the rim

1 ton,

minute

of the rim

65

.A_
40*34

"

60

the

velocityin

feet per second

40-84*
"

the

tendency

to

Q
flQ"
8-687

"

32

hence,

"

tons,

burst.
of

gyration. If the fly above

is in two
mentioned
halves, which
are
joined together by
bolts capable of supporting 4 tons in all their positions,
the
whole
weight of the wheel is 1J tons, the circle of gyration
is 5*5 feet from the axis of motion
be its velocity
must
; what
that its two
halves may
so
fly asunder ? The force tending
Let

the centre

employ

us

halves
separate the two
wherefore, by the rule,

will

to

J
11

f32

5-5

=s

ration, wherefore,
in

be

of

the whole

force

2
nt%
"n"
30-636

~=

3-1416

"

34-5576
34-5576

the

velocity,

circumference

30*636

::

60

of circle of gy53-191
tions
revolu-

minute.

The

conical
or
engine governor,
pendulum,
the principleof central forces.
It is so constructed,
acts on
the balls diverge,or
that when
flyoutwards, the ring on
the upright shaft is raised, and that in proportion to the increase
10.

of the

steam

squared
velocity,

; or,

the square

roots

of

the

148

CENTRAL

of

distances

the

velocities, will
Ex.

If

"

the

when

ring

is

of the

distance

in

less

10

which,
the

squared,
from

ring
We

11.

rotation

STRENGTH

and
of

They

stretchers.
strain

exposed

is

be

may

10

lutions
revo-

diverge

distance

the

more,

from

the

2-4;
distance

second

the

of

Engine.
other

particulars

on

The
called

MACHINES,

MATERIALS,
"c.

MODELS,

1st.

introduce

OF

are

to

be

forces.

central

Materials

or

Steam

elsewhere

shall

will

have
16

See

will

the

inches,

5*76

top.

and

we

"/

::

givBs

the

and

two

second,

what

balls

rise

will

top

in

is increased

The

therefore,

the

speed

the

time

ring

revolutions

from

when

same

the

consequently

inches

16

ring

the

top become

makes

governor

to

velocities.

these

as

top, corresponding

the

from

ring

be

FORCES.

to

different

four

asunder,

torn

strength

of

as

its Resistance

in the

body

kinds

of

case

resist

to

Tension,

to

of strain:

or

this

ropes
kind

Absolute

strength.
2c?. They
be crushed
in the direction
or
compressed
may
of their length, as in the case
of columns,
"c.
truss
beams,
3d.
in the case
of joists,
be broken
as
They may
across,
of
rafters, "fcc.
The^ strength of a body to resist this kind
strain is called
its Lateral
strength.
be
twisted
in the
4th.
wrenched,
as
They
or
case
may
of axles,
Extensive

determine
different

"c.

screws,

and
the

several

materials;
'calculations become

experiments

accurate
measures

and

when

of
this

are

these
is

done,

to

necessary

strengths
the

in

the

subsequent

We
fore,
shall, therecomparatively easy.
in the first place, lay down
of the
the results
ments
experiof practical men.

STRENGTH

149

MATERIALS.

OF

A,

OF

TABLE

Note.

U.

FLEXIBILITY

The

extensive

STRENGTH

AND

of

use

the

above

OF

TIMBER.

table

will

be

hereafter.

shown
'

"

THE

The

strength. E.
strength. C. Cohesion.
ultimate

Transverse

"

Lateral

strength. S.
"

"

B.
Table
one

inch

showing the weight that

will

pull asunder

prism

square.
lbs.

Cast

gold,

22000

Cast

silver,-

41000

"

lbs.

Bismuth,
Good
brass,
""""

131

29000
51000

150

STRENGTH

MATERIALS.

OF

it*.

lbs.

Anglesea copper,
Swedish

copper,

."

""

"

Cast iron,
Bar

iron, ordinary,*

Do.
Bar

Swedish,

""

Ivory,

37000

Horn,
Whalebone,"

50000

"

"

34000

16270

"""""""

8750

7500

68000
84000
COMPOSITIONS

Do.

Gold

1, """"50000
5, copper
Silver 5, copper 1, """"48500

temper, 150000
Cast tin,Eng. block,
5200
razor

Do.

Cast lead,

Swed.

copper 6, tinl,-64000
Blocjt tin 3, lead 1,-- 10200

6500

grain,

OF

120000

steel,soft,

860

"""""

Antimony,

1000

Tin

Zinc,

2600

Lead

4, lead 1, zinc 1, -13000

8, zinc 1,

45000

C.
The

from

same

Rennie

Weight

that

would

it asunder

steel,

Cast

Length in feet that would

break with its own
weight.

tear

in lbs.

134256

Swedish

39455

iron,
English iron,
Cast iron,

72064

19740

55872

16938

19096

6110

Cast

19072

5092

copper,

Yellow

17958

brass,

Cast

tin,
Castlead,
Good

hemp

Do.

rope,
inch diam.

one

"""

"

5180

"""

4736

1496

1824

306

6400

18790

5026

18790

D.

"

The

cohesive

force of

inch of iron

square

from

ferent
dif-

experimentists.
lbs.

Iron

wire,

113077

""""

Do.

Swedish

93964

iron,

78850

lbs.

English iron,
Do.

65772

Welsh

iron,

72064

Do.

54960

French

Do.

53244

Russian

69133

Cast

iron,
English iron,*
Do.

66900
55000

"

Do.

Do.

German

64960
55776

iron,*
iron,
iron,"**

Do.
Welsh

"61600

-61001
59472

"68295
19488

do.

"""

16255

151

MATERIALS.

OF

STRENGTH

E.
of

Table

long, and

foot

one

strengthof

the lateral

inch

one

square.
that

Weight

iron,

bear

627

with

white

pine,*

"

130

206

"""

lbs.

209

"

390"

American

thej catf
safety.

1090

lbs.

3270

Oak,
Memelfir,

which

Weight

will

them.

break

Cast

following materials,

the

"

69

"

"

F.
The

force

Aberdeen

Black

crush

cubic

one

granite,blue,

hard

Very

to

necessary

inch.
24556

"

freestone,

Limerick

limestone,
limestone,

19924

""

17354

Compact
Craigleithstone,
Dundee

21254

"""""

15568

"

14919

sandstone,

Yorkshire

paving

stone,

1585ft

"

Redbrick,
Pale

1817

brick,

red

1265

Chalk,

1127

Cubes
Iron

Cast
Cast

of one-fourthof

inch.

an

vertically,
horizontally,

cast

"

10110
7318

copper,

'.

tin,

966

Cast lead,

Having
how,

made

by the

applied to

11140

"

these

assistance

the

wants

483

shall proceed to show

we
statements,
of theoretical
be
results, they may
of the practicalengineer.

strengthof ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise,

the
of
is in proportion to
their diameters.
squares
All cylindrical
or
prismatic rods are equally strong in every
equally thick, but if not, they will break
part, if they are
The

where
The

absolute

the thickness

In square
the cubes
as

strengthof

lateral

metal, "c,

is
beams

of

the cubes

is least.

in

the

lateral

the similar

beam

or

bar of

its breadth

strengths are
in general of

in

proportion

the sides, and

of

any

to

wood,
its

stone,

depth8."

proportion

like-sided

sides of the section?

beams

to

152

STRENGTH

The
fixed
the

lateral

strengthof

the

and

in

wall

of the

distance

and

any
that section.

be fixed in
projectingbeam
weight be hung at the other, then
If

the wall, is the

same

wall

length, supported at both

The
weight acting on its middle.
it would
beam
is only half of what

"

end, and

at the

the strain

upon
and
ends

the

;
upon
the distance

at one

strain

the

as

inverselyas

directlyas

is

being

acted

section

the

from

section

the strain upon

weight from

endf

bar, one
or
any beam
is
the other projecting,

weight

of the

MATERIALS*

OP

end

in

of twice

beam

with

twice

the

strengthof a projecting
be, if supported at both

ends.
If

it,the

upon

middle

strain

and

middle, will
the

supported

be

beam

the
be

weight
the weight is in
weight is not in

ends, and

both

at

is greatest when
the
strain, when

to

the strain when

it is in

the

act

the
the

middle,

as

weight's distances from both ends, is to

the square
of half the length of the beam.
Take
any two
points in a beam supported at both ends ; call one of these
points a and the other b ; then a weight hung at a will
it would
do at a if hung
as
produce a strain at b, the same
product of

the

"

at b.

In
A

beam

and

B ; ihe strain at

whole

at the ends
A

PC

and

the

strain

at C

the strain

to

weight placed equally between

AP

"

C, with the

weight placed there, is

whole
to

supported

at

by
by

and

with

P,

the

AC

as

is

weight placed
the same
weight

equally along AP, is to the strain at C

placed on C, as JAP is to AC.
If beams
bear
weights in proportion to their lengths,
either equallydistributed over
the beams
or placed in similar
will be as their lengths2.
points,the strains upon the beams
If
be

beam

rest

firmly fixed

much
and

weight
the

as

strain

two
upon
in a wall

time
supports, and at the same
at each
end, it will bear twice as

if it had
will

be

lain

loosely upon

everywhere

the

supports

equal between'

the

supports.
In any beam
its strengthor
same

standingobliquely,or
strain will be

equal

breadth, thickness, and

length

of

the

horizontal

to

in

slopingdirection,

that of

material, but

distance

between

beam

of

the

only of the
the points of

support.
Similar

platesof

the

same

thickness, either supportedat

154

Otf

STRENGTH

breadth

depth9

r1

"

strength

transverse

x
"

-r

MATERIALS.

of

length

the

"

ip-r

ultimate

beam

strength.

transverse

In column

Note."

S, Table

A, will be found the transverse

strengthof timber, and in table E, that of iron, "c. ;
let it be observed, that when
the beam
is loaded
formly,
uni-

and

the result of the last rule must

What

will break

weight

end

and

and

length60

loaded

other, the breadth

the

at

inches
3

at one

being 3, depth 4,

?
43

-5"x

Riga fir,fixed

of

beam

doubled.

be

1108
..

OMm

lbs.

S*H

eo

What

weight uniformly distributed

oak

English
and

its

would

break

over

it,the breadth

beam

of

being 6, depth 9,

feet?

length 12

6x9'Xl672x2gll2861b3
144

If the

taken

be

number

from

table F,

must

we

the

use

feet.

length in
When

the beam

is

supportedat

ends, and loaded in

both

the centre,
tabular

of S, tab. A

value

depth8

breadth

_
~~

length
the

weight

Note.

"

in

pounds.

When

in the middle,

by

is fixed

When

its half.

at both

result

be

loaded

one

end

and
must

is loaded

the beam

must

and

ends

at

by the rule

obtained

the result

throughout,the
is fixed

the beam

doubled.

loaded
be

creased
in-

uniformly

When

the beam

uniformly,the

result must

be

multipliedby three.
of
Ex.
What
weight will it require to break a beam
and loaded in the
English oak, supported at both ends
middle, the breadth being 6, and depth 8 inches, and length
"

12

feet ?
1672

Hi

By using

table E

'

X8flx6x

QQ.
17834'

depth9 x breadth

lengthin

tabular number

feet

155

PROBLEMS.

Ex.

What

"

long, 10

weight will
deep, and 2

inches

109

bar

iron

oast

bear,

thick, laid

inches

its

on

feet

10

edge ?

1090

21800

lbs.

4360

lbs.

10

The

same

its broad

on

2a

side

10

1090

10

To

find the breadth

to bear

length

given weight.

weight

^^

What
and

20

"

"

beam,

weight

depth9

,
OB
4*85

"-

inches

the

breadth.

breadth

tabular

number
.

*-

length.

^r-

"

weight
1 ft.

beam

lbs. ; then

5000

129

long

lbs. ?

of 10000

length :

"

In

feet

20

209

find the

To

oak

an

10000

"

142

of

to sustain

deep,

inches

depth8

be the breadth

must

14

in table

number

X4

and

deep

broad, the weight being

if the beam

have,

we

in.

made

be

of Memel

fir,

130

14*97

"

feet,length required.

..^

5000

find the

To

depth :
length

\(
We

wish

American
and

to

breadth

69

what

inches

| 2000
To

support

pine ;

\\

number

\tabular

weight

at the

length

_,

breadth/

weight of 2000 lbs. by a beam

its depth, its length being 20

is

of
feet

20

"/

(145)

find the deflection of

loaded

other

of beam

12

beam

inches, nearly.

fixed

at

end, and

one

in inches3

32

weight

~~

tab.

numb.

(intable A)

breadth

depth3

flection in inches.
Note.
of 32

If

"

be loaded

If the beam

uniformly,use

12

instead

in the rule.'
a

weight of

300

be

hung

at the

end of

an

ash

bar fixed

156
in

wall

60*

32

inches

4.
a
the deflection.

4s

be

If the beam

__

1*23

jz

-.

6580750

"middle

300

a-^~~~

inches

long, it being 4

is its deflection

what

square

five feet

end, and

at one

MATERIALS.

OF

STRENGTH

and

ends

both

supportedat

loaded

in the

weight

length (ininches)8x

deflection

tab. numb.

A)

table

(E,

breadth

depth8

firmlyfixed at both ends, the

deflection will be " of that given by the rule.
of pitch pine, 8 inches broad, 3 inches
If a beam
Ex.
thick, and thirtyfeet long, is supported at both ends and
loaded in the centre
with a weight of 100 lbs. ; what is its
Note."

When

is

the beam

"

deflection ?

^/ww*/.
4900466

If the

38

beam

had

been

would

have

been

4*408

If the beam

had

firmly fixed
f

supported

been

4*408

find the ultimate

before it breaks

would
of

deflection

numb.

TT

,A

tt1

vi

(tableA)

is the ultimate

What

broad,

of

beam

timber

"

tab.

been

have

2*754.

-a

length (ininches)*
"r

ends, and loaded

at both

deflection
X

flection
ends, the de-

at both

inches.

2*938

uniformlythroughout, the
To

inches, deflection.

4*407

"

8 inches

tc

a
deflection.

ultimate
A

depth

deflection
and

deep,

"

"

of

feet

40

of ash, 1 foot

beam

long ?

480s
=

-"

3\tO

To

inches, the ultimate deflection.

72*72

find the
will

tab, numb.

cally
weight under which a column
placed vertiit supports that weight :
begin to bend, when
E (table
A) x least thickness8 X greatest x *2056

length (in inches)9

as

weight in pounds.

"

of this rule, that it will

beam

of

English oak

20

It will b#found

by the application

require 40289*22

lbs. to

bend

ft.long,6 in. thick, and 9 in. broad.

i

BEAMS.

We

from

take the
Messrs.

libertyhere

Hann

and

of

DoddV

introducinga
Mechanics,

on

short
the

extract

subject

157

BEAMS.

of beams.

form

their

that

In the construction

"

should

strong" throughout.
loaded

such

be
If

of beams,
that

other, and the breadth

at the

length,then,

that the beam

they

fixed

be

beam

it is necessary
will be equally

at

uniform

end, and

one

throughout its

be

equally strong throughout,

This
form
is
parabola.
generallyused in the beams of steam engines."
Dr. Young and Mr. Tredgold have considered that it will
better, in practice,to have
answer
some
straight-lined
figure to include the parabolicform ; and the form which
is to draw
a
they propose
tangent to the point A of the
parabola AGB.
To draw
a parabola."
its form

Let

may
that of

be

must

CB

represent the
length of the beam, and
AB
the semi-ordinate, or
half the base ; then, by

the property of the parabola,

the

ordinates
diameter

ass

to

are

as

their

feet, and

property

all

same

one

other
an-

respective abscisses.
AB

foot, we

determine

to

corresponding

to

follow

of

squares
the
to

:"

the

that is, 48

12fl

the square root

AndCB
48

the square

length
: :

: :

36

108

CB
48

CG
24

of which

root
:

AB9::

12a

then CB

48

the

root
square
inches "
LM.
to

touch

vertex

To

From

of

BB9

: :

which

GH9;

72

this

beam,

as

EF.

GH9;

nearly

36

GH.

IK9;

is 6 inches
6

CL

129::

apply

IK9;

12

the square root of which

Now, if we take CL

to

CB

semi-ordinates

nearly

is 8#5

CI:
: :

take

EF8;

=*

is 10*4

12a::

we

length of the
EFfl ;

AB9::

the

of

CF

of which
:

proceed

may

foot in the

every
CB
: AB9

if

Now,

is 4*24,

IK.

inches,

LM9

18

;
=

which

LM9;
is

near

very
be bent

Now, if any flexible rod

so
as
the tops A, E, H, K, M, of the ordinates,and
C, then the form of this rod is a parabola.

4|

just
the

"

draw

tangent

the vertex

to

any
of the

point A of

parabola draw
14

parabola :
CD

"

perpendicu-

158

STRENGTH

lar

and

CB,

to

make
AD

right line

MATERIALS.

OF

it

equal

will be

i AB

to

; then

join AD,

and

the

parabola at the
pointA ; that is, it touches the parabola at that point In
draw
the same
a
we
manner,
tangent to the parabola
may
at any other point,by erectinga perpendicularat the vertex
at that point.
equal to half the semi-ordinate
towards
is regularlydiminished
the points
When
a beam
the

that

strained,

least

are

figures,whether
the

middle,

supported

or

that all the

so

supportedat

it be

end, the outline should

to

tangent

sections

each

in the middle

be

and

and

loaded

loaded

in

each

at

parabola.

cubic

end

similar

are

ends, and is of the

supported at
breadth
same
throughout, then, if,the load be uniformly
distributed
throughout the length of the beam, the line
bounding the compressed side should be a semi-ellipse.
When

The

is

beam

should

form

same

both

where
they
wagon-way,
load rollingover
them.

Models.

The

"

model

model,

have

relation

of

use

resist the

to

models

of

for the rails of

of

pressure

machines,

to

a
a

to

as

particularattention of the mechanic.

perfectlyproportionedin all its parts as

strength,deserves
A

made

be

the

be
may
yet the machine,

in the

if constructed

same

tion,
propor-

sufficiently
strong in every part ; hence,
particularattention should be paid to the kind of strain the
different parts are
exposed to; and from the statements
will

which

follow, the proper

dimensions

of the structure

may

determined.

be

If the
the

strain

to

is

structure

draw

6 times

as

largeas

will be

6s

asunder

times

in the structure

stress

will be
the

in the

larger than
8s

216, and

so

on

model

the stress

we

is cube

structure

; and

the beam

of

the

is

structure

this the

times

greatest weight which

The

the

the structure

on

therefore, the

the model

if

If the structure

greater than the

wish
the greatest size we
to determine
can
of which
have a model, we
we
have,

the

1, and

be

model, then

the

512.

model, then

less firm than

will be much
as

be

not

more,

If

model.
make

chine
ma-

model

can

it actuallysustains
a
bear, divided by the weight which
multipliedby the size of the beam in
quotient which, when
the model, will give the greatest possiblesize of the same
=

beam
Ex.
a

in the structure.
"

If

beam

weight of

in the model

be 7 inches

long, and

bear

lbs.,but is capable of bearing a weight of 26

159

SHAFTS.

lbs. ; what

is the

greatest length which

in the

correspondingbeam

therefore, 6*5

X7

6-5,

inches.

45*5

from

The

strengthto resist crushing, increases

in proportion to their size, but,
structure

to

strain increases
the

model

be

will
of

greatest size

the cubes

as

than

the

square

the

quotient itself; thus,

will.be found

If the greatest weight which

the column
bear
is 3 cwt., and if it actuallybears 28

column

be

J("
wherefore, 3-464
column

-"(")

18

the

by employing

rule, instead
in

of

model

can

lbs., then, if the

-MM*

inches, the lengthof the

62*352

and

have

high, we

inches

18

as

machine,

quotientin the last

the

root

structure

of the

model

above, the
also,
wherefore, in this case

stronger

the

the

Here

structure

make

can

we

in the structure.

SHAFTS.

The

of

strength

shafts

particularattention;
it with the general subject,
incorporating

of

wherefore,*nstead

deserves

strengthof materials,
chapter under
When

have

we

allotted to it

weight

\(weight in lbs.

is in the middle

of the
..

"
-

^r-r
to

understood

be

body being usually

What

of 6 cwts.,

the

1/672

4jV
.If the
lbs.

weight
length ;

quotient
Thus,
the cube

2-005,

be

as

the

journal of

diameter

inches.

shaft, the

the

square.

is the diameter

weight

"

of

shaft

feet

12

weight acting at

long, bearing

the middle

12\

is

shaft,the rule is

length in feet\

This

separate

that head.

the

fj\

Crtc
2'525
rt

"-

inches.

500

equallydiffused,we

extract

the cube

root

have, the weight in

and

divide

by 10;

the

is the diameter.
take
root

the

last

of which

the diameter

example,

then

is 20*05,

which

of the shaft.

672

divided

12

8064

by

10

gives

160

STRENGTH

If

shaft
cylindrical

MATERIALS.

OP

have

weight

other

no

length8)

the rule is, ^('007 X

its own,
thus, if a shaft having only the stress
feet

10

For

weight,

the diameter

shaft

supporting so

long, and

apply

shafts

Ex.-*- What

by the foregoing
multiply by -935,

of

iron

cast

being

for fir 1*716.

and

twice

its

shaft

feet

12

weight 1

own

have,

(-012 X

123

for

2)

wrought iron, using

the

'935

inches.

6-44

a.

multiplier,
6-0215,

oak, using the multiplier,

6-44

for fir,we

for

cube

root

is

1-716

used

though by
in^practice,

safe

diameter

the

in

11-05104.

determining the diameter

the
of the weight which

nearly

found

11-3852,

have

A. rule often
one,

1-83

6-44

cwts.

iron, then

cast

to

it bears

6*44

be

diameter3

is the diameter

"/

The

weight\_

own

multiplieris 1*83,

the

the stress

we

and

own

iron shafts find the diameter

rules, which

F"r

its

in inches.

wrought

for oak

its

times

1 -f inner

diameter

and

No.

length8 x

\\

Here

times

many

have

we

I/-012

and

be

of the shaft in inches.

2*645

hollow

For

weight

own

long ;

^('007 Xl03)

outer

diameter;

of its

sides
be-

sustain

to

no

of

means

shafts

shaft bears

of the shaft in inches.

add

practice,to

one-third

more

rect
cor-

is

this.

taken

in

It will
to

this

result.
If

is, 30

we

shaft has

then

cwts.,
30

^/
and

metal

cast

supposing

weight of

i ton, that

have,

we

inches

3-107

to bear

feet

it 12

by

long, we

this rule ;
will apply the other

rule,

have,

vfe
3360

12

500

We

have

on

power

them;

resist torsion

considered

now

regards their

we
or

)-

to

resist

have

now

twisting.

4-319.

strengthof shafts,so far as

lateral pressure
ing
by weight act-

the

to

consider

their

power

to

"I
"

162

OF

STRENGTH

lateralpressure. We

shall
which
the
on
weight
close to the bearings.
lb.

9
Cast metal,
10
Do. vertical cast......

lb.

oz.

17

10

Englishiron
Swedish

Brass bent,

16

11

It would

gun

oz.

10
wrought,.

wrought, 9

iron

17

Shear

is

was

Hard

17

steel,

results of experiments
twist
bars i
to
necessary

a few
subjoin

Cast steel,
Blister steel,

MATERIALS.

metal,

Copper cast,
of bodies
strength

appear that the

nearlyas the cubes of their diameters.

11

to resist torsion

The rules and statements

have now
Remarks."
we
will often find their application
of the
in the practice

given
neer.
engiof the magnitudeof
proportioning
they have to bear, dependsmuch of

On the proper
materials to the stress
the beautyof any mechanical

greatermoment,

its absolute

to this

book, givesome

of these
TABLE

to
principles
OF

THE

structure

and, what is of far

security.We

will,in the Appendix

examplesof
practice.

DIAMETERS

OF

SHAFT

the

application

JOURNALS,

table of the diameters of the shaftsof first

preceding
of horses' power of the engineis given
the
number
movers,
in the left-hand column, and the number of revolutions the
shaft makes in a minute is givenin the top column. Then,
the table,we have only to look for the power of the
to use
enginein the side column, and the number of turns the shaft
In the

JOISTS

in

makes

where

and
of

iron, and

in

first

have

the line which

in

meet

inches.

The

will

the top,
the diameter

across

runs

be found

table is ^constructedfor cast

findingthe second and

also for finding equally

rules for

; the

movers

been

163

ROOFS.

columns

these

shaft

the

third

minute

AND

given above,

as

strong shafts of other materials.

This

table

the

by using

is the diameter

What
first

in

mover

30

horse

minute

in

revolutions

40

of

mover,

power
in like

engine, the shaft making

Here, by looking in the table,

revolutions,

power,

find 30, and

we

find 40,

we

and

in the

where

these

diameter

third

the

manner,

and

power

the shaft of the

find 6*9 =
of the first
we
meet,
the
second
of this
in inches ; wherefore,
mover
6*9 X #8 =
inches ; and,
5*52
and velocitywill be

inches

4'416

"

journal of

the

columns

formerly given.

purpose,

power

of horses'

in the side column

top column

of the

and

second

to

It may,
ever,
howthird movers,

only.

movers

give results for

multipliersfor that

made

be

for first

answers

be

of the third

the diameter

will

mover

6*9. x

mover

'64

to the same

speed.
JOISTS

should

increase

AND

ROOFS.

strength in proportion to the

of their lengths ; for instance, a joist16 feet long
squares
should be four times as strong as
another
joist8 feet long,
what
similarly situated; because 83: 16s: : 1 : 4. From
has been
previously stated, it will easilyappear, that the
stress
ends, increases
a beam
on
or joistsupported at both
Joists

towards

the middle, where

that

to

should

beam

increasing strain

the

in

the thickness

of

strengthened in proportion to

be

and,

beam

lows,
fol-

it is greatest ; it therefore

as

it would

towards

the

not

be

easy

to

middle, which

add

would

destroy the levelness of the floor, a good substitute may be

increase
to fasten pieces to the sides of the joist,and thus
its breadth ; thus causing the beam
to taper, in breadth,
In this way
from
the centre
to the ends.
joistsmay be
made
of the same
much
stronger than they usually are
It may
length, and out of the same
quantity of timber.
also be observed, that joistsare twice as strong when
firmly
fixed in the wall,
that

they have,

the wall.

as

when

when

It is also to

stronger when

loose

; but

it is to be

fixed, a far greater

be remarked, that a

supported in

the middle.

remarked,

tendency to
joistis four

shake
times

164

ROOFS.

AND

JOISTS

represent the length of

known

joist,
depth, and T its
thickness
joistis required of equal strength
; and if another
with the former, when
similarlysituated ; whose
length is
representedby /, its depth by d, and its thickness by t; we
have the followingrules :
If the letter L

If

joist30 feet long, 1

sufficient in

tried, and

been

strengthhas

whose

its

deep, and

foot

the

thick,be

3 inches

depth of

beam
be,
a
and
its
feet,
length
depth
thickness
bearing the same
proportionto each other, as in
the former
?
beam
Here, by the first theorem, we have,
one

what

case,

must

similarlyplaced, whose

some

is 15

" ~^)
the

depth ;

1-88

and

therefore

given

beam

deep, 3 thick, and

by

feet

-6298

3 thickness

depth :

12

inches

7-55

: :

7*55

the breadth.

If the

the

^('25)

30

in the last

be,

as

feet

long, and

the

strength,is 8 inches deep, and

same

the 4th

6 inches

thick, then

have,

we

\[(88*3?X3~)
28'28

"

If

example, 12 inches
required beam, of

feet

length'

joist,whose
length is 30 feet, depth 12 inches, and
thickness 8, is given, to find the depth of another
of equal
6
strength,only inches thick, and 28-28 feet long? Here,
a

"

by

the

2tf, we

hatfe,

|12a x

28-28*
.

To

have

30

the

from

the

mches,

find the thickness

by

"

X/

the

depth.

circumstances,

same

we

3"f,

129X28-289X3
_

a
"

qs

The

low

qq"

remarks

same

high roof

roof,

lengthsof

as

the

; but the

"

t.
inches, the thickness.

hold true

is both

to

heavier

slates and

be

other

certain

and

they
always
far
so
couple-legs,
will

as

expensive

more
as

the

the

materials

in roofing.

extent

squares

of the

scantlingis
increase

in

than

cerned
con-

weight

165

WHEELS.

the length of the couple-legssimply.

and expense
as
the
roofs have, however,
advantage of being less
the walls

upon

than

low

is to

that

ones,

severe

far

so

say,

High
as

is concerned.

To
walls
obtain
tendency to push out
that of the span, a common
the length of the rafter from
rule is to multiply the span by *66, which
gives the length
of the rafter ; thus, 14 feet of span gives 14 x '66
9*24
feet,the length of the rafter.
Note.
The
in the tables x"f the strengthof
numbers
the

"

materials

such

are

will break

as

bodies

the

in

very

short

prudent artist,therefore, will do well to trust no

about one-third of these weights; also great
than
more
allowance
be raafle for knotty timber, and
is
such
must
as
in any part across
sawn
or
obliquely to the fibres.
time

; the

WHEELS.

In page
wheel-work

136

the subjectof
promised again to resume
proceed to consider, in the first
we^now

we

and

place,the formation
A Cog-wheel
is
has

of the

of teeth

Pinion

is

than

more

small

of the

same

called teeth ; when

material, and fixed to
are

called

The
the

which

trundle, lantern,

the teeth of

trundle,

wheel

has, in general,not

toothed
teeth ; though, when
wheels
two
act
another, the smallest is generallycalled the pinion ;

and formed

are

or

which
any wheel
its circumference.

12

upon one
is also the
so

When

for
general name
cogs placed round

the

number

teeth of wheels.

cogs

in

wheel

wallower.

or

made

are

the

piece as
they are

of the

body

circumference

the

pinion they

of the wheel,

of wood

made

called

they
other

some

or

of the

are

material

same

wheel, they
leaves ;

in

staves.

wheel

which

which

wheel

follower or

acts

is called

is acted

by

upon

leader, or driver
the

former

and

is called

the driven.

When

wheel

and

pinion are

to

pinion shall revolve four times

be representedby two
they must
are
so

to

one

another,

placed that they

then the line drawn

as

4 to 1.

touch

each

be

formed

so

for the wheel's

circles,whose

When
other

these
at the

joining their centres,

two

the

that
once,

then

diameters
circles

are

circumferences,

is called the line

166

WHEELS.

and

of centres,
radii.
These

the radii of the two

circles

circles,the proportional

called, by mill-wrights in

are

general,

pitch-lines.
The

distances

from

of their

and the distances

measured

between

actingupon

called spur geer.

are
called bevel geer.
Teeth
and

called the real

respectiveteeth, are
the centres

circles to the

of wheels

judgment

When

radii,

contiguousteeth
pitchof the wheel.
in the same
plane,
an
angle,they are

another

one

tremities
ex-

of two

the pitch-line,
is called the

upon
wheels

Two

of two

the centres

they

at

act

pinions require great care

formation, so that they neither clog

and

leaves

in their

of

the

gularly
irreact
friction,nor
so
machinery with unnecessary
and a
to produce any
as
inequalitiesin the^motion,
Much
wearing away of one part before another.
consequent
has been
written
this subject by mathematicians, who
on
to agree that the epicycloid is the best of all curves
seem
for the teeth of wheels.
The
epicycloidis a curve
differing
from the cycloidformerly described, in this, that the generating
circle instead of moving along a straight
edge,moves
the circumference

on

The

teeth of

teeth

of

direction of the

of

their mutual

of the circle is here

conditions, and
wheel
the

on

which

teeth, and

which

one

surface

spring, then
that

when

let

fasten
stretched

circumference

shall

of

much

of
a

more

ABC

of

proposed
be
one

the

to

the
raise

point

from

tooth

is to

string at B, -such
and
the
lying on
reach

them

will

to

a;

be

same

by

nished.
dimi-

the

teeth

in

should

the termination
fies
epicycloidsatisthe involute

satisfyingequally these
easilydescribed.

substituted, as

of

it is intricate,and

; but

it is

or

form

As

another, the
upon
the same,
that
so

surfaces

commencement

circumference

the

teeth

remain

the

at

against another, and

The

being

as

the

pendicular
per-

it drives.

amongst

tooth

one

The
one

contact.

conditions

strain

should

pressure

working should not rub

suffer no jolteither at the

Take

of

be uniform.

the effect may

all these

the

direction

in contact

be

breaking

the action

During

of

press in
which
the wheel

should

distribute

to

the chance

means

circle.

possible should

as

time, in order
this

wheel

one

the radius

to

many

of another

fix

167

WHEELS.

pencil at a, and keeping the string equally tense,

the penciloutwards, and it will describe the involute
Fasten

stringat

the

is fixed, be

tooth is

the

will form

circle which

the

at

that its

so

side

one

end,

which

from

point

to

other

face

; then

above

from

the rest

tooth.

pencil
of the

the

curve

aud

the

may

be traced

figure

it.
teeth of the

The
The
a

being determined,

of the teeth

one

the
the

of the other side of the tooth will be formed

of

of

which

the

proceed as

spring" and

to

for

curve

move

of the

of

well

is found

which
of

any

with

us

to

swer
an-

geometrical

the

the mathematician.

of

curves

practice as

in

manner.

furnished

has

teeth of wheels,

forming

fullyas

in like

men
practical

of

observation

method

formed

pinion are

the pattern here of

with
of a wheel
the segment
fixed on
in their rough
cogs
state, and it is required to bring *;
We

have

them

their

to

they
they

consequently understood

are

intended

are

circumference
and

teeth

figure:

proper

of the wheel

pitch line

d, d, for their extremities

pitchcircle
to an

of

extent

this radius
on

the

point
other
set

arcs

of

on

a,

a,

the

from

as

Then

face

the

action

of

the

of

the
also

; draw

this is done, the

equal parts as
many
then to be opened
are
divisions,and with

side of every division

that line to the line d, d.
One
each

on

being

tooth, and

one

into

bottoms

on

When

tops.

compasses
quarter of those

compasses

described.

are

described

are

the

side

one

and

one

a,

The

teeth.

pitch line
of

or

a,

b9 b, is the

arc

the

point of

their

correctlydivided

is

to be

are

arc

an

of

The

which

on

Draw

rest.

cogs

teeth for the

there

dressed.

when

to be

largerthan

much

be

to

o,

the

set

n,

c, the

on

the

on

the

curve

/,

sides

other

pointof.the

adjacentdivision k,

curve

g, on
of the

being
compasses
scribed
/, m, will be de-

completes the curved portion of the tooth

The
remaining portion of the tooth within the circle a,
is bounded
by two straightlines drawn from g and m
the centre.
The
same
being done to the teeth
this

is finished, and

round, the mark

dressed

down

It will

be

to the

easy

to

having the pitch and

Thus,

wheel

of 54

the cogs

lines thus

drawn.

determine

the

number
teeth

of any
that wheel

diameter

of teeth

having

only require

in

pitchof

to

e.

a,
wards
to-

all
be

wheel

given.

inches,

we

168

WtxEExtS*

54

have

inches, the

162

circumference,

conse-

quently,
162

diameter,

inches

51*5

nearly.

31416
about

or

feet 3" inches.

given the radii of wheels

inch.
To
of teeth, the pitchbeing one
of various numbers
have only to multiply
find the radius for any other pitch,we
the radius
in the table by the pitch in inches, the product
Thus
for 30 teeth at a pitch of 3 J inches,
is the answer.
following table

In the

we

have

we

have

4*783

3*5

16*74

inches,

radius.

the

10

1-668

1-774

1-932

2-089

2-247

2-405

2-563

2-721

2-879

3-038

20

3-196

3-355

3-513

3-672

3-830

3-989

4-148

4-307

4-465

4-624

30

4-783

4-942

6101

5-260

5-419

5-678

5-737

5-896

6055

6-214

40

6-373

6-532

6-643

6-850

7009

7-168

7-327

7-486

7-695

7-804

60

7-963

8-122

8-231

8-440

8-599

8-753

8-962

9076

9-235

9-399

60

9-553

9-712

9872

10031

10-190

10-349

10-508

10-662

10-826

10-936

70

11-144

11-303

11-463

11-622

11-731

11-940

12099

12-758

12-417

12-676

80

12-735

12-895

13054

13-213

13 370

13-531

13690

13-849

14-008

14168

90

14-327

14-436

14-645

14-804

14-963

15122

15-281

15-441

15-600

15-759

100

15-918

16072

16-236

16-396

16*554

16-713

16-873

17032

17-191

17-360

110

17-604

17-668

17-987

17-827

18-146

18-305

18-464

18-623

18-782

18-941

120

19101

19-260

19-419

20-214

20-374

20-533

130

20692

20-851

21-010

19-578 19-737
21-169 21-328

21-488

21-647

21-806

21-460

22124

140

22-283

22-442

22-602

22-761

22-920

23074

23-238

23-397

23-566

23-716

150

23875

24-034

24193

24-352

24-511

24-620

24-830

24-989

25-148

25

160

25-466

25-625

25-784

25-944

26-103

26-262

26-421

26-580

26-739

26-894

19-896 20055

307

170 27-058

27-217

27-376

27-535

27-931

28-172

28-331

28-490

28-699

28-808

28-967

29-126

27-694
29-286

27-853

180

29-445

29-604

29-763

29-922

30-086

190 30-241

30-400

30-559

30-718

30-877

31036

31-196

31-355

31-514

31-673

200

31-832

31-992

32150

32-310

32-469

32-628

32-846

33-105

33-264

210

33-424

33-583

33-742

33-901

34060

34-219

32-787
34-278

34-537

34-697

34-856

220

35-015

35174

35-333

35-492

35-652

35-811

35-970

36-129

36-288

36-447

230

36-607

36-766

36-926

37-084

37-243

37-402

37-720

37-880

38-039

240

38-198

38-357

38-516

38-725

38-835

38-994

37-661
39153

39-312

39-471

260

39-790

39-949

40108

40-262

40-426

40-585

40-744

40-904

41063

39-631
41-222

260

41-381

41-541

41-699

41-858

42019

42-177

42-336

42-495

42-664

42-813

270 42-973

43132

43-291

43-450

43-609

43-768

43-927

44087

44-231

44-405

280

44-564

44-723

44-882

45042

45-201

45-360

45-519

45-678

46-837

45-996

290

46-156

46-315

46-474

46-633

46-792

46-751

47-111

47-270

47-429

47-588

This

lation,
very useful table in abridgingcalcuwish to find the radius of a wheel
for instance, if we
side
at the left-hand
look for 130
132
teeth, we

will be
"

having

column, and
we

find

wheel

the

found

the- top, and

number
21*010,
at

be 2i inches,

we

where

these

which, if
multiply by 2J.

the

columns

meet,

pitch of

the

1
170

WHEELS.

the part of the reader will show

A littlereflectionon
that since

*636, and

s=

"

-"

1*571, and-r"

--

*159,

"

11

have,

We

(1)pitchx

'159

of teeth ass radius.

nnmber

radius
fn\

of teeth x

number

-159

radius

(3)
?m
'
*
pitch X

number

"

of teeth,

,grt
'159

Thus,

(1)2

-159

60

1908

-"

radius,

"

19

(2)
^
v
'

7T"

Pitch,
r

"

60 X '159
19

(3)
' ^
*

rr^

60

=ar

number

of teeth.

2 x*159

number #16 maybe employed instead of

These rules are approximate,
"159, beingeasilyremembered.
teeth
creases.
inof
the
number
diminishes
the
as
and
error
rules
line,but these
The
true pitchis a straight
Note.

"

The

which passes throughthe centre

of the circle,
of the teeth,whereas it should be the chord of the arc.
clock-work givesthe following
writer on
An eminent

giveit an

arc

and

wheels
rules regarding

pinions:
"

of teeth in the wheel + 2*25,

the number
Is to the diameter of the wheel,
of teeth in the pinion+ 1*5,
So is the number

(A)As

To the diameter of the pinion.

A wheel being 12 inches diameter,having 120 teeth,
'drivesa pinionof 20 leaves ; wherefore,
and 20 + 1*5 "
21*5,
122*25
120 + 2*25 =
of the
diameter
the
2*1104
=
Then 122*25 : 12 : : 21*5 :
*

pinion.

(6) As the number

of teeth in the wheel

Is to the wheel's

2*25,

diameter,

in wheel + leaves in
So is i (teeth
To the distance of their centres.

pinion)
df teeth 96,

A wheel's diameter being3*2 inches,number

the leaves in the pinionbeing8, then,

104

96

2*25,

"

98*25

and J

(96+ 8)

="

52.

171

WHEELS.

Hence, 98-25

3*2

52

: :

ought to have.
strengthof wheels

the centres

The
the

attention

the

rules

of the

they

have

1*6936

:
,r

the distance which

rj~~

subjectwhich has occupied

eminent
most
practicalengineers,but
that is
given us are entirelyempirical,
experiment.
is

say, the result of

The
strengthof the teeth will vary with
the wheel, the strength in horses'
power

to

the
at

velocityof
velocityof

feet per second, will be

breadth
of the tooth X its thickness9

2*27

power.

"

length of tooth
Required the strengthin horses'
_

thick, and 1*6 inches

feet per second,
here we
have

broad,
4

inches

1*3

of 2 '27

tooth 4 inches

long, at

velocity

"

1*3*

"

of

power

4*225, the horses' power

a=s

"

"

The

at

power
thus

2*27

the

11*1

velocitymay

of 6 feet per second.

thickness
of
The

tooth

of

tooth

xl'2*

The
Ex.

thickness

thickness

The

"

of

found

be

feet per second.

horses'
=
power

at 6

same

4*225

::

other

any

velocityof

at a

by

portion,
pro-

velocity

the

pitch.
length.
being 1$ inches, then

2*1

"

tooth

at

2*27.

we

have

The

breadth

The

arms

are,

2*1

1-5

1*2

in

3*15

1*8

?=

practiceis

they

It is

wheel

of wheels

rim, because
axle.

1*5

they

resistance

The

power-

pitch.
length.

usually 2*5

the

obvious, that the

the

the

suffer

towards
the

numerous

diffused

over

acting at

the rim

and

of

cube

Ex.
wheel

be 16

cwt.;
of arms

the force ;
1792

greater number.

length of

2656

arm8
breadth

0*1

the

the radius of

6, then

extremity of the arm of a

the wheel
being 5 feet,and

have

we

2656

depth.

16

112

1792

lbs.

wherefore,
58

actingat

224000

oi

^TEw*

140' breadth
%

depth.

If the force

"

the number
"

arms

the
of

arms

of

the

proportionatelyless strain,as

will be

number

pitch.

the axle to

stress

greatest

more

the

times

generallytaper from

sustain

eaoh

the

Ag%

and cube

of

172

WHEELS.

let

Now,

divide

must

suppose

us

140

this

by

breadth

that

the

it,

whence,

is

inches,

two

we

140

and

the

the

depth

cube
of

When
the
rule

at

instead
The

degree

each

tables

useful

the
of

70

will

cube

of

found

be

the

depth,

which

4*121,

is

arm.

depth

the

depth

of

root

the

70,

"

rim,

at

the
the

axis

is

number

intended
1640

be

to

is

to

be

double
used

of
in

the

2656.
which
to

the

follow

practical

will

be

mechanic.

found

in

the

highest

173

TVHE.E.LS*

OF

TABLE

OF

PITCHES

WHEELS

IN

ACTUAL

USE

IN

MILL

WORK.

WW
g
P?
"

"

""

"

t_i

t-"

"-"

09

r*

e^

**"

"""

CD

CD

CD

"

CD
CD

n"
CD

CD
CD

*-"

""

H-o*

CD
CD
*

""

As

cd

09

OB

00
CD

CD
l

CD

E3

*3

oa

"4

*"

"

CO

"-"

Honw'

t9t9000)i^OQiOOiHH

00

CO

CO

to

CO

t3t^t-^t0t0t0COCO"tCOt0t0
oaks

ooi^i iMm

"N~ *+-

FifchininchM.

*"m "N**

ooh

Bntdifa

to

CO
oi

h-

"o

co

^*

H-"

H-

l-"

"*J

CO

CO

00

a"

tO
en

tO
Oi

*t
^

(9

(9

Oi

CO
t9

en

tf^iften

H-

CO

CO

Od

Oi

Oi

tO

to
CO

co

H-

to

to

"l

Oi

^
*"" 05
OS
OQDXtdHQDO

Oi

^
O

00

^
O

of teeth hi Inches.

Teeth,

Revolves

per

"t-

"OHHQQOO^^O

"ft co
tO
QD

co

^1

SO
-4~

ODaoenencotoco^cotOi^oi

en
*"

to
o

power.

69

O
Cn
C
*s"- khh. tat*

"ft

en

i^

OOtO

to

to

CO

to

Teeth.

CO
CO
"

CO
to

tO

en

"

"

Qi
CO

Oi

Oi

_e"

"

Ol

O)

h-

"

h"
"-"

"

^
"J

*1

"*

CO

i"

ift *J

a"

"-

to

to

co

co

to

"J

ao

en

en

en

**

en

"s]

a*

^ien

COHH

"-*

cojn cojoi cote*

h*

i*V Ol

oatoi

en

ao

co

*a

**

ao

**

tooo

en

en

"I

i"

"l

to
en

ao

co
en

Wh

"ioio

rj
X

to
en

"

"

en

oi
*s] en

"

0B

"

co
co

"

co

ao
CO

to

en

o*
co
i^h

co
en

j"

Frewnt
in*"*

at S

oococoiftoentotoa*
oo

to 10

velocity
per mcobcL

Breadth in tehee
tioneltolOhonee

"""""*""""""""""

*"
o*
*itc

pmportiaml

CO

0*Cno*"Pt"l^iftoi-'enOD"ffc"enen*4ifttO
"

Breedth

Telocity.

co

"""""

to

'

honoj'power,end preeeat

^oo-^enc"enencnoicntf^coeo
H"*

CO

CO
CO

"-"

Revolvee per
minute.

"

"

"

COtOtOtOfr"H-tOi--*"

0"

to

co

ao
co

15*

oi

*a

co

en

f. p.

second,

__

"

reducing all theeaaiplai

to the

tame

denom.

174

WHEELS.

EXPLANATION

OF

"c, IN

REFERENCES,
ING

THE

FOREGO-

TABLE.

which has been 16 years at work,

I The only defect in this geering,
and pinion
is the want of breadth in the spur-wheel
: theyought to have
been 6 inches or more, as they will not last half so long as the bevelconnected with them.
wheels and pinions
9

Has

Has

and

This

be

This wheel

is a better

pitchhas

In the

are

much

worn.

geeringis found

rather too

row
nar-

fasterthan the rest of the wheels

mill.

same

years.
6 This
7

teeth

This
been 16 years at work.
it
is
for the strain,
as
wearing much

in the
4

The

been 16 years at work.

pitchfor the

power

has been

than the

working for three

following.

been found to be too fine.

table
foregoing

called

and
teeth,

has wooden

the wheels

denomination.

are

all reduced

to what

By proportioning
they should be, to have the same
if the resistance were
strength,
equalto the work of a steam
engineof ten horses' power. 2d, By supposingtheir pitchlines all brought to the same
of three feet per second,
velocity
and proportioning
their breadth accordingly.This
of three feet per second has been chosen,
particular
velocity
because it is the velocity
for overshot wheels.
very common
Such cases
too rapidly,
as
marked,
are
appear to have worn
which may tend to discover the limit in pointof breadth.
one

may
all their breadths

"

1st.

to what

OF

TABLE

PITCHES.

succeedingtable of pitchesof wheels was drawn up

the
The
in
thickness of the teeth in
:
followingmanner
each of the lines is varied one-tenth of an inch.
The
The

"

breadth

of the teeth is always four times as much

their
as
The
of
teeth
is ascertained by
strength the"
multiplyingthe square of their thickness into their breadth,
taken
in inches and tenths,"c.
The
pitch is found by

thickness.

multiplyingthe

thickness of the teeth by 2*1.

The number
that represents the strength
of the teeth,will also sent
repreof horses' power, at a velocity
the number
of about
four feet per second.
Thus, in the table where the pitch
thickness
of the teeth 1*5 inches, and
3*15
is
inches,the
the breadth 6 inches, the strengthis valued at 133 horses'
power,
line.

with

of
velocity

four feet per second

at the

pitch-

175

WHEELS.

Table

of Pitches
of

the

horses9

power,

three,

four,

of Wheels,

teeth, and

moving
six, and

the
at

with

the breadth

corresponding
the pitch-line at

eight feet, per

ness
thick-

and
number
the

of

of

rate

second.

HYDROSTATICS.

of

fluids

like

of

circumstances

fluids

are

of the

"c,

mercury,

solids

Hydrodynamics,

particlesof

The

water,

as

of

pressure

rest.

at

are

the

to

and

weight

the

fluids,

non-elastic

of

pressure

all the circumstances

comprehends

Hydrostatics

in

them,

the

on

other

fluids

in motion.

small

and

and

when

these

hand,

refers

easily moved

among

themselves.
Motion
in

direction,

the

this

From
to

come

10

deep,

the

bottom

and,

pipe

be

made

the

to

in the

become

level

this

the

fluid
If
the

height
The

rise

of

be

will

vessel

sides

be

may

in

through pipes

pipes

surface

their

to

the

contain

is

of

in

wide
that

the

water,

fluid

that

point,

a
upon
of the

to

in the

horizontal

the

long

and

very

small

pipe,

the

strongest

faces
sur-

if water
of
ther
whe-

; and

any

is level.

point

any

in

perpendicular
side

or

bottom.

base, is equal

fluid, of the
weight of a column
base
multiplied by the perpendicular height
whatever
be the shape of the containing vessel
to

the

places,

on

the

to

number

narrow

surface

sures
pres-

come

any

that

till their

all the
or

water

than

Hence,

pressure

proportional

fluid, above

pressure

level

same

sure
pres-

the

different

between

straight or bent,
rest
only when

bottom,

or

the

then

surfaces

area.

the

level, and

rise

to

to

cistern

pressure

however

true,

cisterns

two

it will

the

is, when

more

feet

them,

other

tend

water,

be

on

greater

the

hold

will

communicated

places,

exert

cause

will

be

oblique.

always

the

between

equal, that

and

of

will

6, there

in

propagated

filled with

be

cisterns

both

will

is

feet, than

10

communicate

and

other,

the

of

cistern

deep

other

straight line

one

will

water

cisterns

the

of

bottoms

is, that

two

in

sidewise, and

downwards,

it

and

is not

force, but

moving

property

feet

if the

be

the

level, for if

on

in

of

fluid

direction, upwards,

every

one

in

pressure

or

area

of

casks

the
so
or

176

of

the

fluid,
that

by

vessels

178

HYDROSTATICS.

feet, hence

108

6*232

673*06

gallonsmay

be

contain

gallons,

tained
con-

in it.

required that

It is
but

must

cistern should

exceed

not

feet in

10

length

1000

and

in

breadth,

wherefore,
1000

1000

10

cylinderis

6*5

3s X

6-232

long and

'034

1*989

is to be made

pipe

its diameter

it will contain.

length, what
gallons?

in
5

If any

upon

pressure

any

planesurface

equal

the

to

either vertical

or

which

on

plane
gravity.
inclined, be placed
same

the
of pressure
of the fluid on
of percussion,the surface of the fluid

centre

is at the centre

be

9*4 inches.

plane surface,

fluid,the

must

354

the
pressure
upon
of
horizontallyat the depth of its centre

placed
a

fore
diameter, there-

20

quantityof

fluid rests, is

in

gallonsthat

that it shall contain

so

4
a

3 inches

inches

20

15 x

The

3116

6*5' feet
=

eet"

**

"~

plane
being

the centre of motion.

Thus
it will be found that
in a cistern whose
sides are vertical,the centre
of pressure
the sides is two-thirds from the top, which is also the
on

supposed

of

centre

To

percussion.
the whole

ascertain

surface

exposed

the

to

to the truth may

and

depth being taken

pressure

pressure
be made

on

other
or
flood-gate,

of water, a very near

proach
apthese
rules
the
breadth
by
"

in feet.

31*25

breadth

depth9

="

pressure

in lbs.

"2727

breadth

depth9

pressure

in cwts,

If the gate be

wider

/breadth
",

at bottom

depth9
will

"

whose
of

the water

at bottomx

,.

breadth

in lbs. ; and *2727, used instead

the pressure
in cwts., nearly.

pressure

give

gate,
is the pressure
a
rectangularfloodupon
breadth is 25 feet,and depth below the surface

What

12

31*25

height12,

feet?
25

If the breadth
the

top than bottom,

breadth

"

"

of 31*25,
Exam.

at top

"^

31*25

at the

as

129

"

112500

lbs. pressure.

top be 28 feet,that
before, then,
at

at

bottom

22, and

179

HYDROSTATICS.

2ft

31-25

22

"

1-22

129

lbs. pressure.

108000

The

of

weight

cubic foot of river

is about

water

fT of

The
feet is about 13
at the depth of 30
a cwt.
pressure
And
the
lbs. to the square
inch.
at
depth of 36 feet the
foot.
The
is about 1 ton to the square
weight of
pressure
lbs.
10
about
an
imperialgallon of water is

What

Ex."

of

depth

feet

120

on

inch?

square
30

at the

is the pressure

120

depth, 36

13

::

120

It is not

52

difficult

3?

to

and at the
pressure,
the square
foot.
on

the

tons

the

that

see

strength of the

same

vessels

water
be regulated
must
pipes which contain or convey
the
according to
pressure.
The
thickness
of pipes to convey
water
must
vary in proportion
head
of
diameter
of
the
of
water
to the height
X
of
the
the cohesion
of one
inch
material
of
pipe
square
which
the pipe is composed.
By experiment it has been found that a cast iron pipe 1 5

or

\
*

-7-

inches

f of

and

diameter

an

inch

head

of

thickness

diameter

the

of the material

varies

of

Ex."-

inches

When

feet.

180

360

for
10

,
=*

with

the

height of

the

of

cast

same,

the

head

"

iQftv

loU

conduit

diameters

the!

pipes

are

pipe 10

of

an

mch ,.vl thickness.

of oak, then

2f thickness

"

iron

in inches.

Id

pipes
should

their thicknesses
the

iv

feet ?

is to be made

pipe

same

"

are

be

horizontal

and

2", 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,

made

of lead,

lines, when

and when
1, l", 2, 3,4$, 6, 7 inches
of iron, their thickness
should be 1,2,
their diameters
are
lines,when
1, 2, 4, 6,

are

"

made

3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
8, 10, 12.

plumber should be aware

four times, by adding

increased

When

of oak

pipe

is

15

6Q0

The

high.

thick, is sufficient for

of 360

head

"

When

metal, will be

material

the thickness

be

must

diameter

If the

of

pipe.

What

thick

feet

sufficiently
strong for a head 600
15 inches
diameter
and
inches
2

the vessel which

that the
1

contains

tenacityof

lead is

part of zinc to 8 of lead.

the water
has, besides the

180

HYDROSTATICS.

arisingfrom

pressure
additional

pressure

in Bramah's
a

press, where
the water
on

force pump
with

before

in

of

often

be

the

pressure

the

as

piston of

inch, the

one.

force

of

an

the water,

exerted

the pressure
in a small

area

on

resist

to

by

of

means

tube, which

as

nicates
commu-

the

principlesstated
the piston of the
is contained

the tube

in the

cylinder. If the area of the tube

of the piston 92 inches, and if the

the

area

the water

on

the water,

large cylinder, is, by

chapter, multipliedon

this

cylinder as
area

weight of
exerted
by some
the

in the tube be

the

16

lbs., then

the pressure

1472 lbs.
piston will be 16 X 92
The
annexed
the
figure and description taken from
Popular Encyclopedia, will give a clearer idea of the
Here
AB
is the bottom
of a
operation of this press.
hollow
cylinder,into which a piston
P is accuratelyfitted. Into the bottom
of this cylinder there is introduced
a
pipe C leading from the
D ; water
is supplied
forcing pump
to this pump
by a cistern below, from
which
the pipe E is led, being fur- D
If
nished with a valve opening upwards
PE3
on

"

where

it is

the pump
barrel.
Where
the pipe C enters
into the pump
valve
a
into the
opening outwards
when

the

the

cistern

barrel.

joinedto

piston D

rises, this valve

and

pipe

opens,
top of the
which
on

The

barrel

there

is also

pipe ; consequently,

shuts, and

the fluid rises

the valve

into

the

at

pump

pistonrod, P, is fixed in the bottom

of the board
the goods are
the
laid, and when
piston rises the goods are pressed,againstthe top of the
the piston begins to deWhen
scend,
framing of the machine.
the

cistern

valve

shuts, and

through the pipe C

into the

law

alluded

of fluids before

by the piston D
will be

in the
the

repeated on
times

many

area

as

the

of the

pump-piston

cylinder
with

on

100

the

is forced

water

large cylinderAB

; and

by

the

to, whatever
pressure be exerted
the surface
of the water
in the pump,
the piston of the large cylinder AB
as

area

of the

small

largepiston AB
were

one

inches, and

; that

square

if the

piston D

is contained

is, if the

inch, and

piston were

area

that

forced

of

of the

down

of 10 lbs., then the whole

the
on
pressure
pressure
bottom
of the piston AB
will be 10 times 100, that is, 1000
lbs. When
the
is now
taken
before the reader was
page which
a

181

HYDROSTATICS.

all deeply indented

in consequence
of the pressure
of the printingpress ; but after being dried, it
was
subjectedto the action of Bramah's
press, by which

off the types, it was

wet

nearly

process, as will be seen, these indentations have been

obliterated.
In the press by which
this has been
the pump
diameter, and the
therefore

are

of

has

the

This

is to

pump-cylinder

be 56

boys,)the

large cylinder will

astonishing power
the

ascertain

cylinderof

such

of metal

(thesquares
if the

is,

be

piston of

the

lbs.

6-328

the

in

employed

been

metal

for the

necessary

serve

in.

per square

pressure

being

The

cohesive

force of

for the

necessary

radius

The

pressure.

cylinder

of

pressure

"

the

cylinderto sustain

in lbs.

inch of

square

iron

cast

lbs.

is 18,000

is the thickness

cylinderis

12

inches

of metal

is to

1*5

circular

per

whose

iron press

cast

being

1*5

tons

circular inch
tons

in

diameter, the pressure

the circular inch

A

of

inch

of the metal

What

also

areas

lbs., (which can

this rule will

presses,

cohesion

"

113,

thickness

per square

Note.

56

their

hence

113;

upon
that

pressure

has

pressure

thickness

on

be

64,

in

inch

an

of cranes."

construction
To

eight inches,
9-1 6th to

one

the
pressure
upon
effected
by
easily
the

of

cylinderone

another, as
diameters,)that is, as
to

of

of three-fourths

bore

plished,
accom-

square

inch

inch

as

=1*9

0*7854
per

to

fore
1, there-

square

inch

lbs.

4256

Here

have

we

4256X6
1851b'

18000

is the thickness

What
whose

cylinder is 10
for

The

by

the
2

4256"

"

of metal

inches

in

press

in diameter,

of
and

yellow brass,
which

tended
is in-

inch ?
pressure of 2 tons to the square
cohesive
force of yellow brass being 17958, we
a

rule,

same

tons

4480

4480

17958"^480

lbs.

"

^eQ

have

777"

1*66

inches, the

metal,
16

thickness

of

the

182

HYDROSTATICS.

When

the diameter

to

the

remains

increase with

the increase

FLOATING

When

any

Bodies

immersed

the thickness appears

same,

of pressure.

BODIES.

in water, it will, if it be of
the same
density of the water, remain suspended in any
it will sink,
dense than the water
place; but if it be more
and if less dense it will float.
of

body

and

equal bulk

an

that the

is immersed

suspended

the

fluid

quantityof

body

weight of the

When

weight

they

floats upon the water, it will sink

till the water
which
is displacedbe equal in

the

to

fluid lose the

fluid, and the fluid acquires the

body loses : also, bodies floatingon a fluid

weight
weight in proportionto

water

of the

lose

When

in

in the

weight

body.

floats

body

place.
dis-

on

fluid,it will only be

the centre
of gravityof the body and
gravityof the displacedfluid are in the same

at

rest

centre

of

when

the

and

the lower

vertical line ;
stable will

the

body be.
buoyancy

the centre

The

without
ale

282

gallon,or

gravityis, the

gravityis

the relative

1000

cubic

; one

avoir, at

ounces

weight
The

of

foot of which

temperature

be

solid heavier

carefullyin air, and

water,

and

in this

body's weight
and

water,

the

note
state

in air

this
note

than

body of a
body taken

any

some

standard

of

is found

of 60"

of
weight expressed in ounces
body, will be its specific
gravity,that of
To determine
the specific
gravity.

If a body

the

of the cask.

weight of

that the

so

lbs. to

10

GRAVITY.

certain bulk, compared with the

of the same
bulk.
a standard
as
is water

they will carry

be estimated
at about
may
cubic inches
of the content

SPECIFIC

Specific

more

casks, or the load which

of

sinking,

of

of Fahrenheit,

cubic foot of any

water

water

comparison
to weigh

"

being

Weigh

1000.

it first

it in
weight ; then immerse
its wgight. Then
divide the

in air
by the difference of the*weights
the
is
quotient
specific
gravity.

If a body be
metal
to

the

weight

metal

solid

lighterthan

that the

it,so

to

183

GRAVITY.

SPECIFIC

compound

water

sink

may

from

and

this

in water

the
the

subtract

sum

piece of

then

"

weight
weight

of the
of the

difference makes
in water, which
divisor
a
which
is the weight of the solid in air, then

compound

to

dividend,
quotient will be the specificgravity.

If

the

gravityis

be

body
known,

the difference

fluid, and

fluid

"

solid,whose

the

specific

that will sink

and

of the

Take

weights

multiply this

of

in the fluid ; then take

the solid in and out of the

difference

the

by

specificgravity

of

the solid ; then, this product divided

by the weight of
the body in air, will give the specificgravity of the fluid.
On

these

principlesthere has
of which
specific gravities,one
specificgravity,may be taken
a

cubic

constructed

been

insert.

we

to

tables

The

o^

column^*

represent the weight of

foot

TABLE

OF

SPECIFIC

GRAVITIES.

METALS.

Gravity.
Specific
4

Cast

antimony,

Cast

zinc,

Cast

.'. 6702

Cast

7190
'

Castiron,

Gravity.
Specific

5763

Arsenic,

bismuth,
silver,

Hammered

silver,

9822

10474
10510
...

7207

Cast

7291

Mercury,

7788

Jewellers'

nickel,

7807

Gold

coin,

17647

cobalt,
Hard
steel,
Soft steel,
Cast brass,

7811

Cast

19258

7816

Pure

gold, pure,
gold,hammered,

7833
8395

Platinum,
Platinum,

Cast

8788

Platinum

Cast

tin,
Bar iron,
Cast

j0.

Cast

copper
ATONES,

Brick,

EARTHS,

lead,

11352
13568

gold,

15709

19361

pure,

19500

hammered,

20336

wire,

21041

ETC.

2000

Pebble,

2664

2033

Slate,

2672

2416

Marble

2742

Stone, common,
Granite, red,
Glass, green,

2520

Chalk,
Basalt,
Hone, white

2784

Glass, white,
Glass, bottle,

2892

Sulphur,....
Stone, paving,.

...

.......

2654
2642

2733

'
.

of the solid itself in air, add

in water,

Tie

"

Limestone,

2864
razor,

2876
.

3179

184

HYDROSTATICS.

ETC.

RESINS,

Specific
Gravity.

SpecificGravity.

of

Wax,

897

Bone

Tallow,

945

Ivory,

an

1659

ox,

1822

LIQUIDS.

Air

earth's

the

at

face,
sur-

Distilled water,

1000

Sea

1028

"

Oil of

turpentine,

Olive

oil,

water,

870

Nitric

915

Vitriol

acid,

1218
1841

WOODS.

and

Riga fir,-...750

Cork,

246

Maple

foplar,
arch,

383

Ash

544

Yew,

Dutch,

Apple

tree,

Elm

and

English fir,556

new

and

Dantzic

oak,

788
793

Willow,
Cedar,
Pitch pine,

585

Alder,
Yew, Spanish,

596

Mahogany,

560

Oak,

Pear

661

Boxwood,

671

Logwood,
Oak, English,.
Do. sixtyyears

Mahogany, Honduras,*

"

tree,

560

Walnut,
Fir, forest,
Elder,

695

Beech,

696

Cherry

694

715

tree,

"760

800
807

Spanish,

"

-852

American,

872

French,

Ebony,
Lignumvitse,"

912

913
970
cut,* 1170
"

1331
1333

"

745

Teak,

Specific gravity of

gases,

that of

atmospheric

air

being

1.

Hydrogen,

...0-0694

Carbon,
Steam

0*4166

of water,

Ammonia,

0-481
^*

Carburetted

""""0*5902

hydrog.,0-9722

Azote,

0-9723

Oxygen,

1-1111

Muriatic
Note."

acid,
The
of 80"

1-2840

specificgravityof atmospheric air

Fah.

and

barometric

column

30

according to M. Arago, and in round numbers

825 times heavier than air.
as
regard water
1*22

at

perature
tem-

inches
we

may

is

186

HYDROSTATIC

Ex.
its

"

of

mixture

gold and

specificgravitywas
h (by the table)
C

15630

(19326

15630)

"

wherefore, by the rule,

39709824
,M

170

yc

-296

t=

10744)

"

170

consequently

there

will be

170

134136660

gold ;

lbs. of

50-32

,_

15630

lbs. and

170

10744

10744

(19326

weighed

hence

19326.

lbs.

170

=s

silver

15630

S,

170

50-32

"

lbs. of

119-68

==

silver.
The

of bodies

weight

magnitudes

their

"

and

also

their

of
quantitiesin a compound, may thus be found by means
table of specific gravities
for the more
a
expeditious
; and
calculation in practice we
add the following memoranda
:
430*25

cubic

397-60

of bar

copper,

and

iron,
of

372-8

also 14-222

of

of cast

cwt.,

one

brass,

also

as

of cast

352-41

lead.

cast

paving

stone

stone, 13-505
of elm, 64 of Honduras

of

common

of fir,5,1-494 of beech,

of

42*066

weigh

ton,

one

granite,13-070

mahogany, 51 '65
Spanish mahoganv, and

of

36-205

English oak.
For wrought iron square
inch

square

similar

cast

an

weigh

common

of marble, 64-46

of

iron

cast

368-88

cubic feet of

14*835
as

of

inches

to

quarter of. a cwt.

bar weighs 3"- lbs.

in, "th of

length
"

of

quarter

iron bar would

the

also

inch, and

an

breadth

"

100

in

and

length

length for

inch

an

thickness

square

being

in feet.

length

thickness

in

9 feet in

length of

breadth
the

inches

cwt.

require

foot

One

taken

bars, allow

7
.

"

the

weight

144

in

avoirdupoispounds.
Ex.

thick.

An

"

iron

Here

bar

10

3 inches

feet

inches

long, 3

24, and 2"

broad, and

20-8ths

2$

therefore,

10X24X20X7
_

lbs

233

144

For
The

weight of
length being

the

of metal

cast

taken

iron
in

in inches, then

pipe

feet, the diameter

we

length x thickness
thickness) the weight in cwts.
For a leaden
pipe the rule is,
0-1382
x
length x thickness
thickness) the weight in cwts.
0-0876

:'

and

ness
thick-

have
x

(innerdiameter

(inner diameter

SPECIFIC

"

of

pipe

the

the

nearly

diameter

inner

and

inches,

"0876
9

of

i)

the

of
take

the

including

of

(4

of

iron

cast

inch

pipe

what

'99645

the

of

inch

i)

the

is

cwt.

qrs.

difference

of
and

the

rim

cwt.

of

call
of

the

d)

the

and

this

1 cwt.

taken

rim,
the

and

in

be

the

fly,
the

being

side,

to

the

inches

of

d9

lb.

qrs.

diameter

side

from

fly,

Let

difference

this

inches,

fly-wheel.

of

is

bore

therefore,

1-762

rim

exclusive

rim,

the

long,

an

fly,

the

thickness

feet

12

weight

the

diameter
then

(3

is

metal

12

For

11.

to

leaden

it?

X*i

pipe

thickness

"1382

to

oz.

leaden

of

14

lbs.

27

feet

14

of
an

of

weight

of

is

bore

thickness

its

is

pipe
as

or

"

be

iron

cast

dimensions

same

If

Ex.

of

weight

The

Note.

187

GRAVITY.

then

we

have
"0073

Ex.

If

(D

the
=

diameter

the

interior

the

difference

weight

of

of

fly

the

the

rim

be

in

cwts.

inches

100

"

D,

half
5

exterior

of

the

as

dj

will

diameter
rim

"0073

be

if

hence

of
the

inches
=

rim
be

then

and

exterior

the
is

and

110,

T,

then,

(100

5)

broad,

inches

10

let

15*33

meter
dia-

interior

the

cwts.

as

thickness

the

188

HYDROSTATICS.

TABLE
the

weight of 1
thicknesses,
from

Of

A.

foot of Swedish iron, of all breadths

inch to 1 inch, in pounds and
tenth of an

lineal
1

parts,

Of

the

weight of

thicknesses,
from

and
mal
deci-

1 lineal
1 inch

TABLE

B.

foot of

Swedish

to 6

inches, in

iron, of all breadths and

pounds and decimal parts.

TABLE

Of

the

weight of

1S9

GRAVITY.

SPECIFIC

C.

superficialfoot of Swedish
inch thick to one
pari of an

iron

TABLE

platefrom

inch.

D.

their weights
Of Multipliersfor the other Metals, whereby
found from the above Tables.

Multi-

pliers.

Metals.

laminated

Platinum,

purified
gold, hammered
,

Pure

2-846

Copper,

2-503

Brass

may

Multi-

1-128

cast

wire.

1096
.

2-486
,

1-080

cast
.

2-47

Steel

1-003

1-457

Iron, Swedish

1-

Lead
.

Pure

silver, hammered

1-350

British

1-344

cast

Copper,

"925

cast
,

1136

wire

Pewter

hammered

1132
.

Tin,

"960
.

"980

cast

be

pliers.

Metals.

cast

"

100th

"937

190

HYDROSTATICS.

TABLE

E.

metals
footofdifferent
decimal parts.
in pounds ana
thicknesses,

of the weight of one

Table

Thicknen

Mai.

in loths of
inch.
an

Iron.

Swed.

Mai.

square

Iron,
English.

Cart

Iron.

Copper.

in various

Bran.

Lead.

2-535

2-486

2-345

2-860

2-738

3-693

5-070

4-972

4-690

5-720

5-476

7-386

7605

7-458

7035

8-580

8-214

10-140

9-944

9-380

11-440

10-952

14-772

12*675

12130

11-725

14-300

13-690

18-465

15216

14-916

14-670

17160

16-428

22-158

17-851

17-402

16-415

20020

19-166

25-851

20-280

19-888

18-760

22-880

21-904

29-544

f22-815

22-774

21105

25-740

24-642

33-237

10

25-350

24-260

23-450

28-600

27-380

36-930

11

27-885

26-746

25-795

31-460

30118

40-623

12

30-410

29-232

28-140

34-320

32-856

44-316

13

32-945

31-718

30-485

37-180

35-594

48-009

14

35-480

34-204

32-880

40040

38-332

51-702

15

38015

36-690

35-225

42-900

41-170

55-405

16

40-550

39-176

37-570

45-760

43-908

59-098

TABLE
Table

11

079

F.

of the weight of 1 footin lengthof malleable

to 6 inches diameter.
one-fourth

Iron rod, from

GRAVITY.

SPECIFIC

TABLE

Table

of

the

weight of cast

iron

191

G.

Pipes,

thicknesses.

foot long, and of different

192

HYDROSTATICS.

The

following Table
used

in

weight of different
engineering requires no

of the

building and

stances
subplanation.
ex-

194

HYDROSTATICS.

materials

is the

inches

of

iron,
3*38

in

B,

16

A,

is

have
-034

the

lbs., the

the

table

the

being

1*457,

if lead

be

fraction

by

16

of

*1

an

16*32

16*32

-1,

178*56

an

equal

in

table

925

of

bar
D

iron,

cast

we

hence,

165168.

the

from

multiplier

the

same

penny

"fec.

lbs., "c,

2601619

price of

the

pound,

per

such

be

21

practical

*1,

rules

Bd.

Is.

and

useful

often

are

may

easily remembered.
round

wrought
iron

in

iron

in

A*cylindrical
2s

if cast,

but

Multiply
a

cast

also

2s

the

iron

length

length

in

inches

diameter

in

2*6

weight

of

ft. x

2*48

weight

of

lbs.
bar

is 2

2*5

ft.

lbs.

(m)9

bars

therefore,

iron,

(m)*

diameter
cast

of

bars

diameter

and

the

have,

were

following

For

of

of

1457

^
The

Swedish

of

foot

16224

lead,

we

would

bar

long,

wherefore,
for

of

-034

two

it for

178*56

then

weight

multipliers

wished

Then

feet

16

piece

square,

and

the

weight

178*56
we

of

weight

weight.

employ
If

inch

one

the

iron

of

weight

hence,

of

sum

wish

we

the

for

the

most
ut-

thick?

162-24

Swedish

of

inch

and

long
3

we

wherefore

must

3*38

square

If

1*1

foot

one

table

inch

and

of

the

of

engineering.

bar

found

be

calculation

in

of

weight

broad,
table

By

used

will

rules

ready

commonly

What

and

the

in

sendee,

tables

foregoing

The

2*5

of

ring by

26

2*48

sum

by 0*0074,

2*6

the

the

the

lbs.

results

inches

long,

wrought

iron,

lbs.
and

and
will

29

if it be

24*8

exterior

breadth

and

be

interior

thickness
the

weight

diameters
of

the

in

rim,

cwts.

HYDRODYNAMICS.

As

hydrostatics

rest,

embraces

hydrodynamics

so

of

fluids

readers

our

inquiry into

recent

If

fluid

is yet

fluids

but

as

to

lay

at

cumstance
cir-

little,

it is of

the

before
of

results

important

more

the

science,

endeavour

will

the

of

this

known

we

statement

Of

motion.

comparatively speaking,
utmost
importance to man,

of

hydraulics comprehends

or

in

consideration

the

it.

through a pipe, canal, or river, of various

breadths, always fillingit, the velocity of the fluid at different
sections
of
parts will be inversely as the transverse
a

these

move

parts.

.1
B

I
a

Thus

there

let

be

of various

canal, AB,

breadths

at

different

places, then will the velocity in the portion ab be

of the cross
the area
section
to that of the velocity in cd, as
the velocity at ef will be to that
at cd is to that at ab, and
the area
at cd as
at
at cd is to the area
ef,being always in
inverse
proportion.
Suppose the velocity at ab 10 feet per second, and the
cd be 25 feet, we
there
100'feet,then if the area
at
area
have
at
:

25

and

cd;
20

100

: :

if the

feet, the

10

at

area

velocity

feet, the velocity of

efbe 50 feet, then. 50

40

at

canal

ef, the

the
:

water

25

: :

being kept

40

tinually
con-

full.
The
canal

of water

quantity
or

river,

multiplied by
The

at

the

part,

velocity at

calculation

highest utilityto
the
employment
methods,

any

that

of
the

if easier

the

flows
is

in

that

motion

engineer.

through a pipe, or
proportion to the

in

area

part.
of

This

rivers

is often

is sometimes

of

the

done

by

of

intricate
but
such
formulas,
very
could
be found, would
evidently be in195

1 96

HYDRODYNAMICS.

consistent with

of this work.

the nature

method

The

which

give is simple, and will he found to answer

of the practical
man.
purposes
In a river, the greatest velocityis at the surface

all the

shall

we

the middle

of the stream

the bottom

and

sides, where

the current

in

over

passes

Take

one,

second, and

one

of the stream
inches

second

it from

root, subtract
the result will

the

be

the

tained,
ascer-

body floatingwith

; if

Gooseberries

they

at

not

are

floatingbody

its square

extract

be

may

of time.

that the

of inches

the number

in

square

it is least.

exceedingly well
employed.

fit this purpose

hand, a cork may be
will

in

toward

it diminishes

which

velocityat the Middle

by observing how many

The

over

; from

and

passes
double
this
;
top, and add

root

velocityat

velocityof

the

stream

at

the

bottom.

being ascertained,the mean

velocity,
that
if
with
which
the
in
stream
or
moveji
part,
every
the
be
found
it would
same
produce
discharge, may
the velocityat top
^/velocityat top -f *5.
Exam.
If the velocityat the top and in the middle
of
And

these

velocities

"

"

the stream,
1"36

velocityat
36

When

the

the

-5

of

some

of the action

from
be

"

in

water

junction

the

36

is increased.

water

"

And

bottom.

"v/36 -f

"

from

12

"

(2 x \/36)
per second, then, 36
1 =
25 =
the least velocity,or the

inches

be 36

other

This

increase

of the water

water

on

By

the

the bottom,

tenacity of the soil

sufficient resistance

the

to

no

of any stream
of the nature

velocity causes

this increased

very

of

the

slow

bed

absolutelynecessary.
Every kind of soil has
of the bed.
the stability

and

of the

action

of the

until

the

afford

rock
The

bed

of

degrees, but the

of the action
a

knowledge

velocityat bottom,

velocitywhich
A less velocitywould

certain

always

the
frequently,

diminished

the amount
greatestuse to know
its bed, and for this purpose
on
of the

bottom,

of the river will

so

crease
in-

an

the sides and

on

the force of the water.

changes only by
river is stationary.

It is of the

in

hardness

the river then

bed of

velocityis

the

or

30-5.

though not
of

reason

be

permanent increase
river, the velocityof the

the width

increased, and sometimes,

depth also.

-5

river receives

circumstance

which

velocity will

mean

are

will insure
allow

the

197

HYDRODYNAMICS.
"

waters

of

deposit

to

more

and

the current,
From

greater velocitywould

extensive

velocityof 3
begin to work

tear

at the
per second
the fine clay used

upon
however
firm and
be,
compact it mav
fine*and
A velocity
of 6 inches will lift
sand

is carriftl with

it has

experiments

inches

which

the matter

"

the channel.

up

found, that

been

bottom, will just

for pottery, and,
it will tear
it up.

inches, will lift

inches, will sweep
8

linseed) 12
along gravel 24, will roll along pebbles an inch diameter
and 3 feet at bottom, will sweep
along shiverystones the

coarse

of

(the size

"

"

"

size of

an

egg.

When

issues

through
its
of a vessel,
velocityis the
body fallingthrough free space
of

water

the surface
The

of the water
correct

most

57

height of

4(i
length
the

velocityin

the orifice.

of

pipe

All the

acquired by

that

height equal to

the hole.

and

canals
diam.

57

with

inches

side

or

ascertainingthe velocityof

head
X

bottom

that

as

from

above

running through pipes

water

same

for

rule

in the

hole

which

measures

of

diam.

is this

pipe\

of

pipe/

the water

will issue from

understood

are

to be

taken

in

depth

is

inches.
Exam.
6

If there be

"

feet,having

to let the water

so* as

the

of

tube

then

bottom,
water

we

1 foot

at

escape

havey

of the fluid above

of the head

and

long
a

whose

2" inches

bore, open

distance of 18 inches
12

the reservoir, and

on

of water

reservoir

72

the

72
18

"

whole

54, the

orifice,wherefore

from

depth
height
by the

rule,

4"S8S)
(4-5)X

s/
the

by
one

23

""

2-121

-"

velocityof the water.

the

And, by

per second,
multiplyingthis result

1-25

radius, and

s=

half

circumference

The

get the quantitydischargedin

-hence, if the pipe be circular, we have,

second"

1-9635

"

inches

49-49

"

of the orifice,we

area

""

23j

J"

"

1*9635

97*173

quantityof

cubic
water

area

of orifice,hence, 49*49

inches.
that flows

aperture, that reaches

as

17*

high

out
as

of

the

vertical rectangular

surface,is | of

"

198

HYDRODYNAMICS.

of

qufcbtitythat would flow out

placed horizontallyat the depth of

the

When

issues

water

plateplaced on
is contracted
from

the bottom

into

the vein

is

the stream

the base.

side of

the

the

When

issues
whose

greater base

the conic

in the

case,

cone,

frustum

the

of the small

area

then, in this

end

should

vertical

horizontal

height

of

through

16

the

short

than

in

when

is the frustum

which

that of ihe
will be

large end,

of

contraction

no

as

a
a

be

known.

represent the

of

area

the

orifice, W

small

of

the

discharge,H

16*087

we

But

13.

to

quantity of water discharged; T the time

the height of fluid in the vessel, and g
space described by gravity in a second.
Then

the

orifice,the time of discharge,

fluid in the vessel, when
any two

of these quantitiesare
A

tain
ob-

employed.
discharged by
quantity of water

the

or

to

there

case,

determine
the

Let

point
to

this it may
be inferred,that, when
required,the greatest possible from

form

given orifice,this

of

is the aperture, the height of

of the aperture
half the diameter

one

**

the vein ; and

from
is
supply of water

and

above

will be less contracted

stream

of

small

of half

}" of this will be

issues

the water

the water

To

at the

orifice,and

of the

proportion of
through an aperture

16

distance

that

area

result.

the former

stream

of the section

area

the

tube, the vein of the

10

thin

velocitygiven by theory, so
multiply
discharged,we
quantity of water

true

and

certain

at the distance

smaller

v^in is

to

of that of the orifice,and

\J

velocityby

aperture in
reservoir, the

diameter,

of the orifice where

has

the

the

The

aperture,

same

circular

or

smaller

the orifice.

the diameter

of

out

the

feet, the

have,
W

v/ g

W
A

2x*Xi/"XH
W
t

2xAxv/g,xH
Wfl

By

of these

means

of water

from

any

formulae

which

is

** X
we

A*
may

discharged

other vessel in which

determine
in the

A# is the

area

same

the tity
quantime T,

of the orifice,

199

HYDRODYNAMICS.

and

t and

the altitude of the fluid ; for since

are

stant,
con-

shall have

we

"

"

A'

H'.

"

showing the quantity of Water discharged in one

Minute
by Orificesdifferingill form and position.

Table

From

conclude,
may
the quantitiesof water
dischargedin

these

That

1.

results

we

head

orifice from the same

by the same
of the orifices
nearly as the areas
That

2.

the

by the same
nearly as the
the

quantitiesof water
orifices
square

in the reservoir

water

of the
above

of water,

are

discharged in equal
heads

of

of the
the

of the

areas

heights in

This
for

degree

the three
1.

are

corresponding heights of
the centres

of

the orifices.

water

apertures, and

of

the

square

same

water

ratio

roots

of

the reservoirs.

general rule may

ordinary purposes
of

times

water,

discharged during the

different heights of
time by different apertures under
another
in the compound
in the reservoir, are to one
quantitiesof

The

3.

very

and,

different

under
roots

equal times

accuracy,

be considered

as

; but, in order
Bossut
recommends

rect
corsufficiently

to obtain
an

great

attention

to

following rules.

Friction

is the cause,

that, of several

similar orifices

200

HYDRODYNAMICS,

the smallest
which

dischargesless
greater, under

are

in

water

the

proportion than those

altitudes of water

same

in the

reservoir.
Of

2.

several

orifices of

equal surface, that wriich has the

smallest perimeter ought, on

than

water

more

account

the rest, under

the

of the friction,to
same

altitude of

give

water

in the reservoir.

That, in

3.

the
as

consequence

of

contraction
the

ought
Table

height of
to

he

of

the fluid

of

vein

slightaugmentation which
undergoes, in proportion

fluid in the reservoir

increases, the expense

little diminished.

Comparison of the Theoretic

inch
one
from an orifice

It appears

from

this table, that

the

the Real

with

in diameter.

real

as

well

dischargesare nearly proportionalto the

of the heights of the fluid in the reservoir.
roots
for the heights 1 and 4, whose
roots
are
as
square
and 5436, which
feet, the real discharges are 2722
another
1 to 1*997, very nearly as
1 to 2.
as
one
theoretical

charges
dis-

as

the

square

Thus
1 to 2
are

to

202

HYDRODYNAMICS.

containingthe quantity of

Table

Table

containingthe quantitiesof

Tubes

one

Tubes

were

inch

in

diameter

and

inserted in the bottom

Water

dischargedover

weir.

Water

dischargedby Cylindrical
whether the.
of different
lengths,

or

in the sides

of

the vessel.

HYDRODYNAMICS.

Table

of comparison of
additional

an

inches

two

Hence
be

it

M.

the

the Real

of a cylindrical
form, one

Dischargeefrom

inch in diameter and

follows, that the velocityin English inches

y/ H
has

Prony

from

the Theoretical with

long.

22-47

Tube

203

for additional

given

the

will

tubes.

followingformulae, as

deduced

precedingtable.

dmm

4-9438

TVH
Q

4-9438

y/ H

Q
H=

(4-9438d* T)"
The

resistance

fluid is in
The

proportionto

body

sustains

the square

of

in

moving through
the velocity.

column

that any plane surface encounters

in moving
fluid with any velocity,is equal to the weight

resistance

through
of

that

whose

height is

the space

body would

have

204

HYDRODYNAMICS.

to
fall through in free space
base is the surface of the
whose

and
acquire that velocity,

to

Ex.

If

"

plane

through water

move

square,

feet per second

of 13

the rate

inches

16

plane.
at

then,

139
2'6

ST-

body would require to fall through free

wlocity of 13 per second, wherefore, as

the space
a

inches,
of

the column

1000

ounces

with

by

As

the

1728

cubic

reaction

thing whether

same

the fluid

is the

is

to

of

amount

plane
plane.

1000

288

resistance

met

contrary, it is the
againstthe fluid, or

moves

WHEELS.

generallyobtained

obstacles

499-2

water

equal and

are

WATER

Motion

foot of

velocity.

the

againstthe

2*6

required;

are

1 cubic

1728

the above

plane at
and

inches

base

feet

inches=

cubic

499*2

height and

have

we

lbs. which

action

31*2

whose

ounces,

18

16

matter

therefore, since

weighs

have

we

to

space

acquire
=31*2

the action

from

either

water,

of its current,

or

by

posing
ex-

by arresting,

its progress
during part of its descent, by movable buckets.
Water-wheels
three denominations
have
depending on
their

particularconstruction, undershot, breast,

If the water

is delivered

is to act

on

and

shot.
over-

by its weight, it

the wheel

the spout as high on the wheel

as
possible,
down
that it may
continue
the longer to press the buckets
;
but when
it acts on the wheel by the velocityof the stream,
it is made

from

to

act

on

the float-boards

at

as

low

point as

possible,that it may have acquired previously the greatest

velocity. In the first case, the wheel is said to be overshot,
in the second, undershot.

advantageous,as

the

but it is not

greater power,
overshot

from

The

wheel

from

same

overshot

quantity of

always

the sinalines

that
of

deliver the

water

the top of the wheel, and, in this

case,

is the

we

case,

wheel, and

partakes in

the overshot.
we

must

must

have

When
recourse

some
we

to

wheel

we

water
can

the fall.

is the most
it gives

employ
When

farther down
it becomes

an

this
than
breast-

degreesof the propertiesof

cannot
employ a breast wheel,
the

undershot, which

is the least

'WAIPiKR

'

"..i

"

WRKR.h8

"v,

hate

1.

205

[EELS.

powerful of all. The

the floats of
whose

water;

undershot

aji

base

of

force

equal

is

wheel

ia the section

of

stream

to

against

water

column

in that

of the stream

of

place,

to the
perpendicular height of the water
surface.
Where
the quantity of water
is given, its force
is directly proportional to
against the floats of the wheel
of the height
root
the velocityof the stream, or the square
remarks
hold
the
of the surface.
These
true
only when

and

the

height

has

to

them.

struck

then

the float boards, after it

from
escape
each
For if the floats be too near
other,

allowed

is

water

the water

from

float will be

one

of the next

the progress

sent

back

and

obstruct

float.

Engraved representationsof the three forms of the water

wheel
are
given in plate 1st. Fig. 1 is a representation
of the undershot
breast ; and fig.3 of the
; fig.2 of the
overshot

of

likewise

the

fitted

being

wheel.

water

nearly

so

brick

work,

that

lowest

since

they

be

water

shall retain

each

carried

figure.

much

as

it

bucket

as

latter

of

The

shot
over-

floats, so

possible of
until they arrive at
should be emptied,

bucket

the

by

the

instead

receive

they

of

as

in its ascent

it

weight that the wheel has

will show
to lift. The
following geometricalconstruction
the method
of forming the buckets
that there shall be the
so
greatest possibleadvantage derived from the overshot wheel.
This bucket
is formed
of three planes ;
justso

AB

is in

the

wheel,

unnecessary

direction

the

is

and
BC

shoulder;
the

much

the

buckets

with

undershot

the

thai little of the

way
their edges and the stone

in

seen

point,where

if any

will be

be

may

the time

from

water

the

as

water

between

escape

of

flat,those

are

the

to

is furnished

wheel
constructed
the

to

floats

wheel

breast

fluid is allowed
or

The

wrist.

is called

wheel, the line AD

of

the

of FCBA

area

in
the

whole

AB

so

the

that

bucket

of the

the lowest

is

much

as

is

takes

point.

angle

an

equal
water

structed,
con-

of

the

and

the

to

is

that
tained
re-

positionas would fillFCBA

;
CD
becomes
until
not
discharged
the line AB
is very
place when

in this

water

so

diameter

is horizontal

of

start, or
and CH

are

makes

figureADCB

horizontal, which
near

the arm,

vertical

the

radius

the

buckets

These

with

the

called

that when
of 35"

of

206

HYDRODYNAMICS.

of

^(height
second.
Ex.

the fall X

actingupon the wheel,

64-38)= the velocity in feet per

height of

the fall be

velocityof

find the

To

the water

"

If the

"

find the

area

The

of the section

of the stream,

of feet

in 1

number

Ex.

If there

"

velocityof

second, and
feet per second, then,

feet

be 40

is 5

the stream

feet.

in square

stream

second_

feet per second

velocityin
the section of the

flowing

have'

we

second, nearly*

feet per

^/(14x64'38)=%/901-32=30-02
To

feet, then

14

flowing in

i"=8

the

the

To

of the

of the section

area

calculate

the power
of section of stream

Area

fall

height of

62"

fall:

of the

the wheel
x
upon
of lbs. avoir, the wheel

where

it acts

the number

feet.

in square

stream

sustain, actingperpendicularlyat its circumference,

can

be

to

as

in

the wheel

of lbs. which
equilibrium. If this number
will-move.
at rest be diminished, the wheel

If the wheel
would

the water
to

were

move

have

when

the

effect of

velocityof
If the

"

feet, and
be

can

an

would

area

of the

flowing per second

the

the

maximum.

is

section

of

when

maximum

velocityof

feet per second, and

have 4x6
=24,
we

velocity4
procured, then

vantageous
ad-

be

which

at

stream,

wheel

cross

is greater than
the
relation between

the

is | of the

the wheel

only

be

the stream

that of

undershot

that

if the wheel

"

certain

keeps

it is clear

moving it,

greatest possibleor

(16x64*38)=32,

y/

is

and

its

feet

cubic

There

the wheel

effect will be

Ex.

velocityof

the

that of the wheel.

the

effect in

no

stream,

the stream, the water

it can
to its motion
; and

positive hindrance

The

the

as

faster than

move

velocityof

fast

as

so

the stream.

stream

be

fall of 16 feet

the number

of

velocityof

at the

the water

end

of the fall:
24
"

|, the section

of the stream

at

the end

of the fall'in

32

square

feet
16

will sustain

62

in

=5

750

lbs.=

equilibrium.

the

weight which

the wheel

208

HYDRODYNAMICS.

of wheels.

all diameters

wheel

breast

partakes of

foregoing,as part of its

properties of the two
pends on the velocity,and part on the weight of
which

with

water

will

wheels

water

overshpt ought
and

water

Before

to be

height

of

species
largesupply of

wheel

water

three

is the most

with

both

Where

propriate.
ap-

large fall,the
the quantity

moderate, the breast wheel

fall are

"c,

and

calculations

made

10 feet

must

must

accordingly.
the height of head velocity,and area
of
do which
a slight
knowledge of levellingwill
What
follows will make
ciently
this subject suffi-

measure

stream,

wheel, all the circumstances

water

into account,

must

be

supply of
employed.

small

erectinga

be taken
We

the water

used.

be

must

For

fall,the undershot

small

of these

regulatewhich
be employed.

is to

For

of

de

action

it.

moves

Circumstances
of

the

to

required.

our

plain.
A

Levelling,
"

and

pole

about

long

be

procured,

long, on the top of which is

fixed a spirit
level with small
sight holes at the ends, so
that when
the spiritlevel is perfectlyhorizontal, the eye
view any object before it through the sightsin a permay
fectly
also

staff about

five feet

horizontal- line.
distance

that when

way

may

be

hill,and

the

to measure

bottom
on

and4op

the dicular
perpenof a hill,for

the side of the hill in such

trulyset, the top of

sights. Keep the level
is

the hill
in

this

look

the contrary way,

then cause
some
person
the sight further down
feet staff before
the

10

move

fingerbe seen
the finger on

the

sights to

his

fingerup or down
through the sights,and
the

place, and

convenient

level

lookingthrough
to

person

the

through

seen

positionand
to place the

same

the

between

; place the level staff

instance
a

have

If you

staff.

the
mark

staff,cause
staff until
the

the
the

positionof

feet staff in the

ten
your
level staff down
the hill to a

Keep

carry
your
then
fix it in the

distance,

the

same

and

before ;
as
way
feet staff,cause

looking through the sights at the ten

of the
the bottom
to bring his finger towards
person
his fingerup or down
the staff in the same
staff,and move
until it be seen
through the sights,and mark the place
way
of the finger. Then
the distance between
the two
finger
marks
added
will be the
to the height of the level staff,
the place where
the level
perpendicular distance between
the

staff

now

stands

and

the

top of the hill.

The

process

is

WATER

it will

perfectlysimple, and

however

of

centre

the

them

In small

difference between

objects.
be about

8 inches

well

serve

the true

circle whose

distances

is

enough

speaking
distances

the

to

difference

of the distance.

the

for

one

of the
Thus

there is

apparent
one
mile, the

on

but

no

two
at

levels

any two
level will

correctly
for all other

will

the distance

This

level.

more

mile, and

is the

sensible

of

true

apparent

remember,

inches

centre

level

different from

it is 7*962

square

are

are

and

the distance

When

will

part of

as

of the earth.

centre

stations

equally distant from the

The
earth.
apparent level gives the objects
straightline, but the true level gives the line

the

joins

Two

level.

they

level when

same

which

the true

is not

true

same

in

repeat it

height of the hill requires it.

process will give what is called the apparent level,

This

the

difficult to

be

not

if the

oftener

which

209

WHEELS.

of

be
two

as

the

miles

it will be,
l2

23

These

The

inches,

32

circumstances

formation
The

: :

of canals,

are

2 feet 8 inches

will

measured

save
on

18*

nearly.

observed
strictly

be

must

railways,"c,

followingtable

distances

or

in

the

"c.
the trouble

the

of calculation.

earth's surface.

210

HYDRODYNAMICS.

Construction

of a

gyration

of

and

weight

the

boards.
be

Then

radius

of the wheel

its arms,
rim, shrouding, and
call the weight of the rim R, which
the

doubled

the

arms

of

the

radius, and

called

the

carried

then

be

must

doubled

be

the

of

square

and

of

Then

the

of

centre

of

multipliedby
be

find the

To

"

take

wheel,

water

wheel.

water

Next

must

the

duct
pro-

the

weight

multiplied by

the

square

carried

-as

out.

and

the

of

radius, and

float

in

out

called

action

before.
W

water
must
weight
of
the
radius
the
and
carried
multiplied by
square
If
be
added
these
out.
together into one
products
sum
form
will
dividend.
double
For
the sum
divisor,
a
a
they
of the weights of the rim and the arms,
and add the weight

be

of the water
and

the

to

them.

of

root

square

the dividend

Divide
the

by the divisor,

quotient will be the radius of

gyration.
Ex.

In

"

wheel

arms

is

water

in action

the

tons,
2

feet diameter

24

shrouding and

tons

tons

12a

tons

12a

2 tons

12s

Their
2
The

wheels

water

the construction

of the

tons, and

the

1152
576
288

-f

2)

dividend, and

2016

sum

16, the divisor.

J(-nr-)

answer,

for the

Tables

for

(4

rims

weight

hence, by the above,

The

"

v^!26

11-225.

ready performance of calculations:

usually given in books of Mechanics
;
which
shall
of
use
we
now
proceed to

more
are

and

explain.
1.

Find,

by measuring

fall of water
the middle

the height of the

levelling,

is reckoned

which
of the

and

depth

from

of the stream,

its upper
where

surface
it acts

to

upon

the float-boards.
2.

Find

through that
height of the
product which
were

no

in falling
velocity acquired by the water
is done
thus : multiply the
height, which
the square
fall by 64*38, extract
of the
root
if there
be the velocityof the stream
would

the

friction,but

this result for the true

to

allow

for friction take away

velocity.

"!7 of

WATER

211

WHEELS.
,

Find

3.

boards,

the

by
will

product
through
pass

the

be
in

of

number
second

one

of

of

time

the

which
have

the

produce

to

float-

water,

float-boards

the

feet

fo the

given

be

velocity that ought to

taking f of the velocity

to

mum
maxi-

effect.
of wheel

circumference
of

velocity
seconds

of

number

the

float-boards

the

that

the

takes

wheel

make

to

one

turn.

Divide

4.

of revolutions

number

Divide

5.

of the

of turns

number

the

being

the

Is to
So

make

to

the

quotient, the
for

millstone
that

of

the

of

quotient is the
the

wheel

90

meter
feet dia-

five

of

wheel

in

of staves

number

the

minute.

one

of

one

of the

of turns

number

in
new

millstone

is

quotient

minute.

of turns

number

is the

To

the
last

in

number

the

The

makes

wheel

of turns

number

ought
As

6.

the

by

90

last number.

the

by

60

minute

in

millstone

minute,

trundle

the

in the

teeth

in

spur-wheel, avoiding

fractions.
7. 'The

the

number

the

wheel

of

number
of

turns

the

of

turns

of

the
of

number

wheel

the

in

of

turns

the

minute

for

millstone

of

turn

one

millstone

per

of

teeth

minute.

by a different method, multiply

of
spur-wheel by the number

Or,
in

the

wheel

per

in the

of staves
of the
In

minute,

millstone
this

way
water-wheel

feet diameter

and

divide

this

the

number

turns

of

product by

the
the

trundle, the quotient is the number

water-

number
of

turns

minute.

per
has the
of

and

15

following
feet

making

table

diameter,
90

turns

been
the

in

one

constructed

millstone

minute.

for

being

212

HYDRODYNAMICS.

In

which

of
'

the

the

the

of
Velocity

It te desirable

Stream

being

that the

would
easy rules, which
rather than the conditions
will bd

found

useful, as

for friction and

waste

made

for a

TABLE,

is Three-Seventh*

the Wheel

Water, allowance

of the
Velocity

MILLWRIGHT

Wheel

of

for tWEffects of

of FifteenFeet

the

Velocity

Friction

on

diameter.

millwrightshould
answer

of

mere

short
possess
of practice
the purposes
theory. The following

they give the power

of water*

wtfh allowance

WATEB

213

WHEELS.

For

undershot

an

Height of

quantityof

fall x

flowingper

water

minute
=

5000

the number
For

overshot

an

Power
For

of horses'

of

breast- wheel

the effect is

equal

to.

undershot

an

which

power

2j

horses'

power.

undershot

the top of the fall

the bucket ; then for an overshot
the water
to where
enters
for the rest of the fall the sum
of these two
is the power
Find

of

the power

an

from

"

of the breast
Note.
the

wheel.

quantity of

The

"

height of the fall

Ex.

What

"

wheel

being

feet, and

minute

taken

be

can
power
fall being 25

the

"

both

are

flowing per

water

from

obtained

feet, the

velocity of

the

minute,

ana

in feet.

the

of

section
the

undershot

an

feet

18

water

stream

per

?
9

18

4050

25

^t^x

5000

Q1
#81

ttt^t

of,

horse

power,
r

5000

"

horse

one

And
2*5

an

being

power
overshot

horses'

2*025

=s

And

if,in

feet from

breast

in

unit.
the

the top of the

water

fall,then

we

'81

10

have,
18000

=='36'

X25=5000X25="5000'

overshot, and for the undershot

hence, #36 + #81
1*17 horses'

an

be

the bucket

enters

720

50oo

81

would

power.

wheel, the

10x8x9

for

situation

same

found

we

it before

for the breast

power

wheel.
barker's

In

mill.

given a view of Barker's

CD
is a vertical axis, moving on a pivot at D,
mill, where
and carrying the upper millstone
after passing through
m,
an
opening in the fixed millstone C.
Upon this axis is
fixed a vertical tube TT
communicating with a horizontal
tube

plate 1st, fig.4,

AB,
in

course

at

the

extremities

opposite

MN

have

we

directions.

is introduced

of

which

When

into the tube

A, B,
water

TT,

the apertures A, B, and by the reaction or

of the issuing water,
the arm
AB, and

are

from

two

the

it flows

apertures
mill-

out

of

counterpressure

consequently the

214

HYDRODYNAMICS.

whole
elevated

depressed by turning the

or

the lever cb.

produced,
TT

tube

The

machine, is put in motion.

which

order

In

let

us

shut

are

both

suppose

filled with

water

up,

will

up
be

these

A8

tube

at

the

end

is
of

this motion

how

is

the apertures shut, and

the
The
to T.
apertures A, B,
outwards

by a force
of water
whose
height is
of the apertures. Every

pressed

equal to the weight of a column

is the area
TT, and whose
area
part of the

nut

understand

to

db
bridge-tree

sustains

similar

balanced
are
pressures
AB
the arm
is at rest.

pressure ; but as
and opposite pressures,

by equal
By opening the aperture at
and
that place is* removed,
the pressure
at
A, however,
is carried round
consequently the arm
by a pressure equal
to that of a column
area
an
TT, actingupon
equal to that
of the aperture A.
The
same
thing happens on the arm
TB

; and

the

same

drive
pressures
direction.
This
machine

these

drive

of
any kind
the vertical axis CD.
to

upon
This

ingenious

in those

even

machine

situations

suspect, from

we

the

two

the

arm

AB

evidentlybe applied
wheel
machinery, by fixinga

has

for which

much

employed,
adapted ; partly,
having in his possession

been

not

it is best

not
millwright's

is not

appear,
time

mean

the

in

may

simple rules for its construction

sufficiently
theoryof Barker's mill, simple as its construction
may

round

by any means
following directions

well
may

and

developed.
be found

the

as

action
In

the

useful

to

the mechanic.
1.

of

Make

motion

length,not
water's
2.

each

arm

of the horizontal

to the centre

less

surface

than

"

above

the centre

of the aperture of any convenient

of the perpendicularheight of the

these

Multiplythe length of

the square

tube, from

centres.

the

arm

in feet

by '61365,

and

of this

product will be the proper time for a

revolution, in seconds ; then adapt the other parts of the
machinery to this velocity; or,
If the time of a revolution
be given, multiply the square
of this time by 1*6296
for the proportionallength of the
arm

root

in feet.

Multiply togetherthe breadth, depth, and velocityper

second
of the race, and divide the last product, 14*27
X
the square
of the height; the result is the area
of
root
either aperture ;
or, multiply the continual product of the
breadth, depth,and velocityof the race, by the square
root
"

PNEUMATICS.

knowledge of the properties

air and
elastic fluffs in general.
of common
Air is capable of being compressed
to almost
degree,
any
into a
forced
be
than
that is, may
infinitelysmaller
space
it commonly
which
the space
occupies, and this is effected
additional

by

taken

Were
it
magnitude.
of this chapter might
the

laws

the

are

for this

not

have

additional

is
pressure
its elasticity,
its former

introduced

motion

of

water,

when

cussed
dis-

we

fluids,

tal
fundamen-

found

been

"c,

mercury,
that
; so

their

as

subject

and

water

incompressible,
It has, indeed,

that

the

circumstance,

been

and

or

same.

experimenters,

this

regain, by

equilibrium
non-elastic

are

When

pressure.
the air will

away,

which

the

comprehends

Pneumatics

by recent
compressible,

are

of

degree
although the distinction
very limited
elastic and
fluids is not absolutely correct, it
non-elastic

is

yet

but

to

sufficientlyso

arrangement,
The
the

as

air

gravitates

mechanical

elastic

The

are

has

air

The

air

proportional
All

the

less

the

less,

or

causes

in the

higher

we

degrees

the

forces
the

near

of

of its surface.
the

are

most

same

this

foot

fluid.

of

it

weighs
state

some

as

or,

fluid, it is compressible

of
or

other

as

inquiries in

common,
to

earth,

surrounds

which

body

air

cubic

1-2857

it,1*222.
and

and expansion
compression
weights which
compress

earth's
of

surface
the

is in

weight

of

state

the

of

pansible,
exare

it.
pression,
com-

atmosphere

it.
that

weight
it to

be

atmosphere
go

fluid

confined

elastic

consequence

is above

As

rise

to

the

of the

an

its

air
in

which

generally
weight.

being

and

elementary

of science.

all parts

on

being

surface

the

at

ounces

is

properties

fluids, and

pneumatics

branch

atmosphere

or

earth, and
The

distinct

in

Pneumatics,

retain

to

in

the

the

presses

less
there

dense,
will

atmosphere

be

air compresses
it the
and
the
as
higher we
the

the

less

weight,

air wjll

be

dense.
216

so

the

the
less

PRESSURE

OF

ATMOSPHERE.'

THE

217

of the air is equal to the weight

spring or elasticity
of the atmosphere above
it,and they will produce the same
effects since they always sustain and balance each other.
If the densityof the air be increased
by compression, its
is also increased, and in the same
spring or elasticity
portion.
proThe

gravityof the atmosphere on the

surface
rise in
to
as
water,
they are made
is
pipes or vessels, where the spring or pressure within
taken off or diminished.
This fact, a knowledge of which
is applied to a multitude
will not be
of useful purposes,
difficult of explanation. Let a tube 3 feet long be filled
end and close at the
with water, the tube being open
at one
other; one
unacquainted with the subjectmight naturally
held perpendicularlywith the
expect that if this tube were
the

and
pressure
of fluids such

By

end

open

by

downmost,
of its

reason

we

conditions.

The

in consequence
which

upon
; and

of the tube

is exerted
have

in

every

tendency

of

pressure

the

flow

tendency

stated before

fall to the

also

as

earth

the

sphere,
atmo-

possessed

the water

of

certain

on

the air of

then

the surface

to

the tube

all the circumstances,

only happen

can

of

out

consider

we

weight, but

have

we

this

has

water

of its

weight, presses
end

that

see

if

But

weight.

will

would

the water

at

of

the

open
of fluids of all kinds
the pressure
direction, it follows, that the air will
as

the
Now
up the tube.
of the earth is
at the surface

force the water

to

atmosphere

is therefore the
lbs. for every square
inch, which
force by which
the water
will be pressed up the tube by
the action of the air.
of water
3 feet high does
A column
about

not

15

the
the base ; wherefore, as
upwards is greater than the pressure downwards,
will remain
suspended in the tube.
such

exert

pressure
the water
Let

us

pressure

take

now

former, filled with

before, it will now
flow
It

out

was

column
square

will

tube

water

and

under

of water
inch.

keep

30

So

36

30

feet

long,

that

will be

Hydrostatics, that
feet high was
equal

that

we

see,

feet of the water

that

same

part of the

of which

reason

similar

in the

inverted

be found

of the tube, the

stated

on

the

to

the
as

way
water

will

easilyseen.

the

of a
pressure
the
to 13 lbs. on

pressure

in the tube, but

of the air
it will

keep

for the pressure

of the air is 15, and that of 30 feet
more,
of water
is only 13 ; and as the pressure
of the water
will
be as its depth,we
say, 13 : 15 : : 30 : 34, which, there19

218

PNEUMATICS.

fore, is the greatest height

of

the pressure

by

which

at

the

the water

will be

ported
sup-

atmosphere.

of the
of arriving at this conclusion
purpose
of the atmosphere, we
the pressure
might have

the

For
effect

of

much

employed

fluid

water,

than

shorter

had

we

used

13600

and

ounces,

the

cubic

heavier

Now

instance, mercury.

for

weighs

foot of mercury
be found,

if

tube

cubic

inch

will

13600
7

=
"

ounces,

ooo

1728

nearly

or

therefore

inches

30

Thus

have

we

weather

air at

but

varies

about

the

the

the

: :

of

The

square
in the

The

has

the

1*222

as

1000

: :

the

to

of

1000,

33*25,

: 27200
feet,)

the

law

before,

there

will

in the barometer
of

means

air

were

ing
measur-

of the

the

same

it is

we

nearly,

(the mean

height

feet,which

of

proportion,

1*222

barometer

water

in

nearly 5* miles ; but by

correct
principles,the height

is very

of the diminution
is

this

have

we

which
proceeds on
process
been
the atmosphere has

The

said

be

at
atmosphere as
its
might very easily determine
specificgravityof air being to that of water

surface,

earth's

height,for

to the top of

therefore

atmosphere

If the

is

corresponding

been

and therefore the mercury

less pressure,
will fall,and this fact has been
used as a
barometer.

or

of

pressure

will

be

heights by the
uniform
density up

mercury.

pressure

the

barometer

in the

sphere
atmo-

always constant,
mean

inch, and

what

of

the barometer,

is not

limits.

evident, from
appear
ascend
the higher we

as

inches

30

the earth

It will
that

lbs., hence, the

15

principleof
commonly called.

mercury
inches.
: 28

30

pound avoirdupois;

the

at

certain

lbs. to

14

14

surface

within

height of
15

it is

weigh

its pressure

by

arrived

glass,as

the

will

balance

will

half

that is about

ounces,

estimated

of

at

about

50

miles.

densityat different heights in

metical
heights increase in arith-

this, that if the

atmosphere
progression, the densities will decrease

in

cal
geometri-

of

progression; for instance, if the density at the surface

the earth be called 1, and if at the height of 7 miles
it

be

called

4 times

rarer

than

at

14
21
28
35

"

16,
it will be

64

256,
1024,

times

rarer,

*"*

*0F

PRESSURE

219

ATMOSPHERE.

THE

in this way it might be shown, that at the height of onehalf the diameter
of the earth, one
cubic inch of atmospheric
and

air of the

fill the bounds

to

as

densitywhich
eminent

Many
derived
the

barometer.

and

unfitted for

'"

much

so

of the solar system.

have
investigatedthis

subject,and
of great use
for determining altitudes by
Some
of these are
exceedinglycomplex
men

theorems

breathe^vouldexpand

we

work

of

this nature

that of Sir J. Leslie

the
near
simple, and gives results sufficiently
truth for all ordinary purposes.
#
As the sum
of the heights of the mercury
at the bottom
of the heights,
and top of the mountain
is to the difference
is the

most

is 52000

so

At

the bottom

at the

of

and

hence,

57

mountain

29-8
2-6

27*2

"

: :

57

the sum,
the difference ;

26

52000

"

the

of

feet^he height

2372

'

air becomes

that in

29^3, and

-f 27-2

nearly.

When

half

at

top 27*2, wherefore,

29-8

and

stood

hill the barometer

in feet.

the mountain

the altitude of

to

denser, its elastic force is increased,

when

air is

will be

double

proportion. Thus,

its bulk, its elastic

force

compressed into
of what

it

was

before.
It will, therefore, be
of air

compressed

to

easy

calculate
of

times

the

force

elastic

which

thus, if,by any

condense
the air in a vessel into i of the space
we
the
it occupied when
not confined, it will press on

inside

of the

every

square

means,

the
inch

vessel
inch.

atmosphere
of
so

the
much

any

with

It must

presses

outside

number

force of

"

15

be remembered,

with

real pressure,
15 =
therefore, is 45
be
the degree of
then, that whatever

air, we
to

will

must

ascertain

easily understand

always
its true
what

each

lbs.

the pressure
effect. The
young
is meant

that

square

the

"

It is clear,

condensation

deduct

on

acts
counter-

air within

30

"

enclosed

on

therefore

of the condensed

lbs.

45

however,

force of 15 lbs.

of the vessel, which

of the force

of the

of the atmosphere
mechanic

by the

phrase a
of 2, 3, 4, or
of atmospheres, one
number
pressure
any
as
atmosphere being understood
exerting a pressure of 15
lbs. on
the square
inch, two
atmospheres 30, and three 45,
When
the air is by any means
"c.
entirelytaken out of
any vessel, there is said to be a vacuum
is the whole
What
of pressure
amount

"

in that vessel.
on

the inside

sur-

'

PNEUMATICS*

220

sphere, which

face of

natural

bulk, and

mensuration,

#by

of

surface
45

Here

on

in

to be

15

"

of

the

globe.

vacuum.

closed

to the distance

is thrust down

surface

inner

globe is supposed
cylinder6 feet long, and

15

the

inch, therefore, 113*0976

the

on

Here,

113-0976

and

"

1 of its

to

within.

sphere

the

In

31416

square

lbs.

5089*3920

6a

of the

inside

the

in diameter

inches

ha^e,

the pressure

as

45

is 6
we

air condensed

contains

of

at the

bottom,

foot from

one

ton
pis-

the bot-

being 24 inches in diameter, then, by the

tor% the cylinder
of the pistonwill be found to
rules in mensuration, the area
be 452*4

inches, the diameter

and

cylinder being

the

down
pre^se'd

to 1 foot from

int^ " of
be

of the

pistonbeing 24 inches,
long, and the piston being

feet

the bottom, the air will be

its former

bulk, and

pressed
com-

its elastic force

will

6 times

before. At first it was

15 lbs.
greater than it was
90 on
the
it will be 15 X 6
to the square
inch, but now
for the
inch, and _""ne atmosphere being deducted
square
=

of the

contrary pressure
is 90

pressure
452*4

75

piston will

15

"

be

atmosphere
75

piston,the

fore,
inch, where-

to

by

which

the

pressedupwards.

syphon,

bent

the square
lbs., the force

lbs.

33930

SYPHON.

THE

the

above

as

or,

it is

frequently written, siphon,is any

tube.

If

bend

syphon
shall

filled with

be

be

water

then

uppermost,

and inverted, so
if the

legs

that the
of

be

equal

length,and it be held so that the two lower ends of the

syphon are on a level, then we will find that if the perpendicular
height of the bend of the tube above the level of the
ends

two

be not

more

than

32

or

33

feet, the

water

will

main
re-

It will not be difficult to see

suspended in the tube.
how
this happens, for the atmosphere pressing on the water
at the orifice of the tube
at each
extremity, presses the
water
up the tube with a force capable of raising it 33 feet ;
but in the case
supposed, the orifices and the legs are equal,
and
do not
exceed
feet, therefore,
the limit of 32 or 33
since
on

the pressure
one
on
the other, there will

in the

one

leg has

no

more

orifice is the
be

an

same

equilibrium

power

"

to

move

the pressure
and the water

as

than

that in the

other.
If

we

now

suppose

the

syphon

to

be inclined

little,
so

"

221

PTTMPS.

orifices shall

that the two

thing, if

same

greater than
flow

that

longer

no

of the

out

on

level,or what

is the

the length of the one

leg to be
suppose
of the other, we
will find that the equilibrium

we

will be

be

not

maintained

orifice which

the

; and

For

is lowest.

will

water

although the

air presses, equally on

both orifices with
force of 15 lbs.
a
downwards
to the square
inch, yet the contrary pressures
the

by

will

of the

weight

the

where

ensue

water

equal, therefore

not

are

of the

power

motion

is greatest.

water

If

of water,
and the
will flow out
of the

a
leg be immersed
the
water
set
a
running,
syphon
end
of
the
until
the other end be no longer
lower
syphon,
the syphon with water, as has
supplied. Instead of filling
been
supposed above, a common
practice is to apply the
mouth
orifice,and by sucking, exhaust the air
to the lower

the shorter

in

vessel

be

the
diminishes
tube, which
orifice,and consequently the action

at the other
pressure
of the atmosphere will

in the

in the vessel

force the water

"11 it,and

it will continue

the

up

to

tube

in the

act

of the

same

and

syphon

before.

as

way

PUMPS.

is

pump

machine

for

used

exhausting vessels

taining
con-

of
by means
raisingwater, sometimes
tion
the pressure of the atmosphere, sometimes
by the condensaof both.
of air, and sometimes
by a combination
be necessary
here to explain what is meant
It may
by the
for

air, or

that
valve^

term

be rendered

tube

joint,and which

of movable

There

consists

valve

hole

and

6T

merely
of

on

superiorto

the clack valve, consists

by hinges

bar that
button
in such

lies.

into

on

as

Sometimes

it is intended

valve,
butterfly

of

consists

half

are

made
19*

to

stop,

and
itself,
which

is

or

pieces of leather
circle ; they are
at*
straightparts, to a
closed.

The

plateof brass ground

it
oonical cavityin which

of

fit the

one

clack

of two

of the orifice to be

exactlyto
valves

part of

their diameters,

conical valve
way

The

shape

the centre

crosses

or

the

in

The

piece of leather covering

the

of metal.

some

of valves.

pipe which
hinge, sometimes

lid affixed to

hinge or
opened only

be

circular

made

tached

of

can

sometimes

formed

close

kinds

various

are

bore

or

moving

each

may

more

direction.

the

the action of the pump

on

intelligible.
valve is usually defined to be a
or
opening in a vessel, by means

sort

remarks

our

in the form

of

pyramids

PNEUMATICS.

222
four

consistingof

pyramid, and
edge of the

the
the

four

of the air pump

the section of a glass
action

be

edge ground smooth,

a

smooth

which

is

SS

rS

is

is

of

bottom

from

opening

than

at

cylindera

valve

immediately
is thus

piston CP

is

and

the

piston.

pressure
between

exhausting barrel BV.

and

has

will be
As

passed the

enclosed, and

it will thus

space than before, its

will be increased.
its elasticity,
a

placed, opening

by any
free communication

pressed down,

the

is

closed

at B, the air in the barrel BV

occupy

press

and

compressed by

will be

in

R, the tube AB,

the receiver
the

but

moved.

There

without.

When

the

linder
cy-

moves

collar D,
air-tight

freely outward,

to

by

hollow

piston rod C

the

"E

opening A,

an

piston

The

IS

In

barrel, in which

or

solid

as

section.

with

AB

tube

Let

with

communicates

which

explained.

plate, of s|_

brass

the middle

an

so

in close contact

rest

in the centre.

having its lower

and

to

meet

be thus

may

bell,called a receiver, closed

at the
at the top T, but open
bottom,

of the orifice,

the middle

which

bars

tops of these

The

closed.

be

to

accuratelyin

supportedby

are

The
R

orifice

all meet

flapsmust
and

triangularflapswhich form the sides of

move
hinges which are placed round
upon

smaller

be

density, and

made
sequently
con-

It will therefore

the valve V with

a
greater force
upon
is pressed upwards by the
the valve
which

downwards
that

by

superior elastie force will open the

valve, through which, as the piston descends, the air in the
If the piston be
barrel will be driven into the atmosphere.
external

This

air.

pushed quite to the bottom, the

The
moment
be thus expelled.the pressure

of the air from

-whole
the

without

air in the barrel

will

piston begins to ascend,

closes

the

valve

pletely,
com-

is left beneath
piston ascends, a vacuum
it rises beyond the opening B, the air in the
it ; but, when
receiver
the tube AB
R and
expands, by its elasticity,
so
A second
to fillthe barrel BV.
as
depression of the piston
will expel the air contained in the barrel, and the process

and,

as

the

224

PNEUMATICS.

in the

body

top.

But

cylinder when the piston arrived at the

in the cylinderbeing very much
rarified,

the

of

the air

of the valve C on
the water
the pressure
be greatlyless than that of the external
surface

of the water

in the

the pump
the valves

be

pressed up

33

feet.

As
from

bottom

atmosphere

will

to

height

downwards,

shut

the

the water

32

or

is prevented

operation being

same

raised

be

will

exceeding

not

the

on

well ; therefore, the water

returning, and

the

the

at

repeated,
height, not
any
may
exceeding the above limit, in any quantity.
The
termined
quantity of water discharged in a given time, is deby consideringthat at each stroke of the piston a
base is the
quantity is discharged equal to a cylinderwhose
of a cross
and height
section of the body of the pump,
area
of the cylinthe play of the piston. Thus, if the diameter
der
of the pump
be 4 inches, and the play of the piston 3
of a
feet, then, by mensuration, we have to find the content
4 inches
cylinder4 inches diameter, and 3 feet high now,
water

to

"

is the i of
X-

*7854

foot, or -333, hence,

*08796

cylinderin

square

of

content

the

Now,

cubic

of the

area

dischargedby

foot of water

of
ascent,

ale

above

gallons

has

to

cross

overcome

the
of

63*5

of the
=

the

quantity in
the piston.

lbs. avoirdupois,

lbs.

lbs. of water

avoirdupois,
;

whence,

ber
by 10, we
get the num1*6756.
The
piston, throughout its
resistance
a
equal to the weight of

number
=

10

'2639

16*756

to

about

-110999

section

stroke

one

weighs

63*5
wherefore, "2639
x
and an imperial gallonis equal

dividingthe

"$ -7854

feet ; hence, *08796

X
cubic
in
feet
cylinder

feet of water

cubic

the

-333*

16*756

of water,
base as the area
column
a
having the same
piston,and a height equal to the height of the water

of the
in the

the water
above
in the well.
body of the pump
In our
calculations of the effects of the pump,
it will be
the contents
of pipes, for which
to determine
necessary
the
purpose
Diameter

following simple
of

pipe

in

rules

inches9

will

serve.

number

of

avoirdupois

pounds contained in 3 feet length of the pipe.

If the last figure of this be pointed off as a decimal, the
of ale gallons,and if there be
result will be the number
tenths
as
so
only one figurethis is to be considered
many
the number
of an ale gallon: ale gallons X 282
of cubic
=

inches.

Thus,

in

pipe

5 inches

diameter,

we

have,

225

PTTMFS.

59

25

feet of the
282

pipe

pipe, the

inches.

find

rules

These
the

2*5

cubic

705

avoirdupoispounds contained in
of ale gallonsand 2*5x
the number

of

number

the

other

for any

content

length of
found by

feet in

for three

content

be

length may

proportion; thus, for a pipe 6 inches in diameter, and 12

feet long ; we
36
tained
have, 6*
pounds of water avoir, conin the pipe to the length of 3 feet ; therefore,
of pounds in 12 feet
the number
3 : 12 : : 36 : 144
length,and,
the
4060-8
14-4
ale gallons, and
14-4
282
x
cubic inches in 12 feet length.
rod in raising
The
resistance which
is opposed to a pump
whose
is equal to the weight of a column
of water
water,
base is the area
of the piston,and height the height of the
above
the
surface -of the water
in the body of the pump
of the water
surface
in the well, togetherwith the friction
and the piston and piston rod.
to be 6 inches in diameter,
Suppose the body of the pump
and the height to which
is raised be 30 feet, and
the water
also the weight of the piston and rod is 10 lbs., and the
friction is " of the whole
weight of the water.
68
the lbs. avoirdupois of 3 feet of the
36
Now,
=

as

column
30

: :

this

=a

of water,
36

add

must
to be

but

the

lbs., the

360

we

==

of the whole

weight

of the water

have

we

To

column.

the effect of friction,which

of the

weight

feet, therefore, 3

is 30

column

posed
sup-

hence,

QflA

"

72

lbs., and

this must

added

be

weight of

to the

the column

360
gives.

whole

arising from

water

of water, which
of resistance
amount

and

piston
whole

friction ;

and

this must

opposed

than

the

to

432

lbs. the

432

weight of the
the weight of the

the

added

be

rod, therefore,

pump
resistance

thing greater

to

72

-f 10

risingof

the

442

the

piston,any

this will raise it.

In the construction

of pumps
it is usual to employ a lever
the piston,which
to work
gives an advantage in power ;
and if in the case
estimated
above, we
employ a lever whose
are

arms

wrought
For
table.
handle

in the
with

proportion of
force of 44*2

the- convenience
It has

been

of the pump

10

to

lbs., or

of workmen
calculated
is

lever

1, the pump

on

which

we

may

say
insert the

might
45

be

lbs.

following
the suppositionthat the
gives an advantage on
we

226
the
30

PNEUMATICS.

5 to 1, and

piston rod of
feet long, and

(oilmeasure) in

4 inch

that

with

can,

bore, discharge27*5
And

minute.

man

if it be

wine

pump

gallons

required

to find

could work
that a man
with the
pump
the above
at any
required height above
as
same
ease
pump
the surface of the well, this table will give the diameter of
the diameter

of

bore, and

quantity of

We

the

stated

before

greater height than

have described,
we
extends

to

100

; but

principle,by means
height, and whose
leave this subject.
The
two

lifting
pump.

valves

valve

of the

and

that

by

it may

these

are

of which
action

This

piston,

could

water

feet

32
and

discharged in

water

means
seem

pumps
water

will

pump,
both

be

be

not

of

minute.

raised

to

the kind

of pump
strange that this table

acting on
may

be

raised

different
to

considered

before

like the suction

pump,
; but

any
we

has

the
opening upwards
cylinder,instead of being placed at the bottom
cylinder,is placed in the body of it,and at the height

in the

227

pumps.

the

where

of the pump
if the

is intended

water

delivered.

be

to

into the well

is thrust

The

considerable

bottom

and
way,
it is plain,

be

supposed to be at the bottom,

that as its valve opens upwards, there will be no obstruction
to the water
risingin the cylinder to the height which it is
in the well; for, by the principlesof Hydrostatics,water
will always endeavour
Now
when
the
to come
to a level.
piston is drawn up, the valve in it will shut, and the water
in the cylinder will be lifted up ; the valve in the barrel
will be opened, and the water
will pass through it,and cannot
return, as the valve opens
upwards ; another stroke
of the piston repeats the same
the
process, and in this way
is raised from
the well : but the height to which
it
water
piston

"

32

to

raised,is

be

may

feet.

33

or

this pump,
we
of water
whose
the

distance

the

spout,

diameter

in this,as

not

To

base

is

between

of

the

of the

area

the level of the

which

at

the

the

40

16

: :

friction and

bore

reckoned,

we

and

213

be

The

piston and rod

must

43

'255

"

it 256,

lbs. the whole

necessary
this will raise

forcing pump
a

balance

to

256

at

to be

dered.
consi-

has
pump
the bottom

IS, there is another

to

is to

be

the

into

tube

H
hjeight

delivered.

valve

no

of

at

which

When

raised,the valve in the bottom

ing
openis bent upwards

which

the

the

20

piston;

the

it.

remains

valve

if the

will be

piston of this
is

aiB

tions
neglected fracweight of the piston

In the
at A.
as
cylinder,the same
seen
cylinder,and immediately above
outwards

to

have

we

^as

side of the

the valve

be added

whole

valve, but there

the

of the

force

The

feet of the barrel j wherefore,

lbs. the weight of the water, and the

213$

reckon

may

greater than

Thus, if the

If the friction be
force necessary.
it usually is,", then we
have,

rod be 20

the whole

and

inches, and the height

the level of the well
40 feet, then
we

the

as

wherefore,

height

in the well

is delivered.

water

pump's

weight

this, to find

piston,"pd

water

of the spout above

have 4" =
16 lbs. in three
3

limited

pump,

to work
the force necessary
that the piston lifts a column

ascertain

to consider

are

in the suction

water

piston

of the pump

is

276
any

lbs.,

thing

228

PNEUMATICS.

and
opens,
the
into
up
But

when

When

on

shuts, and

bottom
the

being produced, the water is pressed

the principleof the sucking pump.
pump
the piston is pressed down, the valve A at the
vacuum

the valve

ejectionpipe opens, and the water

the piston is raised again the

valve

The

opens.
is thrown

water

It is

is not

that

frequently required
should
the pump
this is effected by

top of
This

the

eduction

the

air

vessel

bottom

pipe

consists

of

is
of

the

be

into

the tube.

up

shuts, and

the

repeated, and
the piston,the

the

charge
dis-

of

air

is

vessel.

into the box.

This

the eduction

pipe

in
C

valve

to the

AB,

box

charge
dis-

ous,
continu-

fixing

an

there

which

opening upwards
covers
thjjtopof

is forced

leads

constant.

from
and

which

valve

process
descent

at every

out

therefore

same

side

the

at

valve

D.

tube, E, is fastened
which
of

into the top of the box,

nearly to the bottom of the box, it rises out

reaches

the box, and

cock

is furnished

shut, and

be

the

with

be

sent

water

stop cock.

by

into

the

air vessel, it cannot

return

shuttingof

the

valve

of

pump

of the space
is condensed, and
water

in

the

at

the

bottom

occupied by
will

the water,

consequently
If the

air vessel.

exert

water

If the stop
of the

the

action

because

the

of

the

cause
be; and
the air in the box
a

box

the

on

pressure

fill three-fourths

of
"

the box, then

times

its

will

will send

it

one

On

The

this

of power,
and
the air vessel

may

being opened,

32

that

by pumping,

as

is

there

will be

to raise
same

way

much

as

the
as

magazine

forced

is forced

out

jet of

constant

piston in

96

act.

water

for the

32

as

which
the air

as

supposed
jets of fountains
3

case

there

force

feet

therefore be considered

long as

so

pressure
The
force necessary
found exactly in the

into

by the
water.

this

is
pump,
suction
pump.

to depress the piston,is found

by
necessary
of
whose
of
column
water,
a
height is
weight

the force

taking the
equal

many

principleit is

of the air, there

And

aw

times

four

to exert

as

the

that is, in the

air vessel

so

stop cock
ui^the tube, with

less than

compressed,

feet.

forced

be

compressed

; and

originalforce

the water

is

the air will be

to

the
above

descend.

height
the

Thus,

of

the

level of

if the

spout
the

where

the water

piston,before
piston when raised is

it
26

livered
is de-

begins

to

feet above

229

WINDMILLS.

the level of the well, and the spout is 63 feet above

the

level,therefore, the

26

height of the column

is 63

"

same
=

37

feet; and supposing the diameter of the ejectionpipe to

25 lbs.,
have for 3 feet of the pipe 5s
be 5 inches, we
for 37 feet we
wherefore
have,
3 : 37 : : 25 : 308" lbs.
=

weight of
the piston,but
The

The

power
be an

should

the

piston and its rods oppose

assist in depressing it.
applied to the piston rod of

there

pump

will be

the power
be
must
forcingpump
continued
gine
throughout equable. A single stroke steam enwill be best to raise water
by the sucking, and a
The
double stroke by a forcing pump.
piston rod of a
loaded
with a weight sufficient to
should be
forcing pump
waste

balance

in

raisingof

suction

otherwise

intermitting
power,

of power

the

; but

of water,

column

whose

base

piston,and

whose

height is the

spout from

the

level of the water

This

will

feet.

this pump

is

cause

wrought

have

from
for

of

case

it not

the wind,

as

square

theorem
fear of
The

is

of air, arising
remains

; it now

at rest

put in motion,

as

in the

so

convenient

most
even

as

deserves
wind

our

strikes

velocityof

nearly true

it is, its

the

that it may

and

force of

of all the first

efficacy
may

be

consideration.

against a surface, is
wind.
This
simple
be employed without

error.

on

be found

any

avoirdupois pounds

surface

by using

surface struck
and

but

which

of the

force in

strikes

where

be the

machinery,

force with

pressure

in direction
irregularity

advantageof, and

the

68

when

WINDMILLS.

when
elasticity

for the

it would

of

movers

The

above

the

wind.

Were

taken

AND

its effects when

consider

to

in the cistern

the effect of the

seen

its weight and

us

excess

of the

height of

of the

of power
a regularapplication
with a steam
engine.

WIND

We

is the section

the surface
the time

on

which

it acts

with

the wind

which

perpendicularly
may

the rule,
X

and

1 second.

velocityof wind9
velocityof wind
If the wind

'002288

are

taken

moves

at

in feet,

the rate

of

feet per second, and the surface exposed to its action be

14 feet square,
then, 14 X 30" x -002288
28-8288.
=*
this statement
From
it might appear
at first sight,
that in

30

20

230
the

PNEUMATICS.

of mills

case

volvingsurfaces

which
called

sails

"

the

greater quantity of
wind, the greater would
this has
wind

found

been

requires space

not
to

sail

impulse of

the

by

act

might
exposed
it

hold

rer

the machine.

But

it would

that the
appear
sails of the windmill

The

escape.

on

appear, we
say, that
the
action
of the
to

be the effect of
to

wind

be supposed to intercepta cylinder of wind ; and

it
may
whole
would
is
the
that when
cylinder
intercepted,
seem,
diminished
and
the effect of the machine
is
it is concluded
;
above
experiments, that the sails should not intercept
of
the
wind.
seven-eighthsof the cylinder
of the effects of wind
We
here subjoin a tabular view
at

from

different velocities.
Table

showing

the pressure

Windmills
move

their

in

section

are

In
of

Wind

constructed

horizontal

former

windmills.
and

are

of the

plane, or

called

for

either
in

the followingVelocities*

so

horizontal

and

sails shall

plane nearly vertical

horizontal, and

plate2, fig.1

that the

2,

we

windmill,

on

the

given a plan
improved con-

have
an

latter vertical

231

WINDMILLS.

struction.
which

HH

are

contains

the

of

the side walls

machinery.

octagonalbuilding

an

walls

These

surmounted

are

the
form
as
by a strong timber framing GG, of the same
at top by cross-framingto support
building,and connected
the roof, and
also the upper
pivot of the main vertical
shaft

AA,

which

framed

it

upon
the walls.

of

has
at

fixed, as

and

their

in outline

in

the

fig.2,

the

above

bolted

are

vanes

so

height
supported

and

extremities

which

frames, round

seen

rises

to

to

floats EE

or

as

DD,

CC,

BB,

arms,

strengthened

are

arms

by diagonal braces,
are

of

sets

that part which

The

octagonalwood

three

form

large

the
wheel,
resembling a water
This space
size of the house
by about 18 inches all round.
blinds FF,
is occupied by a number
of vertical boards
or
turning on pivots at top and bottom, and placed obliquely,
to
as
so
overlap each other, and completely shut out the
ing
surroundwind, and stop the mill, by forming a close case
be
the wheel
moved
altogetherupon
they can
; but
wind
their pivots to allow the
in the direction of a
to blow
which

wheel,

the vanes
upon
the other
side is

tangent
time

on

side

one

completely
positionof the

is less

of

than

the wheel,

shaded

at

the

defended

or

by

blinds is clearlyshown
boarding. The
At the lower
end of the vertical shaft AA,
at FF,
fig.2.
is fixed, which
a large spur-wheel aa
gives motion to a
pivot
pinion c, upon a small vertical axis d, whose
upper
Above
in a bearing bolted to a girderof the floor n.
turns
the pinion c, a spur-wheel e is placed, to give motion
to
small
two
pinions f, on the upper ends of the spindles g,
of the millstone
h.
Another
pinion is situated at the
to
opposite side of the great spur-wheel aa, to give motion
the

third

pair of millstones, which

is very strong ; and then

the extra
to need
wheel

the

of the main

by

strong timber
the lower

receive
ends
shown
across

from
the

The

stones.

by

cross-beams
in

the

weight
b,

the wheel
to

brass

into

so

placed on it
It is supported at
upright posts bb,

box

the

A floor or roof
plan,fig.2.
top of the brick buildingto protect
the

the weather,

the wind

vertical shaft is borne

the shaft.

mortised

when

quick as not
requisitevelocityto

turns

give the

having a

pivot of

used

are

1 1
the

is

to

its
as

thrown

machinery

prevent the rain blowing down

which
the shaft descends, a broad circular

and

to

opening through
hoop K is fixed to the floor, and
another hoop or case
is fixed
L, which

is surrounded
to

the

arms

DD

by
of

232

PNEUMATICS.

last is of

This

the wheel.

such

size,

exactlyto

as

go

the wheel
turns
touching it when
over
the rain is completely excluded
round.
By this means,
the upper
from
as
a granary,
M, which
serves
room
being

hoop K, without

the

fitted up with
of grain which
is fixed

on

sides.

Those

end

Another

has

sorts

roller

p, in

up

pinion
projectingout

the

over

drawing

the wheel

t,

flap-doors seen
two
pinions

The

the sacks

land

of

is for the purpose

is situated above

K, which

roller

sacks.

the different

contain

to

mm,

A wheel
i
by the sack-tackle.
main
shaft,having cogs projectingfrom both
side work
into a pinion on
the
at the under
is raised

the

of the

up
which

the bins

fig.2,
upon.
for
turned
the
fig.2, are
by
mm,
great wheel aa9 and are
giving motion to the dressing and bolting machines, which
the floor N, but are
in the
shown
not
are
placed upon
drawing, being exactly similar to the dressing machines
at

used

in all flour-mills.
not

are

to

so

The

the rim

tgoad as

three

inches

broad.

This

hoop,

which

is made

fast

cogs

the

upon

great wheel

plain rim

itself,leaving a

about

encompassed by a broad iron

end to the upright post b ;
one

is
at

being jointed to a strong lever n,

which
is attached, and
a purchase o
iron pins on the top of a frame fixed

the

the other

to

end

of

the fall is made

fast

to

This

apparatus

used

in

of

the

to

the brake

the purpose
windmills
to stop their motion.

answers

common

extreme

ground.
or
gripe
ing
By pull-

the iron strap to embrace

purchase o, it causes
the great wheel, and produces a resistance
sufficient
be regulatedin its motion,
mill can
The
to stop the wheel.
or
stopped entirely,
by opening or shuttingthe blinds F,
which
surround
the fan-wheel.
at
They are all moved
situated just beneath
the
once
by a circular ring of wood
lower
ends of the blinds upon
the floor 1 1, being connected
with each blind by a short iron link.
The
ring is moved
round
into the mill
by a rack and spindle which descend
the fall of the

below, for

room

of

bringing

the

the

convenience

sails

of the miller.

on

eightflapsor vanes,
hinges representedby
or

that the lower

or

higher

side

AP

1,61

the dark

simplest

fig.3,
c

2, "c,

lines, AP

the second

wind, therefore,acts

upon

flap,and

the sail

and

over
on.

AI, each

for

of

six

moving

b 1,

so

Mr.

best

consist

to

side b 1 of the first flapwraps

of

mode

against the wind, which

back

invented, is, perhaps, the

He
makes
each sail AI,
that end.
Beats

The

upon

2, "c,
the
When

flapwill

so

hinge
the
press

233

WINDMILLS.

immediately below it,and the

surface
of the sail will be exposed to its action.
But when,
the saiKAI
returns
against the wind, the flaps
round
their hinges, and
will revolve
present only
upon
their edges to the wind, as is representedat EG,
that
so
the

upon
whole

the

hinge

of

the

one

occasioned

resistance

by the

of the sail

return

be

must

greatlydiminished, and the motion will be continued

by
of force exerted upon
the sails in the
the great superiority
In computing the force of the wind
the
positionAI.
upon
the
sail AI, and the resistance opposed to it by
edges of the
the
finds,that when
flaps in EG, Mr. Beatson
pressure
is 1872
the former
pounds, the resistance opposed by
upon
the latter is only about 36 pounds, or ""%part of the whole
the
force; but he neglects the action of the wind
upon
frames

"fec, and the

arms,

CA,

in the

they expose the

position EG.
mislead

to

carry

the

cause
sails,bepositionAI, as

same

surface

This

omission, however,

in the

us

which

present

in the

Case,

as

w^

has

dency
ten-

shall

now

force exerted
the whole
see
ought to compare
; for we
the arms,
resistance
well as the sail,with the whole
as
upon
these arms
which
and the edges of the flapsoppose
to the
of

motion

the

By inspecting the figureit will

the edges of the flaps,which
upon

windmill.

appear, that if the force

Mr. Beatson
supposed to be
the force

pounds,
"cM

acted

are

upon

positionAI,

the

spent upon

be less than

cannot

with
1872

number,

pounds.

60

60

Now,

GF.

FE^

these bars

the force

the

exerted

appendages, while the opposite

the bars and edges of the flapswhen
returning
upon
be
96 pounds, which
is
36
against the wind will
+ 60
of
of
instead
Mr.
Beat1932,
nearly Tly
-fa as computed by
Hence
the
we
see
son.
advantages which will promay
bably
arise from using a screen
for the returningsail instead
of movable
flaps,as it will preserve not only the sails,but

upon
force

sail AI, and

DG,
since

36

to

the sails have

will be

1932

amounts

CD,

bars

equal force, when

an

in

12

the

its

the

and

arms

the frame

which

supports it,from

the

action

of the wind.

Figures 4
form

and

of the vertical windmill

of the mill, which

and
this

plate2cZ, represent

5,

the

crown

motion

wheel,

or

communicate

wheel

along

; aaaa,

motion

the most
the

are

to

vanes

improved
or

sails

the wind-shaft

which
wheel
cj dt the centre
conveys
the shaft e to the spur-wheel /; g,

trundle,on

the

end
20*

of

the

spindleof

the upper

PNEUMATICS.

"34

or

turning

; t, the

millstone

case

which

in

the

millstones

placed; A;,the bridge-treewhich

are

of the

turning-stone; Z, another

supports the spindle

wheel r or trundle, on
the

down
of the shaft m, which
the motion
lower
conveys
the building to another spur-wheel n; this spur-wheel puts

end

other

millstones

two

manner

as

in

the former

motion

; o, the

pleasure,in

at

brake,

or

the

same

rubber, for stopping

the mill, it operates

the
on

the

with

by friction ; /", the governor for regulating

the
wind-boards
motion, by opening or shutting
; q, the

vanes

carries round

director which

the roof

the wind,

by keeping the vanes

always at rightangles
On
it.
the
of
this
director is placed an endless
to
spindle
working into a wheel which turns a shaft having a
screw,
pinionfixed at the other end of it. This pinion works into
connected
another wheel
with the rack
pinion, which puts
the whole
The

roof

wind

in motion.

does

wind-mill, tyitat

degree
centre

of

perpendicularlyon the sails of a

certain angle, and the sail varies in the

not
a

act

its inclination

of motion,

this is called

in

at

different distances

resemblance

to

the

wing

the

weathering of the sail.

been found by Smeaton
as

The

from
of

the

bird

angles of

The
follows.
weathering have
radius being divided into 6 equal parts, and the first part
from, the centre
being called 1, the last 6.

Smeaton

gives the followingmaxims

for the construction

of windmills.
The

unloaded
velocityof the windmill
sails,whether
to
is nearly as
loaded, so as
or
the
produce a maximum,
of
the
their
and
motion
wind,
shape
velocity
being the same.
is
load at the maximum
2. The
less
nearly but somewhat
of the velocityof the wind, the shape
than, as the square
and positionof the sails being the same.
3. The
effects of
sails at a maximum
the same
less
are
nearly but somewhat
1.

than, as the cubes

of the

of
velocity

the wind.

4.

The

load

235

WINDMILLS.

of the

and their effects

given time.
wind

at

of

double

than

; and

27

of

when

at

overcome,
as

similar

figureand

the cube

Rules

The

length

called

at the

side is made

whip

bar

is 1-1 6th

parallelto

of the

of

one

must

To

about
and

whip

of these
be made
prepare

on
on

shaft B, to the

whip,

the

an

the
each

and

whip

and

whip,
;

its

the back

length of
and

whip is square,
the whip, or half

equallydivided
givesthe size

three-quartersof

the

the

square.
the whip for

the gauge
score
face of all the bars

lengthof

the face for half the

of the

spaces

of the face of the

is " of the breadth

of the

is

to

breadth

length of

lattice is l-7th

6-7ths of the

of

end

the great end.

the centre
From
the

B,

end

same

the small

the

of the

Windmills.

the

The

is

o( the radius.

arm

from

19.

the centre,

thickness

the

great shaft

the outermost
next

of

of

of motion,

effect of sails of

the square

sails

at

mill.
wind-

workmen

by

of the

centre

as

load

positionwill

centre

The

8,

versely
in-

be

The

figureand
the

will

time
7.

more

mum,
maxi-

is the

cut

measured

is

whip,

positionare

sail of

one

nearly

figure and

similar

the sail.

from

of the radius.

given

similar

for modellingthe

of

of

are

length of

distance

accompanying

front view

AA,

of

given

when

city
the velo-

of

the increase

as

in

turns

sails of

will be

The

of

the radius
that

only

If sails

6.

number

maximum

is small, the effect

compared are
given load produces a

the

that where

of the wind.

as

then, when

same,

the velocities

the effect increases

position,the

produce
velocity of the
to

as

so

the

of the velocities ; but

the squares
is double, the effects will be
wind

nearly as
the velocityof the
to

velocity,and

continuing the
the velocityof the wind

will be
10

loaded

are

load

increases, the

the increase

as

the sails

given

the squares,
of turns
in a

nearlyas

of their number

the cubes

as

When

5.

maximum

is

sails at the maximum

same

the

its end

at

the breadth

nearest

bar

at

1 of

of
space
spaces ; l-9th

remaining
into 19

of the mortice, which

x

strike
mortising,
inch

from

at
gauge score
the face on each side,

leadingside, 4,
side ; but

on

faces of all the bars will fall deeper than

5, will

the other
the

gauge

give the
side the
score,

236

PNEUMATICS.

according to
to

compasses

distance

any

the breadth

be greater than
may
Set off these
bar.
seventh

Extend

"

the

that 6 times

pleasure,so

at

that

of the

whip at the
six spaces
a
straightline
upon
the end of which
raise a perpendicular; set
a base, at
the same
six spaces on the perpendicular,and divide the
the perpendicularwhich
farthest from
on
are
spaces

extent

for
off
two

the base, each

will contain
the end
To
of

is this:

rule, which

certain

the

of the

equal parts,

so

farthest from

that

of

each

Join

points.

13

of the base

the

these

these

13

two

spaces
points with

perpendicular.

this scale to any given case,

set off the breadth
is the bar at the extremity
at the last bar (that

apply
whip
sail)from the centre of
the perpendicular,and
to

the

cut

the breadth
this

into 6

oblique

this

at

line nearest

the seventh

at

the scale,

the base

point raise
same

wards
to-

perpendicular
; also set off

the base

the

bar in

along

and

manner,

at

thirteenth
perpendicular to cut off
the first of these
oblique line. Now, from the point where
two
perpendicularscuts the first oblique line from the base,
the intersection
of the second
to
perpendicular with the
thirteenth
a line joining the
oblique line, there is drawn
two
points of intersection ; and perpendicularsbeing drawn
from the points where
this joining line cuts
the oblique
lines
of

raise

point

bar

We
sails.
and

of

AB

rest

the
to

the

and

and

from

BD

is the

Divide
these

the

distances

give

seventh, which

the first.

to

distances

These
the

of the face

must

length of

The

the

whip.
the

show

method

length of

of

the vane,
the weather
at the

weatheringthe
BC

its

breadth,

angle of
equal to 20 degrees.

AB,

at

proceed

Draw

BCD

vane,

is

now

several

the gauge
line.
off for each bar to

off for all the

longest bar

the

be

from

difference,set
set

the base, will

to

each

be

the

extremity of the
With
the length of the vane
ABC
breadth
the isosceles triangle
BC, construct
;
the point B, draw
BD
then
to
OB,
perpendicular
depth of
proper
the line AB
into
divisions

draw

the

vane.

any number
the lines 1

of parts, say four,

", 2 F, 3 G, "c.

HEAT,

would

It

into

enter

be

STEAM,

place

detail

minute

of

out

section, therefore,

this

of the

bodies

Different

work

shall

we

expand

of

the

respecting

bodies, that

expands

Heat

in

this

nature

of

nature

confine

is, increases

the

to

same

Thermometer.

the

application of
degree of heat,

The

bulb

tube, the

other

When

of air.
the

mercury

To

rise.

the

of

tube

is thus

scale

the

The

32.

of

height

the

212
these

both

above

commonly

name

of its inventor,

philosophers
of

much

of

its

which

and

in this

divisions,

Fahrenheit

is

the

ter,
thermomeing
accord-

the

mercury
note
scale, to dewhich
is put

marked

is

mercury

and

the

and

water,

scale

the

upon

The

is divided

scale

the

scale

then

is known

and
the

is

French

thermometer

called, from

32, is in

the

tended
ex-

is

the

by

the

and

having
The

into

This

points.

scale.

bered
num-

boiling point.

the

on

But

marked

will

boiling

country,

Centigrade

part of

mercury,
thermometer

the

the

simple construction,
the

closed.

the

the

these

it is

the

is marked

Fahrenheit.
use

with

freezing point, and

is called

below

tube

divided

of

tube

degrees,

instrument

tube, and

it, so

to

put into

points

two

in Britain

more

in

this

used

scale

in the

of

the

in the

of

bulb

rising of

height

gases.
is constructed

being entirely deprived

rises

bulb

is then

parts, called

equal

180

"

likewise

the

to

this

end

other

tube

the

is called

mercury

betwixt

space

the

bulb

numbered

and

by
The

this

glass

is attached

there

formed.

small

as

applied

heat

and

of

the

mercury,

of heat

melting ice,

into

at

portion of the
heat is applied
expands and

degrees

the

and

end,

one

degree

the

to

on

at

of

consists

is filled with

bulb

scale

It

simple.

is very
hollow

action

The

scription
de-

properties.

With
the same
quantity of heat.
solids expand less than liquids, and liquids less than
On
the
principle that bodies
expand by heat,

the

in

dimensions.

their

differentlyby

to

heat

ourselves

of its mechanical

important

more

"c.

many
a

scale
nature

freezing point,
the

Centigrade
238

239

HEAT.

and

the

boiling point, in
100.
In
marked 212, is in the Centigrade marked
the freezingpoint is marked
thermometer
0, and
point 80.
marked

Let

zero

or

represent Fahrenheit, R

then

degrees of

have

we

any

of

one

temperature,

(1.)

(2.)

(3.)

1-8

-iJ*
~F

the

boiling
grade,
Centi-

convertingthe
into the

in the others

marked

as

for

thermometers

these

Reaumur's

and

Reaumur,

following rules

the

Fahrenheit

ponding
corres-

:"

32.

+
32.

+
32

1-8

(4.)

"

0-8

(5.)

(6.)

Thus
85

185

of the

-iff=2).
Cx0'8.

Fahrenheit's

will

Centigrade,and

(1.)

85

1-8

L**!8.

(2.)

68
32

+
32

of Reaumur's

correspond

to

to

thermometer.

185.

==

185.

155^="

(3.)

found

be

85.

"-

(4.)

*X

(185-32)

(6.)
85
are

which

0-8

68.

other particulars
meter
regarding the thermomany
it would
be inconsistent
with
the design of

these pages to consider : what

for the understanding of what

subjectof
Before
stated

68.

(6.)
There

85.

steam, "c.
introduced
we

the fact of

the

the

we

have

said will be sufficient

is hereafter

subjectof

the

to

follow

on

thermometer,

the

we

Bars
expansion of bodies by heat.
of the followingsubstances, whose
length at a temperature

940

HEAT.

of 32
so

to

Fahrenheit, and expanded

212

become,

to

as

heated

1, were

was

Cast iron,

100110940

Copper,

1-00191880

Steel,

1-00118990

Brass,

1-00188971

This

is the

expansion

breadth, and

thickness, will be

numbers

above

by

3.

effects of different

The

accordingto
Cast

iron

Cast

iron

Greatest
Flint

expansion in length,
found
by multiplying the

degreesof

Fahrenheit's

scale,

heat

on

shown

are

different bodies,
below.
20577

thoroughly melted,
begins to melt,
heat

of

smith's

common

17977

forge,

17327
1 5897

glass furnace, strongest heat,

Welding

heat

Swedish

copper

Brass

(greatest)

of iron,

13427
4587

melts,

melts,

Iron

red

Heat

of

3807

hot

in the

twilight,

884

790

fire,
brightred in the dark,

Iron

the

length;

in

common

752

"

Zinc

melts,
Mercury boils,

700

Lead

594

672

melts,

The

surface

of

polished steel

uniformly

becomes

deep blue,

580

surface

The

of

polished steel

becomes

pale

colour,
melts,

460

straw

Tin

of 3 tin and

mixture

442
2 lead

melts,

332

passes through different bodies with very different

ness
degrees of velocity,and according to the rapidityor slow-

Heat

with
be

heat

which

good

or

bad

through

passes

conductor

of

any
heat.

body,
The

it is said to

conducting

of copper
being 1, that of brass will be 1, iron, 1-1,
power
The
densest bodies
tin, 1*7, lead, 2*5.
are
generally the
best conductors
of the

one

of heat ; but this is not universal, as platina,

densest of all metals, is one
of the worst
ductors.
con-

Earthy
their

When

heated
of their

from

and

Conducting power,

coverings of

the

substances

are

much

the worst

inferior to metals

conductors

of all

in
are

animals.

exposed to the air they lose portions

by projection in right lines into space

bodies
heat

are

ail parts of their surface.

This

is called the radiation

241

HEAT.

of heat.

Bodies

which

the power

best have

radiate heat

of

proportion,and the least power

of reflecting
it; hence, in leading steam
through a room,
it would
be absurd to use black pipes,because, in that case,
of the heat would
much
by radiation before the
escape
in

absorbing it

would

steam

same

be carried

If the steam

place where

to the

to be used.

it was

the apartment, black pipes are

the cylinder of a steam
engine ought to

is used

the best.
be

the

Hence

polished, but

should

condenser

the

to receive

heat

to

comparative quantities of heat existingin different

be ascertained by marking the time which
equal
may

The
bodies

quantities of them

require to cool

times

estimated

the volume

by

grees,
of de-

certain number

reckoning their capacitiesfor

; or,

heat

be

to

if divided

these

as

by the

gravityof the substance, by the weight.

It is necessary
here to distinguish
carefullybetween
is called the

these

two

heat
specific

at

action

of

absorbed

; and

that

they

the amount

body.

Thus

t, and

from

if

one

in steam

it requires 0*847

heat

steam,
of one

of

capacity

relative

water,

body

in them

the

same

of
at

degrees,but
the

CAPACITIES

equal

the
perature
tem-

heat, referred

to another

change

ture,
tempera-

of temperature

is 0*847

the

being 1*000.
compared to another

the standard,

for heat

body

specificheat of the
it requires 1 degree of heat

degrees,then

as

the

to

than

heat
an

two

the

quantities of heat

certain number

of

acquired

temperature, T,

produce

to

that

what

take

we

of this additional

if it be found

to raise water

the

have

standard, is denominated

some

If

confounded.

greater quantity

cific
spe-

its capacityfor heat,

same

other, by the time

to

body, and

them
temperature, and expose
that one
greater heat, it will be found

the

have*

of

being often

terms

bodies
will

tended
in-

be black.

should

heat

Vessels

not.

required

to

the absolute

raise

specific
The
is not

them

tained
quantitiescon-

temperature.

same

OF

BODIES

FOR

HEAT.

GASES.

Atmospheric air,
Aqueous
Carbonic

vapour,

1 *7900
1 *5500
"

acid gas,

1*0454
LIQUIDS.

Alcohol,

1*0860

Water,

1-000Q

21

242

HEAT.

of muriate

Solution

Sulphuric acid,

soda,

diluted

of muriate

Solution

of

with

of soda

-9360

1 in 10 of water,
10

parts water,

"9250

of water,

-9050

in 6*4

-7100

oil,

Olive

acid, specificgravity 1*29895,

Sulphuric acid, with an equal weight of water,
Nitrous acid, specificgravity 1 *354,

'6613

Linseed

-5280

Nitric

Oil of

-60B0
'5760

oil,

*4720

turpentine,

-0330

gravity1 3*30,
Quicksilver,specific
SOLIDS.

"9000

Ice,
White

"4500

wax,

Quicklime, with water,

Quicklime,
Quicklime

in the

proportion of

saturated with water,

1 6 to

9,

"3000

.1
"

and

"2800

dried,

"2800

Pit coal,

"2777

Pit coal,
Rust

of iron,

Flint

glass,specificgravity287,

"2500
,.

Hardened

gravity7-724,
specific
Brass, specificgravity8*356,
Copper, specificgravity8*785,
iron,

Zinc, specificgravity 8*154,

White

Lead,

"1230

steel,

"1190

bar iron,

Sheet

"1900
.

"1300

Iron,
Soft

"4391

lead,

"1160

"1140
"1099
"1020

"0670
"0352

243

HEAT.

Large quantitiesof
state,

into bodies, and

enter

must

heat necessary
to convert
raise the same
ice into water, would
Fahrenheit.

but is, as

the touch,

by
Every

This

addition

any

kept hid or latent

by applicationof

it were,
or

of heat

the

given weight of
140
weight of water
ble,
quantityof heat is not sensi-

quantity of
degrees of

Thus

that of vapour.

to

be

the solid to the fluid

from

to pass

fluid state

the

from

or

them

to enable

concealed,

heat

appliedto

nor

it be

can

tected
de-

the thermometer.
in

water

fluid state,

temperature until it arrives at the boilingpoint ;

but however
violentlythe fluid may boil, it does not become
does
that arises from
it indicate a
the steam
hotter, nor
raises

the

degree

greater

of

heat

the

than

heat

the water

enter

must

hence,

large proportion

and

into the steam

become

The

latent.

latent in steam,
quantityof heat that becomes
by Dr. Black to be 810 degrees of Fahrenheit.

found

was

of

the

Under
surface

of

cannot

when

pressure
earth, (15 lbs.

the

be

raised

exposed

above

to

vessel, the water

heat, and

if,in this

be
state

atmosphere

at the

inch,)water

square

of 212

Fahr.

; but

by being confined in a
raised to a much
higher degree of
of confinement, the heat applied
:

if the vessel should

the water
On

212.

to

exhausted

an

to boil

out, and

temperatures

in

as

on

the water

cause

will rush
open, steam
will fall in temperature

the

temperature

be

low

the

greater pressure,
may

be insufficient to

boils at
very

of

common

when

which

remains

the contrary, water

the pressure
is diminished

receiver,or

the

at

tops of

mountains.

When

the temperature
again the fluid form, and

by
by

in

steam

Mr.

cubic

inch

steam

cold

to

be

the

is reduced,

quantityof

it

assumes

latent heat set free

the state

passing to

Watt,

of steam

945

of water, has been

degrees. He also found

of water

and

be converted
into a cubic
may
that when
this steam
is condensed, by

the

water,

latent

heat

which

the

found,
that

foot of

injecting

gives

steam

out

in

the fluid state, would

be sufficient to heat 6 cubic
of water
of 212, or the boiling
to the temperature

passing to
inches

point.

It is

boilingwater
the water

making
more

generallyconsidered
occupies 18 hundred

did

from

which

the latent heat

correct

it

was

that
times

8 1 0,

experiments show

it to

of

the

atmosphere

as

much

as

be

; but

Dr. Black

1000,

from

space
instead

raised, and

of steam

pressures

raised

steam

found

as

of

it,

at the common

the latent heat

of

244

HEAT.

to the degreeof pressure

inverselyproportional
it is produced ; that is, the latent heat is

steam

is

under

which

the pressure
greatest where
pressure is greatest.

that the sensible

latelybeen discovered

It has

latent heat of steam

least where

is least, and

the

heat and

one
temperature added together,
give a sum which is constant ; that is to say, which is the
of the sensible and latent heat of any other temperasum
ture,

under any

or

of steam
212

32

"

the

at

1000, their

other pressure.
; and

of

is

on

increases in

found

is
be

to

of the

sum

any other pressure.

the elastic force of

atmospheres,or a pressure of 30
the
sensible heat will be 248
32
inch,
the latent heat is 1180
216^=964,

equal to

two

the square
=
216, wherefore
and so of the other temperatures.
It has also been found that while

lbs.

atmosphere

is the constant

latent and sensible heats of steam

under
Thus, at the temperature of 248, where
the steam

the

the latent heat has been

is 1180, which

sum

the sensible heat

Now,

ordinary pressure

180

at any

"

"

the

of
elasticity

with
geometricalprogression,

latent heat diminishes

with

ratio of 1*0306,

from a unit.
materially
Many experiments have

steam

ratio of 2, the
not
differing

very

made

been

to

ascertain

the

The
elasticforce of steam
of various temperatures.
most
French
the
valuable of them
those recentlymade
are
by

academicians, the results of which

are

tabular form ; and the practical

man
value of this giftof science.
The

will

given below

dulyestimate

in

the

and apfollowingsimple rule is easilyremembered

plied,
and comes
near
enough to the truth for all practical

uses.

/temperature+
\

steam

in inches

100y=
^

rf ^

'

X77

of mercury.

if the temperature be

Thus

307, then,
307

100

rt

177

then 23

divided

2-3

23

2-3

2-3

2-3

148-0359, this

by 30, givesthe atmospheres,

=

4-93

atmospheres.

"

246

HEAT.

ELASTIC

Before

describe

we

purposes

which

to

that

70"

Or

foot of surface
200

cubic

mill, to

cotton

of steam

pipe

feet of space.

finished, ordinary brick

are

foot of boiler will heat

preferableto

an

It has also been

Fahr.

80"

URE.

DR.

the

cubic

one

in

feet of space,

BY

in the
applicationof steam
shall brieflyallude to some
other useful
it has been
certained
subjected. It has been as-

engine, we

steam

STEAM,

OF

FORCE

all others

that

2000

of

one

about
square

adequate to the warming of

quantity is adapted to a well

is

This
or

heat

average

proved

about

building.

stone

for the diffusion

Cast

iron

of heat, the

pipes
pipes

Steam
being distributed within a few inches of the floor.
and
calicoes.
is also used extensively for drying muslin

Large cylindersare

filled with
of

it, which,

diffusingin

the

130", rapidly dry the

suspended cloth. Experience has shown that bright dyed
dried in a common
heat of 128",
stove
yarns, like scarlet,

apartment

temperature

100"

darkened,
while similar hanks, laid on a

have

their

colour

or

and
steam

acquire

pipe heated

harsh

feel ;

up to 165",

247

HEAT.

and lustre

retain the shade

work

Besides, the people who

healthy,while

those

they possessed in

who

in

the moist

drying

steam

formerly employed

were

state.,
afe

rooms

in

the

short

time, sickly
and emaciated.
The
heating,by steam, of largequantities
of water
other liquids,either for baths or manufactures,
or
heated

stove

may

effected in

be

plunged,
steam

with

two

open
diffused
an

be
may
the wooden

Elastic

0-813,

apartments,

end,
around

vessel

being

1.

ways

force of vapour

water

became,

and

in

The

steam

pipe

may

cistern ; or
the liquid in the interval

into

the

water

the interior metallic

of alcohol

of

be
the
tween
be-

case.

gravityof
specific

#48

STEAM

should
and

consistent

is not

with

into minute

enter

of

departments

the

would

the

as

steam

engine;

all the

to

large beam,

is attached.

of

consists

the

called the

When

subject which

of

calculating

clearlycomprehended.
hollow

To

cylinder

the

other

0hd

the pump
into the bottom

rod

working beam,

is admitted

steam

piston is attached
with a large beam,

is connected
to a rod, the top of which
in the centre.
resting upon a fulcrum
of this

we

modifications

that the mode

so

piston. This

solid

book, that

operates,

with

this

details

its effects may

be the more
The engine of Newcomen
furnished

of

plan

We
shall,however,
large volume.
which
this invaluable
on
leading principles

of itself occupy
attempt to explain the
machine

ENGINE.

STEAM

THE

It

ENGINE.

of

superiorityof its elastic force

of the' atmosphere, assisted by the counabove the pressure
teraction
of the weight of the pump
the piston
rod, cause
when
the piston
to rise to the top of the cylinder. But
arrives at this point,cold water
is injectedinto the cylinder,
the steam
is condensed, and a vacuum
formed,
by which
of the air on the top of the piston will
then the pressure
it to descend
of the cylinder. The
to the bottom
cause
is again injected
and again condensed, and thus the
steam

cylinder,it will, by

the

is continued.

operation of the machine

It

atmospheric engine.
there

is

of

waste

great

incurred

in consequence
the cylinder,eince the

sufficient

cooling

the proper
In order

steam

such
in

is

steam

objection,that
consequently of fuel
in
being condensed
this

and
steam,
of the steam

be heated

cylindermust
which

this

temperature,

employed

in

to

it contains

the admission

force, and
below

it down

quantity of

made

elastic

is liable to

the steam

temperature, before

is called the

This

certain

exert

can

cold

of

water

considerable

heat

again raisingits

to

point.
to

obviate

this

defect, the
enabled

arrangements as
separate vessel, and

thus

illustrious

him
to

to

Watt

condense

maintain

the

uniform

temperature in the cylinder. By this great improvement

effect of the

the
about
of

the

Watt's
the

same

quantity of

proportionof 12 to 7.
engine;"
single-acting
structure

of the machine

steam

Such
but he
as

was
was

increased
the

principle

afterwards
to

admit

in

the

so

ranged
ar-

steam

STEAM

and

above
alternately
dense

it in

descriptionof
a

will

understood

be

This

on.

form

of the

will be

double-actinglow-pressureengine.

the

con-

from

engine

steam

'

still to

engraving,plateIII, which

the

little farther

piston,and

the

below

separate vessel, as

249'

ENGINE.

the

given

is called

"

further improved by Mr. Watt,

engine was
when
the piston had
by his shuttingoff the steam
passed
the accelerated
through a portion of its stroke, by which means
motion
of the pistonis counteracted, from the elastic
force of the steam
diminishing during its expansion. This
is called the expansive engine.
is the- principleof what
In the high-pressure steam
engine, the steam, of high
above
temperature, is admitted into the cylinderalternately
the piston; but instead of being condensed* it is
anabelow
allowed
In this engine,
into the atmosphere.
to escape
which
is the most
simple in its construction, the steam acts
by its elastic force alone.
of the low-pressuredouble-acting
The
construction
steam
minute
details,from
engine, will be understood in its more
the followingdescription.
Plate III is a side elevation of a low-pressure portable
The

steam

steam
double-acting

other

engine, in which

principalparts

After
whole

the

flame

the

from

surface

bottom

drawn

are

the

boiler

the

in section.
furnace

under

passes

the boiler, it enters

of

and

the

the

flue

C,

side of the
it escapes
into a flue running up one
boiler ; from
this side flue it passes into the end flue D,
carries it into a flue running along the other side of
which
from

which

the

boiler ;

and

the

chimney

E.

the bottom

the

plate between
be drawn

which

only

pushed
If

of

; and

steam

forward
is

of the furnace

by

shown,)

in

of

means

order

just as

cocks

water

dotted
G

is

lines
small

bars

and

bars

is

flame

cleaned,

the

bridge

handles, (one of

two

that

of the furnace

full of

the

cinders

into the

be

may

ashpit.

should

As
ought to be.
be passed down
wire may
the key is not
bent over.

water

stop up sometimes,
through them, if the part above
The

the furnace

When

the

into

the gauge
cocks, FF, is opened, it will emit
the other cock if opened will blow
out
water,

if the boiler be
these

is conducted

bridge B helps to spread

the end

the end

over

one

The

of the boiler.

over

can

this last the smoke

from

as

it

always stan"J somewhere

passing below the ends of the
valve opening inwards, placedin

between

the

cocks.
gauge
the man-hole

"

250

ENGIKE.

STEAM

keep the sides of the boiler from being pressed

should
togetherby the force of the atmosphere, if the steam
that feeds
by the water
happen to be suddenly condensed
HH
is the feed pipe, and the small valve susthe boiler.
pended
from
the point O, of the lever K, regulates the
passing into the boiler ; the lever which
quantity of water

door,

to

works

the feed

float I, which

valve

is connected

rises

or

boiler, and
water

falls

high

into

the

the

water

or

the boiler house,

above

the valve,

in the
feed

which

of

means

along with

shuts

this opens
stands low or

by

is

boiler.

pipe
kept

in

the

according
The
pipe

as

the

from

full

by

also the

to fillthe boiler, as

ducts
con-

cistern

fixed
of the

means

water

The

the

to

the water

from
the
takes in water
which
pump,
should
cistern on the top of the boiler house

hot

rod

hot

Jg"ll.

be

large

large cistern

which

on
enough
the engine stands, if they should happen to be empty at any
time.
The
pipe M carries away any overplus water from
the steam
the feed pipe. NN
is the pipe which
conveys
the safety valve
is
the boiler into the nozles, and
from
placed above the bend in it. Q is a section of the cylinder,
showing also the outside of the metallic piston. The oblong
the top of the condenser
R, admits a jet of
opening, near

cold

water

to

the

condense

acted

after it has

steam

in

the

cylinder. The
injectioncock is bolted to the outside of
which
is forced through
the oblong opening, and the water
it into the condenser
by the pressure of the atmosphere is
the engine stands ;
the large cistern on which
taken from
this cistern is always kept nearly full by the cold water
The
both wrought
hot and cold water
are
pump.
pumps
off the same
spindle P, fixed in the working beam, a pump
being attached to each end of the spindle. The foot valve
S is placed between
the condenser
T.
R, and the air pump
The

bucket

valve
which

into the hot well on

opens
flat-bottomed
each a shallow

have
so

disk

fixed

by

gives

more

recess

had

not

which,

keyed

is
means

of

oh

is not

and

The

dischargingvalve,

the

the air pump,

turned
the top,
on

recess

disks

nuts

and

rod, and

the air pump

studs

sectioned.

the top of

fit nicely the flat-bottomed

to

as

one

in the air pump

the air pump
bucket, and

in

shown

to

the hot

the

the

other

well

is
it

as

it is an
improvement to have the
way,
in the valve, rather than in the disk.
If each
valve
a
as

water

recess

turned

in it to contain

it is forced out

by

the

quantityof

disk, reduces

the

mom

water,
en-

STEAM

or

soon

work

pumped

that is

water

is shown
from

steam

pipe, and
by

if the steam

damper,

the

float

be

shut

them

more

The

draught.
the

raises

pulleys

two

and

damper

the
one

only

too

along with the rod Z,

trifugal
quick, the balls by their cen-

the

rods

less

or

rod B', and

the valve

with

It is clear, that the

and
valve

atmospheres
the effect of

in the

depend

of

steam

of the

"

the

same,

velocitywith
admitted

of

into the

the force

the stroke

piston

rod

centre,

attached

and
a

steam

of

hundred

feet ;
is. attached
to
is Ave

that

to

weight

the
of

us

2"J. the

force of the

of

engine will

any

the

depend

suppose

that

on

to

end

of

thing less

that the end

fulcrum
the
than

beam
one

the

is

steam

the
press down
pounds, and that the

as

suppose
whose
beam

other

of two

that is, on
the
upon,
circumstances
remaining

and
a

pend
de-

acted

illustration,let
one

will

equal, produce double

power

two

cylinder,so

up
the
of
part
and
the governor.

Steam

1st.

"

and

bring

engine

of the engine will

power
the piston moves.
which

the sake

For

to

form

pipe

atmosphere."

one

3d. these

piston.

steam

steam

of the steam,
energy
will, other thingsbeing

the same,
the
the extent
of surface

on

the

A', in

at

of the steam

power

remaining

steam

in connexion

levers

the lever C,

the

upon

of

steam.

the

of

the balls fall down,

The

connexion

with

force

the

engine goes too slow,

valve to give the engine more

this
open
its motion.

the

reduces

if the

pipe ;

area

the

carried round

are

the

with

with

one

on

"

into the flue, and

between

engine is going
force fly out, and

when

seen.

the balls YY

As

pulley

shaft ; on
of the
account
exactly behind the other, one of them

being placed
can

the

connexion

fixed

both

are

follows

as

low, the float falls and

too

increase

to

form

which

gets

and

chain

damper V, the damper descends

the draught in the furnace, and
the

farthest

the side

on

in the boiler
strong, the water
and
carries up the float W;
as

too

gets

the feed

float is connected

A^in,

by

which the lire is regulated,is

in

way
the
in

the

the
away
the air pump,

cylinder.

the

When

carries

of the condenser

out

its

on

parts would

the

which

pipe

the top of the hot well,

near

The

rises

be very
The
of order.

out

of the valve

great, and

would

guard

disk

the stroke

by degrees;

of the valve

turn

251

ENGINE.

piston
length
of the

is in

the

there

hundred

is

252

STEAM

there

pounds,

piston,the

being
weight at

no

friction.

the

end

effect of the

at the

the

of the beam

end

weight
less than 100 pounds, for
of the piston,if they were
that

If

rest.

it

would

raise

the

the

the

supposed

of the

area

be

somewhat
the

to

contrary

power
be at

would

piston double

the

effect would

same

of the

area

first,but the force of the

at

was

and

time:

we

of

area

easilyperceive

must

the machine

equal

feet

of what

the engine
things being the same,
pounds through the same
space of 5 feet

200

same

if

ensue

the

we

suppose
before, other

was

in

the

it acts

as

the mechanical

express
reader will

The

engine.

the

raised

raised

pounds

100

of

will be

piston,will

of the

descent

By the descent

the beam

of

it follows, that

feet; therefore

during one

ENGINE*

piston and

evidently

piston to remain

steam

A_ it
doubled .^lf

be

to

force of steam

be the

same

as

at

first,but the

length of stroke doubled, then the mechanical

lbs. raised 10 feet high
effect of the engine will be 100
during one descent of the piston; and if the descents be
time, this engine will be double the
performed in the same
of the first.

power
Let

In

to actual
cases.
proceed now
low-pressure steam
engine of Watt, steam

the

us

cylinderwhose

of the

atmosphere, which

lbs.

15

the

to

tend

vacuums

pressure

which
pressure

be

pressure

is

we

equivalent to
Mr.

distributed.

pressure
The
K
motion

3.

the

lbs.

12

square

the

to

pressure, and the effective

If the
four-fifths of this.
its one-fifth

by

inch, then
inch.

square
at

will the

10

it 7

lbs*

taken

9*42

lbs. to the circular inch.

is between

the

these

of the steam, as it issues

In an engine which
has no

on

the boiler

force

circular
effective

The

extremes,

from

the

boiler, is

condenser:

1 0*000

"""""""

for
in the

being

will show

being*

necessary

of the steam

working

the

following table,which

part,

effective

The

lbs. to

have

Tredgold gives

the power

2.

this

that

all

but

generally reckoned
Smeaton
only makes

inch, and

The

diminish

to

is 3 lbs. to

pressure

inch

square

about

into

along supposed to be
friction and
imperfect

have

we

common

is admitted

is somewhere

be reckoned
only
may
of the steam
is diminished

pressure

how

elastic force

the

producing

cylinder*
By cooling in the cylinderand pipes
Friction of piston and waste
"

'0069
"0160
2000

254

STEAM

is the

This

ENGINE.

certain

most

measure

It is usual, however,

engine.
to

however

of

the

power
simple and

to

of the power of a
estimate the effect as

many
it may
to the power

natural

differences of

valent
equimethod,

This

horses.

so

steam

2)3 yet, from

appear,
of a horse, not very

opinion as
in calculation can
its employment
only be
;
for on the ground, that when
accounted
steam
engines were
first employed to drive machinery, they were
substituted
and

accurate

; and

instead of horses
what
so

size of

engine

steam

opinions

Smeaton,

to

in

is

and

Watt

in the

we

raise 220

foot in

one

from

; and

lbs.

horse.

lbs^kie

number

this

1,000

lbs.

it is

through

5428

is too

it,which

to

gives

to

space of
that it could

lbs. raised

same

time,

through one

of the
easy

different estimates

24

the

foot in the

one

effective power
minute,
these considerations
it will be
the

engine of

easilyseen

1194160

through

is the

according

power

even

at least 1

raise 5428

minute

of
the power
will raise 22,916

one
high per minute.
above, we found that the

5428

therefore,220

to

foot

case

one

equal

power

to

that

add

may

cylinder,would
feet in

and

believe

to

lbs. raised

Now,
220

makes

reason

small, and that

inch

the numoer
Desaguliers makes
it larger still,that is, 33,000.

minute.

as

horse

44,000

give

various

are

According
foot high
There

would

to estimate

necessary

horses.

many
There

27,500

thus

it became

engine ;
find the

to

of

horse's

For,

power.

H94160
=

52

n"rees

43

h"r8eS

P"Wer'

h0r8eS

P"Wer'

power,

22916

Smeaton.

accordingto

1194160

"2*500"

accordingto Desaguliers.
1194160
M_

-33000"

36

27

Watt.

accordingto

1194160
.

__

44000"
according to
The
rule

reader

for

the usual
will

h0rSeS

P"Wer'

estimate.

have

estimating the

no

in forming
difficulty

power

of

steam

general

engine. (The

STEAM

of piston
square inch x the area
of
x
length of stroke in feet X number
of horses*
the number
=
minute) -*-. 44000

effective pressure
inches
in square
strokes

per
of the

power
What

each

on

engine.
the

is

low-pressure engine, whose

diameter, length of stroke 6 feet,
of

power
inches

cylinder is 30
making 16 double

to find

easy rule
inches, is this,

square

diameter

The

strokes in the minute

An

Note."

255

ENGINE.

the

piston in

of the

area

circumference

area.

"

Here
w

30

have,

we

(30

31416)

2827-44
_

the

equa

effective pressure,
double strokes in
""

the

piston in square inches ; and 12

the length of stroke, 16 the number

of the

area

706-86

Q.

7Uo'oo,

12

minute

?
16

of

1628605-44

"

".

"

"

44000

44000

horses' power.
If the

cylinder of

piston of
making 32
of
inside
15

diameter, with

double

strokes

elastic force

an

in

twelve

minute

equivalent to

inch

stroke,

being
atmospheres on
; steam

mitted
adthe

of the

cylinder. Its effective pressure will be 7 X

lbs. to the square
inch without
alfriction; but lowing
one-fifth for friction,
the effective pressure will be

=105

105

inches

has

engine

high-pressure steam

21

"

here

lbs. to the' square

84

=3

(3*1416
"

5}

19-63

84

inch.

the

19-33

"=

1 X

32

the

piston:

10553088

hence

of

area

44000

44000

horses' power.
A

convenient

engine,
boiler, A the

rule for
is

"

area

let P
of

the

of a high-pressure
power
in the
the force of the steam

findingthe
be

piston,and

the

velocityof

the

feet per minute, then,

0-9 P
6 X A X V

piston in

"

=s

ttzt^;

horses

power.
*

44000

The
square

of the
pressure
inch, the diameter

steam

of

in

boiler

cylinder 12

is 30

lbs. per

inches, lengthof

256

STEAM

ENGINE.

stroke 3 feet,and the engine

the area
minute.
of
Here

velocityof piston
and since 0*9
0-9

30

3x30x2

30

"

"

making
piston

will

be

strokes

minute,

21, then,

427506-66

180

~~

horses'

We

44000

power.

might simplifythis rule

the divisor

that
of

fraction

converting

this

avoid

the

might

~~

"

44000

9*7

per
the

113*097,

feet per

180

113097

double

30

Since

into

44000

as

is one,

numerator

decimal, and

the consideration,

on

be viewed

may

whose

necessityof
"

still farther

the

nominator
de-

and

by

multiplyingby it, we

division.

'0000227, hence

we

devise

may

jjaaa

the rule.

44UU0

Effective
inches

of
of steam
area
X
pressure
length of stroke in feet x number

piston in

square'
of strokes per

product cutting off seven

the horses' power
of the engine.
placesas decimals ;
is for a single stroke
This
engine for a double stroke
454.
engine the multiplieris 227 X 2
If the cylinder be 42
inches
diameter, and the piston
feet per minute, then the engine being low
210
moves
minute

227

and

from

the

"

pressure,
of
area
210

and

the

power.
These

12

we

have,

cylinderequal
=

792527097

figurescut

seven

are

at

best

but

; hence

1385*44

227

1385*44

off

as

decimals, leave 79 horses9

approximations, and

for

safetyit

than 12 should be
might be advisable that a lower number
ber
employed, as the effective pressure of the steam ; the num10 may
be used as being easilymanaged, and coming
be simplified
the truth ; and thus
the above
rule may
near
by neglecting the pressure of the steam, and cuttingoff six
instead
of seven,
there is reason
as
to
places for decimals
results will answer
believe that the above
stead
only ponies inof strong horses.
stroke of an engine is
The

commonly

reckoned

equal

to

complete revolution of the crank shaft,and therefore

and it has been
stated
double
the length of the cylinder,
by Mr. Thomas
Tredgold, that to ascertain the velocityof
the piston when
the engine performs at its maximum,
we
employ the rule,
may
one

STEAM

120

Tf

120

feet stroke, then,

two

s/ 2

velocity.

sa

120

1-4142

169-704,

170, as the velocityof the pistonper minute

wherefore as the engine has a single stroke of 2

we

or

has

engine

an

stroke

lengthof

s/

257

ENGINE.

may

say

in feet ;
feet we
have,

170

42J strokes

-=

"

in the minute.

If

engine

an

120

have

"/4

th^velocityof

the

stroke, then

four feet

120

240

minute

piston per

have,

we

and,

240

.safetyvalves

The

of most

part of the country,

are

from

the

lbs.

3 to

of strokes per minute'.

30, equal the number

-"-

to

of the

steam

generallyloaded
inch

square

engines in this
with a weight of

of their

let

area;

us

take 3 J lbs. in the present instance.

The
temperature of
this pressure, is,accordingto the
to balance
steam
necessary
best experiments,223 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer.
But

besides this sensible

heat, there is a quantityof latent

heat not indicated by the thermometer, and which
can
only
into
the steam
be detected when
condensation,
passes, by
the fluid state ; as the latent heat is then given out.
Now,
if the latent heat of the steam

found

the

principlestated

and

latent heats

on

sensible

added

together,make

the latent heat of

quantity

degrees.
that

one

heat

of

We

then

in
be

cubic

one

by

the

temperature

remarks
at all

temperatures, when

quantity;

the

will find that

we

is 223

steam

far from
steam

inch

The

in

the truth

will, when
; and

989

the steam

of the

water

real

=1212

supposing,

condensed
is

injectionof cold water.

evident, that the temperature

condensation

temperature, *be
heat, that the
on

above

temperature is 989.

at this

steam

our

of steam

foot of this

water, measure
to be condensed

in

constant

will not

cubic

at the

supposed

Now

formed

into

it is

by

the

of the steam, will be somewhere

the
between
of cold water
and the boilingpoint.
Say that

is 50 degrees,and that
the temperature of die injectedwater
the temperature of the water
arisingfrom the condensation
of the

steam

is 100.

We

must

the heat of the uncondensed

1112, which

is left

to

be

deduct

steam,

the 100

that is, 1212

communicated
22*

degreesfrom

to

the

"

100

=s

injection

258

ENGINE.

STEAM

water

since each cubic inch of the cold

and

requires

water

raise it to the temperature of the water

after the condensation
of the steam, therefore,
of heat

50

"

of water

found

to

22T3" cubic

"

condense

to

necessary

inches
foot of

cubic

one

steam

to

the temperature of 100, the injectedwater

being 50.
derived
termining
be
From
these considerations may
a rule for de-

.quantityof

the

quantity of
Total

heat

of the steam

quantity of

cold water

will it
cubic

any

feet

the

water

warm

of cold

temp,

"

to
necessary
illustrate this by an

us

in cubic

steam

inches

in cubic
Let

water

warm

of

temperature

"

temp, of

condense

to

necessary

given temperature.

at any

steam,

water

water

quantity of

produce the
example.

cold water

effect.
What

"

require of the temperature

quantityof
of 60, to

dense
con-

feet of steam, of the temperature of 223,

whole
The
heat is as before, 989 + 223

water

at 90

1212,

wherefore

by

to
=

the rule,

1212"90
X

6q~

nn

,_.

ng%txak

of

299*2

cubic

inches

299*2
-T-"

ss

'17

cubic

foot of

water.

1728

From

this it will be

be

must

in order

dischargedby
that

how
much
water
easy to determine
the pump
which
feeds the condenser,

be formed.
vacuum
proper
may
practiceit would appear that about 26 cubic inches
of cold wajer for condensing should
be used for each
cubic
foot of the capacity of the cylinder.
a

From

We

infer from
observation, that the engines commonly
may
in use
require betwixt 3" and 4 gallonsof cold water
minute
for each horse's power.
If the water
is returned

per

as

it is in

necessary.

some

Now,

engines, then
in the usual

greater

construction

quantity
of

rod which
with
supplies the condenser
pump
is fixed halfway between
the end of the beam

will be

engines, the
cold
and

water,
the centre

hence, the length of its stroke is one-half that of the

piston in the large cylinder: therefore, if there be a 40
;

horse
the

power

engine, the length of

whose

stroke

is 6

feet,

will be 3 feet.
length of the stroke of the pump
Now
an
imperial wine gallonoccupies a space of 277*274

STEAM

inches, and 7i gallons will occupy

cubic
X

7*5

there

power,

2079-555
if the

makes

space of 277*274
the engine is 40

minute,

one

inches,

strokes per minute, then

30

cubic

277*274

=ss

"

--

as

cubic

83182*2

and

dischargedin

be

must

40

engine

"

inches

cubic

2079*555

ass

horses'

and

259

ENGINE.

inches

30

the stroke

discharged at one stroke : but

it remains
only to find what
pump's bore, whose length is
shall be 2772

; hence

to the

nearly equal
of circles
and

each

are

to

the

area

other

of

inches, so that its capacity

36

of the

area

of

inches,

77

diameter

the

be

must

long,and

find that,

we

-""-

is 3 feet

pump's

bore

the

; now

area

the

of their diameters,
squares
circle whose
diameter
is 9, is 63*6;

as

therefore,

63*6

77

99

: :

98,

will be the diameter

the square
of which
root
and will be found
9*9 inches.

of the pump,

With

the

to

respect
Horses'

Velocityof
the

weight of
feet,and

of

power

circumfer.
the

If the diameter
20

fly wheel,
wheel

20
in

horse

30

feet, and

62*832

be

"

"

18

the circumference

the space which

minute
; hence,

engine

power

minute, then,

per
62*832

31416=

second8

cwts.

revolutions

18

2000

in feet per

fly wheel in
of the fly of

make

circumference

engine

through

moves

feet,

1128*97

="

in

one

1128-97
"

"

"

,OQ,
=18*81

"

feet per

second;

ov)

30
,

hence,

"

2000

60000
=

"

ttt^ts

"

z:

18*81*

8 tons

In the
wheel

cwts.

working

is often
the

the

weight

of the valve

employed,

degree

length of stroke.

~-

=169

cwts.

353*8

of

and

of the
of

fly.
steam
engine,an

it becomes

eccentricity
necessary
The

eccentric

wheel's

eccentric

necessary
to

give a

radius

to

culate
cal-

certain

may

be

260

ENGINE.

STEAM

easilyfound

length of stroke required

the

thus, suppose

is

inches, and the diameter of the shaft on which the wheel

of metal required
is 5 inches, and the thickness
is'screwed
Take
the half of the rethe wheel
quired
2i inches.
to key on
tre
stroke, that is, 10 inches, as the distance of the cening
addof required wheel, and
of the shaft from the centre
2i inches, as
of the shaft
to this the half thickness
20

likewise

the thickness

then

10

Now

let E

length of

be

the

rod, and /

the eccentric

end

of this

length of slide ;

the

keying =25,
of the wheel.

wheel

of the eccentric

the radius

the other

between
a

2j

23 +

for
necessary
15 inches, the radius

of metal

L
of

length

and the slide

rod

the

the

bar

; and

let

then,
/xE

Lxe
m

JCj

Li

r"

"

/x

Lxe

'f

es="

E~

6 inches,
Suppose the length of the stroke of the slide e
the length of the slide rod /
the radius of
5 inches, and
the eccentric
24 inches
E, then the length of the rod
=

=s

20

"

inches.

The

rules

other

We

have

central

before

wrought on the same

spoken of the governor

and

forces

principle.
while treatingof
for us
here only

are

It remains

rotation.

observe, that the governor

half
performs in one minute
revolutions
as
a
as
pendulum, whose
length is the
many
distance between
the plane in which
the balls
perpendicular
and the centre
of suspension. Thus, if the distance
move
the point of suspension and the plane in which
between
the
to

balls

be

move

1/ 39*1386

^f(
"

To

of the

nature

inches

28

1*1 S2

pendulum

vibrations

in

second

from

the

hence,

1*182
"

"

cond,

or

0*591,
0*591

the
60

revolutions

35*46

The
up
be

piston rod of a steam

and down
in a rightline

made

to terminate

in

in

of the governor
one

engine
in various

rack, the

in

se-

minute.
may

be

made

to

move

rod may
ways.
teeth of which
act in
The

262

ENGINE.

STEAM

"

The

links

lengthof the

made

5, the lengthof
circumstances,the longer

are

the stroke

4 to

as

being 1, accordingto
From
when
practicable.
being preferred
the links must be determined the positionof

link

the

of

the radius

length

bar, for the vertical distance between the centres of motion

and the radius bar must be equalto
of the working beam
the lengthof a link.
than one-half of the
the parallel
When
bar is not more
*

workingbeam's radius,then,
Let B

radius of the beam,

bar,
lengthof parallel

S
R

lengthof stroke,

"=

lengthof

radius bar ;

have

we

2Px(iS)"

"

B_v/(B"

[iS]9)x2P

"

1""Ki

Suppose the lengthof

feet,the lengthof
that is,B
B
=

12, S

2 P

"

10

3*8 the

12

"

[i6]8)X

"

(JS)9

12

feet,

the dividend ; then, B

%/(12"

"

the beam from the centre =

stroke 6, and of parallel
bar 5
P
and
then,
6,
5,

^/(B9

"

10

10

"

"

12

(i0)9
[iS]8)x 2

11-62

"

18

10

12

0-38

divisor,
wherefore,

18
"

+5

9*74

the

lengthin

feet of the radius bar.

When
the parallel
bar is more
than half the
radius of the beam, the rule is,
2 P

(B9

"

"

lengthof the

(*8)"
[iS]a) x 2P",rs=it'
X

which
rule it will be found that when
the lengthof
stroke and radius bar are each 6, and the radius of beam 10
feet,the lengthof radiua bar will be 2*75 feet.
Many rules have been given for the quantityof fuel

by

necessary for the

productionof

steam, but they cannot be

dependedon, so many circumstances must be taken under
the qualityof material used for fuel and
consideration
the mode of constructing
the fireplace.
It has been found that 3 cwt. of Newcastle coals are
"

equivalentto
or

30

7 cwt.

4 cwt.

of culm.

of Glasgow coals,or 9 cwt.

A chaldron of coals in London

of wood,
contains

bushels,and weighs3130 lbs.,or nearly1 ton,

8 cwt.

STEAM

It would

that in the

appear,

263

ENGINE.

low-pressure steam

common

of coal per hour for 1 horse power,

lbs.
35
56
16 lbs., of wood
is about
lbs., and of culm
These
statements
are
given somewhat
large,and by proper

engines, the consumpt

regulationmuch
the

In

less fuel

there

boiler

5 feet 6 inches

Now

the whole

5-5

Watt

boiler for each

horse

be

allow

power

the

2*5

will be,

feet.

feet of space in the

according to this estimate,
cubic

25

and

length 5

cubic

depth

the

of the boiler

343-75

feet, then

; and

content

12*5

and

Boulton

served.
proportionsgenerallyoblength,are as the numbers

that if the width

So

ft. 6 in. ; and

12

serve.

certain

width, depth, and

The

1, 1*1, 2*5.
will be 1*1

might

are

343*75
"

and

13

"

"

fraction, the number

engine for which

instead of computing the
of this

this boiler would

size

feet of surface

5 square

boiler

of horses'

power

be fitted.

Some,

this way,
allow
for each horse's power
;
make
the boiler of a size

of

of water

in

but in all cases,

it is common
to
fitted for an
engine of at least 2 horses' power
that to which
it is applied.

than

more

loading the safety valve of a

boiler ; the one
by placing a weight on the top of it,and
the valve by a
the other by causing the weight to act on
There

two

are

of

ways

lever.
When

valve

the
X

pressure
whole

Thus,

valve

per
r

inch.

square

5 lbs. pressure

=s

"

per

also

pressure
r

--

"

of

area

weight,and

whole

weight of 50 lbs. be placed upon

inches, then the pressure per square

is 10

area

inch

valve

the

upon

weight
of

if

placed

per square

"

area

is

weight

whose

valve
inch

is

inch.

square

10

the

When
the

fulcrum

with

being

simple
will be

the

at

somewhere

the lever

be 24

weight acts by

inches, the diameter

7,) the distance

inches, then

the valve

valve, and

60

to

give
=

lever, it is placed at

other, and
between

of the lever.

case

Hence,
of

between
60

420

the
them

if the

the valve

valve
;

connected

this, then,

length of the
3

the fulcrum

end,

one

inches,
and

lbs. pressure
per square
the
lbs.
whole
pressure

is

lever

(itsarea
the valve
inch
on

on

the

264

ENGINE.

STEAM

420

60

24

of the lever

end
To

find

weight hung

be the

lbs. will

at the

"

give the required pressure.

to

the action

of the

weight of

the

of the valve

lever

divide

its

from

the fulcrum,
length by the distance
and multiply the quotient by half the weight of the lever.
The
following rules for calculations connected with the
steam
engine are extracted from a useful little compendium
latelypublishedby Mr. Templeton, of Liverpool. These
for their superior
have inserted here, not so much
rules we

whole

from

as

accuracy,
methods

desire

present

to

our

readers

with

they may approximate to the true results

It is to be observed
that the
of the slidingrule.
by means
term
to be taken
gauge point is used to denote the number
which

by

the line stated in' the rule.

on

Rule.

Set

"

againstthe

number

in inches
upon

1.

stroke,
Set
24*2

Ex.
be

What

"

be

to

343

equal
C

to 20
to

diameter
What

"

of horses'

diameter

upon

inches
2.

upon

is the number

D,

Ex.

point upon C to 1 upon D, and

gauge
of horses' power
diameC, is the ter
upon
D ; or, against the diameter in inches

the

must

horses'
D

1 upon

upon

cylinderbe

power
; and

or

12

4 feet

against20

upon

is

D*
of horses'

7854

725

192

33000
11 *96

stroke 3 feet ?
x

with

will an engine
power
diameter is 19 inches and
the cylinder's

number

equal to, when

19*

C.

upon

power

horses'

power

3946727328
33000

nearly.

STEAM

265

ENGINE.

T7ie

gine."
enproportion of parts of a high-pressuresteam
The
length of the stroke should, if possible,be
The
its diameter.
velocityin feet per minute should

twice
be

times

103

And,

feet.

the square
root of the lengthof the stroke in
4800
is to the velocitythus found, so is the
as

cylinderto the area of the

proportions of the parts of

of the

area

The

The
The

eight

times

feet.

The

of the steam

area

the

to

area

feet per
of the

will be
passages
minute, so is the area

added

1*23

to 1*4

in feet,the result divided

required for steam

the quantity of

feet of water

of times
be

will be
a

by

that the above

be such

of the

area

velocityin feet,
meter
by the diawill give the cubic

divided

If the

per minute.

required

The

excess.

der
cylin-

the

1480

water

of the

for

required for steam, in

the quantity,but it had

greater than that

about twelve times

littlein defect than

must

gine."
en-

is to

4800

as

If the

steam

passage.
multipliedby half

cylinderin feet be
and that product by

must

passages.

atmospheric

an

meter.
length of the cylindershould be twice the diavelocityin feet per minute should be ninetyof the length of the stroke in
the square
root

velocityin

the

steam

ber
num-

injection
general it
better be

aperture for the

quantity of water

tion
injecwill be

In order that the

injectedduring the time of the stroke.
powerful at first,the head should
injectionbe sufficiently
be about three times the heightof the cylinder; and making
should
be the 850th
the jet apertures square,
the area
part
of the area
of the cylinder. The
conducting pipe should
be about four times the diameter of the jet.

The

proportions of

pressure
twice
minute

engine.
"

its diameter.

should

be

the parts

of

single-actinglow-

length of the cylinder should be

The velocityof the piston in feet per
ninety-eighttimes the square root of the

lengthof the stroke.

The

The

area

of the

of the steam

passages

should

city
cylinder,multipliedby the veloof the piston in feet per minute, and divided by 4800.
should be one-eighthof the capacity of the
The air pump
cylinder,or half the diameter and half the length of the
should
the condenser
be of
stroke of the cylinder,and
will be found
the same
capacity. The quantityof steam
by multiplying the area of the cylinderin feet by half the
velocityin feet ; with an addition of one-tenth for cooling
of the steam
and
and this divided
waste,
by the volume
correspondingto its force in the boiler,gives the quantity
be

equal to

the

area

23

266

RAILWAYS.

per minute, from

be determined.*

required for steam

proportions of the boiler may
of two
pounds
pressure
of

water

will be

the divisor

whence
At

the

the

mon
com-

per circular inch on the valve,

The
quantity of injectionwater

1497.

twenty-four times that required for steam, and

of the injectionpipe one-thirty-sixth
of the
the diameter
bucket
diameter
of the cylinder. The valves in the air pump
be made, and
the discharge
should
be as large as they can
should

and

be

foot valves

the

less than

not

same

area.

Summary of proportionsof a double engine,working

The
length of a cylindershould be twice
fullpressure.

at

"

its diameter
less

; for

surface

quantity of

same

should

be

their

or

should

the

multipliedby
and

divided

be

about

half

the

each

of

of

stroke

There

proportions
the steam

on

are

and

Liverpool

of
power
the steam

To

1.

and

from

times

of the

cubic
as

ton.
pis-

inches,

much

water

feed.

from

Tredgold's valuable

"c.

extensive

very

experiments

railways, that the

on

effective

add

engine is about *3 of the pressure of

of the
piston,on the calculated power

In
was

one

case,

used, the

lbs. to the

30

was

Divide

of water

at one

Manchester

the

on

diameter

469

62

28?

inches

locomotive

engine being
inches

be

cubic

26

stroke

the

STEAMBOATS,

deduced

been

about

or

pint,or

taken

should

of the

of

wine

minute,

engine.

RAILWAYS,
It has

feet per
of the air pump

cylinder,and
the larger the passages
dischargingflap are, the
injectionshould be about

the

should

cylinder;
cylinder,

piston in

and

is introduced

as

area

diameter

and

considered

sufficient.

These

76*5.

the

foot of the contents

cubic

treatise

of

for
quantityof water
that required for steam,

in the boiler

boiler

the

to

diameter

the

air bucket

Watt

the

the

equal

The

4800.

passages

of

The

times

quite

area

any
of the steam

the diameter

velocityof the

length

the

better.

to

by

be

two-thirds

through
23s

one-fifth of

about

area

The

steam.

proportion exposes
enclosing the

other

than

condensation

to

this

cylinderhaving

the

the

the result will be

cylinder
steam

inch, above

the

square

in

in

in

feet the steam

inches
of

21

the

pressure

multiplythe

the force of the steam

the space

elasticityof

temperature in degrees,and

product by

will occupy.

for instance,

sum.

of

cubic

by
cury,
mer-

foot

267

RAILWAYS.

clined,
length of the rail,which was intime
3165
feet, and the height 24 feet. The
was
of drawing 6 loaded wagons,
each weighing 9010 lbs. up the
time the engine made
570
rail, was
seconds, during which
444 singlestrokes, each 5 feet long. Now,
of the pistonin square
219 x "7854
346-36
the area

of the

The

atmosphere.

inches, wherefore,
of
and
5

steam

number
traversed

has

30

the space

through

therefore, 10390

lbs.

10390

; hence
the power

which
2220

lbs.

7124415

444

10390

lbs.

23065800

it

impellingpower of the engine. Now,

the actual weight includingresistance

that

feet,

was

444

the

the pressure

stroke

the piston,whose
upon
of strokes in the given time

feet

2220

346-36

found

was

moved,

was

then,

7124415

""-"-which

the effect about

give
B

will

23065800

cent., but the foregoingnumber

may
that is, 30 per cent or *3.
The

of retardation, arisingfrom

amount

moving
Loaded

as

per
r

safe

dium,
me-

carriages

steam

thus ;

estimated

railways,has been

on

be taken

30-9

tion
lbs. the fric-

8522
carriagesweighing altogether

lbs., or the y^ part of the weight. In

lbs., the friction amounted
carriagesweighing 2586
empty
the ^J-gto 10 lbs., or
part of the weight; and the friction
amounted

50

to

be regarded as
may
iron rails seem
from
better than

constant

multitude

of cast-iron,as

Wrought
retardingforce.
of experiments to be much
durable and
they are more

less friction.

cause

The

there
3

those

Rocket

attached

was

tons,

tried, weighing

was

cwt.

tender
2

quar.

with
lbs.

4 tons

water

and

and

and
two

5 cwt.,

to

it

coals, weighing

carriages loaded

with

in

3 qr. 26 lbs., making

stones, weighing 9 tons, 10 cwt.
of 30
all 17 tons.
At full speed she moved
at the rate
.

miles

in 2

at the

end

hours,

minutes,

of stage, about
29 j miles per hour.

was

cubic

feet, and

it

foot of steam.
In the Rocket

feet

long, and
2

3 feet 4 inches

of this box

surrounded

five bars
with

used

water

92-6

for each

lbs. of coke

with
cylindrical,
To

in diameter.

box as a
square
about
3 feet deepa

placed,and
casting,except at
are

the

14]- per hour

greatestvelocity

or

quantity of

The

the boiler is

feet broad, and

seconds,

6 miles ; and

required 11/^

the boiler there is attached

long by

cubic

flat ends
one

end

furnace,

"

of

3 feet

at the bottom

is

the

box

the

bottom

entirely
and

the

268

RAILWAYS.

castingand

the

Betwixt

boiler.

the

side next

the

box

is kept con*
is left a space of about 3 inches, which
half
the
The
boiler is
of
stantlyfilled with water.
upper
half
the
under
used as a reservoir for steam
being kept
;
there

filled with

from

end

one

fire box
tubes
The

other of the

the

to

end, to the
in number, each

at

one

25

are

through this part

and

water,

each

were
cylinders

reach

boiler, being open

chimney
being 3

8 inches

tubes

copper

in

at

the

inches

to

the

other ; these
in diameter.

diameter, and

one

was

pistonhad a stroke of 16"

inches.
largewheels was 4 feet 8"
of the surface of water, exposed to the
The
inches.
area
20 square
rounding
radiant heat of the fire,was
feet,being that surthe fire box or furnace ; and the surface exposed
at

each

to

the

side of the boiler ; the

diameter
of the
The

heated

air

average

the

what

furnace, or

heat, is 117*8

be called communicative
The

from

flame

or

velocityof the Rocket

square

may

feet.

be stated at

may

14

hour she evaporates 18*24

per hour, and during one
cubic feet of steam, with a consumpt of about 17*7 lbs. of
coke for each cubic foot of water.
miles

empiricalrule
the quantityof fuel
An

has been
necessary

be useful.
may
The
weightof the load

given for
for

51*55

of
ascertaining
which
carriages,

the

steam

weight of carriages
"~

898

quantityof coals required to carry one mile, but a near

approximation to the truth may be to allow 2 lbs. for every

the

"

for

ton

Iron

one

mile.

railroads

are

of

two

descriptions.The flatrail,or

road, consists of cast iron plates about 3 feet long,

4 inches broad, and
i an inch or 1 inch thick, with a
the inside, to guide the
flaunch, or turned
up edge, on
tram

wheels

of the

carriage.

The

plates rest

at

each

end

on

sleepersof 3 or 4 cwt. sunk into the earth, and they

tal
are
joined to each other so as to form a continuous horizonpathway. They are, of course, double ; and the distance
the opposite rails is from 3 to 4J feet, according
between
of the carriageor wagon
to the breadth
to be employed.
The
edge rail,which is found to be superior to the tram
rail,is made either of wrought or cast iron ; if the latter be
about 3 feet long, 3 or 4 inches
broad,
used, the rails are
and from 1 to 2 inches thick, being joined at the ends
by
metal
cast
sockets
the sleepers. The
attached
to
upper
stone

edge

of the

rail is

generallymade

with

convex

surface

STEAMBOATS.

I
"""Sf
"

=i

*
""

|l.

liifil
i

s'
t.

i^^s

hdlL.

fi"

Nil*

iss

-;

Hi's

:|is Pis.:

IsKllIll

I
III;
1

fill

IliflUlIlJlil |jS|

111*.

STEAMBOATS.

n*

js iJls

"i!il

i|il|ili!t
I fjIijLfi JJlitil J]jl lilt

STEAMBOATS.

is-:
ij
a

IIS

lii
ii illl
gg

If

ti;

I'f

llll
I

ilij
i!*U

H|1kH

fill I.
lit

but

by

no

follows

means

"

Take

the

back

stern

three-fifths of B

subtract

taken

outside

from

to

outside

part of the vessel, whether

|B)
(L f88~

of

by

will

of B

the square

quotient multipliedby
the registertonnage, or,

it be

divide this last remainder

the wales, and

; the

188

main

of the

sprit,
stem, beneath the bowlength of the engine room

it the

from

the widest

at

below

or

main

of the vessel

planks

above

part of the

the remainder

from

breadth

the

the

subtract

E, and

=s

fore

the

and

from

length

the

to

post

determining the tonnage is according to law,

principles.It is as
according to correct

rule for

The

273

STRENGTH.

ANIMAL

give

the breadth

47, and

room

length being

the

Wherefore

B'

162

t0nnagC-

lengthof engine

feet,the

32, then,

of the vessel

tonnage.

ANIMAL

There
but cannot

which

an

these

two

animal

can

ope

and

hour
4 x

avail

an

be

be

of 56

hour

as

42

or

at the

of

mover

machinery.

carry
the

rate

of three

load

miles

way,
as

at

move

of 42

momentum

lbs., but travels

; therefore,in the same

42 sa
168, the same

These

exertion,
extremes,
the animal

less efficient.

at the

an

hour, and

speed of

effect may
The

168.
rate

of 4

the rate

lbs., the

the load 56, the useful

as

which

with

lbs., and another

and

estimated

only

more

travel

man

load

carries

certain

In
carry any load.
it is clear,that the exertion of the

weights and velocities

be

the first is 3, and

fore

just bear
velocitywith

can

but cannot

move

no

animal

an

it,and there is

can

be of

must

carry
miles

with

circumstances

move,

If

move

load which

the extremes
it were,
of the animal's
these two
its effect is nothing ; but between

where
there

certain

animal

can

as

are,

is

STRENGTH.

of 4

there*
other

miles

an

his useful effect will be

before:

hence,

the

effect of

274

ANIMAL

these

two

the

are

men

show, that in the

STRENGTH.

time

same

It will

same.

be

not

theyperformthe

same

difficult
to

quantity

of work.
For the firstwill in six hours carry 56 lbs. 3x6
18 miles, as he travels at the rate of 3 miles an hour y
ss
and if he be supposed to carry a different load, but of the

weightevery mile, he will

18 X 56
1008
altogether

same

in the

same

lbs. in

one

168 x6"
It will

in the six hours have

ried
car-

lbs. ; but the other carries

way, 4 times 42 lbs. every hour, that is 168

hour
therefore in 6 hours he will have carried
1008 lbs.,the same
as the other.
"

be

now

what

seen

by the phraseuseful

is meant

and from what has been observed above, we

will be
effect,
led to conclude,that when
the load is the greatestwhich
the animal can possibly
bear ; the useful effect is nothing,
because the animal cannot
the animal
move
; and when
the useful effectwill
with its greatestpossible
speed,
also be nothing,for then the animal can
carry no load ;
and it becomes
determine
useful
where
to
a very
problem
between these two limits,the load and speed are so related
moves

that the useful effectof the animal will be the greatest.By

effect of
it has been found that the maximum
investigation
animal will be when
it moves
with " of its greatest
an

speed,and

carries

|thsof the greatestload it can bear.

could travel
greatestspeed at which a man

Thus, if the

ru%, without a load, be 6 miles per hour ; and if the

greatestload which he can bear, without moving,be 2"
cwt., then this reduced to lbs. is $580 lbs.,hence,
or

280

fi

"=

124*4

lbs. =s

the

'

speed with

load,and

which

Leslie

gives a formula

man

will

"

miles,the

producethe greatestuseful

effect.
Sir John

for

horse's

power, in
traction,in which he denotes the velocityin miles per
hour, | (12
V)9 by which it will be found that if a
horse begins this poll with a force =
144 lbs.,he would
draw 100 at the rate of 2 miles, 64 at 4, and 36 at% ; the
greatesteffect beingat 4 miles per hour.
a

"

The

French

of animal action which

employ a measure
a Dynamical unit,which
is a cubic metre
of water
raised to the heightof a metre.
There are so many causes
to producevariations
operating
in animated beingseven of the same
kind,that it is di^Cult,

they denominate

if not

to form
impossible,

correct

estimate of the amount

.1

fc

275

FRICTION.

class,or the comparative strengthof

particular
any one
find great differences in the
different classes, hence
we
results of different experimenters.
of

"

lbs., and

be 70

to

to

the

weight

was

his

the average

force of

second

per
mechanical
greatest
31" lbs., with a

in

pump,

turning

in

winch,

be the best

to

Robertson

effects of

mechanical

produce
the

feet per second.

of applying the

althoughit has been found

strengthof men,
of employing the strengthof horses.
way
states, that the

loaded,
un-

that a man
will
; and
effect in drawing, when

velocityof 2
advantageous way

the most

at rest

man

walking velocity,when

utmost

6 feet

be

this is not

But

estimated

has

Gregory

in working

men

ringing

chanan
Bu-

bell, and

100, 167, 227, and 248.

rowing a boat, are as the numbers
working at the cord of a
According to Hatchette, of a man
of a pile engine
50 dynamical
pulley to raise the ram
from
well by means.
A man
units.
a
of a
drawing water
cord 71 ; a man
The
working at a capstan 116.
cal
dynamiunit being, as stated before, equivalent in English measure
raised to the
to 2208
lbs., or 4 hogsheads of water
height of 3*281 feet in a minute ; these thingsbeing considered,
the above results will give the average
strengthof
men
per day.
with
We
similar difficulties in estimating the
meet
According to Desaguliers and Smeastrengthof horses.
ton, 1 horse equal to 5 men.
According to Bossut, 1 horse
=

equal

to

Schulze

men.

states, that

is

ass

by Amontons,

that

of 150

lbs."

power

makes

equivalent
horses

it 14

to 2

See the section

Bossut

It is also stated

men.

yoked

; and

men

in

plough

the Steam

on

exert

Engine.

FRICTION.

We

have

considered

must
machinery, and we
subjectof Friction, which,

tends
our

been
are

to

diminish

intentioa

to

these

direct

now
as

of such

laws.
satisfactory

in
nature

The

this
as

On

to

the

frequentlynoticed,
this subject it is not
that

of mechanical

furnish'

resistance

of

movers

attention

all the researches

branch
to

our

first

have

we

effects.

dwell long, as

hitherto made
not

effects of the

the

means

arisingfrom

have

science,

of
one

deducing
surface

276

FBICTIOtf.

friction; and it is
rubbing againstanother is denominated
which
its tenis perfectlyinert
the only force in nature
dency
Friction may
thus
always being to destroy motion.
"

of man
in the
power
construction of machinery ; but, like all the other forces
in nature, it may,
when
properly understood, be turned to
be viewed

his
of

as

obstruction

an

to

the

the chief

advantage,"-for friction is
buildingsor machinery, and

without

of the

cause

it animals

stability

could

not

their

exert

strength.
friction of planed woods

The

The

another, is about

one

on

grease,

and

friction does

increase

not

on

polishedmetals,
one-fourth

out
with-

of the pressure.

the increase of the rubbing

surfaces.
The

friction of

The

friction of woods
time

some

The

metals

nearly constant.
to

seems

after

increase

they

are

in action.

cylinder rolling down

diameter
of the cylinder.

friction of
the

as

The

is

friction of wheels
and

is

the diameter

as

following hints

of

be

may

as

the diameter

of

the wheel

plane,is

versely
in-

of the axle

rectly,
di-

inversely.

of diminishing

for the purpose

use

The

friction.
The

gudgeons
should

delicate

Oily

tallow

and
Black

lead

bushes

or

should

collars

in

be

made

which

of

they

and
In small
polished brass.
pivots or knife edges should rest on
of

the

substances

should

be

powder

has

The

gudgeons.

the

made

be

machines,

garnet.

pivots and wheels

and

polished iron;
move

of

diminish
used
been

of

ropes

friction"" swine's

for wood,

used

but

with

pulleys should

grease
oil for metal.

effect for wooden

be

rubbed

with

tallow.
As
lever

to

has
be

axle

the friction 6f the mechanic

powers.

The

simple

such

no

moved

the friction

crum
resistance,unless the place of the fulduring the operation. In the wheel and

nearly as the weight, the

diameter
of the axis, and the angularvelocity" it is,*howrub againstthe blocks
the sheaves
ever,
very small. When
the friction of the pulley is very great.
In most, if not in
all screws,
is equal to the presthe friction of the screw
sure
"

In

the

on

axis

is

is the best.
the square
threaded
screw
the inclined
plane, the friction of a rollingbody is

far less than

that of

slidingone.

REGULATION

THEIR

the

an

or

source

reasons.

force
To

to

or
organ
of force

of the

that

effective

a.

power,
Machines

accommodate

1. To

render

which

resistance
which

power,

direction

the

has

is to

be

and

fixed

of

nothing

the

men,
work-

be, and

chiefly for three

of the moving

used

are

2.

overcome.

certain

velocity,
different
a
velocity. 3.
certain
intensity,capable

with
performing work
make
with
a
a
moving power,
resistance
a
balancing or overcoming

To

is

it may

whatever

or

done.

be

to
"

EFFECTS.

complicated it may be,

instrument
placed between

than

work

COMPARATIVE

AND

howsoever

machine,

else

GENERAL,

IN

MACHINES

OF

in

of

greater

tensity.
in-

These

be
objects may
accomplished in different ways,
either by using machines
which
have
round
motion
a
some
fixed point, as the three first mechanic
; or by those
powers
which
solid path
be moved,
furnish, to the resistance
to
a
be
it may
in the
last
impelled, as is the case
^ong which
mechanic

JQree

powers
machines
to

simple
Simplicity in the
recommended
warmly
tne

In

to

the
the

the
success

of

consequence

machine
the

of

chance

overcome

can

power
machine
machine

of

two"

the

the

the

friction

from

of

and
the

and

derangement

the

the

parts.

that

no

of

complicated

more

friction be

plexity
com-

expense

an

too

endangers

of

known,

without
as

be
for

and

expense,

resistance

plane.

cannot

engineer;

friction, it is well
a

inclined

machines

young

first mover,
and
is, the greater will the
be

lever

reduced

have

authors

some

construction

increases
the

hence

so

also

less

will

If two
machines
be constructed,
powerful.
the one
simple and the other complex, and be
that
the
such,
velocity of the impelled point is to the
velocity of the working point in the same
proportion in
both ; then
will the simple machine
be the most
powerful.
The
methods
of communicating
from
motion
one
point
another
to
last
in the
are
infinitelydiversified ; and we,
278

279

MACHINERY.

chapter, gave
time

mean

invented.

been

hitherto

of the best of these

account

an

to

few

We

the

the construction

of

ourselves

on

have
in

confine

general remarks

which

machinery.
When

heavy stampers

on

should

raised

pounded,

the

of such

form, that

be

to

matter

be

in order

raised

to be

are

which

wipers by
the

drop
they are
to

stampers

may

be

by a uniform pressure, or with a motion as nearly as

and the wiper is
If this is not the case,
possibleuniform.
merely a pin stickingout of the axis, the stamper will be
violent jolts
forced into motion
which
will occasion
at once,
in the machine, together with great strains
its moving
on
But
if gradually lifted, no
parts and points of support.
inequalitywill be felt at the impelled point of the machine.
The
as
judicious engineer will therefore avoid, as much
in
all
of
sudden
motion, especially any
changes
possible,
raised

of

ponderous part
When

several

teaches
manner,

the

so

machine

When

this

foregoing paragraph
to

almost

move

in
of

their times

that the

work.

made

the

it.

contriver

trivances

for

from

machine,

is

attended

than

nature

of the

or

when

power
in the

it is such

required

for

as

the

to, the machine

if there were
as
the

work

to

in

may
no

effectual

done

the

the kind

answer

instance, in employing

con*

by

is also
of

management

ciprocations
re-

able,
unavoid-

are

be

be

skill

ingenuity or

simple yet

not

uniform

observations

applieil.There

does

in

always equally loaded

difficulties which
the

of

action

and

shows
the

obviatingthose
the

done,

Nothing

of

be

may

smoothly

as

more

ingenuity required
power,

pistons, or other reciprocal

and
sense
depressed, common

raised

distribute

to

us

machine.

stampers,
be

to

are

movers

with

the

much

moving
of

tion
mo-

which
power
shall be
which

necessarilyreciprocatesto produce a motion

uniform, as in the employment of a steam
engine to drive
The
mill.
cotton
a
necessityof reciprocationof the first
of much
The
waste
a
mover
causes
impelling
power.
first in imparting, and then in destroying
is wasted
power
The
vast
a
gineer
enquantity of motion in the working beam.
will see
the necessity of erecting the mover
in a
separate building from the machinery moved, which
vents
prethe

great

shaking

and

speedy

destruction

of

the

on

the

buildings.
The

gudgeons

of

water

wheel

should

never

rest

280

MACHINERY.

placedon
blocks
practicable,

building,but should
if this is

not

springs of

tend

which

them,

below

be

separate erection

of

oak

should

all

tremors,

soften

to

conduce

make

to

to

equality of

the

resistance

the

unequal,

power.
of this kind in the

beautiful

specimens
human
body.
It is always desirable, that the motion
be effected
this can
be regular,when

both

machine,

of

the

are

some

and

of

the

should

machine

chinery,
ma-

accommodate

to

mechanism
of

producing regularityin
as
regards the reception

for

motion

now

we

ceed
probeen

heretofore

that have

methods

the various

state

employed

placed

like

There

inequalitiesof the moving

to

be

carriage.

It will often

the

and

of

the

the

motion

and

distribution,of

power.
and

equable in
overcome.
were

the power
perfectlyregular, the machine
its motion

in

positionsin which
hence

than

the
in

others,

no

The

tendency

constant

be

and

the

would

there

ance
resistnot

particular

are

as

accelerate

alternatelyto
whatever

case

can

perfectlyuniform.

large when

to

and
of

of

we

this
of

treat

and

machine
will

the

will

retard; and

to

retard

mitted,
trans-

bears

machines

some

the motion
But

come

we

of

motion

accelerate, others

to

be

more
are
parts of a machine
in the crank
instance:
for

of the first mover

the energy
will be unequally
and irregularity
in the motion
of the maehine

others
in

for

moving

consequently follow.
a

mover

still,if both

But

uniform
perfectly
efficacious

is

perfectlyconstant
its action, the machine
be regular
not
may
of the resistance to
from the irregularity

in its movement,
be

the first

supposing that

Even

perhaps
be

speak

said to
more

at

effect of

maximum

machines.
intend

We
of

conical
The

remarks

the

purpose

pendulum

attention

nature

in

others

on

of

as

the
we

chieflyto the regulators

steam
engine, making
go along.

regulatingthe moving

is commonly
governor
of this beautiful contrivance
has been

central

steam

engine.

The

the first kind, whose

is fixed in the

cylinder;

or

forces, and

under

the

our

machinery employed

occasional

For

confine

to

pipe
and

alluded

ring on

to

in

the shaft

our

acts

power,

employed.
described

remarks
upon

the

on

the

lever of

other end

opens or shuts a valve, which

that admits
the steam
from the boiler to

according

to

the

degree of opening

or

281

MACHINERY.

shuttingof

consequently the divergenceor

of the balls, or the velocityof the shaft, will
convergence
admitted
be the quantity of steam
to the cylinder. The
is frequentlyapplied to the water
wheel, and acts
governor
in a similar way
by a board or valve in the shuttle, which
delivers

this valve, and

the water

it is

the wheel.

to

to furl

employed

Sometimes
of

is found

mill,
in the wind-

likewise

unfurl

or

the governor
and
the machine,

So

less sail.

or

more

the lation
reguof
.contrivance
great

inadequate

another

to

and simplicity
The
is made
is introduced.
machine
power
which
tends continuallyto fill a cistern
to work,
a pump,
From
with water.
this cistern there proceeds an eduction

pipe, leading
drawn

reservoir, from

the

to

This

by the pump.

the pump

throws

just

ejectionpipe draws

from

let out

will

water

rise in

which

rises

thus

of the

surface

the

on

made

to

It may

governor.
kind of

of the surface

float ; for then

discharge,will

fixed

same
a

on

the

end

support,

surface

on

of the

is affixed

pipe which

where

the

which

is

valve

leads
is

the
this

upon
supports the

measure,

which

between

supply

of

the water

the

supply

and

the steam

in

steam

in the boiler be

gine,
en-

always

slender

is terminated
water

descends
rod, which
rests
by a float,which

in the

is attached

of the lever, there

of which

ring of
delicacyof

is

effect this purpose,

there is a lever
the top of the boiler, to one
end of

To

boiler, and

the

into

; and

the

great

of the water

lever there is attached

which

the water

float

the

level.

in

difference

a constant
procure
that
it is necessary

at the

of

the

greater difference in the elevation

surface, than if the surface were
large.

cause

depression of

on

small

of

too
goes
fall. Now,

manner

as
purpose
observed, that the

be

level

machine

same

regulatorwill depend,

the smallness

To

the^ surface

the

answer

goes
than is

the cistern, there is

in

water

falls with

or

machine

the

will in like

water

in the

water

more

If the

cistern.

the

slow, the level of the

of

if the

But

will throw
the pump
in
the ejectionpipe, wherefore

by

water

consequently, the

fast,then

too

is

so
lated,
reguits proper velocity,
into the cistern as the

water

level.

at the same

cistern remains

or

it ;

is

water

with

goes

much

as

the

contrivance

pimple

the machine

that when

which

another

valve, opening and

suppliedby

The

into

driven
pump
34*

rod,

the
to

shuttingthe

into the boiler.

placed,opens

To

boiler.

by

other

the end
orifice

top of the pipe,

cistern of
the

water,

engine itself,

282

MACHINERY1.

In consequence
with
it,and
to

consequently depresses that

is attached

the float rod

which

of steam,

formation

of the

its

falls below

in the boiler

the water

When

; the

level,

common

float falls

the

side of

other

the lever
rises and

arm

leads from
top of the pipe, which
until the
thus admits
water
the cistern into the boiler, and
the valve

opens

the

at

float rises to the proper height,and then

In this beautiful contrivance, the water

the valve
is not

is closed.

supplied to

jolts,but the float and valve continuing in

and quick vibration, die supply is rendered
constant

the boiler in
state

of

quite

constant.

There

is

called the Tachometer,

very ingenious contrivance
in
of small
variations
its use
measure
as
a

from

employed in the steam

engine and
The
simplicityof this contrivance will
If a cup with
its action
render
easily understood.
any
be placedon a spindle,so that the brim
fluid, as mercury,
its centre, then
of the cup shall revolve horizontallyround
velocity,which is
other machinery.

the mercury
the mercury
in
the cup
from a
a

tube

in the cup
will rise
the middle

is, the
inserted
half

and

will

and

the

filled with

dragon's

blood

the

it becomes

pressed
deof

surface

of the mercury
differ
of this cup be closed, and

in the cup by a ball-shaped

coloured
fluid, as spiritsof

some

; then

is

more

the cup, and

be
rapid the motion

it is clear, that

depressed, the

vice

versa:

more

the

more

the fluid

consequently, the.

of the motion

slowness

cated
of the cup, will be indithe coloured
fluid in thejube;
and

by the height of
thus

the

form, that is,

concave

sides of

in it,terminated

of the mercury
tube will fall, and

rapidityor

if the mouth

the surface
in

assume

the

on

will

more

plane. Now,

end, and
wine

often

measure

of small

variations in

velocity.

also find

In the steam

an
engine, we
apparatus for regulating
the
of
fire
the
which
the strengthof
boiler,
apparatus
is called the self-acting
There
is a tube inserted
damper.
into the boiler,reaching nearly to the bottom, which
tube is
tics,
at both ends.
Now, from the- principlesof Pneumaopen
the
it is plain,that the greater the pressure of
in
steam
the boiler is,the water
will be pressedto the greater height
in this tube.
The
in the tube supports a weight, to
water
which
there is attached
a chain
going over two wheels ; and
of the chain
other end
is attached
to the
a
plate,which

slides

These

over

the

mouth

things are

so

of

the flue which

leads

into the fire.

formed, that the risingof the weight

will

in the tube
the

by

cause

and

plate;

or

less of the flue to be covered

more

thus

will

produced,there

increase

be

or

diminish

if there

quantity

the
much

is too

greater pressure

in the boiler, and

water

surface

the

on

it will be forced

steam

up

the tube"

will be

raised, and consequently the

other end of the chain will fall,and cover
more

in the tube

weight
plate at the
the

of the

283

feeds the fire. Now,

of air which
of the

MACHINERY.

mouth

of

flue, and

the

thus

diminish

the

quantity

the fire ; and there will consequently be

generatedin the boiler a less quantity of steam.
feeds

of air which
We

come

to

now

speak

of

and

the nature

of

use

defined

the

fly

to be

a heavy
fly in mechanics
may
which
its
axis, and
moves
or
cylinder,
rapidly upon
for the purpose
of regulating its
applied to a machine

wheel.

be

wheel
is

motion.
We

already

have

tend

which

stated

there

that
the

to render

stances
circummany
machine
regular"v
ira

are

motion

of

in the energy of the first mover,

whether
animal
variation
in
it be water, wind, steam, or
strength
and
variations
work
in the
the resistance
to be done"
or
"

efficacyof

the machine

itself,
arisingfrom

of its

the nature

effective in
necessitymore
We
have already seen
how
one
positionthan in another.
of these irregularities
are
are
compensated, and we
many
of
the fly,which
is the simplest and
to speak
now
come
them
effective
of
The
all.
most
principleon which the fly
of
the most
acts is that of inertia, one
important of the first
science.
At any one
principlesof mechanical
given time,
other of these two
be in one
states
must
a body
or
rest or
it is of

construction, whereby

"

motion.

And

let any

states, it has no
at rest, it has

motion, it has
or

and

from

no

power

power
motion.

what

was

be in

one

other

or

itself to

within

power

no

destroythat

body

of these

change it,
"

two

if it be

and if in
put itself in motion"
in itself either to increase, diminish,
From
this fact,
a knowledge of
to

stated

before

the

momentum,
or
it is the quantity of matter
on

body, that
multipliedby the velocityof the moving body" the nature
of the operation of the fly will be easily understood.
As
the fly wheel, to do its office effectually,
have
must
a considerable
velocity,it is clear that its rim, which has a
considerable weight, must
also have a considerable momentum,
and
to overcome
consequently a considerable
power
moving

any

force

of

tendency eitjierto

increase

or

retard

its moiion.

384

MACHINERY.

To

apply these
that

observations
drives

singlehorse

to

set in

motion,

the animal

cannot

there

will

occasional

increases

be

velocity of

the

tendency
machine
recovered

rate

same

itself

the

would

check

gin. In this
gin, whether
occasional

the

way
the

the

but

the
this

motion

of

the
had

animal

strengthas before.
extraordinarypull,

same

exerted

an

which
a resistance
oppose
increase in the velocityof the

tendency to
the fly wheel

the

in

would

the wheel

of

inertia

the

before, until the

as

animal

So, likewise, if the

pose
sup-

"

relaxations

and

continue

exert

to

as

so

strength

us

the

at the

uniform

exert

retardation, and

to

gin has been

slower;
tendency to move
flyhad acquired, would overcome

have

which

momentum

the

be added,
to
a fly wheel
suppose
its exertions, the
slackened
animal

the

would

machine

When

but

gin ;

then, whenever

cases,

gin.

let

actual

animal

regulatesthe

takes

occasional

rests;
evident
It is

exertions.
extraordinary

of the

motion

makes

or

that

the

if the first mover

were
operate in the same
way,
which
and
that
the
other
regulators
water, or wind,

fly would
steam,
have
we

described,

Variations

the

in

assistants

merely

are

resistance,

work

or

the

to

be

to

fly wheel.
performed,

For instance, in a
compensated by the fly wheel.
When
small thrashing mill without
the machine
is
a fly.
the corn,
there will be an occasional
not regularlyfed with
also

are

will have

resistance, which
train of the

machinery,

effect

sensible

the water

even

wheel

on

whole

the

itself; which

however, be avoided by the introduction

irregularity,
may,
of a fly,as its inertia will procure
equalityof motion : but
it may
be observed, that when
is large,there
the machine
will be

less

necessity for

itself will then

It
and

effect the

before

was

resistance

seen,

another

fly,when

will carry

purposes.

crank
the

the crank

however,
cases,
many
motion
proceeding from the nature
could

bucket
is 60

ba

compensated

is to be drawn

fathoms

in

better

from

depth:

than

the

effective

with

weight

in

one

position,

position. There

of
irregularities
machinery, which
a
fly. Thus, if a

are

of the

the bottom

was

communicated

effective
there

itself is

effective

more

momentum

where

mover

positions. It

is in the most

past its least

are

is

the first

the machine

different

at

but

the crank

supposing

even

in energy

instance, that

positionthan
to the

same

inertia of the machine

perfectlyuniform,

be

to

the

fly,as

stated, that

liable to variations
for

of
of

coal

bucket

pit,which

being

14

-^

286

MACHINERY.

The
the

effect of

performance or

resistance

by

"

performed, (calculated
by weight,)

work

or

is measured

machine

by its velocity,which is, in other words, the momultiplied

of impulse,
momentum
of the working point. The
mentum

first

hand, is measured

other

the

on

the

by

the

of

energy

the

by weight,) multiplied by
(alsoestimated
impelled point.
definitions being understood, we
proceed

mover,

locity
ve-

of the
These

simple

statement

When

means

of

the power
the resistance
the machine

the

do

can

will

have

exceeds

of

the

and

air, which
from

also

various

increases

friction,which

have

before, while

seen

an

increase

often

increases

find, that
uniform

is at rest, the

water

greatest possible effect

; but

then

move,

the

of the float

stated

but

is

equal

were

would

have

and

animal

to

no

must

the

it with

the

begins
not

to
ceive
re-

velocity

that of the stream,

it is clear that
effect upon
it at all ; and, as was
the

velocity

that of the stream, at which

the effect will
This
the
is not confined
to
water
wheel,
to

common

in the steam
We

on

the float

the water, as it were,

and does
of
the
and
if the
stream
impetus
;

maximum.

wheel,

water

before, there is a certain relation between

of the wheel
be

as

in-"

have

wheel,
For, when

impinge

soon

the

it leaves

the whole

the water

so

velocity;

machines

stream.

will

cessarily
ne-

in their motion.

treatingof
the

of
with

than

velocityof

the resistance

be

the

as

circumstance

From

velocityof the floats of the undershot

less

long

so

effect would

that the

float board

but

should
power
less and less, until

increased,

with

the

same

causes.

we
velocity. Hence
become
commonly a tendency to

We

motion

If

The

resistance

of

crease

overcome

accelerate

would

arise from

may

to

as

motion

no

the resistance,

accelerated

uniform.

became

it has

resistance.

the

follow, if the
which

so

an

diminish, the machine

its motion

in

act

to

work, because

no

is increased,

power

ance,
opposition to a resistmachine
;
simple or compound
the velocity
will be in a state of rest, when
the weight of
is to that of the resistance
as
In this state of things
is to that of the power.

machine

if the power
the machine

to

principles.

is made
power
either of a

any

by
which

of

all machines,

as

we

have

seen

illustrated

engine.

have

seen

was,

when

possible speed, and

before, that the maximum

its

velocity was

the load which

effect

one-third
it bore,

or

of

its

of

an

greatest

the resistance

28T

MACHINERY.

which

it overcame,
possibleload.

following tables (A

The
of

Dr.

Table

contains

between
The

of

use

wished

to

of the lever

Employ

from

the

and

cities
velo; or

resistance

act.

for

simple,
suppose
very
feet of water
per second, by means
is

radius

the

feet, (=

was

and
acts,)

the power
being 6 cubic

this rule

sults
re-

the mechanic.

to

the power

which

the wheel

moves

table

3 cubic

by

constructed

the
proportions between
working points of a machine

wheel, whose

water

of its greatest

the least

this

raise

B)

and

impelled and
levers by which

the

four-ninths

to

will be useful

Robison,

of the

of

equal

was

feet of

length
which

the power

water

we

second.

per

Power,
.

,
"

"=

10

number,

Resistance,
which

look

will

found

be

length of
of

lever

give the length

the power
acts, will
the resistance should
act.

at which

which

Wherefore,
10

number

lever
at

~x

N,
M, and against it in column
which, when
multiplied by the

for in column

in the

the

20,

=s

above

case,

which

correspondingto

number

is

hence

0-732051,
of the axle
This
of

at

it becomes

and

resistance

making
give

any

the

they

work

or

alteration
table

j-.

of lever

in column

such, when

B,

in

For

the machine.

in order

and

the

show

to

example

acts.

this pose
purof which

use

number,

when

which,

of power,

O, will stand

against a

number

in column

multipliedby

the energy of power,

resistance.
Thus, if a man

of
the proper energy
force of 56 lbs.
constant

leverageis

done

to be

in the construction

useful

very

the radius

are

following rule

"

5-856408

of lever of resistance,

Length

"^t-2 j"
Length
found

frequentlyalready constructed,
for us to regulatethe power
then necessary
out
in order to produce a maximum
effect,with-

employ

we

found

be

; but

and

the resistance

which

table will

machines

we

0-732051

feet,and

on

the handle

the barrel

is

of

one

will

give

exerts

capstan, whose

foot in

radius, then

have,

we

"=-"

number,

which

will be found

in column

O,

cot

MACHINERY.

"88

responding to
1-8885

1*8885
in these

rantage,

will be found, in column

which

wherefore,
56

=*

circumstances,
or

with

by

105*756

the

the resistance

can

mechanical

which

ber
num-

the man,

the greatest ad-

effect.

A.

0*048809

20

0-732051

0*095445

21

0-760682

0-140175

22

0-788854

0-183216

23

0*816590

0-224745

24

0*843900

with

overcome

maximum
TABLE

P, die

the rule,

0-264911

25

0-870800

0*303841

26

0-897300

0-341641

27

0*923500

0*378405

28

0*949400

10

0*414211

29

0*974800

11

0*449138

30

1-000000

12

0*483240

40

1*236200

13

0-516575

50

1*449500

14

0*549193

60

1-645600

15

0-581139

70

1*828400

16

0-612451

80

2*200000

17

2* 162300

0-643168

90

18

0-673320

100

19

0-702938
TABLE

B.

2*316600

289

MACHINERY.

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SI'S g|.
^(QMMMMMM

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oooooo

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25

*"

3.a

g=s

290

SPINNING.

COTTON

the
to estimate
an
by any means
easy matter
done
relative quantitiesof work
by different machines.
effects are generally stated as equivalent to so many
Their
and the following data are commonly
horses' power,
given :

It is

not

at a maximum,
power,
raisingof 1000 lbs. 13 feet high in

horse
that

power
number

No.

48

and

if it be

In cotton

minute.

one

the

to

No.

110,

that

times

ten

number

of

power-loom factories
beams
with subservient
machinery.
Thus
der
a steam
engine on Watt's principle,having a cylinof 6 feet, making
of 30 inches diameter, and
a stroke
culation,
double strokes per minute, will give,by the usual cal-

spindles,with

21

equivalent

allowed to each
are
spindles,with preparation,
for spinning cotton
twist, or five times
yarn
of spindles,with
preparation,for mule yarn,

factories,100

12

is

horse's

One

and

preparation
"

-7854

30fl X

10

the

21

"~~

44000
horses'

40

spindles cotton
No.

48,

yarn

40,000

or

engine will drive 4000

twist, or 20,000 spindles mule twist,
mule
twist spindles, No. 110, or 480
Hence

power.

such

an

power-looms" in each of which

machinery,is included.

RULES

In

the

COTTON

FOR

following calculations

acquainted with

employed

in the cotton

the reader

of

cases

manufacture,

paratory
pre-

supposed to

to assist the memory

particulardifficulty.The

that

so

of the

the

be

machines
rules

practicalman

are

in

effects of shafts, belts,

pinions, and wheels,

pulle^ys,

drums,

is

of the various

intended

only

or

SPINNERS.

construction

the

subservient

cases

varying velocity,
when
treatingof the
in

depend upon the principlesestablished

mechanical
and
connected
with
the calculations
powers,
them
be easilyperformed by the rules given in that
may
section.
find the

To
number

draught on

spreadingmachine, count the

the end of the feedingroller
on

the

of teeth of the wheel

shaft, callingit the first leader, and

on

and

the

pinion which

in like

manner

it drives,
reckon

also the number

calling it

all the leaders

of teeth

the first follower,

and

followers

on

COTTON

last follower i.

the

to

the wheel

e.

shaft,omitting all intermediate

of leaders

product

291

SPINNING.

roller

wheels, then,

diam.

calender

the

on

calender

roller
,

product

of followers

feeding roller

"

If the teeth of the leaders be 160, 22, and 20, and

of

the

90,
; the diameter
feeding roller 2 inches ; then,

followers

roller 5, and
160

of

will have

in cotton

fly frame
of

length

the

on

33

twists

minute

feet 4 inches

doza

found
roller

the

rove

of

dividingthe turns
product,gives the number

that

1*5

of

100

twists

in

in

times

600

produced

rove

as

be

fore,
minute, whereminute, then,

inch.

per
v

taking-out
pulley, or

the

100,

inches

400

men-

stretchingframe that shall regulatethe

of the carriage to the delivery of the rove,
be
may
of
the
diameter
of the front
by taking the product
the

of

the number

teeth
of

the number

dividingby

subtractingfrom

and

to

minute,

inches, then

diameter

pulley of*

motion

given

its circumference

400

proper

other

inch.

spindle revolve
-"

The

draught of

of the front roller per minute

the revolutions

if the

inch

per

one

by

per

rove

and the circumference

=

the

of

"

spindleper

of twists
Let

of

produced in

rove

draught.
5

in applying the prindifficulty

ciple

no

of front roller per minute

Turns

of the

those

of calender

manufacture.

find the number

the

the

as

this rule to the calculation

machines
To

2'26

"

40

40

X
"

--

22

reader

The

20

"

90

by

22

X
"

"

and

22

the

in

mendoza

the

wheel,

teeth in the front roller

quotient the diameter

and

pinion,

of the

doza
men-

of the front roller be 1|

if the diameter
bond i inch, the teeth
inches, the diameter of the mendoza
in front roller pinion 20, and in mendoza
wheel
110, then,
Thus

bond.

110

137-5

i1

ia=

-"

the diameter
The

found

aQ
6*8

"

'5

6*3

inches

20

20

of mendoza

revolutions

thus

"

of

the

pulley.

spindleof

the

throstle may

be

892

SPINNING.

COTTON

of

turns

cylinder
per

minute

diameter
A

of
cylinder

per minute,

of wharve

inches diameter

7*5

and

the

itsdiameter

diameter

makes

450

wharve

of the

revolutions

inch,

is 1

hence,
450

7*5
as

3375

turns

of the

spindleper

minute.

find the draught of the roller of the jenny,take the

productof the teeth of the front roller pinionX the grist

To

pinion X

of back

diameter

roller for

divisor,and

take

of
of front roller X the number
teeth of the crown
wheel x those of the back roller wheel
for a dividend, then the dividend divided by the divisor will
the

productof

the diameter

givethe draught.
72, back

Thus

if the teeth of the crown

wheel be
front
roller
56,
pinion18, and grist

roller wheel

pinion24,

the diameter

of back

of front roller 1 inch, and

roller J, then,
72x56x1
the draught.
S

sbb

18x24xJ
we

ink/"/%
10'66

as

In order to determine the size of yarn

first find the quantity
of rove
must

roller

duringone

stretch

stretch,which

the inches
the dividend will be
"

number

^of hank

is

gained,and

="

from

hank

givenout

the whole

rove,

by

the

lengthof

this the divisor,

calling

found

the

the

rove

by takingthe product of
the length of the stretch x

be the size of yarn produced.

Thus, if the draughtbe as found above 10*666, the stretch
5 inches, and the rove
5 hank,
56, the gainingof carriage

draught,the quotientwill

then,
10-66x5x56

^
To

=s

find the effect of

58*52

change

size

of the

of yarn.

gristpinionon

the

jenny.
Take

the

of yarn, and
other number

productof
call it the

the

pinionproducinga

gristpinion;

of 24 teeth,then,

if No. 70

ing
correspond-

gristpinionbe used as a
size of yarn
the corresponding
by a pinion
yarn be produced

if another

the quotientwill be
divisor,

produced. Thus

size

dividend,if this be divided by any

of yarn, the quotientwill be the

or

known

894

SPINNING.

COTTON

Thus

for

No.

3-75

V^36
And

for

-v/64

36

No.

When

coiled

upon

inches

of

cotton

is

yarn

reel,

3'75

22'5

3-25

26

twists

inch.

per

wefts,

64

3-25

sas

have,

we

warps,

thread,

put

this

and

of

length

spindles,

or

of

revolution

one

inch.

per

hanks

in

up

twists

takes

which

is
54

up

denominated

is

yarn

it

thread.
in.

54

l"

yards

120

840

15120

Cotton

in

No.

contains

yarn

diameter

the

of

When

the

reeling
of

the

be

reeled,

then

yarn

by

and

is

yarn

few

and

its

in

ounces

in

840

since

there

pound,

Thus,

No.

64

4s

16

18

::

64

"

fineness

to

less

be

16

thus

ounces

hanks

18

in

number

of

the

drachms,
a

spindle

spindle,
ounce,

an

yarn

of

No.

weight

of

"

spindle

in

yarn

oz.

and,
288

-^

ss

weight

of

spindle

in

ounces.

No.

if

in

drachms

by

the

weight,

288"

than

determined

is

their

are

and

the

Hhe

have,

we

20

840

much

be

mated
esti-

yards

16800

or

proportion

found

is

consequently

must

finding

by

spindle.

hanks

No.

fineness

yards

reel.

20.

the

by

its

the

or

18

pound;
64

hank

of

ley.

or

pound.

No.

cops

skein

and
a

of

round

or

126

64

weight

in

No.

found

proportion,

16

in

and

be

contains

of

hanks,
may

20

thread

the

weight,

or

64

thread

of

hanks

thread

of

diameter

the

10080

by

of

No.

yards

53760

560

hanks,

20

pound

one

sold

is

the

by

80

yarn

thread

or,

SQUARE

AND

CUBE

25*

BOOTS.

295

296

SQUARE

AND

CUBE

ROOTS.

SQUARE

AND

CUBE

ROOTS.

297

298

SQUARE

AND

CUBE

ROOTS.

SQUARE

"

AND

CUBE

ROOTS.

299

300

SQUARE

AND

CUBE

BOOTS.

302

RECIPES.

RECIPES

USEFUL

WORKMEN.

FOR

SOLDERS.

Lead*

For

of

state

Melt

"

fusion

of

this, when
will, if it be
should

Tin.

For
of

bismuth

two

good, arise

small
the

upon

little brightstars

with

is also used

in

quantity

table, there

upon

it.

Resin

of tin, and
them

into

one

thin

this solder.

tough brass, with

Good

"

four parts of pewter, one

them
together,and run

; melt

Iron,

poured out

If

when

this solder.

with
Take

"

slips. Resin
For

add

tin, and

part of block
parts of lead.

melted, is

used

be

one

little borax.

CEMENTS.

strong glue is made

very

chalk

to

resist the

pound

of

glue

common

action

of

glue in

common

skimmed

may
two

formed

be

some

powdered

glue which will

by boiling one

quarts

(Englishmeasure) of

five

six bits of

milk.

Turkey

Cement.

"

Dissolve

peas, in as much
another
vessel dissolve

large as
In

; and

melted

when

water

by adding

spiritof

or

wine

much

as

as

mastich, as

will dissolve it.

(which
isinglass,

has

and
till it is softened
in water
previously soaked
swelled,)in one glassof strong whisky ; add two small bits
be rubbed
of gum
which
must
galbanum, or ammoniacum,
ance
or
ground till dissolved, then mix the whole by the assistof heat.
It must
be kept in a stopped phial,which

been

should
For

be set in hot
turners,

when

water

excellent

an

the cement

cement

is made

is to be

used.

by melting in

the fire one

melted
over
pound of resin, and when
pan
add a quarter of a pound of pitch : while these are
boiling
add brick dust, until,by dropping a little upon
a cold
stone,
In winter it is sometimes
found
you think it hard enough.
a

to add
necessary
In joining the

withstand

the

little tallow.
flanches

action

of

of

iron

boilingwater

cylinders or
and

steam,
for

pipes,

to

convenienc
great in-

of a
want
by the workmen
durable
The
cement.
:
following will be found to answer
Boiled
linseed oil, litharge,
and white lead, mixed
up to a
consistence, and applied to each side of a piece of
proper
flannel,linen, or even
pasteboard,and then placedbetween
the pieces before they are
brought home, as it is called, or
joined.
is often

felt

303

RECIPES.

Engines

Steam

For

of sal ammoniac

Take

excellent

an

two

is

cement

sublimed

ounces,

follows

as

sulphur

one

fine turningsone
or
pound ; mix
filings
When
it is
them
in a mortar, and keep the powder dry.
mix it with
to be used
twenty times its quantity of clean
and
in a mortar,
iron turnings,or filings,
grind the whole

and

ounce,

then

iron

cast

it with

wet

it is to be

consistence, when
it becomes

time

until it becomes

water,
hard

as

and

applied to
strong

as

of
the

convenient

joint;

part of the

other

any

after

metal.
LACQUERS

VARNISHES.

AND

half
by pouring,by littleand little,
a pound of melted
copal,constantly
a pound of drying oil on
the
When
wood.
of
copal is melted,
stirringwith a piece
add a pound of Venice
off the fire and
take the mixture
through a linen cloth.
turpentine; then pass the whole
When
the varnish gets thick by keeping, add a littleVenice
turpentine; and if it be wished of a dark colour, amber
should be used instead of copal.
Black
twelve
six of

of

thus

musical

and

four

'Take

"

of

asphaltum, and

work
:

parts of amber,

twelve

of resin, two

turpentine,two

drying oil.

made

of

for iron is made

varnish

For cabinet
be

is made

Varnish

Old

instruments
of

ounces

half

and

same

gillof turpentine.
Lacquer is a varnish* to

of

may

sandarack,

gum

of gum
mastich,
in a quart of the
elemi ; dissolve them
gum
when
the whole
they are
being kept warm
of lack, the

ounces

varnish

tw

of

ounce

an

best

whisky

dissolved, add

be laid

improving its appearance

lacquer is laid
metal

must

on

be warm,

metal, for the purpose

preservingits polish. The

or

the surface

on

of the metal
the

otherwise

with

lacquer will

brush
not

the

spread.

good lacquer may be made thus : Take one

of the best
of turmeric root ground,and half a drachm
ounce
in a pint of spiritsof wine,
dragon's blood; put them
heat,
(English measure,) and place them in a moderate
For

brass

"

then be strained
days. It must
through a linen cloth, and being put back into the bottle,
be added,
of good seed-lack, powdered, must
three ounces
The
heat,
mixture
must
again be subjectedto a moderate
it is, again
lor several days, when
and shaken
frequently

shaking them

for several

"strained,and corked

tighdy in

bottle for

use.

304

RECIPES.

STAINING

Yellow.

AND

; but

yellow

on

if used

strong it will

IVORY.

produce

will often

nitric acid

Diluted
wood

WOOD

sometimes

produces

it

fine

brown,

and

nearly black.
Red,
A good red may
be made
by an infusion of Brazil
wood
in stale urine, in the proportion of a pound to a gallon.
This stain is to be laid on the wood
hot
boiling
; and
before
the

seem

it dries it should

be laid

Brazil
on

hot.

Black.

Ivory may
solution

of

then

be

be

wood
and

several
then

stained

iron

of nut

thus

blue

times

with

strong solution

verdigrisin
dip it into a

green,
and it will turn
To

the

logwood,

be had,

spiritsof

in

of madder,

water

and

the

artist

put
cording
ac-

required.

Brush
of

by

For

water.

mixture

be varied

proportions must

to the tint

cannot

produced by

wood, and logwood, dissolved in

The

decoction

alum

dragon'sblood

of

a solution
purpose
wine
also be used.
may
Mahogany colour may be

same

with

over

solution

hot

galls.
Soak

"

of

lacquer, or, if this

the

acid, which

nitric

with

over

ivory in

will

make

it

pearlashboiling hot,

blue*

for wood
as
ivory black the same
process
employed.
Purple may be produced by soaking the ivory in a
stain

^"*tion of sal ammoniac

into four

times

its

weight of

may
solu-

nitrous

acid.

To

make

method

Cast

Edge-Tools from

consists

in

fixing

clean

brought to a welding heat, in

then pouring in melted steel, so
iron ; and then forging the mass
To

colour

its surface, and

on

of heat.

first,by
As
for

acid.

"

This

piece of wrought

iron,

of

and

centre

mould,

as

"

are

three

ways

of

colouring:

condly,
spiritof wine ; sesoot, as
wood
hot
ashes.
of
and
iron
a
thirdly,by
by
plate
;
is
wood
ashes
of
heat
very regulardegree
necessary,

covered

colour

Iron.

entirelyto envelope the

into the shape required.
The
Steel must
be finelypolished
then
uniform
to
a
degree
exposed

Accordingly,there
flame producing no

be
must
preference. The work
with them, and carefullywatched
the
over
; when
is sufficiently
heightened, the work is perfect. This
is occasionallytaken off with
dilute marine
a very

fine work

colour

Steel Blue.

the

Steel and

bears

the

RECIPES.

which

by
follow

as

Iron.

distinguish Steei from

To

being polished, steel

hue, without

grey
takes

dull, and

but
When

darker

blue

exhibited

cast

steel,when

hardest

The

3.

the

of

appears

whiter, light

by

iron.

It also

higher polish.

2.

racters
principalchadistinguishedfrom iron are

be

may

The

"

:"

After

1.

steel

305

without

steeped

in

annealed, appears

not

shining

the

harder

acids, the

lated,
granu-

fibres.
steel

is of

is its surface.

hue

4.

Steel

5.

In

is not

inclined

much

so

to

rust

iron.

as

general, steel has a greater specificgravity.

be rendered
and wrought, it may
By being hardened

6.

much

elastic than

more

It is

7.

but

attracted

not

soft
strongly by the magnet
as
acquires magnetic propertiesmore
slowly,
which
for
steel
is
used
in
reason
longer,

It likewise

iron.

retains

making

them

heat

than

is

Polished

9.

iron, which

the addition

it is converted

into

soft iron does

calcination
with

or

iron

heat

same

light blue flame hovers

without
a
sulphureous odour.
scales

of steel

of

it suffers

The

1 1

and

In

white

harder

are

consequentiy

charcoal

less

and
over

and

fit for

more

and

loss

the

made

same

the

to

which

by

crude

into

tinged by heat,

sooner

in the

scarcely be

can

afterwards

steel, and

steel is

artificial magnets.
fuses with less degree of

powdered

of

higher colours, than iron.

In a calcining heat,
10.
than

and
and

ignitedsooner,

malleable

fuse without

so

for compasses,

needles

Steel

8.

iron.

iron.

that

with

by burning
time.

In%

steel, either

sharper than

those

polishingwith.

exposed to the blast of the

bellows
the coals, it begins to sweat*
wet, or melt,
among
pardy with light-coloured and bright, and partly with red
ing
In a meltsparkles, but less cracklingthan those of iron.
12.

heat, when

heat, too, it consumes

faster.

lently
nitrous, and other acids, steel is viovitriolic,
attacked, but is longer in dissolving than iron. After
of
maceration, according as it is softer or harder, it appears
13.

In

the

lighter grey

or

darker

colour

hand, is white.
26*

while

iron,

on

the

other