CAMBRIDGE

MATHEMATICAL

THE

APPLIED

SERIES.

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

OF

PRINTED

BY

AT

THE

C.

J.

UNIVERSITY

CLAY,

AND

M.A.

PRESS.

SONS,

ELEMENTS

THE

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS
INCLUDING

KINETICS,

AND

STATICS,

HYDROSTATICS.

BY

C.
LATE
LECIUBEB

FELLOW

M.A.,

JESSOP,

M.
OP

IN

IN. MATHEMATICS

COLLEOE,

CLABE

DUEHAM

THE

CAUBBIDOE,
COLLEGE

OF

SCIENCE,

NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE.

LONDON

DEIGHTON,

CAMBBIDGE:
NEW

YOEK:

66,

SONS.

AND

BELL

GEORGE

FIFTH

1894

BELL
AVENUE.

AND

CO.

PREFACE.

basis of
THEMathematics

father;

his

on

the
of the

is

present elementary treatise

formed

was

death

the

work, and

book

It

the

has

been

is

and

from

who

the

for various

subject herein

render

it

that

hope

valuable

contained

private

to

much

obtain

the

assistance

teachers.
I

have

and

the

adopted

forces

in
of

Throughout,

the

side

foot-lb.-sec.

the

The

in

most

the

proofs, most

most

books

generally

now

point

every

of

the

Statics.

side

treated

examples

of

consistent

be

can

has

does

have

mastered
not

in

been

been

by

extend

order

with

to

been

giving

students

beyond

the

treated
valid

whose
the

first

give completeness,

added, usually in smaller

type.
J.

by

added

importance throughout

manner

Euclid, but

trigonometricalmethods

is

Graphical

on

propositionshave

fundamental

them

innovation

system.

of worked-out

geometrical knowledge
three

is

been

has

system

elementary
of

chief

chapter

separate
C.G.S.

of

illustration

book.

number

large

The

equilibrium.

introduction

with

which

arrangement,

considering successively kinematics, kinetics,

of

approved,

in

without

not

positionto

pleting
com-

originalscope
and

in Schools

am

to

in

not

are

my

extended.

use

principlesof

sufficientlydetailed

students

for

the

by
of

me

upon

additions

considerably

public examinations,
of the

devolved

various

by

written

manuscript

task

designed mainly

explanation

by

Applied

on

11

PREFACE.

The
Matter

works
and

to

Motion

which

by

I
the

am

late

under
Prof.

chief

Clerk

obligationare
Maxwell,

and

Propertiesof Matter by Prof Tait. I have also found

Prof Minchin's Hydrostaticsand Elementary Hydrokinetics,
and Prof Hicks' Elementary Dynamics of assistance.
I am
under
to several friends for their
deep obligations
whom
I should
like to mention
assistance,among
specially
E. W.
Hobson, Esq., Sc.D., F.R.S., who has read carefully
advice I have found
certain portionsof the proofsand whose
of the greatest benefit ; D. Rintoul, Esq., M.A., Assistant
Master
in Clifton College,
who
has read the proofsof Part I.,
The

and

to whom

am

much

indebted

for the detection

of

errors

matical
suggestions
; A.. Larmor, Esq.,M.A., Mathehas
Head
Master
of the Londonderry Academy, who
read over
the whole
of the manuscript and has given constant
assistance throughout,many
of the methods
adopted
being due to his suggestion.
A
number
of the figuresare
due
the kindness
to
of
T. H. Easterfield,Esq.,M.A., late Scholar of Clare College.
The answers
been verified throughto the examples have
out
by an experiencedcomputer, J. W. F. Allnutt,Esq.,M.A.,
and I am
have escaped detection.
sanguinethat few errors
To the Cambridge University Local
Examinations
and
Lectures
Syndicate I am indebted for permissionto use the
examples set in their examinations, and to the Oxford and
Board
for a similar conCambridge Schools' Examination
cession.
and

for valuable

C. M.
Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Oct. 1893.

JESSOP.

CONTENTS.

PART

I.

(KINETICS
CHAPTEE

AND

STATICS).

I.

ABTIOIiES

29

"

PAOES

Motion

in

straightline
CHAPTER

30

44

"

Composition and Besolution

CHAPTEB

45"64

The

Laws

84

"

Composition and Besolution

Parallel Forces.

Centre

of

"

143

Forces

in

39

IV.

V.
of Forces

65

"

84

VI.
85"103

Vn.
104"111

VIII.
112"129

Gravity
CHAPTER

135

"

40"57

Couples
CHAPTEE

113"134

24

III.

Moments

CHAPTEE
104"112

58"64

CHAPTEE
85"103

of Velocities

Projectiles
CHAPTEE

71

23

II.

of Motion

CHAPTEE

65"70

equilibrium

IX.
130"145

IV

CONTENTS.

X.

CHAPTEE

PAQEU

ARTICLES

144"160

and

Work

146"161

Energy
XI.

CHAPTEE

161"192

The

162"196

simple machines
CHAPTEE

193"201

197"211

Friction

CHAPTEE

212"218

CHAPTEE

219"233

CHAPTEE

234"248

II.

PART

(HYDROSTATICS).

CHAPTEE
1"15

Fluid

25

244"258

Pressure

on

immersed

XVn.
surfaces

CHAPTEE

54

Machines

depending

Miscellaneous
Answebs

to

270

XVIH.

XK.

Propertiesof Gases

286"303

CHAPTEE
64

"

271"285

CHAPTEE

"

259

....

SpecificGravity

26"37

55

XVI.

Pressure

CHAPTEE

"

XV.

Circtdar Motion

217"224

38

XIV.

Graphical Statics

209"216

"

Xin.

Impact

202"208

16

Xn.

upon

Examples
Examples

XX.
fluid pressure

304"321
322

332

333

344

ERRATA.

p.

2,

13,
p.

Art.

6,

Ex.

/or

1,

'it

/or

is

measured

by'

feet

'8

read

second'

'it

read

per

is

'8

represented

by.'

foot-seoB.

second.'
per

16,
p.

Examples

Y.

4,

omit

'and

the

distance......

seventh

'32-2x3'
,",.""

p.

16,

Art.

22,

smaU

"

.,

'32-2x12'

for

prmt,

read

^^g^

p.

p.

30,

42,

Examples

Art.

VII.

51,

2,

add

the

.ggg^

'1^157"'

for

words

'iJlSO.'

read

'The

of

mass

p.

143,

after

Ex.

'Bee'

add

16,

/or

'Art.

'tan-

1000

called

is
grammes

kilogramme.'

69,
p.

second.'

72.'

(^^I:!

Q'
r"a^

(^^

'tan-

.'

.
.

p.

175,

Ex.

8,

for

'W+w'

read

'Tr+2io.'

INTRODUCTION.

As

shall

we

projection

of

the

prove

have

occasion

refer

to

straight

the

to

it, and

shall
define
straight line, we
now
important
proposition relating to

most

of

I.

afterwards

the

jections
pro-

lines.

Definition

of

projection

the

of

line.

straight

MB

Fig. ii.

If

the

from

PM,

QN

line

MN

be

thus

following

The

of

projection

MN

line

rule
should

measured

with
be
from

regard

the

sign
carefully observed,
left

to

to

right

to

be

as

measured

of

QP

of

the

viz.
in

projection
a
positive, while
be
to
in
negative.
fig. (ii), is taken
left, as
is
stated
thus, the
projection of PQ
also

taken

be

of

AB.

upon

to

let

straight line PQ, perpendiculars

fall
straight line AB, the straight
any
upon
the
projection of PQ
intercepted is called
ends

"

jection
pro-

that

fig.(i)
from
This

the

a
is

right
may

tion
projec-

INTRODUCTION.

VI

II.
side
the

The
of

projection
polygon

is
of

projections

the

equal

of

algebraic

the

to

line

straight

any

upon

one

of

sum

sides.

other

Fig.

Let
its

PQRS

i.

be

vertices

upon

any

polygon,

projection
Notice
as

that
stated

of

P)S=

in

above.

proj. PQ
fig. (ii), rs,

Pp,

line

straight
ps=pq

or,

draw

qr

and

Rr

Then

AB.

we

Ss

from

that

see

rs,

+proj.
the

Qq,

QR

projection

proj.
of

RS,

RS.

is

tive
nega-

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

CHAPTER

MOTION

ideas

The

1.

STRAIGHT

form

the

IN

which

I.

LINE.

basis

those

time, which, without

we

primary notions.

of space and
shall regard as
2.

Another

Matter
so

to

as

may

be

as

ideas

that

is that

which

affects

such

first of

these, namely resistance, is that

closelyconnected
quantity of

The
called

the

bodies

may

as

with

be

our

senses

resistance,size,shape,"c.

which

is

Mechanics.
contained

matter

of the

mass

of matter.

body. The
compared in various

in any given body is

of two
masses
or
more
ways

such

as

to

use

weighing,

lifting.

or

3.

The

Measure

In

what

follows
The

measwe.
a

is fundamental

our

produce

The
most

subject are
attemptingto define,

idea which
defined

of

the

the

Thus

kind

is

time

so

'

one

which
of

measure

shall be the

second

then

can

occupy

Tait, Propertiesof
J.

word

length,
quantity

agreed to call the unit.

inches long is 12 if we
agree
unit of length. If the unit of

the

measure

of half-an-hour

is 1800,

on.

Whatever

matter.

the

have

we

line 6

occasion

of any
quantity such as
of times it contains that

measure

half-an-inch

that

and

same

quantity.

shall have

we

"c., is the number

time

of

of

space
Matter.

'

is sometimes

given

as

the

definition of

THE

ELEMENTS

Units

of

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

length.

There are two units of length

is the
in common
use, one
the other,which is used mainlyin scientific measurements,
foot,
is the centimetre.
A

centimetre

is the -j-^part of a metre, a metre

being
39"37 inches. It is the lengthof a certain bar of platinum,
keptat Paris,when at the temperature 0" C.
5.

Velocity.

The

of a moving pointis its rate of motion, or

velocity
its rate of changeof position.Thus velocity
may be of any
magnitudeand be in any direction. In the present chapter
shall only consider the motion of a point which always
we
in the same
line.
moves
straight
When
in what follows we speak of the motion of a bodu,the motion
considered is one
of translation,
in which
i.e. one
the velocity
of each
of the body is the same
in other words
at the same
particle
instant,
of the body is then
the body moves
without rotation. The velocity
that of any one of its particles.

6.

Uniform

The

of a body
velocity
over
equaldistances

velocity.

is said to be uniform when it

in equal times,whatever those
moves
be. It is measured
times may
by the space moved over
in the unit of time.

over

Velocityis said to
in equaltimes are

be

when
variable,

not

distances

passed

equal.

at any instant,
It is measured
by the distance which would
the
in
unit
of time if the velocity
over
a
body
by
passed
were
the
at
remain the same
instant
for a unit of time.
as
given

be
to

The more
advanced student will be able to see that this definition
variable
be replaced
of
velocity
may
by the following
: if s is the
of the space described in t seconds after the given instant
measure
of the body is the limit
then,when s and t are very small,the velocity
of the fraction

7.
The
moves

Unit

-.

of

velocity.

unit of velocity
is the
unit of lengthin
over
a

of
velocity
a

body

unit of time.

which

body

MOTION

IN

STRAIGHT

LINE.

is said to have a velocity

10 (or generally
v),when 10
units of length
in
the
unit
are
of time.
passedover
The

units of space and time are

second. These are sometimes called
We

shall call the

of
velocity

a foot
generally
"

one

standard

"

(orv)
and

units.

foot per second

one

foot-second.
A

of
velocity

8.

Space

The
time a
over

one

centimetre per second is called

described

in

kine.

t seconds.

foot and the second beingthe units of lengthand

with a velocity
body which moves
uniformly
v, passes
feet each second,and therefore vt feet in t seconds.

Hence

if s is the number
s

9.

Average

of feet described in t seconds

vt, and

-.

velocity.

The average velocity

of a body whose actual velocity
is
variable is that velocity
which would have carried the body
described in the same
time at
throughthe distance actually
rate.
a uniform

2, 3, 4, 5 feet
pass over
in 4 consecutive seconds. The entire distance
respectively
is 3^ feet per second.
is 14 feet. The average velocity
For

instance,suppose

is uniform
If the velocity
actual velocity.

Ex. 1. A
find the whole
Twelve
or

180

is then

body to

the average

is
velocity

the

same

of 12 feet per
with h, uniform velocity
in
minutes.
described
3
space

pointmoves

feet

are

as

the

second,

each second,therefore in three minutes,

that
times
distance will be described. The answer

passedover

seconds,180
12 x 180 feet,
or 720 yards.

of
for 10 seconds with an average velocity
pointmoves
is
the
first
time
velocity
5 feet per second ; duringthe
part of the
3 feet per second,and duringthe latter part it is 7 feet per second ;
what is the lengthof this partt
Ex. 2.

Let

be the space described in 10 seconds ; thus j!=50 feet.

1"2

THE

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

"i and "2 denote the spaces described in the first and
of t^and i^seconds ;
intervals respectively
Let

then

second

;r=3,
n

and

7;

3"i+ 7*2

hence

and

"i + "2

"

50)

"i+ "2=10,

from

which

it follows that
5

"2
=

sees.

"
.

"2

35 feet.

body describes 6 feet in 4 seconds ; if the unit of time be?

two
minutes, what must be the unit of lengthin order that the
of the velocity
measure
may be unity?
Ex. 3.

'

described in 4 seconds, f feet are described in

6 feet are
which
and
feet in two minutes
is here the unit of
120
one
second,
fx
that
the
of
this
be unity the
In order
time.
measure
velocity
may
be the unit of length;
distance described in the' unit of time must
the unit of lengthis therefore f x 120 feet or 60 yards.
Since

EXAMPLES.
1.

train moving uniformlygoes

in feet per second.
velocity
2.

How

long would

rate of 30 miles
3.

average

an

I.
300

miles in 5 hours

train take to go 220

find its

yardsif moving at

the

hour ?

A train takes 2 hours and 20 minutes

to go 115 miles ; find its

velocity.

of sound to be 1100 feet per second,find

4. Assuming the velocity
the distance of the point of discharge,
if 24 seconds elapsebetween
a
nd
the
the
thunder.
lightning
seeing
hearing
train travels 205 miles in 7 hrs. 31 minutes ; find its
average
in
velocity feet per second.
5.

s,

6. How
long does it take lightto travel from the sun to the earth,
distance
of the sun being91,000,000
the
of light
miles,and the velocity
186,000miles per second ?

7. A gun is fired on board a ship at sea, an echo is heard from a

cliffafter a lapseof 19-2 seconds;find the distance of the cliff,
usuig
of sound givenabove.
the velocity

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

of
motion,a unit of velocity,
beinga velocity
second,or a foot-second.

To

that

prove

+ at.

To find the velocity

after a time ^ of
acceleration a.
constant
The

is
velocity
velocity.
Hence

and

so

at the end

increased each

body moving with

second

second the
of the first;

by

is a,
velocity

next

2a,

third

3a,

is at;
of t seconds the velocity
the velocity
after t seconds by v we therefore have
at the end

If the
see

units of

on.

Thus

we

foot per

velocityis completely
tions
hence acceleramagnitude,

A change of velocity
like
determined
by its direction and
he represented
can
by lines.
13.

one

body had

in like

(i).

at

at firsta

denoting

velocity
u, or

an

initialvelocity
u,

that

manner

(ii).

+ at

If the direction of the acceleration is oppositeto that

of the initial velocity,
in t seconds at units of velocity
will
thus in this case
be lost,
v

"

(iii).

at

Ex. 1. A body starting

with a velocity
of 4 feet per second
acceleration 3, find its velocity
after 5 seconds.
From

we
(ii)

see

the

an

that
4 + 3x5

z" =

hence

has

19,

is 19 feet per second.

required
velocity

Ex. 2. A body starting

with a velocity
of 128 feet per second has
acceleration 32 in the direction oppositeto this initialvelocity,
when
will the body be broughtto rest 1

an

After t seconds

we

have

,.

2) =

when
or

is zero

"=4

128-32*,
128
32*,
"

seconds.

MOTION

Ex. 3.
at

the end

throughone
If
Za
one

IN

STRAIGHT

LINE.

train havinga uniform acceleration starts from rest and

of 3 seconds has a velocity
with which
it could travel
mile in the next 5 minutes.
Find its acceleration.

be the acceleration,
the velocity
at the end of 3 seconds is
feet per second.
With
this velocity
the train would pass over
mile in 5 minutes,or 1760 x 3 feet in 5 x 60 seconds.
a

1760x3

"""

hence

^"=T^r60-'

5'86 foot-second units.

EXAMPLES,

1.

5 seconds

II.

body startingwith a velocityof 90 feet per second after

has only a velocity
of 50 feet per second; what is its acceleration
?

2.

body whose

is 10 feet per second

initial velocity

50 feet per
velocity

time will

what
3.

second,has an acceleration
it gain this final velocity
?

from rest, after

pointstarting

18 feet per second

and final
units ; in

of 10 ft.-sec.

6 seconds

has

of
velocity

; find its acceleration.

4.
A pointwhose
initial velocity
is 20 feet per second,has
after 5 seconds.
acceleration of 32 ft.-sec.units ; find its velocity

an

of a body is 11 feet per second, and the

initial velocity
body'svelocityis increased each second by a velocityof 7 feet per
second ; find when it will be moving at the rate of 60 miles an hour.
5.

The

6.

body has

of
velocity

9 feet per second at the

of 10 feet per second at the end

after 5 more
seconds ]
velocity

14. Representation

by

of

an

given second

area

given straightline OA
t
off a line OP
measure
containing
units of length,and on
a
dicular
perpenoff a line OQ,
line OB measure
v units of length.
containing
OPRQ.
Complete the rectangle
is
OP
of this rectangle
The area
x OQ
On

and
beginning,

what

of the

space

scribed.
de-

rio.

the area
of
the space described
measures
the rectangle
v.
moving for t seconds with a uniform velocity
or

will be its

vt, hence

i.

since vt=s,

by

bodjr

THE

15.

ELEMENTS

Lines

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

the

representing

velocity of

moving

point.

Fig. 2.

be of lengtht and be divided into

OA, AB, BG, CD "c.
portions
Let the line OK

equal

of
the vertical line -4a to representthe velocity
Join Ool
the pointat the end of the first portionof time.
and produce
it,drawingverticals through5, (7, to meet it
Draw

...

at/3,y
Then

we

see
easily

that

Gy

B^^IAa,

3Aa, "c.

Thus the lines Aa, B^, Gj

represent the velocities
of the pointat the ends of the first,
second,third
portions
final
the
KL
its
of
at.
or
time,
velocity
representing
...

16.

To

prove

that

^at".

of last Article draw horizontal and vertical

In the figure
lines through a, yS,y
one
formingtwo sets of rectangles,
OKL.
within and the other without the triangle
...

Consider the

the base BG.

The smaller
the space described by a pointin a time remeasures
one
presented
by BG, if moving with constant
B/3,
velocity
Art. 14 ; or a smaller space than that actually
described by
the pointsince its velocity
duringthe time BG is greater
than B^.
on
rectangles

measures
Again the largerrectangle
would be described if the pointmoved

the
with

space

which

constant'

ve-

MOTION

IN

locity
C7, duringthe

time

STEAIGHT

BG,

or

LINE.

greaterspace than the

actual one
since the point's
is less than O7 during
velocity
the time BC.
Hence the true space described by the point
in the time BG is between these values. During each of the
times represented
a similar result is true.
by OA, AB, BG
We have therefore that the
...

of the

measure

is" space described,

rectangles

of the inner

sum

outer

"

space described.

of equal
into a very greatnumber
if we divide OK
will approachthe
of each set of rectangles
parts,the sum
from the
OKL
of the triangle
as we
see
area
very closely,
the right.
on
figure
Now

from the
small as
indefinitely

In fact the difference of each

^KL

OA

which

becomes

sum

area
we

of OKL
is equalto
increase the number

of divisions.

The
the

described
actually

of the space

measure

is therefore

of the

triangle
OKL
\0K xKL

area

Thus

^txat

^at^

ha't^-

a
initially
perpendicular
u, draw OM
velocity
and of lengthu, complete
to OK
OMNK.
the rectangle

If

body

the

has

velocityof
the bodyat each instant is greater
than its former value by u, an.dthe
In

this

case

the

measured
space described will be
by the sum of the areas OLK and
that is
OMNK,
Fig.
s

17.

\af +

Alternative

proof
s

To

find the space

moving with
u, we
velocity

an

may

3.

ut.

for

ut +

also

formula

Jat^

passedover

acceleration

the

a,

adoptthe

in the time i by a body

initial
and possessing
an

method.
following

10

THE

Divide
-

the

giventime

t into

velocities at

u+2a-

u+a-,

a
velocity

each
equal intervals,

of

first,

the

beginningsof

are

...

(n"l)a-

12.

Art.
duringeach interval.

is added

MATHEMATICS.

the

of these intervals

mth

u,

since

APPLIED

; the

length
second,

OF

ELEMENTS

Now
if the body moved
uniformlyduringeach interval
with the velocity
has at the beginning
which it actually
each space so described would be less than
of that interval,
the space actually
described in that interval.
And

the

t
-

lu +
\

M+2a-

-+

an

n-

^(l+

nj

...

(u+ (n-l)a~]

Art, 8,

3+...+"::a)

2 +

n'

1 + 2+3+

smce

supposed

t\t

(
+

in this

is

manner

described

of the spaces

sum

ut +

^^

+n.-l="

...

"

],at^(l-~)
.

n/

the body moved

uniformlythroughouteach
it has at the end of that interval,
interval with the velocity
each space so described would
be greater than the space
described in that interval.
actually

Again, if

The

of the spaces described in this

sum

(u+ a-) +(u

-

nJ

nu

+ -J

2a-]
nJ

(1 +

-+

...

2 +

(u+ na-]\

...

is

manner

n)

nj

MOTION

IN

ut+^ae(l
+ -)

The space

described
actually

^at^(l -A and
the

largeenough,we

lies therefore between

ut +

By making

11

LINE.

n^

STRAIGHT

n(n + l)

aP
^

ut +

(l -)

^at^

intervals small
make

can

"

enough,and
as

small

as

therefore
we

please,

thus causing
these two expressions
to continually
approach
each other in value. The actual space s described is therefore
this is the

as

as
approaches

ut+^at^
value to
limiting

which

each

(iv),
expression

increases.

18. If the direction of the acceleration is contraryto

that of the initial velocity
u, we
get in the same
way,
s

N.B.

^at\

"

locity
body started from rest or with initial veputtingu equal to zero in the formula just

If the

zero,

provedwe

ut

obtain
s

(v).

iat'

could of course
have got this value for s by going
u throughout.
throughthe proofof the last Article omitting
We

Ex. 1. A body has an initial velocity

of 100 feet per second,and
with an acceleration of 10 ft. sec. units ; what is the distance
passedover in 5 seconds ?
moves

If

be the

requireddistance
s=100x5+ixlOx52
=625

feet.

of a body is 40, and it moves

The initial velocity
acceleration of "2; find when it will be 400 feet from the
Ex. 2.

with

an

starting-

point.
We

have

iOO=40t-tK

we
equation
Solvingthis quadratic

of seconds.

obtain 20

as

the

number
required

12

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

tion
with a uniform acceleraEx. 3. A body starts from rest and moves
of 18 ft.-sec. units. Find the time requiredby it to traverse the
and third foot respectively.
first,
second,
For the firstfoot

have

we

The

9t%

.".

the

time

requiredto traverse
feet (thetime taken to

traverse 2

"

of

t=l

sec.

foot is that taken

hence it is
1 foot),

second

traverse

to

f-i ^(V2-l)secs.
=

find

we
Similarly

for the third

the time

as

foot,

s/2^sl^Z^^^,_

V3'
EXAMPLES.

III.

With
acceleration of 32 ft.-sec.units,
how far will a
an
in 10 seconds starting
from rest,and what
will be its
at the end of that time ?
1.

move

particle
velocity

with uniformly
2. A particle
moves
increasing
velocity.Show
the whole space is proportional
to the square of the whole time.
A

3.

body moves
seconds

body has
acceleration
positive
1800 feet ?
pass over
Startingwith

5.
has

an

5 ft.,
in 4
7 ft.,
9 ft.respectively,
ft.,
velocity.

initial

an

of

32

of
velocity

20

feet per

ft.-sec.units; how

of
velocity

200

long

centimetres

acceleration of -2

is
velocity

zero

secutive
con-

; find its average

4.

over

that

and

how

per

centimetre-second units.
far it has gone in the time.

second, and
will it take

to

second,a body
Find

when

its

6. In what time will a body acquirea velocity

of 60 miles an hour,
if it starts with a velocity
of 28 feet per second,
and move
with the footof
unit
acceleration
?
sec,

and

19.

To

We

have

seen

that

that

that
From

or

show

v'' =
v

u^ -f-2as.
u

+ at,

ut +

^at\

the firstequation
v'^=

u^ + iuat +

v^

w'+2a

aH',

(ut+ ^at%

14

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

Ex. 2. A body whose initial velocity

is 30 feet per second,passes
distance
of
feet
and
has
of 60 feet per second,
then
50
a
a velocity
what is the acceleration ?

over

Ex. 3.

body which has an

initial velocity
of 32 feet per
an
coming to rest,and in what time

acceleration of
second ; find how
it will do so.

32 ft.-sec.units has
far it will go before

"

acceleration
A body moves
for 6 seconds with a constant
the
acceleration
then
describes
which
time
it
81
feet,
ceases, and
during
initial
velocity
duringthe next 6 seconds it describes 72 feet ; find its
and its acceleration.
Ex. 4.

20.

Recapitulation.

the
Collecting

results of the last three

Articles

we

see

that

if the bodystarts from rest

at

(1),

s=|"

(2),

s^iaP

(3),

v''=2as

(4).

or

(1) the velocity

gained in

gainedin

one

t seconds

locity
ve-

second,

(2) the distance passedover

average distance

is t times the

in

passedover

(3) the space described

in t seconds is t times the

one

second,

varies

as

the

square

of the

as

the

square

of the

time,

(4) the
velocity.

space

described varies

If the bodyhas
v

"

initialvelocity
u

an

+ at

(5),

u+v

-2~"
ut +

^at''

v"-= u^ + 2as

(6)"
(7),
(8).

MOTION

21.

Space

IN

described

STRAIGHT

in

given

15

LINE.

second.

To

find the space described in a givensecond by a body

moving with constant acceleration a, when the body starts
from rest,we proceedas follows :

Spacedescribed duringthe
=

space described in t seconds

*th second

(spacedescr. in

"

f "1

seconds)

^a(2t-l)
2

Thus
seconds

the spaces described in the first,

second,third, wth
.

are

{2n "\)a

3a

ba

2'

Y'

Y'

"""

"

with a velocity
find the space
we
u
described in the tth second in the same
way, it is equalto
If the

body

starts

(ut+ ^at')
-{u(t-l)

^a{t- ly}

a(2"-l)
-u+
_

Thus
seconds

the spaces described in the first,

second,third, nth
.

are

3(1

oa
,

w+2'

(2*1"1)a

^+"2"'"""'""'"

""^Y'

"

from rest has an acceleration of 32 ft.-sec.

Ex. 1. A body starting
units ; find the space described in the 8th second.

Ex. 2.
passes

feet.

240

and it
feet per second,
find
acceleration.
the
;

body is 21

of a
initial velocity
second
54' feet in the 6th

The

over

12-1
..
",
54=21

.".

Ex.

3.

"

g"

a;

foot-seconds per second.

a=6

body moving with uniform acceleration passes over

246 feet in the fourth and eighthseconds respectively
;

126 feet and

and acceleration.
find its initialvelocity

126=M-f|a,
246=M+Jg^a,
which

give

=30

and

ie=21.

16

THE

ELEMENTS

OP

APPLIED

.MATHEMATICS.

EXAMPLES.

V.

A body moving with uniform acceleration describes 520 feet in

the 7th second from rest ; find the acceleration.
1.

from
Starting

2.

rest

its motion ; find the space

seconds.
A

3.

body

whose

units ; compare
32 ft.-sec.

feet in the 6th second of

described in the ninth second and in nine

body describes

330

initial velocity
is zero
has an acceleration of
in the 6th and 12th
the distances passedover

seconds.
acceleration describes in the
4. A body moving with uniform
seventh and twelfth seconds after starting
23 and 33 feet respectively
;
find its initial velocity,
its accleration,
and the distance described from
rest before the beginningof the seventh second.
A body moving with uniform acceleration describes in the last
of its motion J of the whole distance. It started from rest and
described 6 inches in the firstsecond ; find how long it was
in motion
5.

second

and the distance it described.

22.

Falling bodies.

that if a body fall it will move

acceleration which is alwaysthe same
in the same
an
and which is due to the attraction of the Earth.
called the " acceleration of gravity."

Experimentsshow

Its measure
and a second

are

is denoted by the symbol "g!' When

the units the value of ^r is 32'2.
32'2

32-2 feet

when

from

centimetres

is the unit of

what

foot

equal to

centimetre

Thus
as

are

with
tude
latiIt is

lengthg

has gone

or

981

thus
centimetres,

is 981.

before

we

that,takingg

see

32,

velocity
gainedhy a fallingbodyin t seconds 32t ft.sees.,
distance fallenthrough 16i^feet,
gainedin fallingthrougha heighth H\Jh ft.sees.,
velocity
=

time
23.
The

in falling
occupied
througha heighth
Motion

under

due
acceleration,

^"^h sees.

gravity.

of a body projected
gravity,
cally
vertiupwards is oppositein direction to the velocity
of
and
is
therefore
denoted
projection,
by ^.
to

"

MOTION

In the formulae

IN

STRAIGHT

17

LINE.

already
provedput

equalto

thus get
s

ut-

the

.^, we

\gt\
-gt,

"y" M^

When

"

2gs.

dotunwards
body is projected

have

we

the

equations

If the

ut +

""

Time

^gt^

to reach

^gt%
gt,

"" +

body is let fallwe

s

24.

2gs.

have
u

gt,

This is

2gs.

given height.

If the givenheight
be h, then
of
last
have
equation
we
Article,

v'

ut

h for s
writing

in the first

^gt'.

"

quadratic
equationto find t, whose roots if real
both positive.
If the roots are imaginary
are
u is not great
enoughfor the body to reach a heighth.
a

The

smaller root is the time at which the bodyis at the

the time
the larger
root gives
givenheightwhen ascending,
at which it is at the same
heightwhen descending.
Ex. 1. A body is projected
upwards with
vertically
80 ft.per sec. ; when will it be at a height
of 64 feet ?

from

which,

t=l,

or

of
velocity

4.

It is therefore at the givenheightone

of its motion.
the beginning

second

or

four seconds

Ex. 2. A body is projected

upwards with
vertically
how highwill it rise in 2 seconds ?
64 feet per second,

If X be the

of
velocity

height,
required
ar=64x2-16x4
=64

J.

"

after

feet,

18

25.

we

at

Velocity

If A is
have

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

given height.

given heightand

2gh,or

v'^'^u'-

MATHEMATICS.

t) =

of projection,
velocity

the

Ju'

2gh.

whether the bodyis ascending

and h are the same
in magnitude
is the same
hence the velocity
or
descending,
in direction in these two cases.
but opposite
Now

Ex. 1.

of
with a velocity
body is projected
of
200
?
feet
at
the
height
velocity

120 feet per

second;

what will be its

If

be the

required
velocity
64x200,
"-'=(120)2D=40

or

feet per second;

be 60 feet per
of projection
Ex, 2. If the upward velocity
will be 20 feet per second.
find when the velocity
If h be the

which

heightat

the

second,

is 20,
velocity

(20)2=(60)2-64xA;

A=^^5)!__W=50feet.

.-.

b4

the

The times at which

body is

at this

50=60*

-ie"2,

hefghtare

found

from

the

equation
?= 1 J

from which

26.

Greatest

or

height of

2J seconds.
a

projected body.

At the highest
is zero; therefore if A
pointthe velocity
is the heightof the highest
pointthe body reaches,
0

Hence
as

to

u^-2gh,

or

the

~.

with which a body must

velocity
justreach a heighth is ^Igh.

be

so
projected

A body is projected
of 64 feet
upwards with a velocity
vertically
how
it
will
rise
before
t
o
descend
?
If
second,
A is the
high
beginning
per
height,
required
Ex. 1.

A=^'=64
feet.
b4

MOTION

IN

STRAIGHT

19

LINE.

Ex. 2. A ballisallowed to fallto the groundfrom a certain height,

and
instant another ball is thrown upwardswith justsufficient
at the same
to
velocity carry it to the heightfrom which the other falls. Show
where and when the two balls will pass each other.

givenheightbe h. The ball thrown upwardswith

Let the

just sufficientto carry it this heightmust be thrown with

Let the time up to the instant of meetingbe t seconds.

velocity
velocity

fjzgh.

ball and
Let "i be the distance described by the falling
described by the one thrown upwardsduringthe time t,
then

16"2

", =

27.

Time

At the

i^ *^^*

greatest height.

the

to reach

is zero,
pointthe velocity
highest
u

:.

Time

28.

"

gt, or

t=-.

of flight.

the body has returned to the starting

pointthe
When
total space described is zero, therefore if t be the whole time,
0

The

roots of

The

root 0

is

"

ut-

\gt\

are
this quadratic
equation

to the
corresponds

time of

time of ascent + time of descent

0 and

"

the
starting,

root

whole time of flight.

^
u.

But

was

found to be the time of ascent, hence

9
^

the time of descent.

2"2

is also

20

THE

Ex. 1.
at the end

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

A body projected
upward returns to the point of projection
of
the heightreached and the velocity
find
of six seconds,

projection.
Since the time of

is 6 seconds,
flight
2u
0

hence

takingg

The

as

"

9
is 96 feet per second.
of
32, the velocity projection

height
greatest

"

^-~

1 44 feet.

Ex. 2. A ball thrown vertically

upwards rises 200 feet in 4
?
in what tinae will it return to the pointof projection
find the initialvelocity
to be 114
is Jj^ or 7J seconds.
Therefore the time of flight

By Art.

24

feet per

we

The velocity
gainedby
h
is
8VA.
height
29.

fall from

Hence the velocity

gainedby
with which
from rest is velocity
to justreach that height.

second.

througha

rest

with which a body must

be
The velocity
justreach a heighth is by Art. 26 also 8^/h.

seconds,

to
projected

fall throughany height

body must be projected

Ex. 1. A stone is thrown vertically

as
upwards with such a velocity
will justtake it to the level of the top of a tower 100 feet high. Two
seconds afterwards another stone is thrown
place
up from the same
with the same
velocity.Determine when and where the stones will
meet.
The

of projection
of the
velocity

The- time of

first stone

is 80 feet per

sec.

reachingthe top is ff,or 2^ seconds.

It therefore reaches the top half a second after the projection

of
the second stone. This latter will in half a second reach the height
80

J-

16

or
(iffeet,

36 feet.

is now
80
32 x J,or 64 feet per second.
velocity
It is therefore moving with this initialvelocity
at the
to fall.
the firststone is beginning
Its

instant when

spaces described by the two stones togetherwith the

described
is the heightof
by the second stone,or 36 feet,
space already

Thus

the

the tower.
.-.

from which

t is

36 +

64t-iefi+l6t^

100,

found to be 1 second.

The time from

when

the firststone

was

thrown

up is

3^ seconds.

22

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

at a uniform rate for

A balloon has been ascendingvertically
4-5 seconds and a stone let fallfrom it reaches the ground in 7 seconds.
the stone is
Find the velocity
of the balloon,and its heightwhen
let faU.
8.

the balloon
the distance throughwhich the stone fallsis
when

[The stone
this be

let go has the

" X

this is the

heightto

.".,M

heightof balloon

9.
second

high

was

which

the balloon

rose

in 4-5

seconds,or

Hence

4-5.

"mx4-5

And

(upward). If

+ 16x72.

-Mx7
But

of
velocity

16x49-7m;

68'2 feet per second.

=i

68-2 x 4-5 feet

306-9

feet.]

of 32 feet per
balloon which is ascendingwith a velocity
stone" is let drop which reaches the groundin 17 seconds. How
the balloon when the stone was
dropped?

Frdm
a

from a balloon at the

downwards
is shot vertically
10. A rifle-bullet
How many feet will it pass throughin two
rate of 400 feet per second.
at the end of that time ?
seconds,and what will be its velocity
11. A stone droppedinto a well reaches the water with a velocity
the water is heard
of 80 feet per second,and the sound of its striking
of
2^^^seconds after it is let fall. Find from these data the velocity
sound in air.
time
of 256 feet,
and at the same
A ball is let fallfrom a height
if
of projection
a ball is thrown
upwards to meet it : find this velocity
the balls meet at a heightof 112 feet.
12.

by
passedover in any giventime may be represented
the
of
this
and
under
statement
Explainclearly meaning
what conditions it is true. Show
how to employ it to determine
the
by a body in 10 seconds after it starts from rest,and
space passedover
foot per second at the beginningof
has its velocity
increased by one
13.

an

The

space

area.

each second.

Explainby reference to a diagramwhy a stone onlyfalls 16 feet

the
first second while yet the force of gravitygenerates in that
during
time a velocity
of 32 feet per second.
14.

Find the distance traversed in 10 minutes by a train which has

15.
of 20 miles per hour, and which
first
at
has its speed in
a velocity
that time diminished at a uniform rate to 5 miles per hour.
16.

A train

running 60 miles

900 yards. At what

in 100 yards?

rate would

an

hour

it be

is

pulledup by
running if it could

its breaks in
be pulledup

MOTION

17.

Prove

velocity
is

let

of

the

19.

in

rest

which
circle
the
in

hour

to

the

from

of

point

the

the

body

overtake

second

+lth
seconds

the

projection.

n?+n

first

the

second

will

body

in

rest

in

its

in

axis
as

with
half.

in

22

that

the

be

27
:

of

days,
7,
a

/passes
of

beginning

the

in

last
fall

body
to

the

at

body

the

moon

diameter

equator
and

did

the

on

its

by

described

space

acceleration

velocity

its

described

seconds

rotates

is

below

uniform

with

that

Supposing

moon's
an

the

many

21.

first

with

upwards

afterwards

the

described

spaces

moving

space

to

was

feet

36

vertically

seconds

described

space

show

T,

how

For

later,

the

body

The

20.

and

projection,

of

23

LINE,

projected

is

second

point

STRAIGHT

and

in

seconds.

time

body

seconds

of

sum

n+1

per

that

Prove

first

if

the

1^

body
18.

"

from

=the

is

feet

64

fall

second

that

IN

5th

second

second

of

space

time

was

fall

its

three

but

over

the

from

as

11.

sphere
and

compare

railway

of
that
the

train

2000

the

miles

diameter

circumference

velocity
which

in

of

travels

of

particle
57

miles

in

II.

CHAPTER

COMPOSITION

30.
A

Article,

joint
This

31.

replaced by

It

will

sides

be

in

there

single velocity

of

simultaneous

two

shown

as

the

shown

which

next

that

produces

effect.

and

magnitude

from

time,

same

velocities.

Parallelogram

If

two

the

the
single velocity is called
velocity the
original velocities

this

in

at

more

or

be

may

their

of

two

Velocities.

of

have

may

VELOCITIES.

OF

RESOLUTION

Composition

body

they

AND

of

velocity,and

said

are

be

to

ponents.
com-

velocities.

velocities

direction

of

body

be

represented

the

by

drawn

parallelogram

resultant

point, the resultant

velocity
is represented by the diagonal of the
from
the point.
parallelogram drawn
a

OA

Let

velocities

two
u

and

and

v;
we

OB

whose

the

"

j"

magnitudes

complete
shall

the

represent

are

Fio.

4.

gram,
parallelo-

show

that

OC

if the

body

moved

represents

the

resultant

velocity.
Notice

that

velocity ti only,
if
would

it

moved

describe

it would
for

OB.

one

describe
second

for
OA

with

one

with

second

the

the

velocity

only,

it

COMPOSITION

We

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

25

VELOCITIES.

follows how it is possible

for the body
to have the velocitiesu and v at the same
time :
let a line O'A',which starts from the position
OA move
while 0' moves
to itself,
v ;
parallel
alongOB with velocity
let a pointP, starting
from 0',move
alongO'A' with
can

see

as

u.
velocity

The motion
velocitiesu and

of P

simultaneous

v.

We

shall now

For

let the

time

is thus due to the two

alwayslies upon 00.

of P
figurerepresent the position
show

T, where

that P

is any

fraction of

Draw

second.

at

the

PK

to OB.
parallel

PK=00'

"

PK

whence

vT

?Ti^

OK
.".

OP

vT,\

AG

-7jt=
uT

,,_

7T7

OA

producedpasses throughOj
P alwayslies upon 00.
or

Euc.

VL

26,

the end of a second O'A' will coincide with

and P with A', that is with G.

Again,at
BG,

second P has moved alongOC, it has a

represented
represented
by OC. That is a velocity
velocity
velocities
by OA
represented
by OG is the effect of the
and OB.
Thus

since in

Observe that P

one

moves

alongOC
uniformly

since 0P=

T. OG.

taneous
In the same
possesses three simulway if a particle
find the resultant of two of them
velocities we can
then the resultant of this and the third velocity
; that
to the three simultaneous
equivalent
singlevelocity

32.
and
is a

velocities.
33.

The

triangle

of velocities.

possessed
by a body are
in magnitudeand direction by two sides of a
represented
taken
taken in order,the third side of the triangle
triangle
their resultant.
directionwill represent
in the opposite
If two

simultaneous velocities

26

THK

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

For in the figure

of Article 31 0(7 representsthe resultant
of velocitiesrepresented
by OA and OB, i.e. by OA and
ALi.

34.

The

velocities.

of

polygon

Just as a body may possess two simultaneous velocities,

it may also possess three or any number
of such velocities.
simultaneous velocitiesof a
in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a polygonexcept
in order, then will
one, taken
the line which closes the polygon,
taken in the reverse
direction
representthe resultant velocity.
The

Take

four

velocities represented

BC, CD, DE

by AB,
the

resultant

by
represented
For by Art.

bodybeingrepresented

velocitywill be
AE.
31 the resultant of AB

AG

BG

is AG,

audi GD

is AD,

and

AD"nADEisAE.
Notice that if A
will be zero.

and

coincide the resultant

velocity

Hence when
a
body has velocitiesrepresented
by the
sides of a closed polygontaken in order it has no resultant
or is at rest.
velocity
35.

(i)

Special
When

of the

cases

the

velocities

are

parallelogram
at

law.

rightanglesto

other.
Let OA
and
velocitiesu and v.
Then

OB

since OG^

represent the
OA^ + AG\

w^
(resultant)^
=

v^,
Fi(x. 6.

or

if w isthe

magnitudeof the resultant,

w

Ju''
+ v\

each

COMPOSITION

(ii) When

AND

RESOLUTION

the contained

OF

angle is 30".

Fia.

7.

"/.?f^^^^

Then
since
perpendicularto OA.
is 60", and the triangleGAD
BOA), IS 30", ACD
an
equilateral
triangle;
.-.

Oi)

^
=

'

But

OG'==OI"
OC^

or

hence

",=

.", lU'

(iii) When

(0^

2'

GD%

ADy

GD\

=(" ^^^J^J.
+

u'' +

^05

V^ +

UVi\/S.

is 45".
B

45",AGD

Since AOB

is

Hence

AG''

2 AD',

27

VELOCITIES.

is 45", and

or

AD

AD

CZ).

GAD

(or

is half

28

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.
I"2

Or,

u^ + if +

(iv)

"J2.

is 60".

^05

When

uv

Fig. 9.

is 30"; and
Here ACD
hence as above.

00^

{0A+ADy
fM

(v) When

1+

AOB

ACD

is half

+ 01"

-r-

u" +

v^ +

uv.

is 120"

D
Fig.

DAC

is 60" and

angle,
triequilateral

an

00^

10.

0I" + OD^

(OA

ADf
"uv.

GIP ;

30

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

EXAMPLES.
Find the resultant

1.

in
velocity

(i) 11=1,
(ii)M=3,

the

cases
following

v=

2, included angle 30".

v=

3,

45".
60".

it=5, "=11,
(iii)

(iv)M=l,

t) =

150".

20,

From
the top of the interior of a railway
carriagea stone is let
fall. If the train is moving at the rate of 20 miles an hour show that
the velocity
of the stone is f Jlbl feet per second when it has fallen
foot.
one
2.

of 30 feet per second

with a velocity
balloon rising
vertically
distance
of 40 feet in a
the
wind
horizontal
is also carried by
over
a
second. Find its total velocity.
A

3.

the resultant of two

second respectively,
incUned at an
4.

Find

westwards
ship sailing
of 16 knots
additional velocity
5.

an

is still16 knots.

What

of 10
velocities,

angleof
with
from

feet and

of
velocity

a
a

20 feet per

120".

current

so

16 knots receives
that its velocity

is the direction of the additional

velocity?

A man
walks in 12 seconds across
the deck of a shipwhich is
d
ue
north
the
at
rate
4
of
miles
an
sailing
hour,and finds that he has
in a direction 30" east of north.
moved
How
wide is the deck and
?
what is his actual velocity
6.

velocities of 9 feet and 7 feet per second respectively

by a body,include an anglewhose cosine is J,show that the
possessed
is 12 feet per second.
resultant velocity

7.

If two

36.
A

On

the

givenline

choice

may

of

be the

components.
of
diagonal

an

infinitenumber

COMPOSITION

of
two

AND

RESOLUTION

Hence
parallelograms.
velocities in

an

found at

31

VELOCITIES.

be resolved into

velocity
may

infinitenumber

If the directionsof the

are

OF

of ways.

tudes
components be giventheir magni-

once.

Let OX, OF

be the given directions and OG the given

to OF and
velocity.
Through G draw GA and GB parallel
OX, then we have seen that OA and OB are the components
of OG.
An

angles;

importantcase

OX

in that

are

case

is when
OA and OB

and OY are at right

called the rectangular

components of OG.
37.

The

resolved

of

part

velocity.

Fig.

Let

OG

be

14.

and OX
givenvelocity
from G draw GB perpendicular
to OX.
are
rectangular
components of OG.
a

is called the resolved part of OG

of 00 on OX.
that it is the projection
Resultant

of any

number

When
a
body has several
different directions its resultant

givendirection,

Then

of

and BG

OB

alongOX

OB

38.

; observe

velocities.

simultaneous

velocities in
be found :

velocity
may
of velocities,
(i) By repeatedly
usingthe parallelogram
the resultant of two velocities and then the
viz.,
by finding
and so on.
resviltant of this and a third velocity,
(ii)By the Polygonof Velocities.
A third method givenin Art. 41.
(iii)
useful to remember
that since the diagonals
It is sometimes
bisect each other,the resultant of two
of a parallelogram
velocitiesOA and OB is 2 OD, where D is the middle point
.

oiAB.

"

32

THE

39.

ELEMENTS

Resolution

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

velocities.

of

Any velocity
up into
may be split
velocities represented
by OA and
OB

have

the

effect

same

two

LC

as

i.e.since
velocities,

by 00, a
velocityrepresented
be replaced
00 may
by
velocity
and

velocities OA

the two

OB.

is called the resolution

and the velocities
velocity,
called the comand OB are
ponents
of 00.

This
of

OA

40.

The

resolved

resolved

resultant

Fig. 15.

equals the

sum

of the

components.

Art. 34, if lines be drawn in order to represent the

velocities of a body,the line which closes the polygonwill
representtheir resultant.

By

of this last line on any direction is

projection
of all the other lines;
of the projections
sum
(seeIntroduction).
Hence the resolved part of the resultant velocity
equals
Also the
equalto the

the

of the resolved parts of the component

in any direction.
sum

The

sum

here meant

41. Third

method

is of

course

the

velocities,

sum.
algebraic

of finding the

velocity.

resultant

COMPOSITION

Let

OF

RESOLUTION

AND

33

VELOCITIES.

0 have velocitiesrepresented
by Oa,Oh,....
particle

Through0

draw

two

linesOX, 0 F at

to
angles
right

each

other.

and

to OX;
Through a, b,...draw a^l,bB,...perpendicular
to OY.
aA', bB',...
perpendicular

OA, OB...

Then

are

the resolved partsof the velocities

alongOX,
OA', OB"...
Let OR

parts. By

Hence

are

the resolved

partsof the velocitiesalong

and OM, ON
be the resultant velocity,
the last Article,

OE

OM=OA

+0B

ON=OA'

J(OA +

its resolved

+...

OB' +

OB + ...y+

....

{OA'+OB'

...y.

ties
the velociresultant is therefore found by resolving
alongtwo lines at rightanglesand compoundingthe

The

resolved
If

parts.

is the inclination of

V
velocity

to

OX, then

we

have

by the

preceding
;

Fio. 17.

resolved part of

Falong OX=projectionof
Or=

J.

Fon

0X=

Fcosa,

Or=

Vsina,
3

34

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

inclinations to OX

whose
If there are several velocities V, V,
a',...; the components of the resultant R are
...

a,

Fcosa+

F'cosa'

Fsin a+

V' sin a'+

=X,

Y.

R=s/X^+rK

Also
If 6 be the

R makes

anglewhich
T
tan

Ex. 1.

e--p

with

OX,

Fsin g+F'

sin a'+

p^^^g ^_^y,

^^g

^,_|_~

Find the horizontal And vertical components of

of
velocity

inclined at an
F feet per second when
of 60" to
of 45",(iii)
angle(i)of 30",(ii)
the horizon.
AC

the

three
to

cases

AB, AD

; draw

and

CD
BC

dicular
perpen-

represent

required
components.

the

is

representthe givenvelocity

Let
in

(i)"When 54 C is 30". The angle4 Ci)

is half an
equilateral
60",and ABC

hence
triangle,

AD='^AC,
DC=\AC,
and the components

(ii)When

BAC

are

is 45".

The

see

(ii),
p. 27;

1^"i ^"

angleACD

is also 45",hence

AD=^AC,
DC=-j^AC, (iii),27;
see

the

components

When
(iii)

-If -If

are

BAC

is 60".

The

AD=iAC,
the

are

components are

angleACB

is 30",and

1)0='^-^
AC;
iV,

^F.

p.

COMPOSITION

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

Ex. 2.

Two velocitiesv^ and v^ in the directionsOA

of
angle
30",find the resolved part of

an

35

VELOCITIES.

and OB include

their resultant along a line which makes

angleof 60" with the direction of OA
and 30" with the direction of OB.

an

from
Drawing perpendiculars
the

on

the

givenline OD

anglebetween

the resolved
and since the
30"
,

OA

we

see

as

and OB

and B
since
before,

is

60",

partof v^ alongOB is ""j;

anglebetween

OB

and

the resolved part of "2 alongOB

Hence

resolved part of resultant

is
sum

Fig. 19.

OB

is

ijj.

of resolved

partsof OA

and

OB

Ex. 3. Velocities of 6, 7, and 8 feet per second are possessed

by a
in
directions
with
each
other
find
their
of
120"
body
making angles
;
resultant.

Fig. 20.

of
Take for the line OX of Art. 41, the direction of the velocity
the other two velocities.
6 feet per second. Let OQ and OR represent
XO
to
and
RW
Draw
produced.
perpendicular
QM

Then

since

"OX=120",
the

QOM=eO%

components alongOX

ROX

=120", R0N=80\

are

OP, -^OQ, -iOB.

The

to OX
components perpendicular

are

^OQ,-^OR.
3"2

36

THE

The
the

OF

ELEMENTS

negativesigndenotes

left

or

as

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

usual that

line is measured

either to

down/wards.

The component of the resultant

alongOX

is therefore

OP-\OQ-\OR=e,-i-%=-^.
The

to OX
component of the resultant perpendicular

is

-f(7-8)=-f.
If OS be their resultant

OS^=l+l=Z
is
The resultant velocity
indicated in the figure.
Four
anglesa, (3,y, S

Ex. 4.

Or

of ^^3 feet per

one

with
respectively

the resolved

The

0"S'=V3second

in the direction

equalvelocitieseach

COSa

Find

or

J, COS^

of magnitudeu actingat 0 make

hne OA, such that

f, C0Sy=-J, 0038=-^.

partof their resultant alongOA.

requiredsum

is

of magnitude IJm in
velocity

the direction AO.

EXAMPLES.

VIII.

Find the components of a velocity

of 30 feet per second resolved
lines inclined at anglesof 30" and 60"
to its
respectively
direction on oppositesides of it.
1.

along two
2.

makes

body has

an

angleof

of
velocity

40 feet per second in a direction which

45" with the horizon
; find the horizontal and vertical
a

components.
A boat is rowed across
a river,
with a velocity
of 3 miles
flowing
an
hour,so that the direction in which it is rowed makes an angleof
60" with either bank.
If the velocity
with which it is propelled
be
8-8 feet per second show that it will reach the other bank at the
point
immediately
oppositethat from which it started.
3.

boat is rowed across

a river which
flows at the rate of 2 miles
If
hour.
its
breadth
be
300
feet
find
per
how far down the river the
boat will reach the oppositebank below the
point at which it was
the boat beingpropelled
originally
directed;
at the rate of 6 miles an
4.

hour.
5.

Three velocities12,15,24

are

inclined at

to a given straight
respectively
line; find
and
to it.
parts along
perpendicular

the

anglesof 30",45",120"
sum

of their resolved

38

THE

43.

OF

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

Parallelogram of Accelerations.
oi a body arising
in
change of velocity
The

The
if uniform

one

second

is called the acceleration.

(SeeArt. 11.)
the direction as well
Observe,that as in the last Article,
of the changehas to be taken into account.
as the magnitude
of course
Two such changesof velocity
are
compounded
of velocities,
i.e.tivo accelerations
by the parallelogram

This proposition
of Accelerations.
is called the Parallelogram

compounded

are

44.

Relative

by

lavr.

parallelogram

the

velocity.

Let two bodies A and B be movingin different directions,

and with different velocitiesu and v.
The velocity
of either viewed from the other will appear
to be different both in magnitudeand direction from either
u

or

V.

To determine

Apply to

each

the motion

of B

as

seen

from A.

to that
body a velocity
equaland opposite

oiA.
The

relative motion

will be

un-

changed,but

A
will be brought to
city
rest,and B will have a resultant veloalong BG, i.e.B as seen from
A will appear to move
with a velocity
in magnitudeand direcrepresented
tion by BG.

^
"*

*"

Fja. 22.

Thus in all cases

the relative velocity
of a pointB, with
reference to a point A, is found by combiningwith the
of jB a velocity
to that of A.
velocity
equaland opposite
Ex. 1. A shipis steaming due south with a velocity
of 10
while another is steamingnorth-east at the rate of 15 knots.
of the second ship.with
the velocity
reference to the first.

knots,
Find

Let a velocity
equal and oppositeto that of the firstbe given to
each vessel ; the first is brought to rest and the second has two
viz.
velocities;
of 10 knots northwards,
a velocity
15 knots north-eastwards.

The included

angleis 45",hence

the resultant is

\/l00+225+ 150V2 knots,or

23 knots

nearly.

COMPOSITION

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

VELOCITIES.

89

Ex. 2. A shipis sailing

due north at the rate of 7 miles an hour;
in what apparent direction,
from
the ship,and with what
as
seen
vdocitymust a man run on its deck that his actual direction may be
due west and his actual velocity
7 miles an hour ?
If the ship be brought to rest,the man
will be moving due west
with a velocity
of 7 miles an hour,he has also a velocity
of 7 miles an
hour south.
His apparent direction is therefore south-west and his
relative velocity
7 ij%miles an hour.

EXAMPLES.

IX.

1. A railway
train moving at the rate of 30 miles an hour passes
another moving at the rate of 5 miles an hour in the same
direction.
Find the apparent velocity
of the firsttrain from the second train.

If the trains in the last questionare goingin oppositedirections

find the apparent velocity
of either viewed from the other.
2.

A train

3.

moving at the rate of 60 miles an hour is struck by a

at
of 33 feet per
rightanglesto the train with a velocity
moving
second.
Find the magnitude of the velocitywith which
the stone
appears to strike the train.
stone

Two

4.

enginesrun,

straightlines
one

on

each

of

railwaycontain

each
line,

lines at the rate of 30 miles

relative velocities.

an

from

hour.

the

an
angle of 60"; two
pointof intersection of the

Find

the

magnitudeof

their

of 10 miles an hour,
5. A shipis sailing
north-east with a velocity
and to a passenger on board the wind appears to blow from the north
with a velocity
of the
Find the true velocity
of 10 ^2 miles an hour.

wind.
of a shipin a straight
is Sj^j
miles per hour,
6. The velocity
course
is
ball
the
to
rolled
the
deck
a
across
perpendicular
ship's
lengthwith a
5 yardsin
of 3 yardsin a second,show that it will pass over
velocity
second nearly.
one
A steamer
is going due north with a velocity
v, the smoke
its funnel points
If the wind is due west find its
ff"south of east.

7.
from

velocity.
A cricket-ball is moving in the line of wickets with a velocity
of
30 feet per second and is struck by a blow which had the ball been at
of 40 miles an hour at right
rest would have sent it with a velocity
the
of
line
wickets.
In
what
direction
will it go 1
anglesto
8.

of soldiers is marching alonga road at the rate of

for
3 miles an hour,the column is 3 yardswide and there is justroom
from one
between two consecutive ranks. A man
over
crosses
man
one
9.

A company

to the other walkingat the rate of 5 miles an hour.

side of the column
In what direction does he walk and how long does he take to cross
over?

CHAPTER

THE

45.

Hitherto

body

without

When

we

bodies
In

body
when

we

the

LAWS

OF

dealingwith the motion of

produced the motion.
consideringwhat
to

of

are

in

not

the

of the

causes

the ideas oi force and

encounter
of

think

Dynamics

we

; it is usually regarded as
the forces are themselves
in

forces

MOTION.

been

have

we

begin
science

III.

forces

consisting of two

which

act

is thus

on

parts (i)Statics,

equilibrium ; (ii)
Kinetics, when

equilibrium. Statics

of

mass.

of the

treat

motion

particularcase

the
of

Kinetics.

46.

Force.

Force
state

To

is that which

of rest

or

tends

changes,or

of uniform

motion

in

force
a
completelydetermine
(i) its point of application,
(ii)its direction,
(iii)its magnitude.

change, a body's
straightline.
to

it is necessary to know,

simple instance of a force acting on a body occurs

when
the ground is pulledby a string. The point
a body on
of the force is the point of attachment
of the
of application
string to the body, its direction is that of the string,its
of the pull exerted by the string.
magnitude is the amount
47.
A

Representation
force may

maybe drawn;
(i) from

be

any

any

(iii)of any

forces

representedby
point,and
of the

(ii)in

of

by
a

hence

lines.

straightline,for
from

the

point of

line

plicatio
ap-

force,

and hence
direction,

in that of the

magnitude, and hence, as

Art. 10, to represent the
velocity,

scale.

in the
force

on

force,
case
a

of

given

THE

LAWS

OF

41

MOTION.

4Si. Mass.
The

of
quantity

Two

bodies have

matter

contained

in

body is called its

mass.

when equalforces applied

equalmasses
producein them equalchangesof velocity,

duringequaltimes
i.e.equalaccelerations.
For

pulledby
their

table are
bodies resting
a smooth
on
time, then if
exactlyequal forces for the same
are
equal,
equalvelocitieswill be generated.

instance if two

masses

that
that it is found by experiment
Art. 22.
have the same
all
see
acceleration,
In the case
of any two falling
bodies,the forces actingon
them are their weights,
due to the attraction of the earth;
since their accelerations
hence if they have equalweights,

Again,we have
bodies
falling

are

seen

must
equaltheir masses
equalmasses

equal;hence,
equalweights.

also be

have

of
Hence, for instance,all portions

givenplaceweighone
49.

How

to

lb. have

measure

matter

which

at

equalmasses.

the

mass

of

body.

if a body A
have equal weights,
weigh m times as much as another body B, then the mass
of B, for we
times the mass
of J. is m
may suppose A
each of which has the same
divided into m portions
weight
If
take
the
B.
mass
we
mass
as
B and hence the same
as
of
A's
that
the
measure
of B as the unit of mass, we
say
Since

mass

is m.

equalmasses

Art. 3.

the mass
to measure
Hence
weightwith that of the unit of

of

body we

compare

its

mass.

50. If there are two bodies A and B such that the mass
to
of A is double that of B ; then if a force P is required
F in 5 in a giventime, a force 2P will
producea velocity
time. For A
in the same
to produceit in A
be required
each equalto B,.tQeach of
may be divided into two parts,
which a force P must be applied.

42

ELEMENTS

THE

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.'

that the velocity

Hence
see
we
producedin a body by
the mass
of that body as well as
force dependsupon
a
the time duringwhich the force acts ; which also follows
on
in Art. 48.
from the definitionof equalmasses
51.

Unit

of

mass.

in ordinary
There are
imits of mass
two
use,
of
is
the
and
is
the
mass
one
Imperialpound,
pieceof platinumkept at the ExchequerOffice.

Althoughthe

mass

of

givenbody is of

course

the

of which
certain
a

its weight,
invariable,
in
varies
Earth,
slightly

i.e.the force with which it is attracted by

different latitudes. This is shown
by the fact that the indication of a
latitudes will not be quite
at
different
on
a
givenbody
spring-balance
the

same.

is the xcnre*^
The other unit of mass, called a gramme,
part of a certain piece of platinumcalled a kilogramme
of
is very nearlythe mass
kept in Paris. The gramme
of water at 4" C.
a cubic centimetre
IVtomentuin.

and the velocity

of a body
of the mass
and v respectively
the productmv
is said to measure
are
m
the momentum
of the body,thus the body has mv
tinies
the momentum
of a body of unit mass
moving with unit
that the first body is said to have mv
units of
so
velocity,
If the

measures

momentum.

52. We now
givethe laws of motion as stated by Newton.
laid down in these laws
The relations between force and mass
are
acceptedas true because the conclusions drawn from them
agree with observation and experiment.
53.

First

Law

of

Motion.

Every body continues in its state of rest or of moving

line exceptin so far as it is made to
vmiformlyin a straight
changethat state by external forces.
or

This law states the property of matter known as Inertia,

of a body to changeits state of motion.
the inability
"Matter

to any

is as it were
the plaything
of force;submitting
change of state that may be impressedupon it,but

THE

LAWS

OF

43

MOTION.

in the state in which it is left until

rigorously
persevering
force againacts upon it." (Tait,
Properties
ofMatter.)
For

a
instance,

projected
alongthe surface of ice
is at last broughtto rest by the (slight)
resistance of the
air and the (slight)
friction between
it and the ice,if these
stone

forces were
retarding
far.
go indefinitely
54.

and

Second

Law

diminished
indefinitely

the stone

would

of Motion.

to the impressed
Change of motion is proportional
force
takes placein the direction in which the forceacts.
"

is meant
By changeof motion
changeof momentum
in a giventime.
In other words,if a force acting
on
a body
for a certain time producesa certain momentum,
double the
force will in the same
time producedouble the momentum,
three times the force will producethree times the momentum,
and generally,
M times the force will produceM times the
"

momentum.

unit force is taken to be that force which in

second producesone wnit of momentum.
The

Hence, if

one

force whose
is F, in one
second
measure
/ in a mass m, it producesmf units of
producesa velocity
and hence by this law it is mf times the unit
momentum,
is mf, but we called its measure
i.e.its measure
F,
force,
a

.-.

mf

Also,since f is the velocity

producedin
or a, hence
acceleration,
P

That
the

one

second it is the

ma.

is to say
measure
measure

the
of a force is
of the acceleration
=

Thus the second law enables

us

of the
producedin the
measure

to

measure

mass

the

mass.

forces.

here ^=the
importantcase is that of gravity,
body'sweight W, and a acceleration of gravity
=5?;
The

most

.".

W=mg.

44

ELEMENTS

THE

OP

55.

Unit

The

British units of

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

of force.

lengthand

time

are

is the mass
of a
the unit of mass
hence the unit of force is,that forcewhich
second on the mass
of a lb.producesin it a

second,and

foot and

poundweight,
actingfor one
velocity
of one

foot-second.
is a

But the weightof a lb. producesin a body whose

lb. a velocity
of 32-2 foot-seconds per second,hence

the unit

offeree ^^^^ ofthe weightofa

=

This unit of force is called

The

The

system the unit of force is that forcewhich

C.G.s.

The

for

second

one

per second.

This

produces
force is

Dyne.

producesin a body whose mass

gramme
acceleration of 32-2 ft.-secs.per second,that

weightof

is a gramme

is,an

of^ oz. nearly.

Poundal.

actingon the mass

of one gramme
in it a velocity
of one centimetre
called

*.

C. Gt. S. system

In the

lb. wt.

mass

an

acceleration of

"

kines per second

"

,^

value of the fraction is 981

Dyne

is

hence
nearly,

-^ ofthe weightof a

(seeArt. 7).

gramme.

Ex. 1. A body weighing4 lbs. starts from rest and is acted on by a

force equal to the weight of J lb. for 8 seconds,
scribed.
find the distance de-

The

body has

The

force

Hence

the

the

mass

of 4

equalsweight of
equationF=Ma

.'. m=4.
lbs.,

gives
M

Also
The

.-. F=".
poundals,

4 oz., 8

s=^ai!2=^.2.82=64.
space described

equals64

feet.

body whose weightis

producesin it an acceleration
magnitudeof the force.
Ex.

2.

which

The

is acted on
by a force
of 36 ft.-secs.per hour,find the

1 cwt.

centimetre-gramme-seoond
system.

46

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

4.
In what distance will a force equal to the weightof 1 ounce
of 40 lbs. which at the time the force beginsto
be able to stop a mass
act has a velocity
of 60 feet per second?

bullet moving at the rate of 200 feet per second is fired into
to the extent of 6 inches ; if firedinto
which it penetrates
a thick target,
would it
with what velocity
3 inches thick with equalvelocity
a target
in
both
the
?
cases
the resistance
same
emerge, supposing
A

5.

of 10 lbs. falls 100 feet and is then broughtto rest

foot
into sand.
1
Find the resistance of the sand.
penetrating
A

6.

mass

7. If a force equal to the weight of 10 lbs. act upon a

10 lbs. for 10 seconds what will be the momentum
acquired?

mass

by
of

of 10 lbs.for 5 seconds produces

8. A certain force acting
on
a mass
in it a velocity
of 100 feet per second. Find the force and the tion
accelerait would producein the mass
of a ton.
train of 200 tons weightis urgedforward with a force equal
weight of 1 ton, while it is retarded by a force equalto the
of
and in what time
weight 10 lbs. per ton. What is its acceleration,
will it acquirea velocity
of 10 miles an hour?
to

9.
the

[If-fis

the

and
impelling

F' the

force,
retarding
F"F'=ma.'\

While a train travels half a mile on a level line its speedincreases

from 15 miles an hour to 30 miles. Find the ratio of the pull
uniformly
of the engineto the weight of the train.
10.

11.

horizontal table is acted on by a

a smooth
the weightof 2 ounces, and moves
the table
on
distance of 10 feet in 5 seconds starting
from rest. What
is its

body restingon

horizontal force
over
mass

equalto

12. A force equalto the weight of a gramme

acts on a body whose
is
for
Find
the
second.
27
of the body and
mass
one
velocity
grammes
the space passedover.

56.

The

independence

of forces.

should observe in the second law of motion that the

body on which the supposedforce acts may be either at rest
Also the body is not restricted to be under
in motion.
or
the action of one force only; hence we infer that,
.

We

When
same

several forces
act on a body,each forceproducesthe
that it would producein the body at rest.
effect

The truth of this is easily

in particular
seen
cases, e.g. if a stone fall
the top of the mast
of a shipin motion it will strike the deck at
the foot of the mast, that is at the same
place at which it would have
from

THE

LAWS

OF

47

MOTION.

had the vessel been

fallen,

at rest. Now
the stone when it beginsto fall
the
with
of
moving
velocity the ship; the onlychange is therefore
in its velocity
in the vertical direction,
in the direction of action
that is,
of the force influencing
it,viz. its weight.

is

57.

The
be noted.
When
on

following
consequence
have

we

body of

of the Second Law

number

of forces P,
accelerations
m, producing
any

mass

should

Q, JR
acting
a,b,c...,then
...

since
P

ma,

mb, R

that the forces are in the

accelerations theyproduce; hence
we

see

mc
same

as
proportion

the

and proportional
to the forces,
if lines be drawn parallel
and proportional
to the accelerations
theywill also be parallel
lines
which
the
or
produced,
represent forceswill also represent
the accelerations theyproduce.
58.

Impulse.

If ^be

M,

mass

the time during

which
have
that
seen
we

constant

force F acts

on

F=Ma=Ml;
hence Ft

Mv,

beingthe changeof velocity.The product

the impulse.
impulseof the force,or shortly,

Ft is called the
In certain cases
such as that of a sudden blow of a hammer
it is difficultto measure
either the force or the (veryshort)
which it acts,but its effect,
time during
i.e.the changeof momentum
be measured comparatively
or its impulse,
can
easily.
Ex. 1.

changesits
The

body whose weightis 12 lbs. is acted on by a force which

from 30 to 40 miles an hour. Find the impulse.
velocity

givenvelocitiesare
"
.

/=

44 and

impulse
=

58" feet
x

12(58f-44)

176 units of

per second.

(changeof velocity)

impulse.

of 12 feet per
Ex. 2. A body is struck and starts ofifwith a velocity
is
force
lasts
second. The time duringwhich tlje
j^ part of a second,

48

THE

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

find the average value of the force.

the mass
of the body is 3 lbs.,
is the measure
of the force
;!;=3600
-^=3x12,

If x

poundaJs.

a target
Ex. 3. A cannon-shot of 1000 lbs. weightstrikes directly
is the
to rest. What
with a velocity
of 1500 feet per second,and comes
of
rebounded
with
shot
a
the
If
of
the
velocity
measure
impulse?
200 feet per second what would the impulsebe ?

units of impulse,
1,500,000
(i)/= 1500 X 1000
is
(ii)Here the change in momentum
units of impulse.
1000 (1500+200) 1,700,000
=

A ball fallsfrom a heightof 64 feet and rebounds to a height

the impulse,and the average force between the ground
find
feet,
and the ball if the time during which they are in contact is ^ of a
of the ball being2 oz.
second,the mass
Ex. 4.

of 25

Alls. 13 units of
Ex. 5.

20 feet when
over
the shot.

cwt. leaves a fixed 80 ton gun, the

feet per second ; if the shot moves
find the average force which has acted on

weightis 4

A shot whose

at the muzzle
velocity

208 poundals.
impulse,

being 2000

in the gun

Ans.

59.

Third

Law

of

poundals.
44,800,000

Motion.

To every action there is alwaysan equaland opposite

action;
rethat is to say, the actions of two bodies upon each
directions.
other are alwaysequalar^din opposite
familiar instances may
be cited;if a body rest
the pressure of the body on the table is equal
upon a table,
and opposite
to the pressure of the table on the body.

Many

horse is drawinga cart,the force exerted by the

to that exerted by
cart on the horse is equal and opposite
the horse on the cart.
When

here to beginners
who ask ' why then
at all ?' This objection
arises from overdo the horse and cart move
looking
the fact that there are other forces acting,
viz.the resistance of
frictionto the cart's motion and the friction between the horse's feet
and the ground. The cart is acted on by the pullof the horse and the
A

sometimes
difficulty

occurs

resistance to its motion,which usuallycannot exceed a certain amount,

if therefore the pullbe great enough the cart will move
The
forward.
horse is acted on by the pullof the cart and the action of the groundon
his feet ; as he treads he as it were
pushes back and is therefore pushed
if
this
amount
forward by the same
forward push be great enough,i.e.
;
ifhe is strong enough,it will be greaterthan the pullof the cart,and
forward.
he will move

THE

The

LAWS

OF

49

MOTION.

force with which

the sun attracts the earth is esqual

and opposite
to that with which the earth attracts the sun.

This mutual action between two bodies is called a stress.

A tension is a case of a stress in which the forcesact from
each other,a pressure in which theyact towards each other.
60.

Applications

of the

Laws

of Motion.

consider a number
We shall now
of the laws of motion.
One

use

of cases
the
illustrating
such application
is the

:
following

shot of mass
is fired from a gun of mass
ilfwith a
m
horizontal velocity
of recoil of the gun beingV;
v, the velocity
the gun beinghorizontal.
A

The

the shot and gun

forces acting
on

are

and the upwardpressure of the horizontal

(i) their weights
planeon the gun, and these forces are vertical,
action of the powder,
this gives
two
(ii)the explosive
whose resultant is therefore zero.
forces,
equaland opposite
.

there is no
the shot and gun taken together
horizontal force,therefore by Law ii. the total horizontal
is unaltered by the explosion.
momentum

Hence

on

horizontal mxjmentum
But the original
it is MV~
explosion
mv, hence

MV"

61.

Bodies

mv

connected

0,

F=

or

by

-^

was

zero, after the

v.

string.

bodies are connected by a stretched string

When
two
of the string,
at every point
the tension is the same
provided
is so small that it may be neglected.
of the string
the mass
let T and T' be the tensions at the ends of a straight
portion
portionof the string,
stringand m the mass of the intervening
have
then if a be the acceleration of the string,
we
For
of the
"

T-I"+mg=ma.
If m
J.

is

zero

this givesT=

50

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

MATHEMATICS.

connected by a
62. The motion of two masses
affords a goodillustrationof the second law of motion.

Let two

and

masses

be connected

by an

string

inextensible

smooth
The
a
stringpassingover
peg.
is negligible
of the string
mass
; hence the
at every pointof it.
tension is the same
T be the tension of the string,
and
and
to ascend,
to djBScend
m
suppose M
does
the downward
not stretch,
since the string
velocityof M equals the upward
of m at every instant,
hence their
velocity
accelerations are numerically
equal,let a be
value.
this common
Let

The force on M downwards

equalsMa
the second law of motion, but the force
is its weight"the tension,
M downwards

by
on

nvTI

or

Mg

T, hence

"

Ma

Fig. 23.

or

on

Again,the force
m
upwardsis the

upwards equalsma,
tension
weightof m, or

on

hence

"

ma

"

mg,

T
or

a.

values of

two

T
a=

"

5'.

M~

rp_

and

Mg- T,

g-

T-mg,

Equatingthese

2mM

_M"m
'

M+m

^'

but the force

THE

LAWS

OF

51

MOTION.
W"

If the

weightsof M

and

are

and w,

"

g, since W"

Mg,

w=mg.

Hence

if the masses
are
equalthere is no acceleration,
and theywill either remain at rest or will move
with uniform
The tension will then equalthe weightof either
velocity.
mass.

Ex.

Two

masses

string
passing

over

weighing2 lbs. and 1

find the
pulley,

smooth

stone

are

connected

by

acceleration of either.
Alls.

1^.

62 a. Let us consider what would be the effectof suddenly

a
attaching
third mass
m' by a string
to the ascendingmass
at an instant when
m
M and m are moving with a velocity
The string
u.
connectingm and
w! becomes
the
will now
a
nd
three
be
masses
suddenlystretched,
This sudden change in the velocity
is
v.
moving with a velocity
two
t
ension
in
Let
about
the
T
be
an
brought
by
impulsive
strings.
M and to, and
the impulse(Art.58)of the tension in the string
joining
T' the impulseof the tension in the string
joiningm and m',then we
see

that

in consequence

We

of T the momentum

is

changedfrom

Mu

T asoA T'

mu

T'

to'

zero

to

Mv,

to mv,
to m'v.

therefore have

hence

63.

m'v"

from which

Atwood's

T'=m,'v;

T'-T=m{u-v),

T=M{u-v),

{u v) m{u
"

"

v),

{M+ m)=v {M+m+m').

Machine.

the laws
verify
the value of g.
determine approximately
This

to

of M

machine

is used

to

of motion and

of a light
over
a
It consists essentially
stringpassing
ends
two
attached
its
to
and having
fixed pulley
equalmasses
AB
On a graduated
each of weightP.
pillar a platform
and
down, and can be fixed
B, and a ringE, can slide up
One of the weights
in any required
position.
by screws
the ring.
P can pass through
rests upon four friction wheels,
The axle of the pulley
onlytwo of
reduces the frictional
This greatly
in the figure.
which are represented
resistance.

4"2

52

THE

There

OF

ELEMENTS

is also

bar

of

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

weight Q

will,not

which

pass

throughE.
Q is placed
upon
have
we
at some
G,
point
the
a weight P + Q on
The bar

P
now

weight P
left,
hence,by the

rightand
the

P
Article,

on

last
will descend

with acceleration

2P+Q^'
If the measured distance
CE is h feet,the velocity
at JS is
acquired

2Qh
g] Art.
\2P + Q'
,

16.

Q is caughtoff by the
ring,and the system will
now

with
uniformly,

move

velocity
J

2Qh
V2P

Q-

If the
measured
tance
disUD
equalk feet,and
t seconds be the observed
time from E to B,

2Qh
2P +

g]

t, Art.,8;

or

2P +

gf.

In this equationeverything
has been measured
mined.
except g, hence g is deter-

Fia. 24.

Iliaccuracies enter into

this method of determining

54

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

Ex. 3. A weight "

with a weightP which
and Q.

on

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

table is connected by a string

Find the accelerationof P
vertically.

smooth

hangs

If/ is the

"

"

acceleration of either

^f=P-T,
^f=T.
Hence

by addition
i

_L.

Fig.

XI.

attached to
of 48 and 50 grammes
are
masses
respectively,
the greater
rest
f
rom
Atwood's
and
of
an
starting
string
machine,
falls through 10 centimetres in one second. Find the acceleration
Two

1.

mass

due

Pg
'^^^

25.

EXAMPLES.

the

(P+")-^=P,

to

gravity.

of 7 lbs. is attached to one end of a stringpassing

over
After
and two masses
of 3 lbs. and 6 lbs. to the other end.
a pulley,
is detached.
How
much farther will the
4 seconds the smallest mass
and when will it be broughtto rest?
6 lbs. fall,
2.

mass

connected by a string
of 3 lbs. and 5 lbs. respectively
are
second the stringbreaks,for how long
passingover a pulley
; after one
and how far will the 3 lbs. ascend?
3.

Masses

Two weightsof 7 oz. and 9 oz. are connected by a string40 feet

touches
so that the 7 oz. weight
longwhich is hung over a smooth pulley
the ground. When
the system has been in motion for two seconds the
time.
stringis cut, and both weights reach the ground at the same
Find the heightof the pulley
from the ground.
4.

64.

Pressure

When

between

bodies

moving

in

contact.

heavy body rests on a horizontal platformthe

pressure of the platformon the body is equaland opposite
to the pressure of the bodyon the platform,
by the third law
a

of motion.
to
Supposethe platform
an

accelerationa, the force

to be

is ma.

downwards
vertically
the body whose mass
we

move
on

"

with
pose
sup-

THE

But

the force

and the

LAWS

upward pressure
mg
P

or,

the difference of its weight

of the

"

55

MOTION.

body is

the

on

OF

platform
upon it,hence

ma,

(i);

mig-a)

thus the pressure is diminished.

If the
is P

"

the upward force on the body

platformis ascending,

mg, hence in this case

P
mg

"

or

ma,

(ii);

m(5r+ a)

thus the pressure is increased.

body whose weightis 10 lbs. is placedon a horizontal

planemoving vertically
upward ; if the pressure of the body on the
is
the
to
plane equal
weightof 16 lbs.find the acceleration.
Ex.

1.

Here

Ex. 2.
a

the

equal to
one

balloon ascends

weight of

a=19-2.

10a=32(16-10), or

.:

that

poundals, m=10,

P=16x32

uniform
so
acceleration,
of
the
the
bottom
car
pressure
the balloon wUl reach in
; find the height

with
vertically

pounds exerts

weightof 32J oz.

on

minute.
The

force

on

the

poundal. The
acceleration is therefore ^. Hence the height

body

of the body is 2, the

mass
reached in one minute is

is 65

64

poundals,or

i i (60)2feet,or
.

EXAMPLES.

300

one

yards.

XII.

lbs.is placedon a liftwhich moves

with a uniform acceleration of 12 ft.-sec.units. Find the pressure
the floor when the liftis descending.
1.

body whose

weightis 112

on

The pressure on the bottom of a bucket which is beingdrawn

2.
of a mine is equalto the weightof 133 lbs.; if the contents
the
shaft
up
of the bucket weigh 1 cwt. what is the acceleration ?
liftmoving wi1;h
uniform acceleration of 12 ft.-sec.units ; find the pressure on the floor
of the liftwhen it is (i)descending,
(ii)
ascending.
3.

body whose weightis 4

stone

is

placedon

of 40 lbs. rests on a horizontal table which is made to

with a
constant
of 2 feet per second,(ii)
with
a
ascend,(i)
velocity
constant acceleration of 8 ft.-sec.
units;find in each case the pressure
the plane.
on
4.

mass

56

THE

5.

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

suddenly jumps oflFa table with

man

hand, what

OF

ELEMENTS

is the pressure of the

20 lb.

his hand

weight on

weight in his

while he is in

the air 1
of
6. A balloon ascends with constant
so that a mass
acceleration,
will
When
561bs. exerts a pressure of 84 lbs. on the bottom of the car.
it be 200 feet highand what will be its velocity
at that time ?
7.

cord

the

passingover
being 3

of each

smooth

pulleysupports two scale-pans,

be
weightsof 4 and 6 ounces

If

weight
find the acceleration and the tension of
placed in the scale-pans
also the pressure between the masses
and the scale-pans.
string,
ounces.

the

of 5 lbs. and producesin it a

acts on a mass
one
of
feet
second
in
5
velocity
^pjof a second,the other acts on a mass
per
of 625 lbs. and producesin it a velocity
of 18 miles per hour in one

Of two forces

8.

the forces.

minute,compare

is 3 lbs. is falling
A ball whose mass
at the rate of 100 feet per
What force expressedin lbs.weightwill stopit (i)in 2 seconds,
in 2 feet?
(ii)
9.

second.

10. A cannon-ball weighing600 lbs.and moving with a velocity

of
1000 feet per second penetratesa targetto a depth of 15 inches.
Find
the pressure on the target,
supposingit to be uniform.

A shot of 1000 lbs. leaves a gun with

How
long must the shot have been

11.

second.

powder supposingthe average

the weightof 1200 tons ?

pressure

upon

1500 feet per

velocity'of

under

the action of the

it to have been equalto

12. A balloon is moving upwards with a speed which

is increased
at the rate of 4 feet per second in each second ; find by how
much
the
of
of
10
tested
lbs.
in
a
balance
as
the
balloon
weight
body
by a spring

would

differfrom

its

circumstances.
weightunder ordinary

In what time will a weightof 16 lbs. draw another of 12 lbs.

fixed pulleythrough32-2 feet,.and
what velocity
will the weights
have at the end of the time?
13.

over

The

weights in an Atwood's machine are 240 grammes

additional weight of 10 grammes
beingplacedon one of the
it is observed to descend through 10 metres
in 10 seconds,show

14.

each,and
two

that

an

g'=980 nearly.

15.

connected

man

of 12 stone

weight and a sack of 10 stone weight are

smooth
pulley. The man
pullshimself up

by a rope over a
rope and diminishes his downward
acceleration of the sack and show
relative to the rope is 3'2.

by the
upward
man

two

acceleration by ^, find the

that the acceleration of the

16. A rope hangs over

a smooth
of 12 stone lets
pulleyand a man
himself down with acceleration /',while a man
of 1 1^ stone pullshimself
up with acceleration/.
Find/' in order that the rope may remain
at rest.

THE

17.
ends

LAWS

OF

57

MOTION.

Two

of

Show

to the
weights of 5 lbs. and 7 lbs. respectively are fastened
cord
frictionless
passing over
a
pulley supported by a hook.
the pull on
when
the hook
is llf lbs.
they are free to move

that

weight.
Two

equal weights A and B connected

by an inelastic thread
laid
close
smooth
horizontal
table 3 '5 feet
long are
together on a
from
the
B
is
and
nearest
also connected
inelastic
edge,
by a stretched
with
thread
equal weight C hanging over
the edge.
the
Determine
an
of the
when
A
velocities
to
also
and
when
B
weights
begins
move
the
arrives
of
table.
at the edge
18.

3 feet

One

19.

pulley to which
fixed pulley and
TF"
W

is

end
he

of which

above

up

be

system
the

hangs
system

The

supposing
To

the

the

from

of

mass

system
reversed

will

other

pulleys

passes

the

that

over

other

the

end, all

acceleration

of

the

level

neglected.

are

fixed

pulley

weight

as

the

to

is attached.

of the

be

weight

being

of

for

an

that

string

other

Prove
he

that

climbs

up

instant

at

other

find

raised

from

machine
of

mass

"
a

lbs.

of

mass

seconds,
Show

rest, and

that

at

that
the

the

-"

table.

of

attached

"

j~-

lbs. is
where

lbs. which

the

motion.

the

end

The

of which

in t seconds
motion

on

pressure

the

mass

is

during

manner

is detached.

pulley hangs a
a
string at
passes
R
a
weight
resting

motion

free
it is not

for

moves

fixed

which

the

at

Q lbs. is placed

ordinary

jy-^lbs.

and

Atwood's

an

and

in direction.

"

allowed

heavy

the

rest

"

string passing over

end
a
pulley over

of

mass

in

detached
starts

so

string

one

To
Above

P"Q.

of

other

the

to

of which

table.

22.

end

one

attached.

be

of the

weights

himself

and

P,

table

the

the

To

end

one

time

then

to

moveable

rope.

weight

can

The

raise

21.

on

string

(smaller) weight P 'isattached

the
Prove
string are vertical.

hangs by a rope passing over

weight equal to that of the man

man

cannot

the

under

passes

The

g.

jp

20.

then

is attached.

2P

"

-^

string is fixed, it

weight

of

3 sections

the

of

end

will

more

then

CHAPTER

IV.

PROJECTILES.

the
Chapter i. we discussed
projected vertically upwards or downwards.
shall investigate the motion
chapter we
In

65.

in

any

the

Let

of

In
of

particle

the

present

body projected

direction.

Fig.

and

of

motion

let

which

velocity with
and

u' be

26.

the

the

vertical

and

is

body

projected

horizontal

be

V,

components

7.

the
body is, owing to gravity, acted
During its motion
acceleration
and
horizontal
on
by a downward
g, its vertical
velocities
after t seconds
being therefore
respectively
u

We
there
law

see

is

no

that

horizontal

horizontal

of motion,
The

the

body's

gt,

"

u'.

velocity is

not

altered, since

force, the

vertical

force, by the

only affecting the

vertical

velocity.

vertical

velocitywill

be

zero

after

given by
u-gT

0,

or

T=-.

Hence

after

seconds

the

body begins

to

descend.

second

time

59

PROJECTILES.

As

in

Chapteri. we see that the

the greatestheightis equalto the
heightto the ground.
We

thus

time from
time from

formulae
get the following

to
projection

the greatest

velocityafter t seconds is the resultant of

'
.

(M"^t vertical,
"

J
-r.
,,
J
the
space described

{ u't horizontal,
-^
[ut igirvertical,

"

t seconds
J

is

"

the time to reach the greatestheightis

this
Inserting
for the

value

of t

^^

range,

since the time of

or

as

the

pression
exfollowing

greatestheight,

\9i

And

get

we

is equalto
flight

"

we

find

as

the

horizontal distance described,

2mm'

2m
,

MX

"

g
If

is the

anglewhich

the direction makes

u

Fsin

greatestheightis

the range

is

horizon,

a,

Fcosa,

m'=

hence the

with the

"

2 F^ sin

cos

a
"

Also the distances described in t seconds

Fcos

Fsin

i
i

EXAMPLES.

are

horizontal,

\gt^vertical.
XIII.

Find the horizontal and vertical spaces described in 3 seconds,

in those directions
of projection
when the componentsof the velocity
second.
feet
and
200
are 100
per
1.

60

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

2. Find the greatestheightto which a body will rise and its range,
if it is projected
with horizontal and vertical velocities of 400 and
800 feet per second.
3. The greatestheightto which
far it will rise in 2 seconds.

body rises

feet,find how

is 100

with which a cannon-ball leaves the gun has for its

4. The velocity
vertical and horizontal components velocities of 7-^and 10 miles per

minute,find its rang^.

of the body in t seconds
5. Show that the direction of the velocity
after projection
makes an angle6 with the horizontal such that
tan 5

2_

"

K cosa

is projected
at an inclination 6 to the horizon where"
particle
Find the greatest
of 1200 feet per second.
cos
a velocity
ing
heightit attains and its range on a horizontal plane throughthe startpoint.
6.

5=^, with

7.

with

at
body is projected

of J82
velocity

its direction of motion

66.

The

Qreatest

inclination

have

we

the

seen

67.

to be

body at
on

or

an

an

angleof

inclined

plane.

from

seconds

planeat

givenvelocity

45".

45" with the

with
body is projected

direction

For

of projection
is got by
greatestrange for a givenvelocity

Range

After
the

that

Show

V
a velocity
the
of
foot
clined
ina
an
plane making an angle/3with the
horizon ; it is requiredto find the range
the inclined plane,or how far up the
on
planethe body will strike it.

in

such
horizon,

greatestvalue when

sin2a=l,
the
the
projecting

to the

Bange.

this will have

projection

Hence

that after J of a second

of
angle 45" to the horizon.

feet per second.

is inclined at an

The horizontal range

of

an

some

the vertical line

the

body

will strike

point P, from P draw

P^.

ground.

62

ELEMENTS

THE

We

have

alreadyseen

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

that

OJV^V

COS

at,

PJV=raiQat-yi^,

Draw

the horizontal line PL, then

sin
PiV^=I!|i^
-^{^Vg

HL=HK-

t-gH^)

"

{Vaiaa-gtf

.(i).

^9
Also

PL=

OK-

Foos

0N=

t.

PL=^^^^^{Vama-gf)

...

we
Comparing(i)and (ii)

see

(ii).

that

PL-^JJl^S^HL.
g
Thus

the

path is a parabolawhose

and latus rectum

is H

vertex

g
69.

Directrix

The

latus rectum

and

focus

of the

parabolais
^^cos^a

cir
TJT7
SK=HK-

c
focus

path.

of

F^

COS

"=

"

^9
t'

height of the directrix above H is

"

COS
=r"

if S is the

2a

^9
The

hence

(X
"

"

2g
70.

Velocity

Produce

^P

due

to

to meet

MP^SL+

fall

ft'om

the directrix in

^^^

Thus

directrix.

M,

then

1{F^cos^"+

(Fsina -^0^},

of body)'
(velocity
2g

of hoiy='ij2gMP,
velocity
=

velocity
gainedby falling
througha
distance

MP, Art.

19.

63

PROJECTILES.

Hence the velocity

of
it would have gainedby
above it.
vertically

body at each pointof its path is that which

from the pointon the directrix
falling
freely
a

EXAMPLES.
1.

it may

Find the direction and

pass

over
horizontally

XIV.

with which to project

a ball that
velocity
the top of a wall 50 yardsoff and 75 feet

high.
A stone is projected
of 200 feet per
into the air with a velocity
second in a direction inclined at 60" to the horizontal plane. With
must
what velocity
another stone be projected
that the two
vertically
rise
the
the
horizontal
above
to
stones may
same
height
plane?
2.

3. A boy with a stone aims at a mark 25 yardsfrom him

feet
with what velocity
below his shoulder,
he throw
10
must
1
so as to hit the mark
horizontally

on

level

the stone

body is thrown from one extremityof the horizontal base of

the vertex and fall on the
isoscelestriangle
to pass justover
so as
an
of the base. If
is the base angleand 0 the angleof
other extremity
show that tan /3 2 tan a.
projection
4.

Two
through the
5.

from 0 pass
particles
projectedwith the same
velocity
that
if
and
the
same
are
a
|3
point P, prove
anglesof

projection

anglewhich OP makes

where i is the

6.

A shot whose

with

is -th of the

mass

the horizon.

mass

of the gun and

flred at an inclination 6 to the horizontal.

of the gun prove that
tanfl

If

is
carriage

be the,inclination

(l+ -jtana.

V and a
1. A balloon is moving vertically
upwardswith the velocity
the
bullet'sinitial
hit
+ 1)V.
rifleis aimed so as to
being(v/3
velocity
it,
riflemanbe
balloon
from
the
If the angleof elevation of the
45",prove
be 60".
that the elevation of the riflemust
8.

From

pointon

is projected
particle
the angleof proequalvelocities,
jection

hillof inclination 30"

one

the other down with

in
being each case inclined to the horizontal at 45". Show
is nearly3| times that of the other.
the range of one particle
up the hill and

that

of seconds in the
9. Prove that 4 times the square of the number
is
the
horizontal
in the range on a
heightin feet of
time of flight
plane
the highest
pointof the path.

64

THE

10.
to

rotate

If

the

wet

of

the

the

being

in

the

ratio

straight

that

line

its

if

extremities
after

line

its

height

the

rim

meet

the

rim

neglected.

being

the

from

If

bodies

will

point

same

another
be

in

be

always

the

at

velocities

their

in

the

the

same

the

drawn
of

be

projected
"c.

from

parallel

to

assuming

that

and

Fj

are

lie
all

in

the

parts

the
in

the

vertical

points

that

from

the

same.

simultaneously
different

with

proportional

certain

straight

bodies

will

the

ground

be

plane

such

velocities
these

to

line

situated

AB.
in

such

velocities

Prove
a

straight

AB.

striking

on

velocity

and

equal

in

path
all

are

plane

parallel

lines

its

projected

vertical

bomb-shell
with

next

of

from

meet

the

are

these

V^, Fg

to

etc.

A^A^

will

to

bodies

from

if

number

A^A^,

interval

certain

into

A^A^,

same

Q and

to

respectively,

each

of

is divided

from

projectile from
V, then
velocity being
R

particle

in

be

through

and

P,

flight

point

fragments

33

of

vertically upwards,

the

made

seconds.

and

circumference

the.

simultaneously

one

by

taken

horizontal

number

if lines

15.

air

off

shaken

drops

horizontally.

that

line, OA-^, OA^,

of

fragments

the

of

diameter

yard

diameter,

third

prove

vertical

the

times

same

the

times

at

that

14.

the

the

through

y/3

the

revolutions

14

one

in

line.

velocities

Show

that

30",
1

equal,

are

13.

the

that

plane,

vertical

and

of

and

upright

handle

the

of

rate

projected

are

with

circle

feet

effect

bodies

prove

of

the

same

If

12.

circle

and

of

oi

feet,

the

at
be

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

is held

handle

umbrella

Three

elevation

the

in

-^^ feet

11.

and

that
the

ground

ground

OF

umbrella

open

round

rim

above

ELEMENTS

V,
the

find
shell

the
falls

of

area
on

burst,
ground

horizontal

scattering
covered

plane.

by

its
the

CHAPTER

THE

COMPOSITION

71.

When

two

single force which

or

V.

AND

RESOLUTION

more

forces

would

produce

OF

act

their

on

FORCES.

that
particle,

jointeffect

is called

their resultant.

72.

The

When

parallelog^ram

of

forces.

forces acting at a point

direction by two
sides
magnitude
of a parallelogram which are drawn
through the point,their resultant will
he representedby the diagonal drawnthrough the point.
two

represented in

are

and

Let
acted

OA

is m be
particlewhose mass
by two forces representedby

on

and

accelerations
Hence

which

forces

accelerations
the

But

representedby OA,
representedby the
of the

resultant

OB,
same

accelerations

the

from

OG,

acceleration

and

OG

the

will produce

lines.
OA

and

OB

is the

parallelogramof accelerations,

43.
the force

Hence

OG, that is it
and

29.

represent forces also represent

produced by the forces. Art. 57.

lines

Now

Art.

Fia.

OB.

OB

is therefore

and

that

Observe
result may

OG
.

be

put

since
as

OA

and

their- resultant.
^C

follows

represents the

by
J.

tion
representedhj OG produces the acceleraproduces the jointeffect of the forces OA

is

equal

and

to OB,
parallel

the

resultant

of the

forces which

are

sented
repre-

AG.
5

66

ELEMENTS

THE

73.

The

OP

APPLIED

cases
special
following

forces

resultant of two
direction is their sum,

(i) the
same

MATHEMATICS.

are

:
important

actingat

pointin

(ii) the resultant of two forces actingat

oppositedirections is their difference.

of

the

pointin

Forces.

74.

Verification

Take

and tie them together.Let

three flexible strings
smooth
two of them
pass over
pegs at any distance apart,the

of the

Parallelogram

hanging freely.Attach
weightsP, Q, and B to their
third

ends.
"

Let the system rightitself;

when it has settled,
off
measure
the strings
on
lengthsOA, OB
and 00 proportional
to P, Q
and R ; then the tensions in the
three strings,
beingequalto P,
to
Q, and R are proportional
OA, OB and 00.

Fia. 30

Completethe parallelogram
It will be found by measurement
that OD is equal
AOBD.
in direction to 00.
in magnitudeand opposite
But the effect of the force represented
by 00 is equal
and opposite
to the jointeffect of the forces represented
by
OA

and OB, since the forces balance each other ; hence OD

by OA
representsthe resultant of the forces represented
and OB.
75.

Forces

are

compounded

and

resolved

like

locities.
ve-

three or any number

When
of forces act at a point,
we
find the resultant of two of the forces and then the resultant
of this and a third force,
and so on.
are
Forces,therefore,
same

way

as

compounded and resolved in the

viz. by the parallelogram-law,
velocities,
hence

COMPOSITION

AND

EESOLUTION

OF

67

FORCES.

if in Art. 35 we
write forcesP, Q, and E instead of velocities
enabled to find the resultant of
are
u, V, and w, we
forces P and Q acting
at different angles.
Ex. 1.
an

Find the resultant of forces of 3 and 4 lbs. weightacting

at

angleof 90".
Ans.
Ex. 2.

Find the resultant of forces P and

Vs +

16

at
Q acting

of

Components

When
forces P and
called componentsof R.

^n

angleof 60".

'JF^+Q^+PQ.

Ans.

76.

5 lbs. weight.

force.

Q have R

P and Q
resultant,

as

are

shown in the case of velocitieswe see that a force

of
may be resolved into components in an infinite number
When
P and Q are at rightanglestheyare called
ways.
the rectangular
components of R.
As

As
case

was

example of the resolution of a

an

of the action of the wind

on

force into

the sailof

componentstake the

vessel.

First resolve the force exerted by the wind

to the sail and another component
perpendicular
the latter component
along the sail,
will have no effect. Next resolve It into
components P and Q in the direction of the
to it
lengthof the vessel and perpendicular

into

component R

respectively.
component Q producesmerely a

The

the
called leeway,
motion
in
to
the
Fia. 30 o.
vessel
move
causes
component
We
the direction of its length.
easilysee
to the direction of
the sail so as to be nearlyparallel
that by setting
the wind the vessel may be m,adeto go in a direction nearly
opposite
the effectof leeway.
to that of the wind,neglecting

slightbroadside
P

how to find the horizontal

and vertical components of a force R when inclined
at angles
30",45",or 60" to the horizon.
to
Referring

The

see

componentsare
1

/3
"

Ex. 1, p. 34, we

R,

for

an

inclination of 30" to the

horizon,
5"2

68

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

.60"

^-

in Art. 40

As

MATHEMATICS.

inclinationof 45" to the horizon.

-7^R,-j^R for an

I-8. f

APPLIED

that when

see

we

several forces act at

have.

pointwe

The resolvedpart oftheir resultant in any directionis equal

in that direction.
sum
to the (algebraic)
of the resolvedforces

equalto

have as resultant a
actingat rightangles,
of the forces is 4 lbs. weight,find the
lbs. weight,
one
forces

Two

Ex. 1.
6

force
other

force.
Let

whose

a;

have, since
rightangles,

then
force,
required

be the

resultant is 6 act at

we

the

forces

a;

and 4

a;='\/3e16=^20=2^/5.
The

force is one
required

Ex. 2.

is
particle

of 2

acted

on

but
p

^5 lbs. weight.

by

force whose

whose

magnitude is

direction makes

an

known,
un-

angle of

60" with the horizon.

The horizontal component
of the force is known
to be 1-35 lbs. Determine
the force and its vertical component.

Let

draw PJV perpendicular

be the force,
OJV and P#
to the horizontal line OiV.
Then
the horizontal and vertical components. And
are
is 30",the triangle
since POA" is 60" and OPA
OPA
is half an equilateral
hence
triangle,
OP

OA=iOP,
0P=20A=

2-7.

Also

PN=sl'OW- Oi\^2=V(2-'7)2(1-35)21-35x^3
=

2 -3 lbs. nearly.

Ex. 3. The resultant of two forces acting at a point 0, in the

directions OA and OB, and representedin magnitude by a. OA, fi.OB
'
is represented
by

(a+^) 00,

70

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

In a triangle
ABC, B, E and F are
show that forces actingat a pointand
sides,
and 2Ci''are in equilibrium.
9.

one

MATHEMATICS.

pointsof the
by '2,AD,^BE
represented
the middle

10. A vertical force of 10 lbs.is resolved into two equalcomponents,

of them making an angleof 30" with the vertical,
find the magnitude
and direction of the other.
11.

If the directions of two

forces be inclined to

angle of 135",find the ratio of their

may be equalto the smaller force.

another at an
one
that
their
resultant
magnitudes

12. Find the components in directions due E. and N.W.

equalto the weightof 12 lbs. actingN.E.

of

force

13. If a givenforce actingat a givenpointin a givendirection be

resolved into two equal forces,
prove that the extremities of the lines
the equalforces alwayslie on a fixed straight
line.
representing
The resultant of forces of 5 lbs. and 6 lbs. is 7
14.
cosine of the anglebetween the forces of 5 and 6 lbs.

lbs.,find the

15. The direction of a force of 10 lbs. weight makes

an
with the horizon such that cos a=f, find its horizontal and

angle

vertical

components.
If CD
AB, AG representforces of 33 and 25 lbs. respectively.
drawn perpendicular
to AB, AD
would represent on the same
15 lbs.,
prove that the resultant of the forces in AB and AC is

16.
were

scale

52 lbs.

A force 8P is resolved into two forces,

each of which is
to 5P, find the sine of the anglebetween the equalcomponents.
17.

77.

are

The

triangle of forces.

When
forces acting
at a pointhave
said to be in equilibrium.
We

equal

shall show

zero

that forces represented

in

resultant,
they

magnitudeand

directionby OA, AG, GO

are

in

equilibrium.
For since the resultant of
the forces OA and OB is OG,
Art. 72, and since AG is equal
and
FiG.

33.

to OB, forces repreparallel

sented by OA
and AG
have
00 as resultant.

Thus the effect of the three forces OA, AC

and GO is
that of 00 and GO, which is zero
; thus there is equilibrium.

COMPOSITION

AND

RESOLUTION

Hence, ifthreeforces
at
acting

by

the sides

This
78.

The

taken
of a triangle

is known
proposition
Converse

of

the

Triangle

OF

71

FORCES.

pointcan be represented
order,theyare in equilibrium

in

as

the

of

Forces.

triangle
offorces.

of the

of forces is also true, viz. that if three

triangle
in
which has its
a point are
equilibrium,
any triomgle
sides parallel
to the forces
will have those sides also proportional
to the
forces.
converse

forcesactingat

":

Fig. 33

a.

Let the sides of the

which

are

to

in

aha be parallel
to the forces P, ", R
triangle
i
t
is
to
equihbrium,
required prove theyare also proportional

P, " and R.

Let the sides BC and CA of the triangle

ABC
representthe forces
since forces represented
P and Q in magnitude and direction. Then
of Forces,the
by BC, CA and AB are in equilibrimn
by the Triangle
side AB must representR in magnitudeand direction.
BC

Hence

Therefore
78

a.

Iiami's

AB=P

R.

to
ahc are parallel
triangle
and
similar triangles,

Also the sides of the

therefore ahc and ABC
are
BC

CA

:AB=bc

CA

R=bo

: ca
: ca

those of

ABC,

-.ah.
ah.

Theorem.

to the
each forceis proportional
in equilihriuni
When three forces
are
sine ofthe anglebetween the directionsof the other two.

72

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

is any triangle
and ABO
The forces P, Q and R are in equilibrium,
to their directions. Then
by the Converse of
havingits sides parallel
the Triangle
of Forces

R=BG

P:Q:

CA

AB.

to those between
ABO
The anglesof the triangle
are
supplementary
the directions of P, Q and R, and since

BO
have

we

-.CA
P

AB=sm
:

sin 5

sin

sinB

sin 0

R=sm

QOR

P:Q:R=sia

or,

sin ROP

Ex. 1. Three forces actingat a pointare in

equalfind the anglebetween their directions.
'

By

0,
sin POR.

equilibrium
; if theyare

the Converse of the Triangleof Forces,the forces

triangle.
by the sides of an equilateral

They

therefore make

anglesof

120" with

can

be represented

another.

one

Fig.

34.

Ex. 2. A weight of 24 lbs. is suspended

by two flexiblestringsone
and the other is inclined at an angleof 30" to the
of which is horizontal,
vertical; what is the tension in each string?

AD
and AO
the sides of
being the strings,
the triangle
AOB
to
are
parallel the forces,
which are the tensions of the strings
and the

suspended weight.
The angle OAB
is 30", the angle ABO

is

90",hence

BO=iAO,
Therefore

Art. 35.

AB=y/3BC.

tension

in AO

=A0:

suspended weight

AB=

x/3'
tension in AC=
And

or,

tension in ^i"

24 lbs.

16

suspendedweight=5C

tension in AD

V3

=--x

""

24 lbs.=

s/3lbs.

AB=-j-;

x/3lbs.

COMPOSITION

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

73

FORCES.

Ex. 3. Three forces whose magnitudesare 3, 6 and 9 lbs.,

act at a
pointin the directions of the sides of an equilateral
taken
in
triangle
order,find their resultant.
of forces,
the forces 3, 3,3, in the
By the triangle
in
assigneddirections are
equilibrium,they may
therefore be removed.
There are left forces of 3 and 6 lbs.
angleof 120".
Their

resultant is therefore 3^3

actingat

lbs.;see

an

Art.

35.

EXAMPLES.

XVI.

1.
Three forces actingat a pointare in equilibrium;
the greatest
force is 5 lbs.,
the least 3 lbs.,
and the anglebetween two of the forces is
a right
angle. Find the other force.

2. Three forces represented

by the nimibers 1,2,3,act on a particle
in directions parallel
the
to
sides of an equilateral
taken in
triangle
order ; find their resultant.
3. A weightof 10 lbs.hangs fastened to the ends
lengthsof which are 3 and 4 feet,the other ends of

of two strings,
the
the strings
being

attached to two pointsin a horizontal line distant 5 feet from

other,find the tension of each string.
4. Three forces cannot
less than the third.

At what anglemust
equaleach of them ?

5.

may

be in

two

if the
equilibrium

equalforces

act

so

sum

each

of any two is

that their resultant

6. If three forces P, P, Q act at a pointin directions such that each

force is equally
inclined to the directions of the other two, find their
resultant.
7.

body is acted

of 4 lbs. north-east,
and

on
one

by

of 2 lbs. due west, one

one
forces,
^2 lbs. due south,find their resultant.

three

of 2

two of three forces in equilibrium

When
are
givenin magnitude,
the third force increases as the angle between the first two forces
diminishes.

8.

9.

others

construction for resolving

a force into two
Give a geometrical
of which is to be of given
inclined at a given angle,one

magnitude.
10.

is horizontal and
forces.
11.

10 lbs. is supportedby two forces,

one
the other inclined at 30" to the horizon.

weight of

6 lbs. and 7 lbs. actingat a

Forces of 5 lbs.,
between them.
find the cosines of the angles

pointare

of which
Find the

in

librium,
equi-

74

THE

79.

The

ELEMENTS

Polygon

OF

APPLIED

of

Forces.

MATHEMATICS.

If any number
of forces actingat a pointbe represented
in magnitudeand direction by the sides of a polygontaken
in order,
the forces will be in equilibrium.

Let

AB, BG, CD, DE, EA, be the sides of a pentagon

Join AG, AD.
forces on a particle
at 0.
representing
The

resultant oi AB, BG

is AG,

see

Art. 72,

AG,GD\sAD,

AD,DE

is AE.

Hence
the resultant of all the forces is the resultant of
and EA, hence the resultant vanishes,or the forces
in equilibrium.

AE
are

Ex.
in directions parallel
Five equalforces act on a particle
to five
consecutive sides of a regularhexagontaken in order ; find the magnitude
and direction of the resultant.
the Polygon of Forces the resultant is representedby the line
the figuredrawn from the starting
closing
point; hence it is equalto
to the last side.
any one force and is parallel

By

Notice that the

polygonsmay

since two

Ex. 1.

sides of

of the polygonof forces does not hold good,

have their sides parallel
and yet not proportional.

converge

Three forces actingat a pointare represented

by adjacent
regularhexagon taken in order,find their resultant.

Ans. That
middle side.

diameter

of the

circum-circle

which

is

parallelto the

Find the resultant of four forces of 4, 5, 7 and 8 lbs;,

acting
and representedin direction by the successive sides of a
particle,

Ex. 2.
on

square.
Ans.
8 lbs.

the angle between the forces of 7 lbs. and

x/2 lbs. bisecting

COMPOSITION

Ex. 3.

In the

AND

RESOLUTION

hexagonABCDEF,

OF

the lines

AD, BE, EB, EC, CF,

represent in magnitude and direction five forces actingat

their resultant.
Ex. 4.

point,find
Ans.

Taking an

inch to

representin magnitudea force of

weight,by
ordinaryfoot-rule and a
resultant of the following
forces actingat a point:
means

75

FOECES.

of

3J lbs. due E.,4

an

lbs. due

S.E.,1

lb. due

diagram,find

AF.
1 lb.

the

N.E.,6J lbs. due N.

so.
Having giventhat the directionof the resultant of two forces is
that of the diagonal
of the parallelogram
of which the lines representing
forces
the
form two adjacent
that
this
we
sides,
diagonal
may prove
representsthe resultant in magnitudealso in the following
manner.

Fig.

38.

Let OA
and OB
represent two forces,then assuming that the
direction of their resultant is that of OG we have to show that its
presents
magnitude is represented
by OG. Produce GO to B so that OB rethe magnitude of the resultant. Complete the parallelogram
Join OE.
AOBE.
the forces represented
by OA, OB and OB are in equilibrium,
line with the resultant of the forces repreis in the same
sented
by OA and OB ; but we are given above that OE, the diagonal
of the parallelogram
AOBE, is the direction of this resultant ; hence
the
line.
in
0
and
E
same
are
B,
straight
Then

hence

OB

is a parallelogram,
OCis
AGOE
since the figure
is a parallelogram,
AOBE
OB is
and since the figure
to be proved.
therefore OB is equalto OG, which was

Then

81.

Resultant

of any

of forces.

number

of velocities we
in the case
of forces acting
at
of any number
following
ways ; by use of

equalto AE,
equalto AE,

As

find the resultant

pointin either of the

may
a

of the parallelogram-law,
applications
(i) repeated

76

THE

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

polygonof forces,
the forces alongtwo lines at right
angles
(iii)resolving
then compounding the forces actingin these lines,
see
(ii)

and

ELEMENTS

the

Art. 41.

The
method.

following
examplesshow

the

of the
application

third

Ex. 1. The directions of three forces,

actingat 0, of 2, 3,and 5 lbs.
make anglesof 30",45",and 60" respectively
with a line OA, find their
resultant.

Pia. 39.

Let

resolve alongand perOP, OQ and OR representthe forces,

we
pendicul
to OA.

The

/3

components of OF alongOA and OB

Hence

are

x^,

1
2

p. 34.

OQ

^''V2'^''V2'

OR

5x-,

the resolved parts of the

forces

along OA

5x

n/3
and

OB

are

/34.

5
,

3
1

5V3

Therefore the resultant is

A-^'*T^-D'"'-^'*
J
n/2

"

2^152+ 40^3+42^/2+76),

=9'81bs.

nearly.

spectively
re-

78

THE

Forces

8.

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

by
represented

are

MATHEMATICS.

the radii of

inscribed polygon,
show
angularpointsof a regular
Forces that these forces are in equilibrium.
in one
9. ABO, A'B'C are two triangles
is
sides
each
of
whose
be constructed
can
the sides of the two triangles.
10.

and

CD

11.

Forces

actingat

DB
the diagonal
is

ABCD

by
represented

^C

circle drawn to the

by the Polygonof

show that a hexagon

plane,
and
of
to one
parallel
equal

by
pointare represented

of

the sides

show that the resultant

parallelogram,
is represented
by ^AB.

of two forces

and DB

to consecutive
of 2, 5 and 8 lbs. act parallel
that
taken
in
of their
show
the
sum
order;
regularhexagon
force
is
of
10
lbs.
the
middle
to
one
parallel
12.

sides of

Forces

is a square and forces

and
direction by AB,
magnitude
resultant?
their
represents
13.

AB, BC,

square, find the resultant force.

ABGD

in

actingat
2BC, WD

components

pointare represented
and

SDA,

what

line

to the sides of a regular

Six forces act at a pointparallel
the
of
forces
taken
in
order,
being
3,4, 6, 8, 10, and 11 lbs.;
hexagon
and perpendicular
to the first force and
find their components parallel
show that their resultant is 11 lbs.

14.

15.

Forces P, Q,
by the sides

direction
Find the

representedin
taken

Forces

point and

in order.

are

Find

to the sides
parallel
the

of
of
their
magnitude
"

resultant.

anglesbetween
120",150",90",find the

17.

The

18.

Three

are

10

V2

lbs.wt.

the direetionsof three forces in

ratios of the forces.

equilibrium

forces respectively
equal to 10 lbs. wt.,10 lbs. wt. and
in
find
are
equilibrium, the anglesbetween their directions;

of 3 and 3 ^3 lbs. wt. act at a point,the anglebetween

being150",find their resultant force and its inclinations to them.

19.

them

in order.

magnitudeof their resultant.

P, Q, R act at
triangletaken
equilateral

16.
an

R, S acting at a point 0 are

AB, BC, CD, DA of a square

20.

of 60".

Forces

forces of 3 lbs. and 4 lbs. wt. respectively,

act at an
angle
Find the sines of the anglestheir resultant makes with them.
Two

is held at rest by means

of two strings
heavy particle
attached
of
which
is
If
horizontal.
the
tension
of
it,
one
stringis double
find the inclination to the vertical of the string
that of the other,
which
is not horizontal.
21.

to

one

COMPOSITION

82.
As
a

Motion

AND

down

body which

fallsdown

OF

inclined

an

exampleof the

an

EESOLUTION

79

FORCES.

plane.

resolution of forces take the

inclined plane.
a smooth

case

of

The forces acting

it are its weightW which is vertical
on
and the reaction of the planeH which is perpendicular
to the plane.

TF may

be resolved into two

at right
anglesto each other,

TTcos

TFsin

The

to the plane,
perpendicular
alongthe plane.

force Wcosa

is balanced
TF"cos

motion
because there is no
there remains a force W sin a
The
or

components

"^"** ^^"

by M, hence

R,

to the plane,
perpendicular
sin a alongthe plane.
or mg

acceleration along the

plane is therefore

"

g sin a, Art. 54.

If t) is the
distance s,

down
gainedby falling
velocity
v^ =
=

where

s.

sin a

2gsm

a.s

the

planea
Art. 19

2gh,
fallen through.
vertical height

h
the velocity
a vertical height
gainedby falling
is alwaysthe same, whatever the inclination a of the plane
may be.
Hence

are
Two
Ex.
bodies,one on each face of a double inclined plane,
find
the
vertex
to
which passes over
connected by an inextensible string,
;
the motion.

Let T be the tension of the

bodies,
/the accelerationof each

and P and Q the weightsof

string
body alongthe plane.

the

80

THE

ELEMENTS

SupposeP

to be the
the bodies

the forces

on

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

descends and Q that which ascends ;

alongthe planesin the direction of motion are

body which

Psina-Tand
Therefore

T-Qsva.^.

f=Psma-T,

^ f=TP+Q

hence

sin

fi;

f"Psina-Qsin^,
'

J.

f~'

83.
Let

body whose

of

chords

down

Motion

Psina-$sinj3
P+Q

circle.

vertical

slide down a chord AP of a

from A
vertical plane,starting

is m

mass

circle in

^"

the highestpoint. Let the angle which

AP
makes with the verticalbe d.
The force actingon the
direction of J.P is mg cos 6.
The
body'sacceleration
therefore g cos 6.

and takes

Hence if the
time t to reach P
AP

"

But

AP
AB

cos

cos

body starts
e

f=-

^gcosd

andJ

"

in the

alongAP

is

from rest at A

t\

cose,

AB

2AB
or

body

"=

t^,

/2AB
/

"

Thus
the time taken
reach P
does not
to
for any other chord
upon 6 and is therefore the same

depend
drawn

throughA.
We thus see that the time taken by a body to slide down
from the highest
any chord of a vertical circle starting
point
the
is
and equalto that taken to fallfreely
same,
throughthe
distance AB, the diameter of the circle.

COMPOSITION

84.
We

Change

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

81

FORCES.

of Units.

have

hitherto usually
taken a foot,
a second and the
of a lb. as units of length,
mass
time and mass
respectively
It is often necessary to changefrom one system of units to
The
another.
examples which follow will show how the
changeis effected.
Ex. 1. Express a
second units.

of
velocity

10 miles contain

and
hence

10

10 miles

1760

hour contains 3600

one

3600

of 10 miles an
velocity
of ^^^^
or
a
velocity
sees.,

feet in

that

is one
is,the givenvelocity

of

The

seconds, ^

is

feet per second.

4 feet and 6 seconds

when

measure

foot and

one

are
one

body moving
28 feet in

second.

one

is therefore

requiredmeasure

feet in

second,

one

^,

the

or

contains
givenvelocity

foot-sees.

Ex. 3. A certain acceleration has as its

taken
6 seconds are
as
units,find its
units.

and

An acceleration 11 here
is added every 6 seconds.

means

that

Thus

every
foot-sees,are
Hence

foot-sees,

6 seconds

11, when

measure

are

4 feet

in foot -second

measure

velocitywhose

is 11 when
whose measure
Now a velocity
units has, as the last example shows, 11 x
second units,or contains ^ foot-sees.

52800

of a
7 times the velocity
means,
the velocity
of a body which moves

feet in

of foot-

feet,

52800

of
velocity

is 7 when
velocity

in terms

seconds,

^^=^-^

time, find its

seconds,or
or

The

of

7 here
velocity

4 feet in 6

hour

Ex. 2. The measure

the units of lengthand
second are imits.

feet,or

hour

an

is 11

measure

4 feet and

as

6 seconds are
in footits measure

added, or,

every

second

added.

||, or J^, is the requiredmeasure.

Ex. 4. The
5 feet,
and one

of

measure

minute

are

force is 13 when

units,find its

measure

the

mass

of 10

lbs.,

in foot-lb.-second

units.
A force 13 here

means

acceleration 13, or in

mass

force which generatesin a mass

of one lb. an acceleration 130.

of 10

lbs.,

82

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

in the last example

this acceleration in foot-second units is
as
By proceeding

find that the

we

of

measure

13

130x5
or

"

'

3600

72
13

Ex.

The

5.

13 seconds
are

is therefore

measure
required

The

as

the units.
Let

be the

a;

contains

by

requiredmeasure,

which
velocity

is

1^

contains
But this number

or

Expressin

The

units,find its measure

The measure
units ; find its

4.

5.

Eind

the

of

measure

measure

as

the

hence
last,

XVIII.
a

of one
velocity

2 feet and

20 minutes

yard and

3 seconds

acceleration is 14 when
in foot-second

mile per hour.

2 feet and

velocity
being 10 when
when

an

same

"'-^=39--

13'

when
as its measure
in "foot-second units.
a

seconds,

280

of

measure

be the

40
=

foot-second units

A velocity
has
2.
units,find its measure

13

io

EXAMPLES.

are

velocity

^ foot-sees.

of foot-sees,must
3a;

3.

find that this

we

referred to 5 feet and

8, when
,

lo

1.

Ex. 2

foot-sees.

-=-

Also

are

5 feet and
is 8 when
certain velocity
and
when
feet
7 seconds
3
find its measure
units,

of

measure

taken

are

=^

are

are

15 seconds

units.

5 feet and

10 seconds

units.

of the acceleration of

gravityin

centimetre-

second units.
6.
minute

7.

The
are

What

lengthis
one

one

of a force is
measure
units ; find its measure
is

measure

yard and

unity when

14 lbs.,
a
in foot-lb.
units.
-sec.

of the acceleration of
the unit of time that of

yard and

one

gravityif the imit of

from rest down
falling

yard?

If 1 lb. weight is the unit of force,one

foot and
beingunits of lengthand time,what is the weight of the
is the unit of mass
1
mass
8.

one

second

body whose

COMPOSITION

AND

RESOLUTION

OF

83

FORCES.

9. The sides of a quadrilateral

are
1,3,5,6. Forces of 2,6, 9 and
lbs. wt. respectively
act on a particle
to the sides of the
parallel
taken in order. Find their resultant.
quadrilateral
12

10. If the component of a force P in the direction OA is equal to

that of Q in the same
and if their components in another
direction,
direction OB are also equal,prove that P is equalto Q.
11. Three forces acting
at one pointare in equilibrium,
of them
one
is turned round this pointthrougha givenangle,
find the direction of
the resultant of the three forces.

train weighing200 tons is runningat 40 miles an hour down

incline of 1 in 20, find the resistance necessary to stop it in half a
mile.
12.

an

train ascends a gradient

of 1 in 40 by its own
momentum
for
mile
then
the
a distance of
and
resistance
from
etc.
friction,
stops,
j
being10 lbs. per ton and the weightof the train 250 tons,find its initial
13.

velocity.
A stone leaves the topof a tower 320 feet high with the velocity
acquiredby slidingdown an inchned plane(ofinclination 30")for a
distance of 32 feet. Show that it strikes the groundabout 111 feet from
the foot of the tower.
14.

Find what force a horse has to exert to preventa railway

truck
in
incline of 1
300.
a smooth
weighing5 tons from descending
15.

If the resultant of two forces PA, PB pass througha

16.
the resultant of the forces QA, QB will pass throughP.

pointQ

VI. If the greatestpossibleresultant of two forces P and Q is

times the least possible,
their inclination when their resultant is

^ their

sum

is a, where

cos

a=

"

=t

"

fastened to two pointsin

weightis supported
by two strings
the strings
the same
but one rather
horizontal line,
beingequally
strong,
If
be
than
the
other.
added to the
more
weights
longer
continually
firstone which stringwill break first?
18.

The resultant of two forces of 12 lbs. and 5 lbs.weightis 13 lbs.

what will the resultant be if the forces receive an increase in
weight,
magnitvdeof 3 lbs. weight?
19.

20.

At what

anglemust

that their resultant may

be

the forces A+B

V-4^+3^

and A-B

act,in order

is attracted towards the points

A and C the opposite
of the diagonal
AG oi the parallelogram
ABGD
by forces
PA
and
PG
and
is
to
B
from
and D by
respectively,
proportional
repelled
PB
PD.
forces proportional
and
Show that it is in equilibrium
to
wherever P be situated.
21. A
extremities

body P

6"2

84

THE

22.

whose

ELEMENTS

heavy

tending

upwards

angles

and

that

the

lines

A
in

from

Resolve

24.
two

that

diagonal
A

25.

26.
of

height

pulley

at

the

top

be

must

rest

down

find

the

is

in

plane
order

detached

drawn

it

after

and

resviltant

is

B
if

constant

two

are

fixed

constant

two

in

magnitude

and

by

straight

lines

drawn

each

of

joining

the

square
end

one

of

sides.

describes

plane

string

reach
a

inclined

passing

of

weight

just

smooth

up
a

descended

over

lbs.

the

hanging

top

of

the

distance

'

h+l

27.

W,

hi

W+w

circumference,

rest

of

may

has

inclination.

supporting
W

making

given

inclined

means

that

of

lines

opposite

from

I, by
and

diagonal

an

plane's

of

parts

straight
the

and
to

to

equilibrium.

in

the

of

plane
equal

straight

to

middle

are

points

length

the

the

the

along

lbs.

parallel

to

is

plane,

equal

represented

is

particle

along

from

and

that

Prove

freely.

of

of

on

acting

second,

W.

forces

middle

starting

weight

plane

the

third

inclined

an

each

the

that

direction

the

acting

body
the

in

feet

in

that

components
with

is

acting
and

force

a=f

on

forces

along

show

quadrilateral

Prove

sides.

into

plane,

of

angles

sin

plane

equal

magnitude

the

If

forces

of

by

a,

respectively

acting

the

supported

is

is

horizon

it.

on

system

opposite

40

and
with

2a

pressure

23.

the

to

MATHEMATICS.

weight

of

particle

inclination

APPLIED

OF

points
forces

and

on

act
passes

circle,

along

PA,

through

PB,
a

point
prove

fixed

the

on

their

point.

86

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

in that direction. If several forces

that
in addition to P, we have, in like manner,

component

ofP

Q, R,

the mass-acceleration of the body in any direction is

in that direction.
of the components of P, ", iJ

sum

are

applied

equalto

the

...

force acts at a pointof a body the line through

the pointin the direction of the force,
producedboth ways,
of the force. Thus in the figure
is called the line of action
the force represented
by LM actingon the flat body of the
is called
in the figure
at M, the line AB
shaperepresented
When

the line of action of the force LM.

4
Fig.

shall show
effect at whatever
the pointis in the
We

86.
The

43.

that the force LM

producesthe same
pointin its line of action it acts,provided

body.
of

Transmissibility

body beingacted

on

Force.

force P at the pointC, let

us
apply a force at any point
B in the line of action of P so
to keepB fixed.
as

by a

That

beingdone, the force

P cannot turn the body about
B, hence the body will not
since B is fixed.Thus
move,

Pio. 44.

the

body has

acceleration and therefore the force at B

what was
shown in the last article,
be equaland
must,_by
to the force P.
opposite
no

Thus we
that two
see
lines of action are the same
on

forces whose
equaland opposite
effects
produceexactly
opposite

body.

Pig.

45.

PARALLEL

FORCES.

87

MOMENTS.

Now
let a force P act at M, then at any pointN iiiits
line of action we
can
suppose to act two equaland opposite
forces each of magnitude P, for two such forces produceno

eflfect.

By what has justbeen shown the force at M and one

of the forces at N destroy
each other,and there remains
force P acting
at N.
Thus

force
any pointin its line of action.
we

This

can

replacea

fact is called the

by an equalforce actingat

of
Principle

the

Transmissibilit

of Force.

87.

The

Moment

of

Force.

If a perpendicular
be drawn
from a pointupon the
line of action of a force,the productof the lengthof the
and the magnitude of the force is called the
perpendicular
moment
ofthe forceabout the point.
For

let AB
instance,

be the line of action of

force whose

Fig. 46.

is F, from a point0 draw

of F about 0 is
moment

measure

The

where p is the measure

OH is 3 feet the moment

Fp,
OH;

of
is 12.

OH

to AB.
perpendicular

e.g. if ^ is 4

and
poundals,

vanishes if the line of action of

88. The perpendicular
the force passes throughthe pointabout which the moment
is taken.
of a force about any pointon its line
Hence the moment
when the moment
of a force
of action is zero.
Conversely,
about any pointis zero, its line of action passes throughthat

point.
It will be shown

in Art. 93 that when

body under

the

88

THE

ELEMENTS

OP

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

action of a force turns round a pointthe moment

force with regardto that pointmeasures
the power
force to producerotation.

one

The unit moment

is that of
foot distant from it,

The word
with momentiim.

89.

signifies
power

moment

of the

Sign

or

moment

poundalabout

one

of the
of the

point

it has nothingto
importance,

of

do

force.

The moment
of a force about a pointis said to be positive
when
the force tends to turn the body in the direction
to that of the hands of a watch, and negaHvewhen
opposite
in the same
direction as the hands of a watch.
When

there

several forces the sum

of their moments
about any pointis,of course, their algebraic
sum.
are

Ex. 1. ABCD
is a square whose side is 2 feet long; find the moments
about B and C of the following
forces ; 4 lbs.alongAB, 9 lbs.alongCB,
2 lbs. alongDA, and 20 lbs. alongJDC.

The

The

about B
the force along

moment

of

fAB
1AB
CB

DC
DAia-2x

about C of
the force along

moment

OB
DC
DA

Ex. 2.
act

In the above square

respectively
equalto 4,3,2

2=

40 units of
-

is -2x4=-8
is zero,
is zero,
is -2x2=-4

units of moment,

alongthe
and

hnes CB, BA, DA, DB

5 lbs.; find the algebraic
sum

\CB
moment

force
hence the

about

of the

along

sum
algebraic

JBA
]DA
[DB

is

moment,

of the forces about C.

moments

The

is zero,
is zero,
is
2 X 20=

is zero,
is 6,
is -4,
is -5^2;

5-05 units of

moment, nearly.

forces

of the

PARALLEL

FORCES.

90. Geometrical
of a force.
We

have

seen

of

representation

that if LM

89

MOMENTS.

t)ie moment
force and OH

a
represents

is

the perpendicular
from 0 on the line of action of LM, then
the moment
of this force is measured by

OH

LM,

this product measures

twice the area
of the triangle
about
of a force
is measured
a point
OLM; hence the moment
the point
formed by joining
by twice the area of the triangle
the force.
to the extremities of the line representing
but

Again,twice

the

area

of the

LO
and NM
Art. 76.

91.

is the

The

of

and

Let AP

component

to LO,
perpendicular

of LM

force

resultant

component

forces.

AQ

be two

is equalto

NM,

of

moment

of moments

OLM
triangle

forces

havinga

equals

sum

resultant AR,

we

and AQ
oi AP
of the moments
that the sum
about 0.
of AR
about any point0 is equalto the moment

have

to prove

90

THE

Join
also PM,

to AO,
AO^ and draw AMN8
perpendicular
to AO.
QN, and R8 parallel

The

the

ELEMENTS

OF

oi AP

moment

AOx

component of AP

AOx

AM.

Similarly,
of J. Q about
moment

0^

draw

0 is

about

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

to AO,
perpendicular

Art. 90

AOxAN,

=A0xA8,

AB

See p. 68.

=AOx{AN+AM).
of moments

=sum

Notice that in the second

the
figure

of^P

and

of J.P

moment

J.Q.

is

-AO.AM.
the foregoing,
manner
92. It follows in the same
as
the
that when any number of forces act at a point,
Art. 81, (i),
of the moments
of the resultant is equalto the sum
moment
of the component forces.
93.

The

rotatory

power

of

force

depends

on

its moment.

Take
a
body moveable about a fixed point0, and let
about
it be acted on by two forces P and Q whose moments
0 are
equal and opposite.It follows from what we have
of the resultant of P and Q is
just seen that the moment
zero.

fore
this resultant passes through
0, Art. 88,and thereproducesno rotation about 0.

Hence

Thus the tendencies of P and Q to producerotation are

and hence forces of equalmoment
have
equaland opposite,

equalrotatorypowers.
94.

Moments

of any

number

of

forces.

of forces in one planehave a resultant,

any number
of their moments
about any point0 is equal
the algebraic
sum
of this resultant about 0.
to the moment
When

PARALLEL

FORCES.

Let the forces be P,

obtained by replacing,
P

Q, R,

and

Q by their
i^iandi?
and

so

until

on

Now

onlyone

the moment

91

MOMENTS.

...

their final resultant is

resultant

jRj,
R^,

force is left.

aboutO oiR^ =algeb.sumof

the moments
of P

Ri

and

Q, Art. 91,

the
algeb.sumof

moments

of Ri and R,
=

and

so

of the moments
of P, Q, and R,

sum
algeb.

on.

Hence

the moment
of the final resultant
the moments
of allthe forces P, Q, R,
...

95.

Composition

and

Resolution

of

sum
algeb.

of

parallel forces.

We have shown how to find the resultant of any number

of forces in one planewhich act at a point.
If the forces are
appliedat different pointsof a body
their resultant may
be found, as in the last Article,
by
the
resultant
of
then
two
forces,
intersecting
finding
any
the resultant of this and a third force,
and so on.
In the

distance,we

which
forces,
parallel
method
adopt a special

case

of

meet

for

at

an

infinite

findingthe

sultant.
re-

forces are those which act in the same

parallel
forces are
those which
unlike parallel
act in
direction;
oppositedirections.

Like

96.

Resultant

of two

like

parallel forces.

Let P and Q be two parallel

forces;we may suppose
them to act at A and B respectively
; at A and B introduce
this will make no difference
two forces F equal and opposite,
in the resultant of P and Q, see Art. 86.

92

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

The lines of action of the resultants of F and P, and of F

and Q will meet at some

resultants to act at 0.

Through0

draw

point0,

and

we

may

suppose these

Art. 86.

OG

to AP
parallel

and

AB
BQ, cutting

mG.
force acting
at 0
to
components, F parallel
The

the
Similarly
into two

viz.#

The two
be removed.

alongOA
GA,

replaced
by its
acting
alongOG.

may

and P

be

at 0 alongOB may be resolved

acting
to GB, and Q acting
parallel
alongOG.

force

forces F
We are
P +

at
acting

0 balance each other and may

left with the

force
single

Q acting
alongOG.

To determine the position

of G.
The sides of the triangle
OGA
are
their resultant,
hence by the converse

Forces,

to P, F and
parallel
of the Triangle
of

94

THE

ELEMENTS

P.AQ

Hence
That

is divided

is,AB

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

Q.BG.

the inverse ratio

in
externally

of

theforces.
98.

Recapitulation.

When
two
J5 of a body;

forces
parallel

and

A
points

act at

magnitude of the resultant is the sum or

like or unlike.
and Q according
as they are

The

1.

of P

Its direction is that

when
that of the greater
like,
It acts at

3.

pointG

force when
unlike.

of each

2.

they are

in AB,

in AB

or

and

ence
differ-

they are

such
produced,

that

P.AG

Q.BG.

forces
of parallel
Got. 1. The resultant of any number
may be found by findingthe resultant of any two of the
and so on.
then the resultant of this and a third force,
forces,

sum

The magnitude of this final resultant is the

of the forces.

algebraic

Cor. 2. The magnitudeof the resultant of two

equal
and unlike parallel
forces is zero, and it acts at an infinite
distance. This case will be considered in Chaptervii.
Ex. 1.

Two

like forces of 12 and

20 lbs.weight act at

points4

inches

apart,find their resultant.

The

Let

resiiltant is
X

be the distance

.'.

Ex.
14 feet

AG, then BG=A

32is;=80,or

a;

=2|

Two
unhke forces of 48
find
their resultant.
apart,
2.

The resultant is
Let

force of 32 lbs. weight.

force of 24 lbs.

feet be the distance

and

and

we

have

inches.
72 lbs.

weight act

weight.

BO, then AG=x+

AS{x:+ 14:) nx,

=

feet.
^=1^8^28
24

14, and

at

points

PARALLEL

FORCES.

95

MOMENTS.

Ex. 3. Kesolve a force of 30 lbs. weightinto two like forces 6 feet

apart, one of them being9 inches from the givenforce.
Let the forces be P and Q, then
lbs. weight,
AG=Q,BG^QZ,

P+Q=m
also

9P=63",

from which

it follows that

P=26i lbs.,Q=^

Ex. 4.
taken

Let
at

Four forces F, ^F, ZF, AF

find their resultant.
order,

be the

act

lbs.

alongthe

lengthof a side. The resultant of F

produced such that

sides of

square

and 3F is '2.Factine

E in BC

pomt

ZF.CE=F{a+GE),

-^B

G^=%-

or

2F

Similarlythe resxiltant of
is 2i?'actingat a point K
such

'i.F and
in CB

^F

JF

duced
pro-

that

'^F.BK=%F{a+BK),

Fig. 52.

BK=a.

or

These two forces intersect in L, their resultant is 2

LKMN
LM, the figure
beinga square.

EXAMPLES.

^%F and

acts

along

XIX.

forces of 15 and 20 lbs. weight act at points

Two
parallel
unlike.
restiltantwhen they are (i)
their
find
like,
(ii)
20 inches apart,
1.

The resultant of two like forces is 12 lbs. and it acts at a

find its
distance of 2 inches from the largercomponent which is 8 lbs.,
distance from the smaller component.
2.

3. The resultant of two unlike forces is 15 lbs. and it acts at

find the
from the forces,
distances of 2 feet and 6 feet respectively

forces.
4.

Two

carry a
times
three
weightbeing
much
how
weight each
men

the
160 lbs. between them on a pole,
the other;find
as from
man
one
as far from
the
regarded.
disthe
of
polebeing
weight
supports,

weightof

96

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

turn freely
can
rod 12 feet long and weighing18 lbs.,
about a pointin its length; the rod is at rest when a weight of 8 lbs. is
hung at one end. How far from the end is the pointabout which the
rod can turn ?
5.

A uniform

[The weightof

point.]

the rod acts at its middle

the weight of the girder

two stone piers,
on
and
of
the
one
being a tons,
piersbeing only capableof supporting
the centre of the
6 tons, at what distances must
each pier be from
girderin order that the strongerpiermay support as small a weight
6.

as

bridgegirderrests

?
possible

bundle at the end of a stick which is placed

over
shoulder,if the distance between his hand and his shoulder
how does the pressure on his shoulder change 1
be changed,
1. A
his

carries

man

8. A uniform rod whose weightis 8 lbs. is placedupon two props

which
in the same
horizontal line and 6 inches apart. Find the
are
distance to which the ends of the rod extend beyond the props, if the
and the lengthof the
difference of the pressures on the props is 4 lbs.,
rod 3 feet.

99.

Moment

of

of

resultant

the

parallel

forces.

PRO
Fig.

53.

forces
From 0 any pointin the planeof two like parallel
P and Q draw OAOB
to the lines of action of
perpendicular
the forces.

Now,

of the moments

sum

P.OA

{P

moment

and

about

Q.OB

(00 -AQ)+
+

of P

Q)OG,

Q(OG

since P.AG

OB)
=

Q.QB,

of the resultant about

0.

Arts. 96, 97,

PARALLEL

If the

about which
have

point0

the forces,
we

97

MOMENTS,

moments

are

taken is between

of P and

of moments

sum

FORCES.

Q.OB-P.OA

Q{00 + GB)-P{AG-OCf)
{P + Q)00
of resultant.

moment

PRO

similar manner
In precisely
Pia. 54.
show that when
the parallel
we
forces are unlike,the moment
of the resultant about any
of the components.
pointequalsthe sum of the moments
Art. 94, we see
that the algebraic
of the moments
of any number
of forces is equalto the
sum
of their resultant whether the forces meet
at a
moment
finitedistance or are parallel.
to
Referring

100.

Ex. 1. Four weightsof 5,

distances 2,4,9 and 12 feet from

the

magnitudeand the

14, 6 and

25

end of a

one

lbs. respectively
hang at
rod without weight.Find

of their resultant.
position
B

14

ZS

Fig.

55.

Let AF be the rod and B, C,D, E the pointsat which the weights
their resultant is
attached. Since the forces are like and parallel
are
50 lbs.
their sum
Let

3s

be the distance of the resultant from

moment

of resultant
50. a!=5x

sum

2 +
.-.

of moments

A, then
of

since

components,

14x4+6x9+25x12;

^=^

8|feet.

A rod 14 feet longwithout weighthas a weightof 4 lbs.

suspendedfrom its middle point. The rod can turn about one end. If
the rod is to be sustained by a force at one end of 11 lbs. weight,where
in order that the rod
additional weightof 63 lbs.be attached,
must
an
may remain at rest?
Ex. 2.

J.

98

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

the force at the jointedend)must be

system of forces (including
force. Hence the algebraical
resultant
is
there
or
no
equilibrium,
about
of the moments
about any point vanishes. Take moments
sum
the force at that point has, of course, no
Then
the jointedend.
and we have,if x is the distance from that end of the force of
moment
63 lbs.,
63xi!;+4x7-llxl4=0;

The

in

x=%

.".

feet.

in magniA system of forces in one planebeingrepresented

tude
in
showtaken
of
sides
closed
and position
the
a
order,
polygon
by
the
in
to
with
0
the
of their moments
that
plane=
sum
regard any point
is constant.

Ex. 3.

then denotingthe sides

the point0 be inside the polygon,
the sum
of
from 0 hy p, q, r
by a, 6,c, "c. and the perpendiculars
is
the moments

(i) Let

...

qb+rc+

pa +
which is twice the

area

of the

polygon.

(ii)Let the pointbe outside

Here

the

polygon.

of the forces has a moment

about
0 oppositein sign to the moments
of all the
other forces,
and
the

sum

one

of the moments

=pa

qb+rc +

"

twice

area

of polygon.

..,

EXAMPLES.

Fig.

56.

XX.

1. The resultant of two unlike parallel

forces is 6 lbs.,
and one acts
inches from the greater force which is 10 lbs.,
find the distance
between the forces.
10

A uniform bar 12 feet longand weighing16 lbs. is supportedat

2.
each end and a weight of 48 lbs. is hung at a point2 feet from one end ;
find the pressure on each of the supports.
3.
a

in

Four

forces 1,6, 9, 8
parallel

rod ; where
weightless

must

act at

the rod be

points4 inches apart along

supportedthat it may remain

equilibrium?

iron rod 6 feet long weighs 9 lbs.,

A uniform
4.
and from its
extremities weights of 6 lbs. and 12 lbs. respectively
are
suspended.
what pointmust the rod be supportedin order that it
From
may remain
balanced in a horizontal position
?

[The weight of

the rod acts at its middle

point.]

PARALLEL

99

MOMENTS.

FORCES.

is suspendedin a
is 50 lbs.,
A heavy uniform beam, whose mass
horizontal position
by two vertical stringseach of which can sustain a
of 20 lbs. be
tension of 35 lbs.without breaking.Where
must a mass
break?
of
the
strings
placedso that one
may just
5.

6.

weightlessrod has equal weightsattached

15 inches from

supportedby

one

two

cannot

it,one

at

end and the other at 9 inches from the other ; it is

vertical strings
attached to its ends,if each string
tension greaterthan the weightof 50 lbs.,
find the

supporta
magnitudeof
greatest
101.

to

the

equalweights.

of parallel forces.

Centre

forces act at fixed points

of parallel
any number
called
of a body,we shall prove that there is a certain point,
the centre of the parallel
at which the resultant always
forces,
the forces are turned round their points
of
acts, however
to each other and
providedtheyremain parallel
application,
of the same
magnitude.
When

Fia. 57.

the

Let

forces P, Q, B
parallel

...

act

at

A, B,
points

C...
Join AB

and divide it at g^

P.Ag,
Then g^ is
Art. 96.
acts.
Now
P and

pointat

Then

g^ is a

that

Q.Bg,.

which

gi has been found

Q, hence it is the same

Againjoing^ and

so

the resultant of P

of the
independently
whatever

and

direction of

their direction.

C and divide it at g^

so

{P + Q)g^.=R.Og,.
pointat which the resultant

that

of P +

acts.

7"2

and R

100

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

That is a

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

the resultant of P,

pointthroughwhich

and

R passes.
Moreover

that its

see

we

the directionof the

does
position

not

depend on

forces.
parallel

Hence
the resultant of P, Q and R passes throughg^,
however these forces are turned round their points
0/ application,
each
other.
still
remain
t
o
providedthey
parallel
Thus g^ is the centre of the parallel
forces P, Q and R.
of

The centre of any number

this process.
continuing

by

Notice that the

102.

forces
parallel

Distance

of

the

not

are

be found

forces may
parallel
restricted to lie in

centre

f):om

plane.

one

line.

any

find the distance of the centre of any number

of
forces P,Q, R
from any line LM.
parallel
Since the position
of the centre does not depend on the
direction of the forces its position
remains unaltered if we
parallel
suppose the forces turned round so as to become
to LM.
To

...

From

A,B, G

draw

...

perpendiculars
p, q, r

K
P

be

upon

LM.

V
Pio.

Let

...

58.

the

requiredcentre throughwhich the resultant

"\^Q-\-R passes, and let x be its distance from
...

LM.
V

Then
moment

beingany pointin LM, we have

of P + Q + R
actingat K about
...

moments

of P,
.-.

Q,

...

{P + Q

V=

Art. 100;

R+...)x

Pp

Qq + Rr....

sum

of

102

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

till two of them

lie upon
the forces be turned
DA
and two upon CB their resultant acts alongKF, and we
find BF to
is 16 and 12 inches
be 1^ inches. Thus K, the centre of parallel
forces,
from
two
sides
of
the
respectively
square.
if
Similarly

103.

about

Moments

line.

In Art. 87 we
called the productof a force and its
distance from a point0 in its planethe moment
of the force
about the point. It is also the moment
of the force about a
line through0 perpendicular
to the planeof the paper.
In Art. 102

found the relation

we

Pp-\-qq+
where

Rr+...

{P + Q

is the distance of the centre

from the line LM.
x

Now

all the
tillthey are
application
turn

B+...)x;

of the

forces round
parallel
all perpendicular
to

...

EXAMPLES.
and

boy have

their

pointsof
the planeof the
of the forces P,Q,..

paper, then Pp, Qq "c. are the moments

about the line LM;
hence we
that
see
of the component forces P, Q
moments
of their resultant about LM.
moment

forces
parallel

the
is

sum

of the

equal to

the

XXI.

a load of 100 lbs. slungon

a pole
carried
and
feet
10
(whoseweight may
neglected)
horizontally
long.
Their carrying
in the ratio of 8 : 5. Where
in the pole
are
powers
should the weightbe hung so that it may be fairly
divided?

1.

man

to carry

be

A rod of uniform thickness has half its length composed of one

and the other half of another metal. The rod will balance about
a pointdistant J of its whole lengthfrom
one
extremity.Compare the
weightsof equalvolumes of the two metals.
2.

metal

"

uniform rod which is 12 feet long and

about a pointin its length,
and the
freely
when
is
of
lbs.
7
at
a weight
end. How
one
hung
the pointabout which it can turn ?
3.

turn

can

Three

which weighs17 lbs.

rod is in equilibrium
far from the ends is

like

forces actingat the angular pointsA, B, C

parallel
are
to the opposite
sides
planetriangle respectively
proportional

of

a,

h, c.

side BC.

Find

the distance of the centre

of parallel forces from

the

PARALLEL

FORCES.

If the sum
5.
of the moments
of a
A is zero and also about a pointB, show
point in AB.
Show

6.

pointsA
force

7.

that

it is also

zero

any

equal to P actingat the other point.

ABCB

feet

8.

point

about

of a force P about two

about either point of

is a rectangle,
AB, BC adjacent sides are
long respectively.
Along AB, BG, CB taken in
30
lbs.
act
find their resultant.
30, 40,
respectively,

four

of

system of forces about

that the difference of the moments

B in its plane equals the moment

and

103

MOMENTS.

three and
order forces

If any three forces act along the sides of a triangle

taken
that their resultant cannot
the triangle.
meet

in

order,prove
9.

The

cut

by

lines of action

of two forces P and Q and their resultant R

third line in the points A, B and 0 respectively,
and P, Q
each resolved into two forces,one
AB
and
to
"are
other
the
parallel
to
R.
Prove that the components parallel
to each
to R are
parallel
other as BC : AC.
are

uniform

beam

4 feet

horizontal position
one
by two props which are three feet apart,so that the beam projects
foot beyond one
of the props ; show that the pressure
on
one
prop is
double the pressure on the other.
10.

longis supportedin

The sides BC, CA, AB

11.
of a triangle
are
three,four and five feet
find the magnitude and direction of a force acting
long respectively;
at C whose
12.

moments

The

magnitude

givenpointsA

two

about A
of

and B.

and B

are

7 and

respectively.

about
and also its moments
its
line
construction
geometrical

force is known

Find

by

of action.
13.

ABC
triangle

in its own
turn freely
is fixed,
and forces

can

of its inscribed circle which

z-x,

y-z,

alongthe

act

remains

sides BC, CA and AB

planeabout the

centre

to
proportional

x-y

Show
respectively.

that the

triangle

at rest.

Forces P, Q, R act along the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle.

14.
the centre of the
that their resultant will act alongthe line joining
if
the
intersection
of
circle to
perpendiculars
circumscribing
Show

"

15.

Four

'

Tf_'^^ B
~cobG
forces

A BCD
quadrilateral
acts

from

towards

cos

cos

cos

cos

cos^

A
_

cosB

'

coaA

cosC

'

cosB

coaA'

actingalong the sides AB, BC, CD and DA of the

that the first
in equilibrium
are
; having given

B, find

the directions of each of the other three.

VII.

CHAPTER

COUPLES.

104.

have

We

already

unlike

their resultant

two

parallelforces
is equal to Q the
couple therefore

seen

forces

if F

and

is

equal to

said to

are

of

consists

that

form

equal

two

Q are two
Q. When

"

unlike

couple.'
parallel

forces.

The
the

perpendicular distance

forces
105.

is called

the
of

Moment

"

"

arm

between
of the

the

lines of action

of

couple.

couple.

o'

Pio.

The

forces

P, P,

find

required to
about
any point

the
0.

whose
sum

62.

arm

of

the

is a,
moments

form

of

couple; it
these

is

forces

lO^

COUPLES.

Through 0
The

OB

to the
perpendicular

of the moments

sum

OAB

draw

"

P
.

we

the forces,
the

equals
moments

P{OB-OA)

Again,if

OA, the

sum

havingopposite
signs,
P.AB

P.a.

take moments
about any
of the moments
equals

P.O'B
=

forces.

P(0'B+0'A)

point0',within

P.O'A,
=

P.AB

P.a.

Hence
in all cases
the moment
of a coupleabout any
pointin its planeis equalto the productof one of the forces,
and the arm.

106.

Sign

of

couple.

If a body on which the coupleacts were

pivotedabouteither the point 0 or the point0',the rotation would be
in the direction of the hands of a watch.
This is called the
direction of rotation,
Art. 89, the contra-clockwise
see
Tiegative
direction beingcalled positive.
When

couplesare
107.

the directions of the rotations producedby twa

the couples
said to be like.
the same
are

Axis

of

couple.

coupleis a line drawn throughany point

to the plane of the coupleof such magnitude
perpendicular
to indicate the magnitudeof the couple.
as
The

axis of

The direction of rotation producedby the couple,

or its
is indicated by the signof its axis,which is determined
sign,
as follows :
Place a watch on the planeof the coupleface upwards;,
if the direction of rotation is contra-clockwise the axis is
if clockwise the
drawn
upwards and is considered positive,
and considered negative.
axis is downwards

106

ELEMENTS

THE

APPLIED

OF

108.

Couples with equal and

sign are equivalent.

same

MATHEMATICS.

parallel

axes

of the

in the same
that two couples
plane
and equal
having equal moments, and therefore parallel
that is,we may replace
a couple
by any
axes, are equivalent,
the
moment.
in itsplanehaving
other couple
same
We

shall

moment,
couplesof equaland opposite
forces beingall parallel.

First,take
the

show

now

two

Q
Fig.

Draw
the

line ABGB
then if AB

cuttingthe

lines of action perpendicularly;

CD
b, and P, Q the forces of
are
giventhat

we
couples,
respective

Pa
Observe that the moment
lower

63.

Qb.

of the upper

that of the
coupleis positive,

negative.

The resultant of the upper force P and the lower force

is P + Q actingat a point0 which is such that

Pia

BG)

P.BG

or

Q(b + CG), Art. 96,

Q.GO.

the resultant of the two middle

direction and acts at the same
the opposite
But

Hence
be

all the forces

are

by two equaland
replaced

forces is P +

Q in

pointG.

in

since they can

equilibrium
forces.
opposite

the efifectof the P-couple,

Thus the Q-coupledestroys
reversed they would
hence if the forces of the Q-couple
were
to the P-couple.
be equivalent

107

COUPLES.

Second,if
but form

the

forces of the

couplesare

not

all

parallel,

parallelogram.

Fig.

64.

If a and b are the distances between

then since the moments
are
equal,
Pa

AB.a

but
since each is the

area

the

of parallels,
pairs

Qb,
AD
.

b,

of the

A BCD,
parallelogram
P _AB
Q~AD-

hence

Thus the sides of the parallelogram

representthe forces
hence by Art. 72,
P and Q in magnitudeand direction,
the resultant of the forceswhich meet

at J. isrepresented
by GA

G
and these beingequaland
in equilibrium.

forces the
opposite

Thus if the forces of the Q-couplewere

to the P-couple.
would be equivalent

four forces

reversed

are

they

be transferred to
forces of a couplemay
their effect,
planewithout altering
parallel
109.

we

to

and draw through

to AB
equal and parallel
to that of the couple
a
; at both G and D
planeparallel
forces of magnitudeP
may suppose equal and opposite
act in this plane.
Take

it

The

AG,

CD

108

THE

ELEMENTS

AB

Since

OF

and

CD

APPLIEB

are

FiQ.

oppositesides

of

MATHEMATICS.

equal and

parallel
they

are

65.

hence
parallelogram,

AD

and BG

bisect

each other at 0.
at 5 and G have

forces P at ^ and D have

upward forces P

The

downward

resultant 2P

acting
upwards at 0,
resultant 2P acting
downwards

each
These forces 2P destroy
downward
force P at C and an
a coupleexactly
equalto the
110.

Let P,
their arms
The
We
whose

of

Resultant

Q, B,

q, r,

original
couple.

couples

in

the

same

plane.
of

couples,

respectively.

...

are Pp, Qq,Br, "c.

respective
couples
108, replacethese couplesby couples

Pp
L
arm

are

of the

may, by Art.
forces are

and whose

0.

left with
ing
upward force P at D, formwe

be the forces of any number

...

being
p,

moments

other and

at

Qq
'

is,in each

L'

Br
L'

""

case, L.

We
the couples
in
Article,move
may also,by the same
their plane tilltheir arms
have then
to coincide,
come
we
one
coupleof which the force is

L^

L^

L^

"""'

110
111.
a

ELEMENTS

THE

Force

replaced

be

may

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

by

force

and

couple.

point 0, then at 0 we may

and opposite
forces to act which are
equalin magnitudeto a givenforce P.
Take

suppose

any

two

equal

with one
givenforce together
and
of the forces at 0 forms a couple,
there is left a force equalto P passing
valent
through0. Hence we have as equiP
force
to the original
This

force equalto P in magnitude

and direction passingthrough0,

(i)

the

is equalto Pa, where

(ii) a couplewhose moment
distance of the original
force from 0.
perpendicular

we
Conversely,
force.
single

of the
if the moment
take the forces of the

For
we

may

P, the

replacea

may

beingthen

arm

force and

coupleby

is

couplebe Q and the force P,

coupleequalin magnitudeto

till one
of
let the forces of the couplebe moved
Now
line but oppositedirection to the
them
acts in the same

givenforce P
to P

to

and distant

Cor.

112.

Any

thus

force

Take
P may
with a
have

it,there
balancing
from the

singleforce

or

number
to

and

of

is left one

force

equal

givenforce.
a

couplecannot

forces

in

one

brium.
produceequili-

plane

reduce

couple.

point0, then as in the last Article,any force

be replacedby an
equal force through0 together
couple. Doing this for all the given forces we
any

Ill

COUPLES.

(i)

resultant

number

number

couple,

to

the

single
If

of

couples

the

Art.

have

0, which

through

passing

0)

which

replaced

be

may

by

sultant
re-

110.

in

resultant

(through

force

forces

force,

(ii)

If

of

and

(i)

does

couple

vanish

not

which

as

we

we

have

left

are

with
reduces

seen

force.

resultant

in

(i)

vanishes

we

are

left

with

couple.

VIII.

CHAPTER

OF

CENTRE

body consists of an infinite number

being acted upon by a force,called
particle

Every

113.

GRAVITY.

material

of

each
particles,
its weight,directed

to

Earth's attraction.

If the

Earth, these forces

are

the

centre

of the

Earth, due

to the

body be small compared with

practically
parallel.

the

the

forces,Art. 96, they have

theory of like parallel
resultant parallel
and equal to the sum
of the
to them
a
weightsof the particles.

By

This

resultant passes throughthe centre of the parallel

forces,Art. 101, however the body be placed; in the present
this pointis called the Centre
of Gravity.
case
The

centre

through which
in whatever
114.
If
and

gravityof

of

body

is therefore

the line of action of the

the
position

Every

body

possiblelet

body may
has

body

only
have

that

point

weight alwayspasses,

be.
one

two

centre
centres

of

of

gravity.
A
gravity,

B.

Then
passes

we

have

seen

throughboth

that
and

the line of action of the

B

for every

of
position

the

But

weight
body.

this line of action is vertical and hence cannot

pass
both
A
and
B
when
the
line
AB
is
itself
not
through
vertical.
Hence

there

can

onlybe

one

centre

of

gravity.

CENTRE

115.

Position

of the

113

GEAVITY.

OF

of gravity.

centre

It has been shown

that if there are
of
any number
forces P, Q, R
parallel
actingat pointswhose distances
from a givenline in their planeare p,q,r
the distance of
the centre of parallel
forces from that line is equalto
...

...

Pp

Qq+Rr+

P +

Now
let there be any
whose masses
are
m^, m^,
line
that
in
planeare
given
We

have therefore

The

requireddistance

"

in a plane
of particles
whose distances from a

number
m^ and
z,,,z^, z%,

series of

...

B+...

...

forces in^,
parallel

TJh^l + Ifn^i +

....

is therefore
or,

TOi^f+ m^

m^g,

...

mi + m2+

"

...

from
The distance of the centre of gravity
line is obtained by a similar expression.

any

other

Since the C.G. is the pointat which the body's

weight may be supposedto act, the body if fixed at that
pointwill balance about it in every position.
116.

117.

Determination

of

the

Fig.

69.

position

of

the

C.Cr.

hy experiment.

Suspendthe body from any fixed pointA in it.

The forces actingare its weightand the force at the
Since the body is at rest these forces
pointof suspension.
be equaland opposite.
must
Therefore the vertical line throughthe C.G. must
pass
throughA.

114

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

MATHEMATICS.

body and suspendit from any other pointB.

also the C.G. must liein BQ.
this position

Release the
Then

in

the

Hence

will lie at 0, the intersection oi AG

C.G.

and

BG.
118.
If

body has

By

of the

Position

Centre of

by

found

inspection.

Symmetry, that pointis its c.G.

Symmetry is meant a point0 such that
find a pointP' in
of the body we
can

Centre

C.G.

of

for every pointP

that OP
PO produced
so
centre is evidently
a centre

OP' ; in the

case

of

circle the

of symmetry.

body may be broken up into pairs

of equal weight on lines passingthroughthe
of particles
centre of symmetry at equaldistances from it.
the C.G. of each
The centre of symmetry is then clearly
and therefore of the whole body.
pairof particles
in this

For

of

C.G.

it follows that:

Hence
the

the

case

is its middle

uniform

rod

circular

ring

or

point,

circular

area

is its centre,

sphere is its centre,

square

119.

C.G.
of

vertices

cube

or

of three

is its centre.

equal particles placed

triangle.

each
Let three equalparticles,
ABC.
at the vertices of a triangle
The

C.G.

^f

"^

/^

'w
^'''- ^"-

But

we

the three

see

weightW,

be

placed

^"^

of

weightsat B and C is at D the middle

point of BG, thus the C.G. of the
three weightsmust lie in the median
line AD
and is a pointG such that
A0.
2DG
2WxBG=WxAG,
OY

of the

/^w\q

the

at

Hence the pointG divides AD

the ratio of 2 to 1, and

in

AG^%AD.
in

similar
precisely

weightsmust

manner

lie in the other two

that the
median

C.G.

of

lines

CENTRE

OF

115

GRAVITY.

BE
and GF and divide them in the ratio of 2 to 1.
the lines AD, BE and GF must
all intersectin the
which is the C.G. of the three weights.
,

120.

O.Gr.

ABG

of

Hence
pointG

triangular plate.

is a thin

plateof uniform thickness.

triangular
Divide the plateinto strips,
such as PQ, parallel
to the
The C.G. of each strip
side BG.
is
and the middle
at its middle point,
lie in the
pointsof all these strips
line AD joining
A io D the middle
pointof BC. JHencethe C.G. of the
platelies in AD.
that the C.G.
we
see
Similarly
of the platelies in BE
and GF, hence by Art. 119 it is the
same
as the c.G. of three equal
placedat the vertices
weights
Hence the C.G. divides each median line in
of the triangle.
the ratio of 1 to 2.

provedthat,
is the same
as that
area
(i) The C.G. of a triangular
3 equalparticles
placedat its vertices,
section
is the pointof interarea
(ii) The C.G. of a triangular
have therefore

We

of

of the median
# of the

lines and is distant from each vertex

median, or
AO

121.

C.G.

of

%AD.

parallelogram.
A

Fio. 72.

bisect each other,

of a parallelogram
diagonals
ABG
that the C.G. of the triangles
see
by the foregoing
lies on BD, similarly
ADG, that is of the whole figure,

Since the
we

and
it lies

on

AG.

Hence

it is at

0, the intersectionof the

diagonals.
8"2

116

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

XXII.

EXAMPLES.
Show

1.

that the

at
particles

rod is the

uniform

same

as

that of

equal

its ends.

that

Prove

2.

of

c. G.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

has
parallelogram

the

o.G.

same

as

four

equal

at its vertices.
particles

firstto one
into strips
a parallelogram
parallel
Show, by dividing
is
its
that
its
intersection
and
then
to another,
sides
c. a.
parallel

3.

pairof
of

diagonals.
The

of a
placedat the middle
4.

c. G.

If the

5.

c. G.

the
circle,
A

6.

pointsof

7. Show
any number

as

the

that the

suspendedby

in line with the

the

are

of

circumference

one

General

may

same.

for

rule

finding

the

of each portionacts
then be found.

weight

c.G.

to

string?

circle and that of

of equal particles
arrangedat equal distances alongits
of the

c. g.

the body into portions

whose
of whose c.G.s are
known.
positions
The

equalparticles

stringattached

Divide

The

of 3

the centre of the circumscribed

is

c. g.

its sides.

pointin the oppositeside will be

circumference

122.

same

coincides with
triangle
is
triangle equilateral.
of

board
triangular

What

comer.

is the
triangle

at

C. G.

weightsand

the

its C.G., Art. 113.

123. When
the body can
be divided into two portions
of
which the weightsw^, w^ and the c.G.s are known, we proceed
follows :
as
Let gi, g^ be the

given centres, joing^, g^, then by the

Art. 96,the required
theoryof parallel
forces.
pointG divides
g^gi, so that w^ g^G w^ g^G.
=

Ex. 1.
connected
centres

Let

Find

the

c.G.

by a rigidrod
being one foot.

a;

be

of two

without

the distance of the

spheresof 8
weight,the
c.G.

from

sphere,then
8a;=24(12-a;),
.". a; =9

inches.

oz.

and

24

oz.

weights,

distance between

the centre

of the

their

smaller

118

THE

Ex.

ELEMENTS

To find the

c.g.

COD
out of the square
centre.

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

gotby cuttingthe triangle

side is | of an inch,0 beingthe

ABCD
figure

of the

whose

ABCD

be the distance of the requiredc.G.

know
that 0 is the c.a. of
Then
we
the whole square, and g that of COD, where Oy=f
of half the side of the square
J inch. Also area
of square
j^ sq. inches,area of COD=-^^ sq.

Let X
from 0.

inches.

up

Hence
since the weightof the square is made
of the weightsof the fig.
and of the
ABCOD

triangle
COD,

Pig. 75.

(A-A)^=ixA"

EXAMPLES.

or

"x=^Ya.ch..

XXIII.

1. Find the c.g. of two small bodies whose

"002 oz., their distance apartbeing3 feet.

weightsare

"01 oz. and

Two sphereswhose radii are 10 and 11 inches respectively

2.
are
find the positionof
5 and 6 lbs.,
in contact ; if their weights are
their c.g.
are
placedso that the line 1 foot 10 inches
is
to each,if their lengthsare
perpendicular
long joiningtheir centres
10 and 12 inches find the distances of their c.G. from their ends.

3.

rods

uniform

Two

4.

rod

inches long whose weight is 20 lbs. has a body of

attached to a pointone inch from an end,find the c. G.
weight2 ounces
of the rod and attached weight.
5.

Find

12

the

c. g.s

of the

bodies
following

(i) A square with a square portionremoved, the line joiningtheir

to a side of each.
centres being perpendicular
The sides of the squares
10 and 3 inches longrespectively,
the distance between their centres
are
being2 inches.
the

(ii)A circular platewith a circular portionremoved,the weightsof

being 15 and 4 lbs. and the distance between their centres
portions

15 inches.

(iii)A

with a circular portionremoved, the boundary

square plate
of this removed
portiontouching a side of the square and passing
its
through
centre,the line joiningtheir centres beingperpendicular
side
of
the
to a
square, the side of the square being10 inches long.

(iv) A
of the

uniform

piecebeing3

rod with

piece^ of

inches from

its lengthtaken
the centre of the rod.

out,the centre

CENTRE

125.

C.G.

OF

of weights

119

GRAVITY.

in

the

straight line.

same

Let the body whose C,G. is required

be divided into any
number
of portions
whose c.G.s lie in the same
line,
straight
let the weightsactingat these pointsbe w^, w^,
and
let their distances from some
fixed point 0 on
the line
be Xi, x^,
then the distance of the C.G. required
from 0
beingx, we have
...

...

(Wi+
Ex. 1.
are

Two

attached

The

to

Find

2 ounces.

WiXi + w^2

Art. 115.

3 and 5 ounces
heavy particles
weighingijespectively
the ends of a straightrod 8 inches long,weighing
the c. o. of the system.

of the
the 5

sum

end to which

...)x

Wa +

weightsis

10 ounces.

ounces

attached

are

10x5;=3x8
.*. x

Taking

for the

point0

the

2x4;

3'2 inches.

Ex. 2. A
slidingwithin

consists of three tubes each 10 inches in length

telescope
one
another,and their weights are 8, 7 and 6 oimces.
the tubes are drawn out to their
Find the positionof the c. g. when
full length.
The

weightsis 21 ounces, the weight of the different

from
points distant 5, 15 and 25 inches respectively

of the

sum

tubes act
end.
one

at

.-.

+ 7x15+6x25

21x^=8x5

hence

x=

14^

inches from

1.

Ten
one

1 lb.

weights are

the thicker end.

attached to

inch apart, find their

295;

XXIV.

EXAMPLES.

distant

pointsof

rod
weightless

c. g.

A rod is pivoted
at its middle pointand weights of 5 and 6 lbs.
its
attached
to
are
ends,the rod being 20 inches long,where must a
?
weightof 3 lbs. be attached in order that the rod may rest horizontally
2.

base and the opposite

vertices in
these
vertices
to the base,the distances of
line perpendicular
the same
find the distance of the c. g.
from the base being 5, 6, 7 and 8 inches,
from the base.
of the four triangles
3.

Four

have
triangles

the

same

uniform rod ^1.8 is 6 feet longand weighs4 lbs. A lb. weight

is attached to the rod at A, 2 lbs. at a pointdistant one foot from A,
3 lbs. at 2 feet from A, 4 lbs. at 3 feet from A and 5 lbs. at B. Find the
distance of the c.G. of the system from A.
4.

120

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

A straight
rod 6 feet longand heavier towards one end is found
to balance about a point 2 feet from the heavier end, but when
ported
supat its middle
pointit requiresa weight of 3 lbs. to be hung
at the lighter
end in order to keep it level. What is the weightof the
rod?
5.

6.

thickness and 5 lbs. weight has a weight of

end and. 12 lbs. at the other,it balances about a point
the nearer
end,find its length.

bar of uniform

10 lbs. at

one

4 inches from

126.

C.Gr. found

by takings

about

moments

line.

and if
several bodies of -weights
Wj, Wj,
the distances of their c.G.s from any line Ox in
are
Xi, X.2,
their planewe have, by Art. 102, if x is the distance of their
c.G. from this line
If there

are

"""

...

WiXi +
X

W^l+

...

"

Wi + Wa + W3 +

if Oy
Similarly
C.G.

of the C.G.s
from this line

tances
be any other line,and y^,y^,... the disfrom it,then y beingthe distance of the
Wiyi + Way, -I-Ways +

"

"

"

Wi-t-Ws+Ws-l-...
Ex. 1.

Four heavy particles

whose
placedat the corners
A, B, C, D
of the four particles.

are

c. G.

Taking
N

moments

masses

oi

a,

about

2,3,4 and

are

horizontal square;

AD,

gramme*
find the

beingthe lengthof

side,

(24- 3 -H 4+ 5)(?Jf

(3-1-4)a.

takingmoments
Similarly,

/
^

'S
Fig.

Ex. 2.

AB,

(2+ 3-1-4+ 5)(yiV=(4+5) a,

"

76.
Five

about

^"

of 1,2,3, 4 and 5 ounces

weightrespectively
are
placedon a square table. Their distances from one edge of the
table are 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 inches,from an adjacentedge 3, 5,7,9 and
Find the distance of their c.G. from these two edges.
11 inches.

One distance

masses

is

givenby

-^1x2+2x4+3x6+4x8+5x10

''~

1 + 2 + 3 + 4+5

=7J
y=8J
Similarly

inches.

inches.

'

CENTRE

121

GRAVITY.

OF

Ex. 3.

to 3, 4 and 5 are placedat

Weights proportional
whose side is of lengtha, find the
equilateral
triangle
c. g. from the first weight.

of an
their

about a line throughA

moments
the weightat A has no moment
about this

Take

4x:^a + 5x^a

to
parallel

BC

the corners
distance of

then since

we
fine,
get

3^/3

12

Similarly
takingmoments

about

to BC,
AD, the perpendicular

^^2~^^2

.-.

4(?

nearly.
V^^2=V(9^!"la=-6a

Ex. 4. To find the c.G. of the

three rods of uniform section.
Let

perimeterof

formed by
triangle

be the middle pointsof the sides of the

from A,
being the perpendiculars

J),E,

then ", ff,r

B ana v on the

(i) EF,
CA

'24'

12

and AB

we
sides,
opposite

and

FD

DE

are

know

that

ABC,
triangle
^

to BC,
parallel

respectively,

from
D, E, F in
(ii)the perpendiculars
EF, FD and DE are \p, \q and \r respectively.

may suppose the weight of each rod to

middle point,hence taking moments
its
act at
the distance of the c. G. from EF,

D
Fia.

77.

EF,

we

We

about

get as-

BC-^CA+ABBut

ABC=S;
iyOx5C=area of triangle
Of

from

EF

equals

^c+CA+AB

"

hence

the distance of the

c.G.

122

THE

In the

same

way

t;he sides ED

and

be shown

it may

DF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

that the distances of the

also be shown

may

c.e.

from

equal vQiQ^ij^jg

to

I)"F
triangle

since its distances from the sides of the

it
"equal is the centre of its inscribed circle.

hence

'"

are

all

XXV.

EXAMPLES,

are
placedat the
respectively
lbs.
8
of
are
placedbetween
corners
a square,
weights
1, 6, 7,
and 3 lbs.,
the
2
of
between
the
weights
them, viz. the weight1 halfway
and so on.
weight of 6 lbs. halfwaybetween the weightsof 3 and 4 lbs.,

1.

Weights

of

2, 3,

Find the
2.

4 and

c. g.

of aU the

weights.

Find the distance of the

square

Three equaluniform
; find their c. G.

4.

are
Equal particles

3.

hexagon,find the
5.

5 lbs.

and

of

c. G.

rods

are

Weightsof 1,2,3, 4, 5

hexagonfrom

placedso

placedat

of their
position

regularhexagon,find their

of half

as

to form

its base.

three sides of

vertices of

of the

regular

C. G.

and 6 lbs. are

placedat

the vertices of

c. G.

Squares are described on the three sides of an isosceles rightfind the c. G. of the complete
angledtriangle,
figureso formed.
6.

table. The
above
another
a
on
the edge of the table,the next 2 inches
4 inches over
projects
the
the
next
lowest,
beyond
^ an inch beyond the second,the uppermost
1 inch beyond the third. Each book is 16 inches in breadth and
Find the
to the edge of the table.
length and has an edge parallel
7.
lowest

Pour

books

distance of the

c. g.

are

placed one

of the 4 books from

the

edge.

Find the c. G. of a figure

in the shape of
the
sides
of
small
uniform
thickness
lid,
being
inches
14
being
long.
8.

127.
Divide

C.G.

the

of the

cubical box without a

an
edgeof the box

and

tetrahedron.

tetrahedron

thin plates
indefinitely
to the base BOB, PQR being
parallel

one

into

of them.
,

The c.G. of the triangular

plate
P
the
liesin
line
PQR
joining to 8
the middle pointof QR, Art. 120.

line AK,

where

The pointssuch as P for the

different platesall lie in the line
AB, the pointssuch as S lie in the
is the middle pointof CI). Art. 120.

CENTRE

Hence

123

GRAVITY.

the

planethroughAB
platesand hence of the

of all the
In

OF

and AK
contains the
whole tetrahedron.

C.G.

similar way

show that the C.G. of the tetrahedron

we
may
lies in all the planeswhich pass throughan edge
tetrahedron and the middle point of the opposite
it is therefore the point of intersection of these

of the

edge;
planes.
Again,suppose

equalweightsplacedat A, B, G and
D, the C.G. of the weightsat. C and D is at K, hence the C.G.
of the four weights
lies in the planethroughAB and AK.
it is seen
to lie in any planethroughan
Similarly
edge
and the middle pointof the opposite
edge.
Thus
the

four

the tetrahedron

and

the four

equalweightshave

C.G.

same

But

have seen, Art. 119, that the C.G. of three equal

BGD,
weightsat B, C and D is at G' the C.G. of the triangle
and also of the tetrahehence the C.G. of the four weights,
dron,
is at ff,where
we

Ag

the line

it lies f of the way down

face.
C.G. of the opposite
or

128.

particles

Equivalent

SgQ,

for

any

joininga

vertex

plate.

platehas the same

triangular
J of its weightplacedat its vertices.
Hence the weight of the triangle
by
may be replaced
each J of its weight actingat its
three particles
We

have
each
particles

seen

that

to the

c.g.

the

as

three

weightsof

vertices.
Hence

form, if

in
we

replacethe
weightseach

findingthe

c.g.

plateof any
we
triangles
may
three
triangle
by
of

it into
weightsof each
J of it actingat its vertices.

divide

figurerepresentedis a thin plate of

by the polygon ABCDEF.
weight w bounded
Let E be its c. a., joinK to the vertices.
The

Then
we

may

B and K

AKB, BKC,
denotingthe weightsof the plates
replacethe weightw^ by
respectively.

...

hjWi,w^,

...

of weight-J actingat A,
particles

124

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

for the other triangular

plates.We thus have weights
Similarly
^^^ ^" o"'
^^ "^"
i{w^+Wi) at A, ^(w^+w^)at B, J(w2+'"'3)
togetherwith
J (wi+m'2+...+Wg),or ^w, at K.
is iT;
or the c. G. of the plate,
The centre of all these parallel
forces,
the
of
the
at
K
the
at
tices
verand since one of them ^w acts
c. G.
weights
is also K.
129.

CO.

of

pyramid whose

standing

pyramid

on

is 0 stands

vertex

polygon.

plane

any

the base formed

on

by

the

polygonABCDEF.
Let K

be the

of the base.

c. g.

Join K

to the vertices of the base.

to 0 and

The

of the

c. g.

the tetrahedra

pyramid is

OKAF,

OKBA,

the

c. G.

of

...

in findingthe c. G. the weightof

each tetrahedron may be replaced
by four
Also

each
particles

equal to J

of its

weight

actingat its vertices.

Henxje if W is the weightof the whole
the weightsof the
pyramid and W,, Ifj
tetrahedra we thus get weights
...

iW"tO;

^WsLtK;

weights
i (W^+ W^) at 4, i (Tfi+Tfa)at B, "c.

and

And

weights W-i,W^
is to the weightsw^,

heightthe

same

BKC,

that

...

...

since the tetrahedra are all of the

to the areas
proportional
AKB,
last
of
article.
w^
are

...

that the weights at the vertices ji,-B,

Hence we have justseen
is \ W.
have K for their c. G., and their sum
...

Hence

the

weights,one
The

c.G.

weight of
W

at 0 and

of these is

the whole

^W

one

pointGin

pyramid

may

be

replacedby

two

3,t K.

AK

such that

ZQK=^OK,

Oa=iOK.
pyramid is therefore j

or

The c. G. of the
the vertex to the
130.

We

CO.

of

any

c.G.

of the way

down

the line joining

of the base.

pyramid.
the number

of sides of the polygon in the last

may
suppose
thus giving a curvilinear base. The
article to increase indefinitely,
resiiltthen becomes

the c.G.
down

whose
of a fiyramAd

the line joining

the vertex

hose is any closed cwrve

to the c.G. of the hose.

is

f of the

way

126
132.

ELEMENTS

THE

Sector

of

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

circle.

Let the sector be divided into

greatnumber
indefinitely

an

equal sectors.

of these

Each

of small
small sectors

whose
c.G.
may be regardedas a triangle,
therefore lies f of the way down the radius.
of all the small sectors lie on
of a circle whose radius is ^OA, and
an
arc
of the whole sector may be supposed
the mass
uniformlydistributed over this arc.

The

c.G.s

if G is the

Hence

sin
Fig.

133.

Let

Zone

the

"

_^

80.

of

c.G.

of the sector
chord

OAx

AB

sphere.

hemisphereA

between
they intercept

CB

them

be cut
a

by

two

to
planesparallel

portioncalled

The

zone.

its

base,
planesalso

whose base is the

them a zone
on
a circular cylinder
that
that
these two zones
of
the
We
shall
shew
same
as
hemisphere.
and the same
have the same
area
c.G.
between
intercept

Fig.

81.

For take two

planesvery near together,

theywill intersect on the
sphereand cylindertwo elementary zones or belts. One elementary
is producedby the revolution oiPQ about 00 and the other by the
zone
revolution oiP'Q'. Let R be the middle pointof PQ, join OR and draw
to OA.
The arc PQ may be regardedas straight,
RS parallel
and since
the triangles
PKQ and OSR are similar we have

P9^0R
and

Now
the

RS

PK

the belt on the sphere may he regardedas

of its surface is therefore equal to
area

the slant side x

mean

of

Pqx%-^R8

27r0^xJ'Z,from(i)

%iTOAy.Pq
of belt

truncated cone,

boundingperimeters,

=area

on

cylinder.

'"

CENTRE

Hence

the

Thus the
have the same

of the belts

areas

the

on

127

GRAVITY.

OF

are
equal.
sphereand cylinder

elementaryzones
corresponding
have
also the same
areas, they

on

the

sphereand cylinder

c.G., viz.S.

To find the o. G. of the entire spherical

belt we suppose the weights
of the elementary
to
act
at their c. ".s in the line 00, and then
zones
find the c. ". of these weights.
But

have

just seen that we get the same

the c. G. of the cylindrical
belt.
points,
by finding
we

weightsat

the

same

Hence

have the same

the entire belts on the sphereand cylinder
c.G.
of the cylindrical
belt is halfway between the bounding
hence the c. G. of the spherical
belt is also halfwaybetween the
planes,
But

the

c.G.

boundingplanes.
For

134.

the
hemisphere,therefore,

Sector

of

c. G.

is

halfwaydown

the radius.

spbere.

greaternumber
givensector be divided into an indefinitely
the
equal pyramids,by dividing
cal
spheriand joinsurface into small equalareas
ing
Let the

of

their boundaries

to 0.

The c. G. of each of these pyramidslies

of the way down the corresponding
radius,
t. 129.
Hence
cap
be

abc and

all lie on
of the
mass

c.G.s

the

supposed to

be

spherical

sector

may

uniformly distributed

this cap.

over

the

that the c.
But we have seen
cap is halfwaybetween m and

of such
b,hence if G is the

G.

o. G.
required

0G=

For

Om+^mb,
=iOM+%MB,
=1{0M+0B).
hence 00=%OB.
hemisphereOJ/" vanishes,

EXAMPLES.

XXVI"

A square of cardboard is divided into four equalsquares,

the squares being cut out, find the c. G. of the remainder.
1.

one

of

If their
line ABOD.
lie in a straight
Four equalheavy particles
the
is
find
when
c.G.
mutual distances are a, ar, ar^ respectively, r
ate.
2.

128

THE

3.

ELEMENTS

square and at the middle pointsof the sides

7 lbs. and 8 lbs.,
6 lbs.,
4 lbs.,
5 lbs.,
3 lbs.,
lbs.,
the periround
order
meter,
angularpoint and going on in

At each

angleof

placedweights1

are

beginningat
and

an

lb.,2

weightof 8 lbs.is placedat the intersection of the diagonals.

Find their

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

c. ".

Weights 5, 4, 6, 2, 7, 3 are placedat

hexagontaken in order,find their c. ".
4.

5.

ABC

is

find
triangle,
OC

and

by OA, OB

the

of

corners

point0 in it such that

equilibrium.

regular

forces represented

shall be in

of a quadrilateral
coincides with that of four equal
show that the quadrilateral
weightsat the vertices of the quadrilateral,
is a parallelogram.

If the

6.

c. G.

A uniform
lengthwhich are

rod is broken into two

7.

then

five and

to form the letter

positionof the c. G.

placedso

find the
portionbeingvertical,

partsof

as

square is bisected by a line through its centre

anglewith the sides ; find the c. G. of either half.
8.

seven

inches

T, the longer

making a given

If weights1,2,3,4,5 and 6 are situated at the angles

of a regular
the
distance
of
their
from
the
of
the
centre
c. Q.
hexagon
circumscribing
circle is f of the radius.
9.

Five

10.

of

masses

1, 2, 3, 4,

ounces

are
weight respectively

edge of the table

square table. Their distances from one
10
and
from
the
inches
are
2,4, 8,8,
edge 3,5, 7,9, 12 inches.
adjacent
Find the distance of their c.g. from the two edges.
placed on

From

11.

moved

body

of

weight W

distance x; .show that the

distance

pieceof weight w is cut off and

a
o.G. of the whole is therebymoved
a

in that direction.

r^

Prove

12.

that

the

c.G.

coincides with
quadrilateral
the
middle
joining
pointsof

is a rightangle,
AB is 7J inches
ABG
angle5 of a triangle
whose
inches,at A, B and C are placedparticles
weights
and
to
5
the
distance
of their
find
6
proportional 4,
respectively,

13.

and
are

c. G.

of four equalweights at the anglesof a

the c.G. of the parallelogram
formed by
the sides.

BC

The
is 12

from
14.

B.
Three

forces

PC divergefrom the pointP and three

to the pointQ ; show that the resultant of

PA, PB,

others AQ, BQ, GQ converge

the six is represented
in magnitude and direction

by SPQ.

A rod 12 feet long has a weight of 1 lb. suspendedfrom one

15.
end and when 15 lbs. are suspendedfrom the other end it balances at a
point3 feet from that end,while if 8 lbs.are suspendedthere it balances
at a point 4 feet from that end.
Find the weight of the rod and the
of
position

its

c. q.

CENTRE

16.

ABCB

so

in

the

of

uniform
that

Two

velocities

heavy

and

18.

the

least

is

CB,

to

sides

the

in

made

22.
of

up

circle
radius

position

obtuse
AC

side

from

parts

the

in

of

with

point

G.

c.

moves

angled

ratio

different
it

if

as

va.

from

the

C, stands

at

were

will

the

it

show

is

and

the

that

the

other

show

diagonal,

table

table,

overturn

bisects

bisecting

on

the

with

contact

quadrilateral

point

the

of

c.g.

the

of

of

the

rectangle

radius

B;

find

when

the
r

double

are

triangle

is

and

rectangle

of

which

between

distance

is

AB

the

parallel

2AB+CB.

equilateral

an

in

ABCB,

trapezium

perpendicular

AB-\-%CB:

sides
side

longer

iiltimate

^C

two

point.

suspended

of

divides

ratio

Two

21.

circle

into

parallelogram.

that

Show

20.

which

middle

the

parallel

figure

quadrilateral

it

cuts

divides

their

same

ABC,
the

diagonal

one

at

plate

that
the

from

having

weight

quadrilateral

the

BD

c.g.

together

Show

projected

plane

If

be

G.

of

form

the

it and
its

that

projected

are

elevations.

triangular

vertical

19.
c.

bodies

particle

that

Show

1.

in

out

bisects

4.

is

plate
AC

diagonal

of

ratio

17.

in

metallic

the

129

GPIAVITY.

OF

increases

described

find

and

two,
the

c.

of

G.

on

the

triangle.

touches
c.g.

other

the

of

internally
of

and

the

area

becomes

at

fixed

between

ultimately

point
them,
equal

fixed

and
to

its

R.

CHAPTER

FORCES

to

produce no
The

line of action.

same

136.

Equilibrium

When

three

of action

lines

forces
equaland opposite

is that of two

simplestcase

having the

EQUILIBRIUM.

IN

as
forces act on
a
body in such a manner
motion they are said to be in equilibrium.

When

135.

IX.

of

forcesin

meet

in

plane
point.

one

one

in

forces

three

are

in

one

plane.

their
equilibrium

"Q

+R

Fig.

the

For

resultant

supposedto
but
the

act

third

of action

In

of R

the

resultant
to
parallel

is
P

have

must

R, since there

must

case

of the forces P

at the intersection

this resultant
force

of two

83.

when

pass

the
is

line of action

same

hence
equilibrium,

as

the line

through 0.

the

parallelto
and Q.-

may be
of their lines of action,
and

forces P

them

and

and
hence

are

their
parallel

also R

must

be

FORCES

IN

Ex. 1. A uniform rod AB

is
with a smooth
wall
vertical
AC,
show that AB will be horizontal.
Since the rod is uniform
middle pointof J 5.
The

131

EQUILIBRIUM.

the

suspendedwith
by a stringCE.
weightacts

its end

in contact

If AE

is=^AB,

at its

forces
of the

actingon the rod are, its weight,the

string,and the reaction of the wall
is
to the wall).
(which perpendicular
tension

Two of these forces,

viz. the weight and the tension of the string,
pass through E, hence also the
reaction of the wall must
pass throughE, or AE
i.e. horizontal.
to the wall,
must be perpendicular
Ex. 2.

^=

""

Fio. 84.

turn round a fixed hingeat A and the end B

can
smooth
vertical wall. Find the reaction of the wall
and the reaction of the hinge,the weight of the rod being 10 lbs.,
its
length18 inches,and the distance of the hingefrom the wall 6 inches.

rests

rod AB

againsta

through the middle pointof

weightof the rod acts vertically
wall
acts
",
of
to the
the
the
reaction
along BB perpendicular
AB,
lines
of
action
of
these
of
the
forces.
wall,let J) be the intersection
The
We see that B',the reaction of the hinge,must pass throughB.
the
to
forces.
Art.
ABE
78.
sides of the triangle
axe
proportional
The

R_AB

B_EA

Hence

^^,

-^^.

BE=BF=s/AB^-AF^='^l%^-"=l"il,J%;
AB
-v/297!
V9+(12v/2)2=

EA==^AF=Z;

V2

Thus

,"

iS=10x

12^2
^'

10

10

1 '8 lbs. weight nearly.

\/297
12 V^
=

10'3 lbs. weightnearly.

132

THE

137.

ELEMENTS

OF

and

Stable, unstable,

When

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

equilibrium.

neutral

of
from its position
displaced
body is slightly
rest the forces which
act upon it may
in its new
position
it stillfurther
restore it to its former position
remove
or may
from that position.
a

In the former
the latter unstable.

case

the

is called stable, in
equilibrium

with
Instances of stable equilibrium
are, a cube resting
face upon a horizontal plane,or a weighthangingby

a
a

string.
A
or

of unstable
cube balanced on
case

is in a
equilibrium
of its edges.
one

When

the body remains

is called Neutral.
equilibrium

at

Instances are a sphere,

or
horizontal
on
a
plane.
All

the

kinds

of

"

top-heavy body,

rest in its

new

with
cylinder

its end

the
position
its axis horizontal,

in
exemplified

equilibriumare

cases
:
following
(i) an egg standingon

"

is in unstable

in one
(ii) lyingon its side for displacements
its equilibrium
is stable,
in another neutral.
138.

Case

of

heavy

body

with

one

the

brium,
equili-

direction

point fixed.

Pio.

When

since there are

heavybody has one pointfixed,
onlytwo forces actingupon it,viz.its weightand the forceat
the fixed
for equilibrium
must
have these two forces
we
point,
line,which must therefore be vertical,
actingin the same
since the weightacts vertically.
a

134

THE

140.

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

of forces

Equilibrium

MATHEMATICS.

actings

at

point.

of equilibrium
offorceswhich act at a point
sum
algebraic
of the resolved parts oftheforcesin
directions should be zero.
different

The condition
is that the

each

of two

For the sum

of the resolved parts of the forces in any
direction is equalto the resolved part of their resultant in
that direction. See p. 68.
And

the resolved part of a force is zero in

the direction perpendicular
to it).
(viz.

tion
onlyone direc-

Hence
if the resultant force has its resolved partsin two
different directions each zero it must be itselfzero.
Another way of stating
that the resultant should be zero
has been alreadygiven,
should
viz. that the force-polygon
be closed. Art. 79.
Notice that having once
ascertained a set of forces to
be in equilibrium,
know that the algebraic
of their
sum
we
resolved parts in a/ny direction is zero, since it equalsthe
resolved part of the (zero)
resultant in that direction.
Ex.

Four

forces act at

point0, viz.

forces of

8, 10 and

12 lbs.

with a line OA, and a

making anglesof 30",60" and 150" respectively
force of 4 lbs. making an angleof 30" with OA measured in the opposite
direction. Find what forces must
act alongand perpendicular
to OA
to produceequilibrium.

Fio.

The

87.

components along OA of the forces

are

8x^,10x112x^,4x^.

Art. 76.

These

are

to
equivalent

force

along OA

of 5 lbs.

FORCES

The

IN

135

EQUILIBRIUM.

to OA
components perpendicular

are

-4x1.
8x1,10xf,12x^,
These

are

equivalentto

To produceequilibrium
we
alongand perp. to OA.

141.

Equilibrium

force of 8 + 5
must

of

any

^3 lbs.

have forces

number

lbs.,
-

of forces

^3 lbs.

in

one

plane.
The conditions of equilibrium
for.any number
of forces
whose lines of action lie in one plane,
are
as follows :
The algebraic
sum
directions must vanish.

(i)
two

of their resolved parts in

some

of their moments
about some
sum
(ii) The algebraic
pointin the planemust vanish.
For any forces in one
plane can be replacedby either
a force
or a couple.Art. 112.
The givenforces cannot
be replaced
because
by a force,
in that case
would
be
since
the resolved
not
satisfied,
(i)
is
in
the
direction perpendicular
zero
to
only
part of a force
itself.
be replaced
The givenforces cannot
because
by a couple,
then (ii)
would not be satisfied,
since the moment
of a couple
about every pointin its planeis the same
and not zero.
Hence the givenforces have neither
therefore in
a resultant coupleand are
above conditions are sufficient.

resultant force nor

and the
equilibrium,
a

1. If one
pointin the body is fixed the condition of equilibrium
is that the resultant of aU the forces should pass throughthe

CoR.

fixed point.
For then
motion.

there

wiU

be

no

which
rotation,

is the

only possible

shall
OoR. 2. In applyingthe above conditions of equilibrium
we
the
in
notice that the work is simplified
forces
directions
by resolving
to forces not requiredto be found, and
by taking
perpendicular
about some
moments
pointon the line of action of a force which is not

Inquiredto be found.
forces are in
that when
conditions
resultant force or couple,
no
for aroy direction and any point.

Observe

i.e. have
equilibrium,
satisfied
are
(i)and (ii)

136

ELEMENTS

THE

142.

Second

APPLIED

OF

set

MATHEMATICS.

of conditions

of

conditions of
alternative to those of the last Article:
The

three
following

equilibrium.

are
equilibrium

an

A set offorces
in one planeare in equilibrium
ifthe sum,
about each of three pointsin the
is zero
of their moments
planewhich are not in one straight line.
For
or

any

set

of forces

can

be

replaced
by either

force

couple.

The givenforces cannot be replaced

by a force,since its
line of action cannot
which it
pass through all the points,
would have to do in order that its nioment about each should
The givenforces cannot
be replaced
be zero.
by a couple,
since the moment
of a coupleis zero about no point.
Hence
may

the forces must be in equilibrium.

we
Similarly
the following
:.
prove, as conditions of equilibrium,

The

of the

sum

vanish,and the
direction not

about each

moments

of two pointsshould

resolved parts vanish in some

one
the points.
perpendicular to the line joining
su/ni

of the

The

student should notice carefully

that ifthe forces are
the sum
in equilibrium,
of their moments
about any point
is zero, and the sum
of their resolved parts in any direction
is zero.
143.
The

Examples.

of the above conditions is best understood

to illustratetheir use.
examples;we add the following
use

from

A ladder AB rests against

tlieside of a house and is inclined
the ground. The pressure of the ladder againstthe wall
beingequalto a force of 60 lbs.and the friction at the same placebeing
find the vertical pressure and friction at the
equalto a force of 40 lbs.,
where
the
ladder
rests
the ground. Find also the weightof
on
point
the ladder.
Ex.

at

1.

60" to

The forces at the foot of the ladder are the vertical pressure B and
the force of friction F, notice that F acts horizontally
and its direction
is

oppositeto

friction. Let
The

sum

.that in which
motion
would
W be the weightof the ladder.

of the horizontal forces must

m-F

or

occur

if there

were

no

be zero, hence

i?'=601bs. wt

(1).

FOBCES

Also the

IN

of the vertical forces is zero, hence

sum

W=0

^+40The

algeb.sum

of the moments

(2).

of the forces about

the ladder,
is zero, hence if I be the
of W about this pointis

lengthof

W.BB=Wxl^i
2
2
this moment

The

is

the

B, the foot

ladder,the

of

moment

W--,

negative.
of the forces at A

moments

and

60 x^^

these moments

i3r

EQUILIBKIXIM.

are

40

BE,

positive.Hence

are

or

60

x'^

and

takingthe

40

sum

60f+40|-Tr^

"(3),

=0

Tr=40(2 + 3V3).

or

Hence

this
inserting

value in
i?=40

that F
pass through it.

Observe

Ei.

2.

rod AB

and

can

is supportedat "
pointin the wall at C.

and

at the

The

have

no

about

moment

B,

since

they both

pivotfixed in a wall
horizontal stringwhich is fastened

timi

by

(2)we get
(1+ 3^/3).

about
freely

Find the tension of the

stringand

point.
distance .46'is 8 inches and BC

6 inches.

at
to

Ay
a

the reaction

138

ELEMENTS

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

Let the reaction R of the pivot have for its horizontal and vertical
sion
components the forces X and Y, let T be the tenof the stringand W the weightof the rod.
b
of the horizontal forces

Since the sum

the rod is zero,

X-T=0,
since the

sum

or,

actingon

X=T,

of the vertical forces

the

actingon

rod is zero,
YHence

W=Q,

or,

Y=

W.

Ii="JX^+Y^=^/W+W^

Again,the

sum

of the moments

of the forces about A is zero, therefore

Tx8-

(sincethe

perp. distance of W

(1).

TFx3=0,

from

A is =jBC)
W

y=f

or,

in (1)from (2)we
Substituting
i

64

+ i^

Notice that the direction of R

of the forces T and W.

(2).

get

!l^W=l-01W
nearly.
must

pass

through the intersection

Ex. 3. A uniform rod AB is pivotedat C and rests

C and D beingequidistant
from its middle point.
Find the least

weightplacedat

one

end which

will

on

peg at

D,

justliftit offthe

peg 2).
R

G C
-u"

+W
Fig.

90.

Let W be the weight of the rod,w the

the reaction at D, and the distance of A
point 12 and 2 inches respectively.
R

Take

moments

about

O, we

weightplacedat
and

C from

the end

A,

the middle

have

I0w-2W+4R=0.
Now
when
the weight w is
with J) we have jB=0 ;
.-.

just sufficient to take

10w-2TF=0,

or

w=\

W.

the rod from

tact
con-

FORCES

IN

139

EQUILIBRIUM.

Ex. 4. Two equal weightsW connected by a

smooth pegs A and B in the same
horizontal line ;
of the string
find the pressure on each

string
hang over two
the weight
neglecting

peg.

W
Fig.

The tensions in the

91.

of stringCA
portions

the

and AB
of two

are

hence
equal,

equal forces each

pressure on the peg A is the resultant
W
to
at
this
resultant
equal
acting rightangles;
equals\/2W which
therefore
the pressure on the peg A and similarly
is
is also the pressure
the peg B.
on
Ex.

A solid cube of wood

rests on a table,
of its lower
one
edges AB is fixed to the table so that the cube can turn round it.
The
cube is pulledby a horizontal string
which is fastened to the
middle point of the edge CD, the stringbeing perpendicular
to GD.
Find the least tension in the string
which
will just make
the cube
The length of an edge of the cube is
begin to turn about AB.
10 inches.
5.

Fig.

92.

it will only touch the table

When
the cube is just being moved
the
its
cube
forces
AB.
The
on
weight,the tension of the
are,
along
stringand the reaction of the edgeAB, which will act at the middle
point 0 of AB and in the plane passingthrough the stringand the
centre of the cube.

Take

moments

about

0, then

if T is the tension of the

rxlO-Trx5=0,

or

string

T=\W.

of the same
Ex. 6. Two circular cylinders
lengthare placedat the
them
and
in
is
a third cylinder
bottom of a long box,
contact,
upon
and
placed. Find the pressure between the upper and lower cylinders,
the sides of the box and the lower cylinders,
the pressures between
there beingno mutual pressure between the lower cylinders.

140

ELEMENTS

THE

figurerepresentsthe vertical

The

throughthe
The

pressures

of the

middle

tion
sec-

cylinders.

alongthe lines of
and
in this plane,

have resultants
in the

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

contact
presented
re-

are

figure.

sections are A, B
pressure of the upper
is -S,,of the lower
and lower cylinders
with the sides and bottom of the
cylinders
The

centres

of the

and

C ; the mutual

box

are

R and R

respectively.

Fio. 93.

lower cylinders
given
mutual
have no
pressure, or that ^i 0. Let
W, W, and w the weightsof the cylinders.
It

that

is

the

the

For the

of
equilibrium

2^2 sin a
For either of the lower
R

"

the upper
"

be a;

cylinder.
R,
^

w.

angle CAB

2 sin

"

cylinders,
R2cosa

0,

.'.

R=^woota,

.".R'=W+'^.

R2sraa+W-R'=0,

smooth
Ex. 7. A stringpasses over
two
pegs at A and B and
sustains equalweights W at its ends,a weightw is attached to a small
ringwhich slides on the part of the stringbetween A and B ; when the
system has taken up a positionof equilibriumfind the inclination of
the bent parts of the stringto the vertical.

If 6 is this
throughoutand

since
inclination,
to
equal T, say,
2T

hence

the tension

cos

cos

of the

stringis the

same

6==w,
T=W,
5

2W
Ex.
jointA

A rod AB

of

length 2a! and weight w is connected with a

one
end,a stringof lengthI is fastened to the jointand to
the surface of a smooth
a pointon
sphere of radius r and weightW.
The rod and sphere lean againsteach other ; in the position
of equilibrium
8.

at

find the inclination of the rod to the vertical and

of the

string.

the tension

142

ELEMENTS

THE

or, from

MATHEMATICS,

APPLIED

OF

(4),
tan asm

^^

6=

cos

hence

If tana
tan 6=

"

tana+

7-

Thus

6 is

to W
and hence T.' which is equal
found,
'
^

EXAMPLES.

cos

XXVII.

motion
in a vertical plane round
that
of
the square is suspendedat
half
a weight
find
the
positionof equilibrium.
adjacentangularpoint;
1.

is

square

capableof

angularpoint,and

an
an

A ball of radius one

foot and weight 8 lbs. is fastened by a
its surface and 8 inches long to a smooth
to
attached
a
on
string
point
vertical wall ; find the pressure on the wall and the tension of the
2.

string.
3.

Two

within

equal heavy spheresof

smooth
between
pressure
between the two
4.

If forces

quadrilateral
are

spherical
cup
the cup and

one

1 inch

radius are in equilibrium

that the
3 inches radius. Show
of the spheresis double the pressure

of

spheres.
A, B, C, D actingalong the
in

equihbrium,
prove

sides a,

b, c, and

rf of

that

AG_BB
hd

ac

'

whose
ABC
weight is 33 lbs. lies partlyon a table,
triangle
the vertex C projecting
beyond the edge a distance of 10 inches ; if the
distance of the c. g. from the edge of the table is 2 inches,find the
least weight which placedat C would overturn it.
5.

uniform
lamina
of 3 lbs. weight
ABC
equilateral
triangular
in a vertical plane about a hinge sX B; it is supportedwith
the side AB horizontal by a smooth
prop at the middle point of BG.
Find the pressure on the prop and the reaction at the hinge.
6.

can

turn

7.

A pair of compasses
each of whose legsis a uniform
bar of
W
is
smooth
weight
supported,hingedownwards,by 2
pegs at the
middle
horizontal line,the legs being
point of the legs in the same
rod joining
their extremities ;
kept apart at the angleAhj s, weightless
find the thrust on the rod.
8.

uniform

by a
stringbe

sphererests

horizontal

attached

on

string.To

smooth
inclined plane and is ported
supwhat pointof the spheremust the

FORCES

IN

143

EQUILIBRIUM.

Two equalweights W are attached to the extremities of a thin

stringwhich passes over three tacks in a wall arrangedin the form of
with the base horizontal,
isosceles triangle
the vertical angleat the
an
tack
find
each
tack.
the pressure on
being120",
upper
9.

A straightrod two feet long is moveable about a hinge at

end and is kept in a horizontal position
by a thin vertical string
attached
to the rod at a distance of 8 inches from the hinge and
fastened to a fixed pointabove the rod ; if the stringcan justsupport
without
find the greatestweight that
a weight of 9 ozs.
breaking,
be suspendedfrom the other end of the rod,the rod weighing
may
10.

one

ozs.

A thin ringof radius R and weightW is placedround a vertical

of radius r and is preventedfrom falling
by a nail projecting
cylinder
from
the
the cylinder
Find
the
between
horizontally
cylinder.
pressure
and the ring.
11.

A piece of wire of weight 4 ozs. is bent to form the sides

is attached to B
of an equilateral
a weight of 1 oz.
triangle,
the wire is suspendedfrom A, show that in the positionof equilibrium
BC is horizontal.

12.

CB

AC,
and

at a given inclination a to a wall by a

stringattached to the middle of the top side and to the wall. Find
the inclination of the stringto the wall,having giventhat the reaction
makes an angleof 45" with the wall.
A

13.

pictureis

to

hang

vertical wall
length a hangs against a smooth
suspendedby a stringof length I tied to one end of the rod and to
rest inclined to the vertical
a pointin the wall;prove that the rod may
A

14.

rod

of

l^

"

at

an

cos'^6=

angle6 where

a^
^

"

"

A rod of weight W rests againsta smooth incUned planeAB

and a smooth vertical planeBB (B beinghigherthan A). A stringis
a pulleyat B
attached to the lower end of the rod,and passingover
supports a weight P. If d be the inclination of the rod (inequilibrium)
15.

to the horizon

16.

and

that of the

plane,cot

/P

sec

^-

sm

of uniform thickness and of

pointof AB, about which it can

board ABCD
heavy rectangular

is supportedat the middle

freelyin a vertical plane. Weights P, Q (P"Q) are attached by
to the corners
B, D and hang freely.Prove that in the position
strings
the inclination of J -B to the horizon will be
of equilibrium

weight W
turn

where

and h

are

the

lengthsof

the sides

AB, AD

of the

rectangle.

144

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

17. A hollow vertical cylinder,

radius 2a, height3a, rests upon a
horizontal table ; a rod is placedwithin it with its lower end at the
circumference of the base,the rod rests upon the oppositepointof the
How
over.
long must the rod be in order that
upper rim and projects
it may cause
the cylinder
to toppleover, the rod and cylinder
beingof
equalweight?
18.

heavy

uniform

rod

of

length 2a

without a smooth
hemisphericalbowl
partly
inclination to the horizon of the rod

rests partlywithin and

of radius r; if ^ be the

Sj-cos 2d=acosd.

lamina rests inside a smooth hemispherical

19. A heavy triangular
bowl ; prove that the pressures at the three angularpointsare equal.

end againstthe junction

20. A uniform beam rests with a smooth
of the ground and a vertical wall ; it is supportedby a stringfastened
to the other end of the beam and to a staplein the vertical wall. Find
the tension

of the string,
and show that it will be equal to half the
of
the
beam
if
the
weight
lengthof the stringis equalto the heightof
the staple
above the ground.

A cylindrical
tube of mass
M stands uprighton the ground.
equal smooth spheresare placed within it,one restingon the
ground and the other supportedby the cylinderand the other sphere.
If the mass
of either sphere be m, its radius a, and the radius of the
cylinderf a, show that the cylinderis on the point of topplingover
21.

Two

providedthat

2m=3M.

Three equalstrings
of no sensible weight are knotted together
the equilateral
triangleABO, and a weight W is suspended
If the triangle
and weight be supportedwith BC horizontal
of
each at the angle of 135" to BC, prove that
two strings,
by means
W
the tension in BC is
-^ (3 ,^3).
22.

form
from A.
to

Two

23.
over

two

equalweightsof
pulleysA and B in

1 lb. is attached

find the

lbs. are joined by a stringpassing

the same
horizontal line. A weightof
to the middle point of the stringbetween A and B ;
112

of equilibrium.
position
Three

uniform

heavy rods AB, BC and CA of lengths5, 4 and

hinged
respectively
togetherat their extremities to form a
Prove
the
whole
that
will balance with AB
horizontal about
triangle.
wards
a
point distant 11 of an inch from the middle point of AB to24.

3 feet

.are

A.
If W be the total weight of the 3 rods in the last question
25.
prove that the vertical components of the action at the hingesA and B
when the rod is balanced are J^J W and J^ W.

FORCES

Show

IN

145

EQUILIBRIUM.

pinsof the two hingesof a door are not in

line of
line
the
door
cannot open, and if the straight
straight
the
door
is
either
not
to
vertical
wiU
tend
pins
always open or
alwaysto close.
26.

the
the

that if the

same

in magnitudeand position
If a system of forces be represented
all
but
of
of
the
sides
closed
one
a
by
polygon taken in order,their
in magnitudeto
in position
resultant will be parallel
and proportional
the remaining
and that its line of action will be at a distance from
side,
27.

that side

J.

to its length.
inversely
proportional

10

X.

CHAPTER

AND

WORK

in
144.
The

is said to do work
when its pointof application
direction not perpendicular
to that of the force.

Force

moves

of Work.

Measure

work

is the

ENERGY.

done

measure

is measured

of the force and

in the
pointof application

productF s ; where
of the
the displacement

the

by
s

direction of the force.

Fio. 100.

if

Thus

force F
and A

direction AB

acts

at

G, the work

to

comes

point J.

of

done

body, in
by F is

the

FxAC.
if the

But
which

is not in AB,
to AB.

draw

A'G

force F

force,hence
i^is
Work

the work
F"^AG

is said to be

appliedmoves
negativewhen it moves
latter

A',

dicular
perpen-

displacementof the point

in the direction of the
application

force

to

comes

is the

AG

of

of the
pointof application

is

case

done

by the force
^'"^-loi-

when
positive
in

the

direction

pointto
of the

which

the
force,and

oppositedirection. In the
it.
have work done against

in the

the force is said to

the

WORK

AND

147

ENERGY.

No work is done

force when its point

of application
the force,for here s
0. For instance
is done by the weightof a body sliding

by a
to
perpendicular

moves

work

no

horizontalplane.

alonga
145.

Unit

of

Work.

The

unit of work is that done by the unit of force in

unit distance in its direction.
moving its pointof application
The

unit of work adoptedby engineers

is the Footthe weightof a pound
Found, or the work done in lifting
throughone foot vertically.
"

This unit dependson the value of " g

at the particular
wish the corresponding
if we
absolute unit,we
use
place,
which is the work done by a poundal
the Footrpoundal
foot.
when its pointof application
one
moves
The unit used in scientificmeasurements
This is the work

done

is the Erg.

when
its point of
moves
througha centimetre. The erg beingtoo
application
small a unit for practical
replaced
by
purposes is generally
the Joule, which contains 10' Ergs.
Find

Ex.

raising ton
a

by

Dyne

of "units of work done againstgravity

in
the number
of coals througha distance of 60 yards,

i;'=20xll2,
"

work

.-.

done=20x

60x3;

EXAMPLES.
1.

must
2.

he do before

Show

10 yardsis

XXVIII.

weighing12 stone goes up a

each step. How
foot vertically

man

to rise one

foot-pounds.

112x60x3=403200

reachingthe

staircase of 30
many

stepsso as
foot-poundsof work

top?

that the work done iu raising1 cwt. through a heightof

1 lb. a height
3360 feet.
equalto the work done in raising

the number
Find the work done in drawingup a Venetian blind,
and the
of bars being50, the distance between each bar three inches,
weightof each bar four ounces.
3.

Find the work

body whose mass is m
4.

done by a force which acts for two seconds on a'

of 10 feet per second.
it a velocity
lbs.and gives

gun whose weightis one ton is drawn 100 feet alongthe

of the ground is ^th
if
the resistance due to the roughness
groimd;
the resistance.
done
work
of the weightof the gun, find the
against
5.

10"2

148

ELEMENTS

THE

146.

done

Work

APPLIED

OF

falling down

in

MATHEMATICS.

inclined

an

When
a
body falls down a smooth inclined
resistance of the plane being perpendicular
Art.
to the planedoes no work.

plane.

plane,the

144.

is equal
work done by gravity
to w
h, where w is the weight of the
body and h the heightof the plane,since
of the displacement
h, is the projection
on
The
.

the direction of

gravity.
the work done in descendingan inclined plane
dependsonly on the weightof the body and the heightof
the plane.
Hence

147.

of Work.

Rate

It is to be noticed that the work does not dependon the

time. The work done beingequalto Fs, the rate of work
of an agent is equalto
Power
or

Fj,

or

F.v.

is equalto the work

The Power of an agent, therefore,
for a unit of time,or
done by it if workinguniformly
the number

offoot-pounds
per

second.

is the power of
148.
A Horse-Power
do 33000 foot-pounds
can
per minute, or 550
second.
if H

Hence

agent which

foot-pounds
per

is the Horse-Power
Fv

the force F

an

beingmeasured

6^0H,

in lbs. weight.

In the c. G. s. system the unit of power used is a Joule per second,

10^ ergs, per second,this is called a Watt.
A horse-power
contains
about 746 Watts.
or

uniform
speed can an engine of one horse-power
of 2 tons weight,supposing
the resistance to motion to
be equalto the weightof 50 lbs. ?
Ex.

draw

Let

1.

At

what

tramcar

be the

requiredvelocity.

The rate at which

per second.

work

is done

againstresistance is 50v foot-pounds

150

THE

149.

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

Energy.

for doingwork.
Energy of a body is its capacity
The body on which work is done will be found in consequence
increased capacity
for
to have conferred upon it an
in work.
doingwork, hence a body'senergy has its origin
Energy is of two kinds,Kinetic and Potential.
The

150.

Kinetic

Energy.

The Kinetic Energy of a body is that part of its Energy

which is due to its motion ; a revolving
wheel, a train in
motion, a falling
body,all possess kinetic energy.
The
of work

of the kinetic energy of a bodyis the amount

be done by the bodybefore this energy is
can

measure

which

destroyed.
151.
The

Kinetic

is

Energy
of the

to

^mv^

body whose
v is ^mv^ foot-poundals.
velocity
measure

of

equal

K. e.

shall show that this is true when

againstits weight.
We

the

is m

and

body does

work

mass

Let the body be moving upwards with a velocity

v, we
it
will
be
know
a height
h, where
broughtto rest after rising
Art. '24.

v^=2gh,

mg is the weight of the body, hence mgh footpoundalsis the work done againstits weightbefore the
of work measures
body is broughtto rest, but this amount
the K. E., therefore
K. E. of body is
mgh foot-poundals
Now

^mv^ foot-poundals.

152.

an

Change

in Kinetic

When
a
body acted on
acceleration a, has its

Energy

equals

work

done.

by a constant force F, producing

velocity
changedfrom u to v, in

goinga distances,
2as ;

v'--u^=.

Hence

the

".

^mif ^Tnw'
"

changein the

mas

F.s.

K. E.

is equalto the work

Art. 24.

done.

WORK

Ex.
with a

AND

151

ENERGY.

1.

is 5 lbs. is thrown vertically

body whose mass
upwards
of 32 feet per second; find its k.e.,
velocity

(i) at
after one
(iii)
(i) At

the moment
second.
the

(ii)After
(iii)After
Ex.

2.

of

(ii)after
projection,

half

j^thof
If

is

second,

of

moment

the velocity
is 32,
projection
K;.B.=|mii2=2560.
half a second the velocity
is 16, .-. k.e. =640.
second the velocity
one
is 0, .". k.e.=0.

ball weighing6 lbs. is rolled

on

floor with

8 feet per second ; if the resistance of the floor to the motion

is

the pressure

on

it,how far will

hence

of
velocity
of the ball

the ball roll?

be the requireddistance,
the work done againstthe resistance
this
is
and
the
hence
to
K. b. of the ball,
equal
gfX s,

1% X

j%x32x 5=^x6x82;
.-.

s=

10 feet.

Ex. 3.
A cannon-ball whose mass
is 60 lbs. falls througha vertical
distance of 400 feet ; what is its kinetic energy?

through 400
velocity
acquiredin falling

The

second

.-.

feet is 160

feet per

K.E.=^xeOx(160)2
=768000

units of kinetic energy.

EXAMPLES.

XXX.

1. A fourteen-ton gun on beingfired recoils and is broughtto rest

by a uniform resistance equalto the weight of 3 tons. How far does
the velocity
of the ball being 1200 feet per second and
the gun recoil,
112 lbs. ?
its mass
2.
with

A ball whose
a

energy

mass

velocityof 980
of the body
(i)

at the moment

is 100 grammes
centimetres
per

of

is thrown

second

vertically
upwards

; what

is the kinetic

propulsion,

(ii)after half a second,

after one second ?
(iii)
shot of 1000 lbs. moving 1600 feet per second strikes a fixed
target;how far will the shot penetratethe targetwhich exerts upon it
an
average pressure equalto the weightof 12,000tons?
3.

4.

A ball whose

mass

of 6000 centimetres

is

10,000grammes

per second ; find its

is

dischargedwith

k. e.

city
velo-

in ergs.

is 3 lbs. is moving at the rate of 100 feet per

A ball whose mass
5.
in 2 feet 1
in 2 seconds,
second ; what force will stop it (i)
(ii)

152

THE

153.

ELEMENTS

Potential

OP

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

Energy.

The potential
energy of a system of bodies is the energy
Take the simple
which is due to their relative positions.
of which is the Earth and the other
of two bodies one
case
if this body be allowed to fallit will
its surface,
a body near
of the Earth and the
do work, thus the relative positions
body afford a capacityfor doing work. We may, as an
abbreviation,
speakof the potential
heavy
energy of a single

body.

of the potential
energy of a system is the
of work which is done in changingfrom the given
amount
relative arrangement, to some
other standard
or
configuration,
when
Returningto the above illustration,
configuration.
is m fallsto the groundfrom a height
mass
a body whose
h,
and
of
work
the
are
done,
mgh foot-poundals
configuration
from
the
is
in
which
the
of
one
changed
system
body and
Earth are separated
by a distance h, to one in which they
This last is taken as the standard configuin contact.
are
ration.
Using the abbreviation used above we may say that
the potential
and heighth is
m
energy of a body of mass
The

measure

foot-poundals.
A bent springand compressedair are also instances of
of potential
does work
systemspossessed
energy, for a spring
and compressed
air in expanding.
in straightening
mgh

154.

Conservation

of

of the
The principle
stated thus :

Energy.

Conservation

of

Energy may

be

If a body,or system of bodies,be under the action of

of the body or
forces which
depend only on the position
of the Potential and Kinetic
system of bodies,the sum
is constant.
Energies
In the

to

this is at once
to be true ;
seen
gravity
for if a body fall from a pointA, h feet from the ground,
have
a pointP, x feet from the ground,
we
v'' u''+ 2g{h-x\
w" -I-2gx
u^ + 2gh,
:
-I-mgx
^^ww^
^mw' + mgh,
the total energy at A equals
total energy at P.
case

of

or

or

WORK

AND

153

ENERGY.

It should be observed that it is incorrect to

155.

or body as possessed
of
particle

speak of

single

energy.

For as force impliesthe action of one body on another,

the energy
which is due to the stress between the bodies belongsto the pair.
Therefore althoughit may be convenient to consider one of the bodies,
usuallythe Earth,to be at rest.Kinetic Energy is due to the relative
motion
of the two bodies and Potential Energy to their relative

position.
bodies to form

Supposingthe
sire more

definitions
system the following

one

accurate.

Kinetic energy
the relative motion

is the energy which

of its parts.

Potential energy
of the
position

156.

that which

system possesses by virtue of

it possesses

in virtue of the relative

parts.

Another

expression

for

done.

virork

In Art. 144 we
that the wofk
saw
Fx AC, when
done by a force F was
its pointof application
moved a distance
AC in the direction of F.
Let

representthe force and AB

AP

draw BC perpendicular
displacement,
to AB
and PQ perpendicular
to AP
produced.
Then
B, G, P, Q are four pointson the
the

But

AP

or

done

the direction of the

same

circle.

Euc. iii. 36.

ABxAQ.
AC, is the work done, also AQis.

displacement,

x component
displacement
displacement.

of

Work

is

Fia. 103.

F x
of F in the direction of the

AG,

the component
hence work

157.

xAG

AP

Hence

resultant

equals

sum

of

of F in

works

of

components.

By the last Article,when any number of forces act at

the total work
point which undergoesa displacement,

done is
x (sum
displacement

of components of forces in direction of

displacement).
But

this is

of resultant of the
forces in direction of displacement

x component
displacement

work

of resultant of the forces.

154

THE

158.

OF

ELEMENTS

Principal

APPLIED

Work.

Virtual

of

MATHEMATICS.

the resultant is zero, or

If,in the last Article,
that the total work done by the
see
we
equilibrium,

the forces are

forces is zero.

in

is not actual but it is merelysupposedthat

When
the displacement
the work
the pointof application
of the forces receives a displacement,
is
the
and
done by any of the forces is said to be virtual,
displacement
called a virtual displacement.
of Virtual "Work states that when a set of forces are
Principal
of the virtual work of all the forces is
the algebraic
sum
equilibrium
ment.
duringthe displacezero, the forces beingsupposed to remain the same
The

in

alter duringthe
not sensibly
that the forces may
small.
taken
it
is
displacement usually
very
The displacements
the work done by the forces
that
taken so
are
which we do not wish to find does not appear, for instance if we take
the displacement
of a rigidbody such that the distances between its
the internal forces (seeArt. 85) will do no
not altered,
are
particles
To

secure

wtual

consists of a small rotation round any point

displacement
the
of
plane
bodyj it is easy to see that,if the forces are in
round the given
thus get the equation of moments
we
equilibrium,

work.

If the

in the

point.

hy the weightsof the system

is equalto
of particles
forming a bodyin any displacement
the work done by their resultant acting
at their c. e.
Let Wi, W3, W3,
be the weights
of the particles,
The

159.

work

done

...

hi,A3,hs,

...

x-i,Xi, X3,

...

be their distances from

be the

displacements.
heightof the c. G. before displacement,

if h be the
have
we
h + or. after,

Then
and

any horizontal
plane,also let

wJh

wji^+

{hi+x^+ iVi {h^+ x^+

hence subtracting,
Wi

WiflJi+ WaiCa +

which

=
...

=
.

w^ +

={Wi+Wi+

...

{Wi+

(Wi+

Wa +

...)h, Art.

103 ;

+ X),
...){h

.)^

proves the theorem.

of a particlesliding
Ex. 1. Find, the velocity
down
smooth
a
forces
The
its weightand
inclined plane.
are
actingon the particle
the pressure of the plane. This latter force is perpendicular
to the
and
work
the
does
hence
144.
Art.
no
motion.
during
plane
particle's
The

plane.

work

done

by

the

weightis mgh, where

h is the

heightof

the

WORK

The

AND

kinetic energy
particle's

155

ENERGY.

at the

top is

zero, at the bottom

at the bottom.
^v^, where v is its velocity
^Butchangein kinetic energy equalswork done,Art.
.". ^mv'^^mgh,or, v^
2ffh.

is

152.

If the particle
has an initial velocity
u, the
is
in
hence
this
case
^mv^-^mu%
energy

^m,v^ ^mu^=mgih,or,
"

Ei. 2.

v^=u^

change in

the kinetic

2gh.

Find

the heightto which a ball will rise whose mass

is 2
which is projectedvertically
with
of
a
upwards
velocity
20 metres
second
before
i
s
the
to
5
reduced
metres
velocity
per
per
second,supposingthe resistance of the air to be 10 dynes per centimetre.
and

grammes,

The

initialkinetic energy of the

Let

k centimetres

be

the

"

done
ergs, the work
hence
the
is
total
work
done
1972A ergs.
ergs,
Ihe

Hence
2 X

final kinetic

energy

required height,then

againstgravityis 1962A
".",,.,.

2000l^

body is

is

by

the

ergs.

the

work

done

resistanceis lOA

(500)2

"

ergs.

since

change in kinetic energy equalswork done,we have

2 X (500)2
(2000)2
^-=
^ ^ 1972A,from which A=1902 cms. nearly.
i

"

Ex.

3.

pit is

sunk

whose

number

this is 36

50

openingis

and which has a depth of 50 feet.

feet,
the earth,supposinga cubic foot of earth
6

The

-,"""

Eind
to

square with a side of

the work done in raising

weigh 100

of cubic feet to be raised is 36

lbs.
100 lbs.,
or 180000

The c.G. of the whole mass

is 25 feet from
done is therefore 180000 x 25 foot-lbs.

EXAMPLES.

lbs.

50, and the weight of

the surface,the work

XXXI.

of 80 feet
upwards with a velocity
body is projected
vertically
when
it
feet
has
reached
20
its
find
a
point
velocity
higher
per second,
than the pointof projection.
2.
Find the work done by an engineof a train of 360 tons weight
in going two miles starting
from rest ; the motion is on the level and
friction is ^^ of the weight,the final speedbeing45 miles per hour.
of 50 miles an hour
3. A train of 150 tons moving with a velocity
train
shut
off
to rest in 440 yards.
and
the
the
has
steam
comes
suddenly
to the train.
Find the constant force applied
whose mass
is J a lb.
4.
Find the work done by gravity
on
a stone
its
fallfrom
rest.
of
second
the
sixth
during
1.

156

ELEMENTS

THE

160.
In

of units.

Change

the

of
the method
investigate
when the
a
givenphysicalquantity
time are changedin any givenway,
units beingknown :

present Article

the
finding

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

of
units of mass, lengthand
the original
and
measure
measure

we

"

Velocity.
of a velocity
when
feet and t
a
taken as -the units of lengthand time,find its
are
when a' feet and t'seconds are taken as the units of
measure
lengthand time.
Let
seconds

With

be the

measure

formerunits
is the velocity
of a bodymovinga
velocity

unit

the

ft.in t seconds
a.

it. m

1 second
=

foot-sees.

But

is v
givenvelocity

the

times

and
this,

therefore is

"foot-sees.
X

Again,if v' is the

latter units,we
is

see

of the givenvelocity
with the
similar manner
that the givenvelocity

measure

in

v'a'
foot-secs.

"7-

Hence
number

"

"r

since each

of foot-secs.contained

of these

in the

numbers

is the

givenvelocity.

If the former units are one foot and

and the equation
to find v' becomes

one

second,a

t=

l,

v'a'
'

-f

Acceleration.
Let

be the

of a certain acceleration when a feet

and t seconds are units,find its measure
/' when a' feet and
t'seconds are units.
measure

158

THE

And

ELEMENTS

the

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

F
givenforce produces

this,hence it produces

times

foot-sees,in 1 lb. per second.

-"

it produces
Similarly
"

foot-sees,in 1 lb. per second;

"

-7^

Notice that the" unit forces are

and

-^

powndah respectively.

--^^

Momentum.
L'et M be the momentum
and M' with the latter.
In

the

former

possessed
by

lbs. moving with

of

Hence

as

"

times the

"

mo-

_M'm'a'

first unit of kinetic energy

m

lbs.

as

with

moving

possessed
by one

Hence

foot-sec.

one

Energy.

possessed
by
energy

"

foot-sec.

one

In the former units E is the measure

of kinetic energy, and E' is the measure
The

hence

before
Mma

Kinetic

is that

foot-sees,and

is therefore

lb. moving with

one

the former units

momentum

of 1 lb. moving with

givenmomentum

mentum

body with

system the unit of

times the momentum

The

of a

of a givenamount
in the latter.
is the kinetic energy

foot-sees,
or

lb. moving with

before

:kE^^W'"'""
^'2
t^

one

"^

(the

foot-sec).

WOKK

AND

159

ENERGY.

Work.
The kinetic energy is equalto the work done.Art. 152.
Hence if W and W
be the measures
of the work in the two

systems

Notice

that the

units of work

are

-g-

and

"

foot-poundals

respectively.
Power.
Let P and P' be the measures
agent in the two systems.

of

of the power

given

In the firstsystem,the unit of power is the power of

that agent which does the unit of work in t seconds,or which

does

(unitof work) in

hence it does

Thus

the

one

second ;

in
second.
foot-poundals)
(~;j
one

givenpower

does P "7^

in one
foot-poundals

second.

Hence

as

before,we

find

-p/mfa'^

ma?
p

EXAMPLES.
1.
a

What

yard and

an

is the
hour

XXXII.

of one foot per second when

of a velocity
the units of lengthand time respectively?

measure
are

Find the measure

of lengthand time are
2.

of the acceleration of
mile and a minute.

gravitywhen

the imits

of one
If the weightof a lb. is the unit of force,a velocity
of
unit
of 4 lbs.the
the mass
mass,
per second the unit of velocity,
the units of lengthand time.
3.

The units of length and time beingthe same

the unit mass
of a poundal,
find the measure
beingone
4.

as

in

lb.

yard
find

question1,

160
5.

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

centimetre
is '3937 inches and
of the dyne and
lbs.,find the measures

Having given that

weighs '0022046
gramme
in foot-lb.-secondunits.

APPLIED

the

the
erg

6. The unit force being the weightof a ton, the unit acceleration
that due to gravity,
the unit velocity
that of a body which has fallen
from rest 5 seconds,
find the units of mass, lengthand time.
7. If the unit of mass
is the mass
of a ton, the unit of momentum
that possessed
the
lb.
at
rate of one mile per hour,find
one
by
moving
the unit of velocity.
If one
poundal is the unit of force and one foot-sec.the unit of
show
that there are as many
lbs. in the unit of mass
as there
velocity,
seconds in the unit of time.
are
8.

9.

The

of

mass

rfiseconds beingtaken
n feet and
lbs.,
one
poundal.

as

units,

show that the unit force is

10. The unit of work is that required

to raise a ton
vertical
of
distance
10
the velocity
of 10 miles
a
feet,
unit of velocity,
find the unit of mass.
11.

How

12.

At

weightthrough
an

hour

is the

foot-poundsof work must be done in order to raise

many
10,000 gallonsof water from the bottom of a mine 110 fathoms deep,
and what
is the horse-powerof an
engine which can do this in 5
minutes ?
the bottom

of

275 feet deep there is an iron

cage containingcoal weighing 14 cwt.,the cage itselfweighing 4 cwt.
109 lbs. and the wire rope that raised it 6 lbs. per yard. Find the work
done when the load has been raised to the surface and the h.-p. required
to do that amount
of work in 40 seconds.
Find the h.-p.
which
a level line on
30 miles an hour.

coal-mine

of an engineable to drive a train of 100 tons on

the resistance is jj^ of the load at a speedof

13.

has to be sunk to a depth of 100 fathoms

the
of
the diameter
throughchalk,
weight a cubic foot being143-75 lbs.,
what h.-p. is requiredto lift out the material in 12
of shaft 10 feet,
workingdays of 8 hours each ?
14.

shaft
cylindrical

A tank 24 feet long,12 feet broad,16 feet deep is to be filled

15.
with water from a well the surface of which
is always at a depth of
the
bottom
of
below
the
80 feet
the
tank,find the work done in filling
of an engine that will fillthe tank in 4 hours,a
tank and the h.-p.
cubic foot of water weighing62-5 lbs.
16.

The

of

mass

metre.

its rim one

find the energy

of

is 1200 kilogrammes and the radius of

fly-wheel
the
whole mass
concentrated in the rim
Supposing
the wheel when making 7 turns a second.
a

WORK

161

ENERGY.

AND

17.

A straight
rod ACB without weighthas two particles
of equal
weightfastened to it,one at the end B and the other at the middle
pointC, and the rod can swing about A. If it be held horizontally,
and then allowed to swing,
velpcity
acquired
by
prove that the greatest
the end B will be the same
which has fallenfreely
as that of a particle
from rest througha height
=| of the lengthof the rod.
the

18.

A chain

19.

Prove that

weighing8 lbs. per foot is wound up from a shaft by

of 4,000,000units of work,find the lengthof the chain.
expenditure

will acquire
a

train of W

tons

going up

an

incline of 1 in. m

(jy---^^ gt,

and energy

velocity
*

V^

^''
2240;'

foot-tons after t seconds from rest,P beingthe pullof the

tons,and R the resistance on the level in lbs. per ton.

enginein

Find the chargeof powder required

to send a 32 lb. shot to a
of
2500
with
elevation
of
an
yards
30",supposingthe initial
range
is 1600 feet per second when the charge is half the weightof
velocity
the shot,and that the initialenergy of the shot is alwaysproportional
to the chargeof powder.
20.

Having giventhat

21.

80 feet

steamer

which

longat

will drive

the

an

engineof

speedof

similar steamer

60

h.-p.

is

requiredto drive a

knots,find the h.-p. of an engine

immersed
240 feet long and similarly

to the
at 18 knots,assuming that the resistance is proportional
wetted surface and to the square of the velocity
throughthe water.

stringpasses throughtwo small fixed ringsA and B in

the same
horizontal planeand carries equal weightsat its ends. If a
third equalweight is attached to the middle portionAB of the string
A

22.

and

fine

is let go, prove

and then ascend

to

depth="4.3

below AB

again.

Find the

23.

that it will descend

transmitted
passinground

h.-p.

600 feet per minute

of tension of the two

partsto

of
by a belt moving with a velocity
2 pulleys,
the difierence
supposing

be 1650 lbs.

of ^ a ton is driven 12 feet into the groundby

An inelasticpile
of 2 tons falling
30 feet. Prove that it would
30 blows of a hammer
120 tons in addition to drive it down
very slowly.
require
24.

sistance
is mlbs. moves
train whose mass
againsta constant reand
from
it
rest
moves
its
starts
times
to
weight;
equal p
is shut off and arrives at
with constant
acceleration till the steam
distant a from the starting
the next station,
pointin t seconds.

25.

Show
C

'""V9
-"-'2
"

J.

that
"^

the

greatesthorse-powerexerted by the train is

where C is a constant

dependingon the

units

employed.

2a

11

XI.

CHAPTER

THE

instrument

The

161.

weight or

machine.

overcome

of ropes, "c.
of the

which

kind

to

effort is

appliedto

of resistance

lift

is called

effort is spent in overcomingthe resistance

itself due to friction,
bility
flexiimperfect
Resistances
of this kind
called
are

from
distinguished

machine

162.

by
any

Part of the
of the machine

wastefulas

MACHINES.

SIMPLE

overcome,

that

which

it is the

this latter is called

object
sistance.
usefulre-

Efficiency.
ratio of the

by a machine to the
If there were
whole work done is called its efficiency.
no
be unity. In such
would
wasteful resistance the efficiency
the machine
is said to be perfect,
and this we shall
a
case
The

163.
In

Mechanical

what

means

of

greater than
mechanical
than

done

it to be.

assume

by

usefulwork

advantage.

follows it is

supposed that an appliedforce P,

machine, supports a weightQ, then any force

will

move

advantageof
unity.

Q.

The

the machine

ratio
and

-^ is
is

called the

usuallygreater

THE

164.
The

The

SIMPLE

163

MACHINES.

Simple IVIachines.
machines are the following
:
simpler
(1) The Lever,
(2) The Wheel and Axle,
(3) The Pulley,
(4) The Inclined Plane,
(5) The Screw.
Lever,

The lever consists of a rigidbar (straight

or
curved)
which can turn freely
abqut a fixed axis called the fulcrivm.

appliedforce P balances a force Q, a

beingproducedon the fulcrum.
is when the
There are three classes of levers;the first
fulcrum is between P and Q,

its
pressure R

By

means

an

_="__
FiQ. 104.

the

when
second,

acts between

P and

B,

t=,
Fig. 105.

the

when
third,

P acts between

and R.

c
Fig. 106.
a crowbar,
Examplesof the firstkind are, a pairof scales,
the bar of a grate; double levers are a
on
a pokerresting
pairof scissors.

11"2

164

THE

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

second kind are, an oar when the end in

is at rest, this end is the fulcrum,
with the water
contact
the force Q acts at the rowlock ; a wheelbarrow,the fulcrum
beingthe pointof contact with the ground.

Examplesof the

An example of the third kind is the limb of an animal;

the socket is the fulcrum, the force P is the action of a
the socket,the force Q is
muscle attached to the bone near
the weight of the limb ; a pairof tongs is an example of a
double lever of this class.
165.

of

Conditions

equilibrium.

R must
be the reversed
equilibrium
forces P and Q, hence in all*cases
parallel
For

P.AG

in the second

P +

Q,

P,

in the third

case

case

Art. 96.

Q.BG.

Also,in the firstcase

resultant of the

"

P"

Q.

If the lever is bent,draw from C lines CM and CN

about
the directions of P and Q, then takingmoments

to
perpendicular

C,

Fig. 107.

we

have

.P

CM=

Q ON.
.

In the foregoing
the
have neglected
we
the lever,if itis of weightw and its c. G. at 0
166.

Ct

Fig. 108.

by takingmoments

about C

as

before,
we

P.AG+w.OG=Q.BG.

have

weightof

166

THE

ELEMENTS

be the rod and

Let AB

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

distance
perpendicular

The

from A.

the distance of the fulcrum

the fulcrum is

of the force 6 from

The

distance of the fulcrum from

The

distance of the force 8 from

5 is 16-a;.
16

"

a;

the fulcrum is

\/2
\%-x

"

"

%x
hence

-^

64-4^,

or

EXAMPLES.

a;

10'4 feet

nearly.

XXXIII.

of a straight
lever are 5 and 7 inches long respectively,
of
is
lbs.
attached
2
to the shorter arm, find the weight
a weight
for equihbrium.
to be attached to the longer
arm
1.

The

2.

hung
is

weightlessrod 7 feet long has weightsof 4 lbs. and

its extremities. Find the position
of the fulcrum when

10 lbs.

there

equilibrium.
3.

can

at

arms

turn

rod which is 16 feet long and which weighs 17 lbs.

about
when a
the rod is in equilibrium
a pointin itself,
freely

uniform

weight of 7 lbs. is hung

at

one

end.

Find the

positionof

the fulcrum.

of a straight
lever are 18 inches and 50 inches
and
its
long respectively,
weightis 10 lbs. If a weight of 58 lbs. be
appliedat the end of the longerarm, what weight must be apphedat
?
the end of the other that there may be equilibrium
4.

The

two

arms

5.
A straight
lever whose lengthis 5 ft. and weight 10 lbs. has its
fulcrum at one end. Weights of 3 lbs. and 6 lbs. are fastened to it at
distances 1 ft. and 3 ft. from the fulcrum,and it is kept horizontal by
Find the pressure on the fulcrum.
a force at the other end.

6.
of the

7.
at an
wire

If the pressure on the fulcnmi be

find the ratio of the arms.
forces,
A

uniform

10 times the difference

wire is bent so as to form two straight

lines incUned
which is twice as long as the other. The
of
its angular point. Find the position

angleof 120",one of
is suspended from

equilibrium.

equalto

THE

8.

uniform

SIMPLE

MACHINES.

167

end
a weightof 5 lbs. hung from
one
This weight is
fulcrum 5 feet from that end.
replacedby a weight of 10 lbs. and then the rod balances when the
fulcrum is 4 feet from that end. Find the lengthand weightof tte
rod.
and

balances

on

heavy rod has

a

9. A man
seated in a boat pullsat the handle of each of a pair
of sculls with a force of 25 lbs. weight. If the distance of the rowlock
from the end of the blade of each scull be 4 times that of the rowlock
from the hand, find the resultant force on the boat,

another
of a bent lever are at rightanglesto one
10. The arms
is inclined to the
and are in the ratio of 5 to 1. The longerarm
horizon at an angleof 45",and carries at its end a weightof 10 lbs.;
the end of the shorter arm
find the
a horizontal plane,
presses against
the
on
plane.
pressure

168.

Balances.

for
of the uses of the lever is to determine weights,
this purpose it is used in the forms of the Common
Balance,
Danish
the Roman
and
the
steelyard.
steelyard,
One

169.

The

Common

Balance.

Fig. 109.

in the shape,of a
somewhat
consists of a beam
lozengewhich turns freelyabout a fulcrum G, consisting
attached to the beam and
of a wedge-shaped
knife-edge
Q of all
fixed support. The centre of gravity
on
a
resting
below C when the
the parts of the balance lies vertically
there are
beam
is horizontal. To the ends of the beam
This

attached

knife-edges
upon

which

are
supported.
scale-pans

168

THE

170.

ELEMENTS

OF

weightsplacedin

If the

equal the beam will not

in
of equilibrium
position
about

balance

the

are
scale-pans

which

by

the

pointeror

balance

equalweightsthe

weights
of the

moment

G.
rod GD

of

Requisites
The

1.

of the

the moments

(not shown

often attached to the centre of the beam.

of equilibrium
this is vertical.
172.

not

horizontal,and will take up

be

counterbalanced

will be
itselfabout

171.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

must

beam

in the figure)
is
In the position

balance.

good

loaded with
be true, that is when
should be horizontal. This condition

is secured if,
are
(i) the arms
equalin length,
are
(ii) the scale-pans
equalin weight,
below
(iii)the C.G. of the beam be vertically

G.

The balance should be sensitive,

that is for any small
difference in the weightsthe deviation of the beam from its
horizontal positionshould be largeenough to be easily
observed.
2.

This will be secured

by
the lengthof the beam AB,
(i) increasing
the lengthof the rod GD,
(ii) decreasing
the weightof the beam.
(iii)diminishing
See Ex. 8, p. 170.

3.

The balance should be stable. That is when

turbed
disit should quickly
to its horizontal position.
return

173.
The
now

False

effect of

weighingwith

untrue

an

balance

will be

considered,
1.. The

Balances.

body

scale and

arms

of

balance

are

of

of

weight w lbs. weighs w^

placedin the
w^ lbs. when
wa

w^a=

other.

wj),
wh.

unequallengtha and h,
lbs. when
placedin one
Here

we

have

THE

SIMPLE

"'"

169

MACHINES.

JwiWs
mean
geometric
W=

The

true

weightis the

of

(1).
the apparent

weights.
The

2.

arms

of

are

the

equal lengthbut

balance is at a horizontal distance

pointof the beam.

of the

C, the middle

from

C.G.

Let w' be the weightof the balance,w the true weightof

a
body and Wi, Wj the weightswhich have to be used to
balance it when
it is placedin the two scale-pans
in succession.
Here if a is the
about C,

Hence

lengthof either arm, by takingmoments

wa

w'c

w^a

w'c

(w

w^)a

"

2w

or

The

true

weightis

Wja,

wa.

{w^ w) a,

"

(2).

Wi+W2

the arithmetic

of the apparent

mean

weights.
unequallengthand also the C.G. of
below C, we
have by takingmoments
vertically

If the arms
the balance not
before
as
3.

of

are

.a

w^a
.".

w{a

w'c + wj},
w'c + wb;

b) Wib +
=

EXAMPLES.

the
the

(3).

w^

XXXIV.

8| and 9 inches long,

respectively
Find
the
longerarm.
goodsto be weighedbeingsuspendedfrom
real weightof goodswhich apparently
weigh 27 lbs.

1.

The

2.

arms

of

balance

body the weightof

are

which

is 28 ounces,

balance with unequal arms, appears to

in the other scale.
find its weightwhen placed
scale of

placedin one
weigh 14 ounces

when

apparentweightsof a body are 4 and 16

of a balance. Find
when weighedfrom the two arms
lengthsof the arms and the true weight of the body.
3.

The

lbs. resjjeotivel
the ratio of the

170

THE

4.

the

ELEMENTS

If the beam

arms

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

false balance is uniform and heavy,show that

the true and
to the differences between
proportional

are

of

apparent weights.
in one scale
5. In a givenbalance it is found that Sl'OVS grammes
balance 51"362 in the other,and 25-592 balance 25'879; show that
the

arms

equal,but

are

that the

differby
scale-pans

'287 grammes.

of a balance is 6 feet long and it appears correct

beam
when
empty, a certain body placedin one scale weighs 120 lbs.,
placedin the other,121 lbs. Show that the fulcrum must be distant
about jJgof an inch from the centre of the beam.
6.
when

The

7. A dealer has correct weights but one

of the balance is
arm
shorter than the other. If he sells two quantities
of a certain drug,
each apparentlyweighing 9J lbs. at 40s. per lb. weighing one
in one
scale atid one

in the other

will
scale,

he

gain or

lose ?

is =2a, CD
8. If in Art. 168, the lengthof the beam
h, CQ==h,
and 8 the anglewhich the beam makes
with the horizon when the two
weightsP and Q are placedin the pans, show that,if W is the weight
of the beam,
=

^-P-^^"

tang

If the arms
of a false balance be without weight,and one arm
the other by J of the shorter arm, and if in using it the
substance to be weighed is put as often in the one scale as in the other,
show that the seller loses | per cent, in his transactions.
9.

longerthan

174.
This

The

Roman

Steelyard.

is a lever
steelyard
bar moving about a fulcrum
the longerarm.
on
sliding
To

of the firstclassand consists of a

G and havinga givenweightw

the end of the shorter arm

the body vrhose
requiredis attached and the weight w is moved
until there is equilibrium.
arm

longerarm is graduatedso that the pointat

placedindicates the weightof the body.
The

is

weightis
alongits

which

THE

SIMPLE

171

MACHINES.

To

graduatethe Roman steelyard.

The point from which the graduations
be
start must
where w is placedto balance the weightof the steelyard
itself when
no
weightis attached. Let this pointbe 0.
Then W beingthe weightof the steelyard
.Ca
w.GO=W'
(i).
Again,if a weightW is attached and there is equilibrium
when w is moved to P, takingmoments
about C, we have
w.GP=W'
.CGJtW.AG
(ii).
we
(i)from (ii)
By subtracting
get
OP

w.OP^W.AG,

or

-=^AG

(iii).
'
^

Hence

each equalto
if OB be divided up into portions
from 0, the graduation
at which w rests gives
AG, starting
the number
of times W contains w.
If

lb. the. graduations

indicate pounds. The
and if we wish
all at equal distances AG
are
graduations
be divided
each graduation
to be correct
must
to ounces
into 16 equalparts.
is

one

If the centre of gravity

Q of the bar be in the
the point0 will be found to be in the shorter arm.

longerarm

Ex. 1. If the fulcrum be four inches from the point to which the
weightis attached,and the centre of gravityfive inches from that end,
and the weightof the bar equalto the moveable weight,
find the position
of zero gi'aduation.
We

the

have

given

longerarm,

that

hence

TF'=w, also G

0 is also

one

inch

is

one

from

inch from C and in

C and in the shorter

arm.
one
Ex. 2. The moveable weightis originally
pound and a weight
the
is
of three pounds
remainingthe same,
substituted, graduations
the
c. G. beingin the shorter
how is a buyer afiected by the change,

arm?
at P the buyer is chargedfor the
If the moveable
weight were
OP
weight3 ^7-7- lbs. If the graduationshad been constructed for a moveijA.

where
then instead of OP we should have had OP
able weight of 3 lbs.,
be
chargedfor
0' is such that W .CG=ZCO', and the buyer should
OP
CO is less than CO and therefore OP greaterthan
3 ---J lbs. Hence
OP.

The

buyer therefore getsmore

for his money

than he should do.

172

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

the body to be weighed

is 10 lbs.,
Ex. 3. The weightof a steelyard
is suspendedfrom a point4 inches from the fxilcrum and the c. a. of
Where
the other side of the fulcrum.
is 3 inches on
the steelyard
the
cwt. be situated,
to one
should the graduation corresponding
moveable weight being 12 lbs.?

The

is got in this
of graduation

zero

10

case

from the

equation

by (i).

12 X CO

0 is 2J inches from the fulcrum.

Hence

112x4=12xOP,

Also

from which it follows that the

or

OP=iJ^,

is distant from
pointrequired

J-J^ f
-

or

EXAMPLES.

the fulcrum

34| inches.

XXXV.

4 feet long has its c. G. 11 inches and its fulcrum

1. A steelyard
If the weight of the machine
be 4 lbs. and the
8 inches from A.
moveable weight3 lbs.,
find how many
inches from A is the graduation

denoting15 lbs.weight.
2.

In a Roman
the graduations
steelyardthe sliding
weightis 10 lbs.,
for a difference of one stone are 3^ inches apart,find how far
the fulcrum is the point at which the bodies to be weighedare

from
attached.

If the moveable
weight be equal to the weight of the beam,
if the zero
of the graduationsbisect the distance between the
then
fulcrum and the pointof suspensionof the body to be weighed,
3.

and

will coincide with the

the firstgraduation
4.

If

steelyard
by use

show how
unaltered,

lose

to correct the

c. G.

of the beam.

-^ of its weight,its c. G. remaining

of the steelyard.
graduations

12 inches long and with the scale-pan

weighs
of the two being 2 inches from the end to which the
is attached.
Find
when the
the positionof the fulcrum
scale-pan
ascertained
moveable
and the greatest
weight is 1 lb.,
weightthat can be
is 12 lbs.
by the steelyard
5.

lb.,the

is
steelyard
c. G.

beam is 32 inches long,the body to be weighed being

end A ; the fulcrum is distant 5 inches and the o. G. of
one
the beam
7 J inches from A.
The weightof the beam
being 1 lb. and
that of the moveable weight 3J lbs.,
find the heaviest weightthat can
be weighed by this instrument.
6.

The

attached at

7.

is damaged, either by rust or by losing

of
a portion
steelyard
its longerarm, causingit to weigh inaccurately,
show that it may be
repairedby the attachment of a suitable weight,so that we can use the

original
graduations.

174

ELEMENTS

THE

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

that the distances BP^,BP^ "c.

Observe

are

in harmonica!

progression.
to \w, Ji",\w,
sponding
we
get the correBy takingIF equalsuccessively
from B as f 5(?, ^BO, ^BQ,
distances of the fulcrum
Notice that meir distances
These pointsshould he marked ^, ^, i)
from O are in harmonical progression.
...

...

...

weighs 10 lbs. and the

steelyard
the scale-pan
is 4 feet,
find the distances of
c. G. from
the
of
f
rom
c.
g.
points graduation
Ex. 1.

By

Danish

this Article

BP=

^"

W+IO

When

distance of its
the successive

(?Pi=j^ feet,,

1^=1, jBPi=^2 33L feet, or

or
W=%
BPi=^=^i""t,
Tf=3, 5P3=fg= 3^5 feet, or
=

ffP2=ifeet,
(7P3=i" feet,and

so

on.

has at one end a ball of metal 3 inches

Ex. 2. A Danish steelyard
in diameter and weighing8 lbs. The bar weighs 2 lbs. and is 12 inches
long. It is graduatedfrom end to end, the spaces being \ an inch
apart. What are the greatestand least weightsthat can be measured

by

it.
Let

of the

be the distance of the

c. G.

of the bar and ball from the centre

then
ball,
inches.
a;=l;^
bar. Also by this Article

8x=9,(^^"x), or
Thus

When

When

the

the

the

o. G.

is at the end of the

weightis greatestBP
.-. 1{10+W)
weightis least BP
.-.

is least
=

is

\W,

or

an

inch,

Tf=2301bs.

inches,
greatestor 11|^

2^(10-1Tf)= 120,

EXAMPLES.

or

or

F=J"lbs.

XXXVI.

In

the distance between the zero graduation

a Danish
steelyard
the end of the instrument
is divided into 30 equal parts,and the
that
be
can
weight
greatest
weighed is 5 lbs. 7 ozs. ; find the weightof
1.

and

the instrument.
Find the lengthof the scale of the steelyard
whose weight is
the distance between the graduations
1 lb. and in which
denoting3
and 4 lbs. is one inch.
2.

In a steelyard
the fulcrum rests halfway between
3.
and third graduations,
find the ratio of the weight in the
the weight of the instrument.

the second
to
scale-pan

THE

SIMPLE

175

MACHINES.

The lengthof the scale of the steelyard

is 24 inches and its
of the fulcrum
weightis 7 lbs.; find the distance between the positions
in weighing14 lbs. and 21 lbs. respectively.
4.

5. From
in which A is the pointof the beam
a
from
steelyard
which the scale-pan
is suspended,
ff
is
the
of
the
and
c. g.
steelyard
and scale-pan
small particle.
a
of weight w at the middle point of
AG
has been broken off ; show
that the apparent weight of a body
determined
the
w
ill
be too great by ^(n"l)w, where
by
steelyard
ratio
is
the
of the apparent weightof the body to that of the steeln
yard
and scale-pan.
6.

Supposing the steelyardto

would

you do
?
graduations

in

order

to

use

the

become

coated with
without
steelyard

rust, what

alteringthe

7. If the weight of a Danish steelyard

is 5 lbs. and the fulcrum is
distance of 3 inches from the end for a weightof 10 lbs.,
show
in order to balance a weight of 15 lbs. the fulcrum must
be
moved
of
inch.
an
f

at a
that

balances with the fulcrum at a distance a from

a weight W
of
the distance the fulcrum must
the
be moved
c. G.
steelyard,
in order to restore the balance when
is added is equalto
a weightw
8.

If

the

176.

The

Wheel

and

Axle.

This machine
consists of two cylinders
of different radii
axis and rigidly
connected.
At their ends
havingthe same
in fixed supports.
are
pivotswhich turn freely
The weight is raised by means
the smaller cylinder,
the force is
in the opposite
direction round the

Fio. 112.

rope coiled round

appliedby a rope coiled
of

cylinder.
larger

176

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

Conditions

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

ofequilibrium.

thickness of the ropes, take moments

since the pressure on the axis
about the axis which gives,
has no moment,

Neglectingthe

P.a^W
where

and h are
and P is the
a

177.

.h

(1);

the radii of the wheel

force.
applied

Mechanical

and

axle respectively,

Advantage.
W

The

mechanical

or
advantage,

-p

here is
,

radius of wheel

a
_

By making

=-

very

radius of axle

greatwe

can

increase
theoretically

the

mechanical advantageto any extent.

there are
Practically
limits to the increase,
if a be large
the machine is unwieldy,
if h be small the axle will be too weak.
When
mechanical advantageis needed,a modified
a large
form called the Differential Wheel
and Axle, which will be
afterwards explained,
is used.

"

The Capstanand Windlass are forms of the Wheel

and Axle, the force is appliedat the end of a spokelying
in a planeperpendicular
to the axis. In the Capstanthe
axis is vertical,
in the Windlass horizontal.

178.

Ex. 1.

If the radii of the wheel and axle be respectively

40 inches
what
force
would
be
inches,
weight
supportedby a
equalto the
weightof 30 lbs.? find also the pressures on the supports on which the
axle rests.

and 4

Let

be the

requiredweight,then
4iB=

The

pressure

on

the

30x40,

supports P+
=

or

^=300

1^=330

Ibpi
lbs. weight.

Ex. 2. A wheel and axle is used to raise .a. bucket from a well.
diameter of the wheel is 15 inches,
and while it makes 7 revolutions
the bucket
which
weighs 30 lbs. rises 5J feet. Find what is the
smallest force that applied
turn
to a point on tiie circumference can

The

the wheel.

THE

SIMPLE

177

MACHINES.

Let X be the required

then by the principle
of work,Arts. 157,
force,
158,the total work done is zero since the forces are in equilibrium,
or
2jrr X 7

5^=0,
a?x4^x^x7-30x^=0,
find a; to be J a lb. weight.
a; X

or

which

from

we

30

Ex. 3. A weightis to be raised by means

of a rope passinground
horizontal cylinder
10 inches in diameter turned by a winch with an
arm
2^ feet long. Find the greatestweightwhich a man could so
raise without exerting
than 50 lbs. on the handle of
a pressure of more
the winch.
a

Let X be the weight required.The radius of the cylinder

is 5
inches. The arm
of the winch,which corresponds
to the radius of the
wheel,is 30 inches.
.-.

i"x

50x30,

EXAMPLES.

or

a;=3001bs.

XXXVII.

If the radius of the wheel and axle be respectively

3 feet and
4 inches,
what force must be applied
to raise a weightof 40 lbs.?
1.

A man
pushingat the end of a pole4 feet longworks a capstan
whose diameter is 2 feet ; with what force must he push to overcome
a
resistance of 600 lbs. weight?
2.

3. If the radius of the wheel be treble that of the axle,and

find the magthe force and weightare together
equalto 48 lbs.weight,
nitude
of each.
116 lbs.
Four sailors each exertinga force capableof raising
is
radius
1
2
of
whose
ft.
inches
raise an anchor by means
a capstan
and whose spokesare 8 feet long(measuredfrom the axis).Find the
weightof the anchor.
4.

5. A weightof 17 lbs.justbalances a- weightof 79 lbs. What

be the radius of the axle if that of the wheel is 17 inches ?

will

The radii of the wheel and axle are 17 inches and 4 inches and
find the applied
force.
weightis 12 lbs.,

6.

the

7.

A force of 10 lbs.will raise a

will raise a weightof 10

the radius of the axle.
A

8.

walks

man

a force of
weightof " lbs.,

lbs.
-^

show that the radius of the wheel is twice

lbs.,

exertinga force of

yardsround,two

50 lbs. weightworks

feet of rope

capstan. He

beingpulledin ;

what

is the

weightraised ?
J.

12

178

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

A cage is suspendedby a rope passingover

axle and a man
an
the
himself
and
at a
in
the
draws
standing
cage up by pulling
cage
the
circumference
of
wheel.
If
the
jointweight
rope passingover the
of the man
and cage be 14 stone and the radius of the wheel 5 times
that of the axle,the rope beingpulledinto the cage at the uniform
rate of 2 feet a second,find the tension exerted by the man
and the
at which he works.
horse-power
9.

179.

The

Pulley.
(i)

Fig. 113.

The
about an
block.

pulleyconsists

of a wheel which can

turn
freely
the
is
axle
attached
framework
called
the
to
a
axle,

the circumference of the wheel runs

a
force
each
end.
The
a
cted
in
at
on
(i)
by a
pulley fig.
string
above and can
its
is attached to a fixed beam
onlyturn on
lower
axle,the
pulleyof fig.
(ii)can move
up and down
as well as turn.
In

groove

on

first is called a fixedpulley,

the second a moveabk
pulley. The tension of the rope connected with a pulley
to be the same
is assumed
its length,
although
throughout
this is not strictly
true owing to Mction.
The weightof
the string
is negligible.
The

180.

The
for W

vantage,
fixedpulleyhas unityfor its mechanical adand P beingeach equalto the tension of the
W

are
string

themselves

hence
equal,

-p-

is unity.

THE

The
the

use

of

fixed

179

MACHINES.

SIMPLE

pulleyis to changethe direction of

appliedforce.
In the second

W is attached to the block,

a weight
figure
W is supported
tensions of the string
on each
by the (equal)
and the
side,each tension is equal to P, hence W=2P,
mechanical advantage
is 2. The portions
of the string
are
taken to be parallel.
181.

System

of

pulleys.

Pulleysare combined to form a

in the figures.
system as represented
The upper pulleys
are
fixed,the
blocks of the lower ones
are
joined
together.
The same
stringpasses round all
end of it a force P
the pulleys,
to one
its other end is fastened to
is applied,
the upper block. In the case when
there is one
more
pulleyabove than
below,the end is fastened to the lower

block.
the
practice

In

two

sets of

pulleys

Here

the
be strictly
but
cannot
parallel,
strings
garded.
the,error is small enough to be disreturn

the

on

weight is W, the
the lower block of pulleys
is the number
of strings
n

attached

The

weightof
is w,

axes.

same

and

connected with the lower block.

The

whole

weight W+w

is supported

by the tensions of n parallel

each tension is equal to P
strings,
the string,
beingthe same' throughout
Fie. 114.

hence
W

If

is negligible
vantageis n.
w

"

nP.

nP, and the mechanical ad12"2

180

THE

182.

ELEMENTS

Principle

of

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

VTork.

If the lower block receive an upward displacement

equalto h,each
portionof the stringis slackened,and P descends througha space h
that is,through a total distance nh, if n is
for each portionof string,
in the lower block.
the entire number
of strings
of Work,
by the Principle
equilibrium

Art.

Hence

Wh-Pnh=0,
Since the space traversed
traversed
is

where

Ex. 1.

there

appliedforce,the

when

case

lower block is always

What

is not

are

in

th of that

acceleration of the

is the acceleration of the

P in the

the

by

forces

the

W=nP.

or

by the

157,since

lower block

of the
pointof application

force

nP.

equalto

force will be necessary to

each weighingone
beingnine pulleys

supporta weightof

32

lbs.,

lb.?

Here since the number

of pulleysis odd,the number
of partsof
the rope at the lower block is odd and the rope is attached to the
lower block.
There are thus 4 pulleys
in the lower block.
The

entire

weight supportedis 36 lbs.

.-.

9P=36,

or

P=41bs.

Ex. 2. If a weight of 10 lbs. support a weight of 18

find the number
weight of 11 lbs. supporta weight of 20 lbs.,
and the weightof the lower block.

Let
block

be the number

of

stringsand

the

lbs.,and

weight of

of strings
the lower

18+?"=10re,
20+w=11m.
Hence
Ex.

3.

mechanical
4 lbs.

Find

2, w=%

the

smallest
if
advantage there

Here there

are

pulleyson

weight which
are

10

be

can

each pulleyweighing
pulleys,

the lower

block,the

total

1F+20.
.-.

Por

mechanical

Tr+20=10P.

advantagegreaterthan unity
W

must

10 TF
W

must

"

be
"

raised with

greaterthan P,
greaterthan PF+ 20,

be greaterthan

lbs. wt.

weightis

182

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

II.

I.

IP

T.

\J

\
W

Fig. 115.

Case

I.

The tensions of the strings

we
being2\,T^ and ^'3,
is the same
since the tension of a string
throughout

have

the

tensions of the strings

of the next pulleykeep it in
hence since they are parallel,
equilibrium,
by Art. 96

similarly

T^

also

Tf

Thus
for

W=8Pisthe

equilibrium.The

If 'there
would be

are

2T^

22's 2=P.

2^P,

relation between
required
is 8.
mechanical advantage

we
pulleys

Tr

see

2"P.

that
similarly

Tf andP

the relation

SIMPLE

THE

Case

183

MACHINES.

II.

The tensions

have

beingT^,T^ and T^,we

r,= 2Tx=2P,

2's 22'j
=

And

2^P.

T^+T^

Ts

2^P=P(l + 2 + 2=)
P(2'-1).

P + 2P +

Tf=(2=-l)P
For

the
pulleys

W and P is

the relation between

in this case

Hence

relation would
"pr

'7P.
be

(2"-l)P.

weights of the pulleysinto account, the

are
by the following
; Wj, Wj, and Wj being
replaced
previousequations
the weightsof the pulleys.
184.

If

Case

I.

take

we

the

^1=-?,
.under the
equilibrium

the first pulleyis in

and 2?^ upwards,hence

W+w^=2T3,

Also

.-.

When

the

T^+w^

T^+'Wi=2Ti, or r2=2P-Wi,
T^-irWi=iT^,or T^='i{2P-w.^-w^,
=2^F-2wi-w^.

similarly

If there

forces

are

W=2{2^P-2wi-Wi)-v)3;

or

]F=23i'-2%i-2W2-W3.

find similarly
we
pulleys
ir=2"P-2''-iwi-2"-2w2

-Wn.

weightof each pulleyis w^

PF'=2"/'-(2"-l)wi.

Case II.

2\=P,
T2=2Ti

Wi=2P+Wi,

T3=2T2+w^==2{2P+Wj)+Wi,
Also

W=Ti+T^+T3
=P+2i'+tffi+22p+2wi+Wj,
=P(1+2+22)+Wi(1+2)
=7P+3wi+W2-

+ m;2.

downwards

184

THE

If there

ELEMENTS

are

OF

find

we
pulleys

=P(l+2

similarly

+ 2"-2)
2''-i)+Wi(H-2+
+ (22-l)w"_2+(2-l)w^i.
2+...+2"-s) +

+W2(l +

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

...

...

...

+
=P(2''-l)+Wi(2"-i-l)+W2(2''-2-l)
...

If the

(22-l)w"_2+(2-l)";"_i.

weightof each pulleyis Wj we have

Tr=P(2"-l) + Wi{2"-i+2"-H...+2-("i-l)}
=P(2"-l) + Wi(2"-"i-l).

Notice that the

185.

in
weightsof the pulleys

The

The

pull

resultant

In Case I. if B

is this

in Case II.
If the
to W.
Ex. 1.

There

are

is

have

W-P,

W+P.

4 moveable

equalto the

beam.

fixed

we
pull,

pulleyshave weightwe

TT if P is

assistP.

case

pull which
undergoesa downward
and P.
of the total weightsupported

fixed beam

the
clearly

the

on

this

must

add

the

sum

of their

weights

pulleysarrangedas in Class I.,find

the weightsof the
lbs.,
neglecting

weight of 10

pulleys.
F=2*

Here
Ex. 2.
find W.
In this

If in the last

10=160

case

the

lbs. weight.

weight of

each

pulleyis

4 ozs.,

TF=2*xlO-(2*-l)^
160-J^
156}lbs.

case

Ex. 3. If the pulleys

are
arrangedas in Class II.,find W when
is the weightof 10 lbs.,
the weightsof the pulleys.
neglecting

pr=(2*- 1)10=150

Here
Ex. 4.

find W.

Taking the weightof

In this

each

lbs.

pulleyas

case

lF=(2*-l)10+(2*-4-l)^
150+llx^
152flbs.
=

4 ozs., and P

as

10

lbs.,

THE

186.

motion

of

SIMPLE

tbe

185

MACHINES.

Systenu.

In the

of Art. 181 if P descends a distance h the

system of pulleys
i
n
strings connexion with W are shortened a total amount h,hence

each is shortened

distance

Hence

if

is the

of P,
velocity

if / is the acceleration of
For the motion

of P

the

of
velocity

P, the acceleration of TF is

we

have the

is

r, therefore

/;

equation

^f=P-T.
and for the motion

of W

we

have the

equation

-^=nT-W
from

(i),

(ii),

(i)and (ii),

"fnP+

^=nP-W,

placemen
I.,Art. 184, if the lowest pulleyreceive an upward disof
the
will
each
round
it
be
ened.
slackh,
portion
stringpassing
The next pulleymust therefore be raised through a distance 2A
the string,
the next must be raised throughtwice
to tighten
similarly,
If
2%.
there
the space moved through
are
the last distance,
or
n pulleys
of the lowest pulleyis v,
by the last will be 2^~^h. If the velocity
In Case

the velocitiesof the others

are

...2"-i",
24",2^1;,
and therefore if the acceleration of the lowest
of the others are

pulleyis /, the

2/,2y,...2"-v.
For

therefore have,
we
system of three pulleys

|23/=ri-p,

if

From

these

T^,T^,T^ and/
equations

can

be found.

tions
accelera-

186

OP

ELEMENTS

THE

XXXIX.

EXAMPLES.
Exs. 1

"

come

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

under Case

I.,Exs.

9"16

under Case II.

If the weight supportedis 1 cwt. find the force

their weights.
3 pulleys
of Case I.,
neglecting
1.

2.

the

If the

weightof

each

in
pulley

applied,
using

be 2
the last question

find
lbs.,

appliedforce.

each weighing2 lbs. What

weightcan be
pulleys,
raised by a force equalto the weightof 20 Ibs.i
and a force equalto the weight
4. There are three equalpulleys,
find the weightof
of 3J lbs.is required
to supporta weightof 21 lbs.,
each pulley.
5. If ttere are
3 pulleyswhich weigh respectively
P, JP, JP
s
how
that it can
force
P
if
be
with
the
a
applied,
beginning
lowest,
support a weight5P.
whose respective
6. There are 5 pulleys
weights are 5, 4,3,2, and
1 lbs.,
beginningwith the lowest,what force will support a weightof
3.

There

are

71 lbs.?
is the mechanical advantage when
7. What
each as heavy as the weight to be raised?

there

are

pulleys

pulleysof equalweight a certain weightcan be

be
force of 7 lbs. weight,but if a fifth similar pulley
lbs.
4
force
of
be
used the same
a
can
weight.
supportedby
weight
Find the supported
weight and the weight of a pulley.
9. In the arrangement of Case II. find the weightsupported
by
the
lbs.
of
10
three pulleys,
weight,neglecting weights
by use of a force
of the pulleys.
in the last question
10. If each pulley
weighs5 ozs.,find the weight
lbs.
force
to
10
weight.
supportedby a
equal
By use
supportedby a
8.

of 4

vantageo
show that the most adof differentweights,
in
order of magnitude,
them
arrangementis got by placing
the greatest
beinglowest.
11.

If the

12.

If four

to
required

pulleyseach weighing2
support a weightof 238 lbs.

Find

13.

if there

are

pulleysare

14.

15.

would
and

w'

used, find the force

weight can be raised by a force of 7 lbs. weight,

whose
arrangedin the least advantageousmanner
pulleys
what

and

weightsare 5, 4
number

lbs. be

3 lbs. respectively.

five in
Find the mechanical advantagewhen the pulleys
are
and the weightof each equalto ^th of the applied
force.
If

force P

supports a weight W, show that a force P+w

support weight W+ii/, where w is the weight of each pulley
is equalto (2"- 1)w.
a

In the case
where 3 pulleysare used,if the diameter of each
be
f
ind
4
to what
inches,
pointof the bar the weight should be
pulley
attached in order that the bar may remain horizontal.
16.

THE

187.

The

SIMPLE

inclined

187

MACHINES.

plane.

An

inclined planeis a planemaking an

rightanglewith the horizon.

angleless than

line in the planeperpendicular

to itsintersectionwith
the horizon is called a line of greatestslope,
and a plane

passingthroughthe Vertical and

called a principal
plane.

Fm.

line of

greatestslopeis

116.

In the

lines of greatest
slope.

The

hard

AB, CD and EF are

figure
planeis supposedsmooth,and

enoughto

sustain

any pressure.
A bodyis keptin equilibrium
:
on an inclined plane
viz. its weightW, the pressure
by the action of three forces,
of the planeR (perpendicular
and a force P.
to the plane),
Since W and R both lie in the same
principal
planeit is
evident that that for equilibrium
P must
also lie in this

188.

plane.
take the two cases when
shall now
and alongthe planerespectively.

We

Case

I.,P horizontal.

P acts

horizontally

188

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

ABC
of the triangle
and
to the forces P, W
perpendicular
of Forces,Art. 78
the converse
of the Triangle
The

sides CA, BG, AB

P:W:R

or

Since F=

also be
:

W^

iJ

tively
respec-

R, hence by

GA:BG:AB,

BG~AB'

CA

This may

are

expressed
heightof plane: base

it follows that P=

Tf tan

length.

a,

W=Rcosa.

Case II.,
P

alongthe plane.

Fio. 118.

Make
the vertical line A'B'
AB, also make the angles
to those at A and B; the
at'%A'and B' equalrespectively
ABG
and A'B'G' are then equal in all respects.
triangles
Euc. I. 26.
=

Also the sides of A'B'G'

P, R and W, viz.

FA'
hence

to

W,

are

to
parallel

A'G' to P,

the directions of

G'B' to

of forces
by the triangle
A'G'

P:R:W=
=

EG'

AG:BG:AB.

A'B'

R,

190

THE

What

4.

9 lbs. on an
the plane?

a
horizontal force will keep in equilibrium
weight of
inclined planeand producea pressure of 15 lbs. weighton

If the

5.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

lengthof

what is the mechanical

inches and the

advantagein the two cases ?

planeis 40

the

height8 inches,

the plane
appliedforce acts horizontally
the
the force
show
that
becomes
base,
height
will
be
if
the
base
to
original
greater
required supporta givenweight
exceeded the height.
In the

6.

is turned

when

case

over

the

that the

so

force must be appliedat the circumference of a wheel

6 feet in diameter in order to drag a ton weightup a smooth inclined
round an axle of 9 inches
of a rope wound
planeof 1 in 50 by means
diameter ?
What

7.

8.

what

If the pressureis the angleof the

9.

If the

it

II. be half the

Case

plane in

weight,

plane?

heightof
justbear

stringcan
greatest weight
a

the

on

a
a

can

planebe 3 J feet and the length12 feet,and

find the
weight of 24J lbs. hanging freely,
fastened
to
when
a
point on the
support

plane.
If A and b

10.
a

force P

when

the

are

base of

heightand

and if
plane,
and a weight
actinghorizontally

supporta weight Tf when

can

actingalongthe plane,show
W

-.W

::

inclined

an

that

'/W+b^.

If P be the horizontal force which can

support a weightW
jP the force along the plane which
is sufficient to support W,

11.

and

then
F
190.
we

When

proceedas

F'

lengthof plane : base of plane.

::

P makes
follows :

of the resolved
is
the plane zero, p. 68.
The

Tfsina=0

Pcos5-

Also the sum

of the resolved
to the planeis zero,
.-.
or

the

plane

parts of the forces along

sum

.-.

with

angle 6

an

(i).

parts perpendicular

Psin5+^=Tfcosa

(ii),

R=Wcosa-Psia6
IF sin

"

Ircosa

COS

sm5,

^"

cos

...

"

from

(i)

W
=

cos

(cosa

;; ^

R=

siu

Wcos(a+6)
COB

siu

6)
:
'
'

Fig. 119.

THE

Ex. 1.

Show

SIMPLE

that the

supporta givenweighton

191

MACHINES.

direction of the least force requiredto

inclined

an

planeis alongthe plane.

Frona (i)
if P is the force and 6 its inclination to the plane
Pcos5=

TTsina,
Tf sina

p_
~

'

cosd
we

see

that P is least when

Q is greatest,
or when

cos

6=0.

Ex. 2.

A body whose weightis 20 lbs. is keptat rest on an inchned

planeby horizontal force of 10 lbs. togetherwith a force of 10 lbs.
actingup the plane,find the inclinationof the planeto the horizon,
and also the pressure on the plane.
a

Kesolvingalongthe planewe
20 sin

10+ 10

a=

have
cos

^v*

a,

-*-io

to the plane,
resolving
perpendicular

iJ=20
From

a+

cos

10 sin

a.

^^'"-^2"-

the firstequation
sin

siU'^a

^'

1+COSo

{I+
cos

"

hence

"

"

1+

from which
It follows that

cos

sin a

R=W

hence

cosa

COS

of

=i,
*'

Vl-^= f

lbs. weight.

EXAMPLES.

XLI.

lbs. rests on an inclinedplanewhose

it being
force,
inclination to the horizon is 60",find the supporting
to make an angleof 30" with the normal.
1.

body whose weightis 20

supposed

lbs. is placedon a smooth planewhich is

inclined at an angle of-30",find the two directions in which a force
equalto the weightof the body may act to maintain equilibrium;
2.

body weighing6

inclined planeby
an
on
is kept in equilibrium
to
P
force
and a
actingparallel the plane; find
a horizontal force P
the inchnation of the plane to the horizon and the pressure on the
3.

plane.

weight 2P

192

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

between
arithmetic mean
the weight and the appliedforce,and the inclination of this force to
the horizon be 2a, where a is the inclination of the plane,
If the pressure

4.

on

planebe

the

an

sin2a=f.
cosine is
find
^ keeps a weight at rest. If P act at half its former incUnation,
in what direction a force f P must act in order to keepequilibrium.
A

5.

191.
The

force P

The

Screw.

form

of the

actingat

anglewith

an

is most

screw

the

planewhose

described
easily

as

follows :

Take a right-angled
of paper ABO
and a cylinder
DF,
triangle
to the axis of the cylinder,
then keepingBG parallel
the
base
BA
wrap
round the cylinder,
the hypotenuse
AC will form a spiral
line on the

cylinder.
to the axis will
Any line FG on the surface of the cyhnderparallel
in a series of points.The distance between two successive
cut this spiral
pointsis called the stepof

the

screw.

A broad groove is cut between

thread.
The

screw

turns

screw

works
it also

the

spirals
leavinga ridgecalled the

whose groove fits the thread. As the

rises; the distance risen per unit angleturned
in

nut

throughis called the pitch.

We

that when the screw

it has risen a distance equalto

turned through four rightangles

step,hence if^ is the pitch,

has

see

step is equalto p x 27r.

If in the figure
QB is a step,PR must be equalto the circumference
a

of the

hence
cylinder,
a

Hence
or

if r is the radius of the

step=2jirtana,where

px27r 27rrtan
^=rtana.
=

a,

cylinder

is the

CAB.

THE

SIMPLE

If a

weight W is placedon
to support W a
descend,
in the figure.
represented
wiU

The condition of
follows :

the screw
and the nut is held,
the screw
at the end of a lever
force P is applied

is got from
equilibrium

Let the screw

descend
from the axis of the screw

193

MACHINES.

the

througha step,then

of
principle

ifP acts at

work

distance

as

F'xstep=Px27r/,
Wxpx27r=Px27rt'',

or

hence

Wp=Pi'.

192.

Differential

Macbines.

The

Wheel
DifferentiaZ

and

Axle.

W.
2

W.
2

Fig. 123."

axis.
havinga common
This consists of three unequalcylinders
the
force
is
which
of
means
the
coiled
is
Bound
the largest
rope by
which
the
of
support
round the other two the portions
rope
applied,
the weight.
and smallest
that the ropes round the largest
We see from the figure
the rope round the middle
coiled in the same
manner,

cyUndersare

way
cyUnder in the opposite
J.

to this.

13

194

weight attached

If IF is the
is

^.

Let

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED
to the

the
pulley,

tension of each rope

with
beginning
cylinders,

c, a, and 6 be the radii of the

the

largest.
about the

Takingmoments

By making

and

axis,we

have

nearlyequalwe

get

can

largemechanical

advantage.
if the radius of the wheel
In the differentialwheel and axle,
of
two
the
foot and
the
of the axle 5 and 4 inches
radii
be one
portions
what force wiU supporta weightof 48 lbs.?
respectively,
Ans. 2 lbs. weight.
Ex.

The

Screw.
Differential

Fig. 124.

CO
thread

DE

OC

is

of the

screw

AD

on

In

is cut in which the

is hollow and the solid screw
a

groove

works inside it.

To the lower screw

and down by smooth
can
move
up or down
The

the

CO
works, AD

strong frame.

is attached which is guidedto work up

vertical grooves cut in CG, thus the lower screw
a

board

but cannot

rotate.

substance to which pressure is to be

board,W is the resistance offered by it.

beneath
appliedis placed

THE

SIMPLE

195

MACHINES.

Let I be the lengthof AB,

of the respective
p and p' the pitches
When
AD
screws.
has made a completerotation it has descended a
has ascended
time the smaller screw
stepov a distance %tp, in the same
a distance
the
descended
to
a distance
2jr"',
relatively
largerone, or
a
nd
this is the distance throughwhich resistance is overcome,
2jT{p"p'),
hence if P is the applied
of work
force we have by the principle

P%tI=W%t{:p-p'),
W

where

I is the distance AB

from the axis at which P is applied.

The motion
of the lower screw,
motion of AD, is extremely
small.
The

to
corresponding

considerable

Differential
Pulley.

T/\

FiQ. 125.

the prinside represents

the right-hand
ciple
on
The figure
used
is
which
of
as
sketch
givenin
of this machine, a
the left.
the figure
on
13"2

196

ELEMENTS

THE

An

endless
of

ABODE

chain

wheels

which

ences
circumfer-

the

round

passes

concentric

two

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

supplied

are

with

teeth.
It

hang

is found

that

ordinary

for

the

weights

chain

from

to

may

freely.
Let

and

and

the

h be

the

tension

of

radii

the

of

the

chain

larger

which

and

wheels

smaller
the

supports

weight

W,

then

Also

by taking

the

about

moments

Pa

CT

...P

Ta

jTF^^.
=

EXAMPLES.

1.

The

threads

to

If

weight

total

weight

length,

of

the

force

cwt.

find

by
the

be

tons

force, the

by exerting
8

yard long

one

be

must

and

applied

the

to

the

screw

has

screw

to

arm

two

sustain

ton

find

man

of

What

XLII.

is

screw-jack

inch.

half

revolutions,
3.

of

arm

the

of

weight
2.

wheels,

have

we

the

of

centre

means

pitch

of
of

the

of
screw

screw.

12

feet

being

arm

force

raised

lbs.
which

by

feet

with
has

making.

240

long.
each
a

hand

double

can
arm

sustain
of

4 feet

198

THE

194.

ELEMENTS

OF

of

Methods

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

estimating

ft-iction.

method
of determiningthe friction between two
describe ;
materials we shall now
material
I I
a weightedslab of one
^
^
is placedon a horizontal planed
-l^
^
the
surface of the other material,
slab is pulledby a horizontal
increasing
stringwith gradually
and more
friction is
force,more
p
^^"
thus called into play to counteract
this force,until at lengththe slab beginsto move
formly.
uniThe friction then exerted is called limiting
friction.
The gradualincrease of force is obtained by attaching
a
series of weights
to the string.

One

on

The weightrequiredto make

the slab move
which
the table is equalto the limiting
friction,
be calculated.
As

the result of

law

experimentwe

uniformly
can

fore
there-

thus arrive at the following

:
"

If F is the limiting
and R the pressure of the
friction,
slab on the plane(equal
then
to the weightof the slab),

F=f,R,
where fi is the same
for the two givenmaterials whatever
the value of R.
The quantity
of
/4 is called the coefficient
In
last
value
the
Article
the
of
'2.
friction.
fj.was
It is necessary to give the slab a slightmotion, since otherwise,
owing to its weight,the surfaces become very slightly
compressedand
a force of coherence is introduced in addition to fnction.

195.

The

Angle

of

Friction.

Another
method
of findingthe
placingthe weighted slab on a
plane of the other material,and
then tilting
the plane until the
slab beginsto slide with a uniform
motion down the plane. As before
the slab should be started.
Let 6 be the inclination of the
with
planefor which the slab moves

value of fi is that of

Fig. 127.

199

FRICTION.

uniform

down the plane,

then since the slab has no
velocity
acceleration,
by resolving
to the
along and perpendicular
obtain
we
if
F
is the limiting
plane
friction

F-Wsme
iJ-TFcose
Therefore

J"

i2 tan

Thus iM is equalto tan

e.

0,

0.
e.

The

anglee

is called the

offriction.

angle

It is found that F=a+iiR, where a is a small

quantityindependent
of F and R givesmore
accurate results,
thus for pinewood on pine-wood
it is found that the values of J" (inlbs.)
calculated from the formula

i?'=l-44-(-0-2525,
from the actual values of F
giveresults differing
The values of R for which this holds lie between
(SirR. Ball's ExperimentalMechanics.)
The

formula

F=fi.R

is

by onlyabout
14 lbs. and

accurate
usuallysufficiently

-3 lbs.

112 lbs.

for most

purposes.

196.
As

The

Laws

of Friction.

of these
consequence
have been established.
a

The

1.

when

motion

the following
sults
reexperiments

of friction is called into action

is about to take place,
it is then called the

greatestamount

friction.
limiting
2.

to the
Limitingfrictionis proportional
F
iiR.

pressure,

or

For differentmaterials in contact

fi has of

course

different

values.
Friction is independent
(i)of the extent
with which one
of the velocity
of contact, (ii)
the other.
over
3.

of the

body

area

moves

Since friction tends to preventmotion,not to originate

it,
The
above
laws
resistance.
relate
it is often called a passive
wheel
such
rolls
when a body
the
a
as
on
to sliding
friction,
is
groundrollingfrictionis called into play,this very much
less than

friction.
sliding

200

THE

197.

ELEMENTS

The

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

of fiiction.

cone

+R

Take the case of any body touching

a table at the point
0,
there is a normal force E, and a force of frictionF acting
alongthe table,we have seen that the magnitudeof F may
be anythingbetween zero and fiR. The resultant of F and
JR is called the totalresistance of the table. It is easy to see
W

that

tangent of the anglewhich

is the
p

makes

the

with the normal, hence if 0 is this

tan 0

-^

total

sistance
re-

angle,

It

But

we

have

seen

that

-p may

have

any

value between

lie in value between 0 and fi ;

and fi, hence tan 9 must
that is between 0 and tan e, where e is the angleof friction,
in other words
zero

6 liesbetween 0 and

So that the total reaction cannot

larger
anglethan e.

e.

make

with the normal

describe round the normal as axis a cone

If we
whose
semi- vertical angleis e, this is called the cone
offriction,
and we
that
the
direction
of the resultant reaction lies
see
within this cone.
R we
increase F, so that
By increasing
F of any magnitudewe
but cannot
we
please,
may make
bringits direction outside this cone.
This result is clearly
true for all surfaces

point.

at
touching

one

201

FRICTION.

198.

Beam

resting against

wall.

As

an
of the preceding
shall take the
application
we
of
case
a beam
in a vertical planeagainst
a rough
resting
vertical wall and the ground.

Fig. 129.

Let the vertical plane throughthe beam cut the cones

of friction at A and B in the lines As, Ar, Bs, Bp. The
lie within the triangle
total reaction at A must
Asr, and
lie within the triangle
the total reaction at B must
Bsp.
intersection
is
within
the
0
at some
Hence their
area
point
the
line
of
action
For
of
the
equilibrium
weight of
pqrs.
In the case
the beam
of
must
pass through0, Art. 136.
be equilibrium,
in the case of
there cannot
the first figure
sect
the other,where the line of action of the weightdoes interthe area pqrs, there will be equilibrium.

199.

Body
of

case

body

there is
jB-Trcosa

TT sin a

force down
-

rough

inclined

plane.

inclination to

no

acceleration

to the plane,
we
perpendicular

The

of the effect of friction is afforded

down a
falling

rough plane whose

the horizon is a.
Since

down

instance

Another
the

falling

have

0.

the

plane is

F, where

F=fiR.

Fig. 130.

by

202

THE

Hence

ELEMENTS

the force down

and the

planeis

the

W sin.a

fi Wcos

"

body'sacceleration
g (sina

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

a,

is
/u,cos

"

a).

the body reaches the

with which
velocity
it to have started from rest at the top,
bottom, supposing
if
2g (sina /i cos a) x AB.
If

is the

"

The

no

is
velocity
friction by

be if there

thus less than it would

cos
2giJ,

were

AB.

of the work done by the weight of the body in

has been used to generate its kinetic energy, the
falling
other part has been spent in overcomingfriction,
the energy
to the work thus spent appears in the generacorresponding
tion
Part

ofheat.
200.

Examples.

As illustrations of the laws of friction the solutions of

several simpleexamplesare added.
1. A ladder rests againsta wall and the ground,the coefficientsof
friction between the ladder and the wall and ground respectively
are
Find
the
inclination
of
ladder
when
it
is
the
and
the
on
point
^j.
fi
of slipping
down, (itis then said to be in limiting
equilibrium).

Fio. 131.

we

and takingmoments
about B
and vertically
Kesolvinghorizontally
have,I beingthe lengthof the ladder and W its weightand 6 its

inclination to the

horizon,

R+iiiRi= W,

^R-Ri=0,
Rl

cos

6=

W-

cos

6+fiRlsin

S.

203

FBICTION.

From

the firsttwo

equations,
W

R:
hence from the third

equation

cot^=Ji^=^
l-^A^l
R-Z

on

at

Notice that the direction of the total reactions at A and B intersect

the line of action of W.
2. If in the last case a weight w be placedon a
rung of the ladder
C, where BG"nl, find the limiting
o
f
position equilibrium.

In this

the

case

equationsare

fiR-Ri=0, R+iiiRj^=W+w,
Rlcos6=

cos

d+wnlcos 6+ fiRlsm6.

Hence

i?=^,cot^=_^"
1+m

^^(^^+")
=

R-^-nw

+ l-l)
Tr(l-,.Mi)-2"'("ip,.i

Observe that if F'(l-;i/ii)=2M;(w/i/xi+l-l),

^ is zero, orthe
will rest in any position.

ladder

Ex. 3.
to

drag a

Find the direction and magnitudeof the least force required

heavybody up a rough inchned plane.

The forces
of the

actingon

plane R,

the body are its weightW, the normal

the friction jiR,and the required

pressure

force P.
Under the action of these forces it is just
on the pointof moving up the plane. Hence
these forces are justin equilibrium.Resolving
the
and
have
to
along
parallel
planewe
Pcosd=

Prsino-)-/xi?,

Psin e=

TFcos

a-

^'"*-^^'^"

iJ.

the last equationby ^ and addingwe get

Multiplying
P(cos^-|-;isin5)=
Tr(sina-l-/iCOSa).
Now

put /i=tane, then

p_

we

have

"sina-t-cosatanf
~

"sin^a+e)
_
~

cosfl-f-sin^tauf

cos(d" t)'

In order that P may be as small as possible

cos
that is we must have 6=i.
largeas possible,
Hence the
and is of

requiredforce P makes with

magnitude TTsin (a-t-f).

the

(d- e) must

be

planethe angleof

as

tion
fric-

204

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

Ex. 4. A
solid cube
rests on
a
rough table, it is pulledby a
mine
horizontal stringattached to a pointin one face,it is requiredto deterabout
its
whether the cube will slide or turn
edge.
Let

We

which

contains

this it cannot

do if the

be the section of the cube

this section to bisect the

ABCD

suppose

the

string.

cube and contain G its centre of gravity.

If possiblelet the motion
begin by the
cube turning about its edge through A.
The forces are the weight of the cube W,
the tension of the string and the total
reactions
of the edge. All these total
reactions may
be replacedby one force R'
which

through A.

passes

It is clear that

the intersection
is greater than

through

R' must

pass

oiW

P, and

and

angleOAK

e.

OK

Hence

for

turning about

OK

that

is, ^r-T

u,
'^

OA

or

"

the

be

can

pulledout by

that jamming may

where 0 is the centre
whose length is I.

far from

applied

so

be where

point N

so

at

i^ust

be

less than

tane,

half the side of the cube.

is to be

drawer

the force

Let

yr-j

/i

"drawer,it is requiredto find how

drawer

edge

1
"

OA

Ex. 5.

the

as

P must

just begin.
of the

end

Let

of the end
to
the drawer

the middle

not to

be

the
of the

to
singleforce parallel
cause

jam.

applied
ON=si:,

of the drawer

The drawer will now

press againstits sides
and B, the total resistances
at B and
D

meet

on

Since

the line of action

there is

of P.

equilibrium,
by resolvingperpendicularly

to the

length of

the

drawer

we

see

FiQ.

that/i-iE'=0,
to
resolving
parallel

taking moments

it

about

we

134.

get P=ij,R+iiR' 2nR,

=

Px=Bl,
I

hence

If P

appliedat a distance from 0 greaterthan le the drawer will

however
move
great P may be. If the drawer is very long,or I
great compared with AB, the point N may lie beyond A, i.e.the drawer
wiU not jam at all.
not

is

206

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

rests on a rough floor on

10. A heavy cube (ofweight 100 lbs.)
force
that
which it cannot
the
least
Prove
requiredto beginto
slip.
and find where it
is
about 35J lbs.,
raise one edge of it off the floor
be applied.
must

holds the end J of a uniform stick AB in his hand,the

other end B beingon the ground. If the stick be alwayskept at the
and the angleof friction between
inclination (30")to the horizon,
same
B and the ground be 15",the horizontal force required
to pvsh B with
A

11.

that

is to
velocity

uniform

that

to pullit as ^^^3
+ 1:2.
required

going at the rate of 45 miles per hour will

them to
yards by the brakes,supposing
the
and
weight on the wheels of the engine
brake-van,
f of
the coefficient of friction being
J of the weight of the train,

Prove

12.

be

man

train

brought to rest in about 378

press with

which

are

"18.

13. A sphereof
to the horizon at an

show

that

weightW
anglea

weight W"

fastened to the sphere at the upper

"

cos

end of

is placedon a rough plane inclined

which is less than the angleof friction,

sm

diameter parallel
to the
down
the
plane.
roUing
a

planewill justpreventthe spherefrom

roughspheresof equal radii but unequal weightsW-^and

bowl,their c. G.s coincide with their centres and
W^ rest in a spherica;l
the line joining
them
is horizontal and subtends an angle2a at the
centre of the bowl,prove that the coefiicient of friction between them
Two

14.

IS

not

"

""

"

?7Ftan

TTi+TFj

(M)-

of
Weights W and W of two different substances (coefficients
inclined
and
double
friction (X
y!)are supportedon a rough
plane(of
of a stringpassingover
If the
the vertex.
anglesa and a')by means
the
of
W
that
be
on
descending,
point
weight
prove
15.

sin

a'+ficos

a'

201.

Effect

'

siaa-jioosa

of fi-iction

on

the

simple

machines.

shall now
the effect of friction in the
investigate
of the simplemachines considered in the last chapter.

We
case

in the case
Its effect is negligible
of the balance hung
but
the
friction.
at the axis becomes apparent
on
knife-edges,
the
of
in the case
puUey and the wheel and axle,in the

207

FRICTION.

of the inclined

case

The

planeand

pulley. The

axle

the

in

moves

nearlyfits,thus the contact is at

pointand the total reaction makes
the

normal

common

socket the

is

to touch

seen

sin e, where

one

with
its

friction.

direction of the total reaction is

The
thus

angleof

it very

socket which

the axle and

to

the frictionis considerable.

screw

circle whose

is the

radius
radius of the

axle.
Fig. 135.

To diminish the effect of friction it is

usual to make the axle of a pulleyas small as is consistent
with strength
and the radius of the pulley
so that a
large,
small force applied
at the circumference of the
comparatively
the

have

pulleymay

moment

same

the friction

as

on

the

axle.

wheel and axle. If c is the radius of the axle

have
rests we
the machine

The
which

that R, the total resistance acts

distance c sin e from its centre,

seen

at

also for

equilibrium
R

P+Q.

takingmoments

Hence

about

the

of the axle,

centre

Pb

Qa

If there

(P + Q)csme.
friction we

no

were

should
Fig. 136.

have

Pob

Qa.

(Art.162) is found by takingthe

efficiency
P, hence efficiency

The

P"

on

to

PJ) _Qa _a

Po
"^

P
When

"

P6

~P6~6"a

"

sin

sin e'

is very small this is nearlyequalto

l--r(a+b)e.

ratio of

208

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

The inclinedplane.

actingat the angle0

and justlargeenoughto draga weight
then we
TT up a rough inclined plane,
Let P

be the force

with the

have

plane

R),

Pcose=F
Psin0

Wsina,

Wcosa-E,

Fig. 137.

"T,

Whence

(cos6-\-fimid) W(sin a

TirSin0. +

-r,

P=W

or

a-,

COS0+

u. cos

^-Q
/J,sua. 0

_.

a),
e)

+ /x cos

sin (a +
cos

7a

{0

\
e)

"

"

inclination of the plane is less than the angle

of friction,
force will be requiredto drag the body down
a
the plane,if P' be this force making an angle0 with the
If the

plane
P'cos0 P-Trsina,
P' sin (j"=W cos a" It,
F
also
fiB;
sin a),
.". P' (cos(j)
cos a
+ /i sin (f")W (fi
sin a
sin (e a.)
T"'
W^ cos a
cos
cos
("fie)
^ + /i sin (^
and
If 0 is zero
the force P acts alongthe plane,
work done in dragging
a body up the planeis
=

"

"

"

"-

"

'

"

the

PxAB,
also in this

case

M
.'.

work

done

=P

xAB

/jbWX
W

P(7=

AC=

Wcos

sin a,
a,

/tTrcosa+ l^sina;
sin a,
fiWAB cosa + WAB
fiWxBG + WxAG.
work done in dragging
the body along
the base of the planeagainst
friction,
work done in raising
the body against
gravity
throughthe heightof the plane.
=

Now

F + W

209

FRICTION.

Hence

the total work done is work done in dragging

the
bodyalongthe base considered rough+ work done in raising
it through
the height
ofthe plane.
The
the

The last result

screw.

be

can

appliedto the

case

of

with friction,
for suppose the screw
to make a
the work done is that of dragging
its
completerevolution,
weightup a rough inclined plane formed by the threads
screw

of the nut.
The verticaldistance moved through
is a step,
see Art. 191,
the base of the inclined planeis 2irr,where r is the radius
of the cylinder
which the screw
is cut. Hence if W is
on
of the screw, and p its pitch,
the -weight
work
But

the work
the screw, hence

done

/aTFx

2irr + Tf

2iTp.

is that of the force P which raises

done

/iF27rr+ Tf27rj3P27ri,
=

where I is the

arm

P, therefore

of

mecha'nical advantage
^

body
If it be

time t.

fallsdown

projected
up

rough inclined planeof lengthI in the

the

planewith
V

reached the

groundfind the

fir+p

XLIV.

EXAMPLES.
1.

^=r=

value of

=-

the

with
velocity

which it

t'

and

that it ascends and f the time taken to do

where V is the

portionof I

so.

equalweightsrest on the faces of a double incUned plane

whose anglesare 30" and 60" and are connected by a string.If the
weightsare on the pointof motion,show that the coefficientof friction
Two

2.

is 2-^3.
ladder 10 feet longweighing42 lbs.and constructed with 9
it into 10 equalspaces is placedagainsta verticalwall
stepsdividing
where sin a=^.
an
so as to make
anglea with the horizon,
A

3.

the ladder and the groimd an4

also between the ladder and the wall be J, show that a boy whose
when he is
weightis 9 stone ascendingthe ladder will cause it to slip
7th
the
to
from the 6th
step.
stepping
If the coefficientof friction between

J.

14

210

ELEMENTS

THE

"

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

at B stands with BG on a
A triangular
plateABG right-angled
tiltedround an axis
roughhorizontal plane. If the planebe gradually
the
B
vertex
to
in its own
beingdownwards,
planeperpendicular BC,
cient
accordingas the coeffiprove that it will beginto slide or toppleover
of friction is less or greaterthan tan A.
4.

stands on its base AD.

If it be cut
square board ABCD
show
the
least
the
that
horizontal
force
throughalong
diagonalAG,
which applied
will keep the triangle
to AB
ABC
from slipping
is J W,
W being the weight of the triangle,
the coefficient of friction of the
A

5.

wood

being^.

A heavy string
rests on two givenrough inclined planesof the
material passingover
If
vertex.
a smooth
peg at their common
is
of
show
that
the
line
i
ts
the string on the point
joining two
slipping,
ends is inclined to the horizon at the angleof friction.
6.

same

uniform
its lower end on
bar is placedin a slopingposition,
its
in
the
end
air
and
ground
supportedby a smooth fixed
upper
which
it
If
rests.
the
ground is smooth show that it
peg against
cannot
rest in equilibrium.If the ground is rough (coefficient
of
frictionjx),
I the lengthof the bar and h the heightof the peg from the
ground,a the angle made with the horizon by the bar when on the
7.

the

pointof slipping
cos

sin^ a-f/isin a COS^

a=2jn,

If in the wheel and axle the axle rests on rough bearings,

the
least force (acting
downwards)that will raise a weight W is
8.

6(l-|-sinX)i
W.
a-

6 sin X

Into a roughhorizontal table at two points

A and A' are inserted
holes with slightly
raised smooth
eyelet
edges. A weight of Q lbs.Ues
the table midway between A and A',to it are attached strings
the
on
end of each stringpassingthrough an eyelethole and sustaining
a
weightP. If Q be moved slowlyalongthe table at rightanglesto AA',
show that its greatestdistance from AA' consistent with equilibrium
is
9.

fi

"

"
.

2v4P^

"

A',where

/x is

the coefficientof frictionbetween

Q and

/x^"^

the table.
If

railwaywaggon weighs 6 tons and runs

the axles being 1^ inches
circumference,
the
approximately number of foot-poundsof work
10.

9 feet in

of the axles on their bearings

whilst
of
frictionfor
the
angle
bearings.

fHction

the

on

4 wheels each

in diameter; find
done againstthe
mile is traversed if \ is

11.
Three equalcircular discs A, B and C are placedin contact
with each other on a smooth horizontal plane,B and G beingalso in

211

FRICTION,
contact with

If the coefficientof frictionbetween

a roughverticalwall.
the discs and the wall is 2-^/3, show that there will be no motion
when A is pushed directly
towards the wall with any force.
A uniform rod AB is supported
12.
with
in a horizontal position
its extremity
A in contact with the rough wall .4(7 by the stringCD.
If AD and UD be J and f of AB respectively,
prove that the coefficient

of friction at .4 is

-,=

14"2

XIII.

CHAPTER

IMPACT.

202.

When

moving body impinges on

it may

that the bodies

happen
usuallyhappens

adhere

to

one

another

body

another,what

portionsof the bodies near

which the collision takes placeare compressedand then regain
their original
the
bodies
rebound
to
form,thus forcing
from one
another.
This tendency of bodies to regaintheir
form after compression
is called elasticity.
original
203.

is that

of

Impact

those

body

on

fixed

obstacle.

Fig. 138.

Consider the

of

case

fixed obstacle such

as

on
sphere impingingdirectly

smooth

wall.

towards the wall

First,let the spherebe moving directly
with

velocityu.

rebound

with

unity called
the

the

It is found

6 is a number
velocity
eu, where
and which
coefficient
of elasticity,

material of which
and not on the velocity
u.
on

by experiment that

the

wall

and

ball

are

it will

less than

depends
composed

214

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

and
Therefore OA'B is the angle6 of the last Article,
thus the ball will after impactmove
alongA'B produced.
If the
the wall.

spherebe

the point 0
particle

will lie upon

In the foregoing
have supposedthe motion
we
but
placein a horizontal plane,
the result is easily
to apply
seen
also in a vertical plane,giving
the following
result :
If
from a

to

take

particlebe projected
zontal
pointA with givenhoria

and

vertical components
of velocity
and v, it will after
u
impactat a smooth vertical wall
describe the parabolawhich it
would have described if it had been
the velocities "eu
and v, where A,
horizontal line and such that
same

OA'
205.

Impact

of two

Fig.

140.

from A' with

projected
0, A' are pointsin the

e.OA.

spheres.

Fig. 141.

If two spheres
of masses
and m' moving in the line
m
into collision,
both spheresexperience
joiningtheir centres come
a blow, and these blows
by the third law of motion
hence the momentum
are
directions,
equaland in opposite
in one
to that genesphereis equaland opposite
generated
rated
in the other,or there is no total changeof momentum.
Therefore if u, v! are their velocities before impactand
all measured in the same
V, v' their velocities after impact,
have
we
direction,
mv

mv

mu

+ mu

.(1).

215

IMPACT.

In order to find v and v' we need another equation,

this is
fact discovered by Newton that
givenby the experimental
the relative velocity
of the spheresafterimpact is
times their relativevelocity
before
impact,or
v' -v

-e{u' -u)

we
Solvingthese equations

(m

"

em')u

_m(l

+ m' (1 +

e) u'
"

e)u + (m' em) u'

"

m'

m-\Ex.

(2).

obtain

'"=
m

"e

A ball whose mass

is 4 lbs. moving with a velocity
of 5 ft.
is
ball
is
whose
lbs.
which
3
rest.
at
on
a
Find
mass
impinges
per
their velocities after impact,the coefficient of elasticity
beingequal
1.

sec.

In the

present case

(1)and (2)are
equations
3"'=20,

4" +

i"'-"=Jx 5,
from which

j;=a|,?)'=^.

Ex. 2. Two baUs whose masses

5 and 6 lbs.respectively,
are
directly
each other. Before impacteach is moving with a velocity
of 2 ft.
is J, find their velocities after
The coefficient of elasticity
per sec.
meet

impact.
Here m=b,

m'=G, v,=2, u'= -2,

hence

5"+6j;'=10-12=

v'-v=i{2+2)=i,
*'
ii '"'= M-

from which
Thus

the

-2,

"

of
velocity

206.

Kinetic

each ball is reversed in direction.

is lost

Energy

by impact.

fact that kinetic energy is lost in the impactof two

spheresmay be shown as follows ; let E and E^ be the total
then
kinetic energy before and after impact respectively,
The

since

(m +

by elementaryalgebra
+ m'uy"2mm'uu' + mm'{u^+u'%
(mu" + m'u'^)={mu
to')

therefore

%(m

m')E= (mu

+ mm' (u
m'u')'

u'f

(3).

216

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

Similarly
2 (m + m')^i (mv + rnVf
=

mm'

(v-v'y

(4).

have
and using(1),
we
By subtracting
mm' {{u u'f-{v- v')%
2 (m + m')(E- E^)
=

Hence
if u
greaterthan E^

By

of

use

(2)we

that

see

^."^"l
{u
2
+
,,

(m

is less than

is

E-E,=
and since

numericallygreaterthan v"v', E

v! is

"

unity^

u'y(1

e%

^i is a positive
quantity.

"

The kmetic energy which is apparently

lost reappears
of vibrations of the molecules of the spheres.

in the form

the spheresare not moving at impactin the

direction of the line joiningtheir centres, their respective
velocities perpendicular
to the line of centres are not altered
by impact if the spheresare smooth, and their velocities
207.

When

resolved in the direction of the line of centres

(1)and (2).

satisfy
tions
equa-

the spheresup to
Let 7i be the impulse between
208.
and /j the impulsefrom
the instant of greatestcompression,
that time until contact ceases.
the instant of

At

both

by

moving
V.

Then

the bodies

are

with
since

the spheresare
greatestcompression
denote
which we
the same
velocity
may

momenta
through/j the respective
changedfrom mu and m'u' to mF and m'V,

I^

m{u-V)

Similarly /2 m(F"

m'{V-u').

"u) m'(i;' F).

"

Hence

\m

therefore

mj

\m

-=?
=

Ix

"

"

u"u

e.

of

217

IMPACT.

EXAMPLES.

XLV.

A sphereimpingesdirectly
another sphereof double its mass
on
with
half
its
moving
velocity.Show that ifthe coefficientof elasticity
be ^, the striking
with half its
sphere will after the impact move
1.

and find the velocity

original
velocity,
of the other sphere.
2.

ball of

Y impingesdirectly
on
moving with velocity
tion
direcmoving with a certain velocity,
(i)in the same
in the oppositedirection ; if the coefficientof elasticity
as M, (ii)
and
the
of m is four times as great in the
f
subsequentvelocity

ball of

mass

mass

is
former case as in the latter ; show
balls were
in the ratio 1
2MjZm.

that the

of the

momenta
original

3. A ball 5 oz. in weightfaUs from a heightof 20 feet

upon a fixed
horizontal plane,and on reboundingreaches a heightof 11 J feet;find
the coefficientof elasticity
and the measure
of the impulse.
4. A cannon-ball strikes a smooth sea at an inclination of 1 in 100
"and rebounds from the water at an equalinclination. Compare the
blow with which it strikes the water with that required
to stopit.

An elastic spherelet fall from a heightof 16 feet above a fixed

horizontal table will come
to rest in 8 seconds after describing
65 feet,
efficient
supposing the sphereto keep reboundingfrom the table with a coof elasticity
|.
5.

6.

hne, one

of them

if their
with

series of

form

is the common
impinge will form
they successively

masses

which

ratio is

"common

elasticballs are arranged

in a straight
equalperfectly
the next,ar)dso on ; prove that
on
impingesdirectly
g. p.

of which

ratio the velocities

of which the
g.p.

l+r
7. A
to' which

ball A of

mass

another ball B
on
impingesdirectly
on
impinges directly

is at rest. After the impactB

ball C of mass
m" which is also at rest.
as
velocity

same

of

mass

third
If G has impartedto it the
elastic
and all the balls are perfectly
A had at first,
-)to")
(to'
(to-1-to')
=

4toto'.

equalmarbles A and B liein a smooth horizontal circular

A is projected
ends of a diameter.
alongthe grpove
groove at opposite
and after a time t impingeson B, show that a second impactwill occur
Two

8.

after

time

"

from a
balls of elasticity
e are
A series of spherical
projected
wall
show
that
smooth
their
reflexion
at
suffer
a
and
plane
;
point
the
same
reflexion
point.
directions after
pass through
9.

218

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

of 160
10.
A ball is projectedvertically
upwards with a velocity
feet per second,and when
it
is
met
has
reached
its
it
greatest height
in direct impact by another
equal ball which has fallen through
64 feet;find the times from
the instant of impact to that in which
the balls reach the ground,their coef6cient of elasticity
beingJ.
from the heights
number
of balls are dropped simultaneously
elastic plane,where m, n "c. are whole
m?, v? "c. feet above a perfectly
numbers.
32
as
Taking ff
prove that they wiU all be in their original
after
positions
^M seconds,where if is the l.o.m. of m, n, "c.
11.

12.

ball

v
projectedwith velocity

ricochettingfrom
v'
a

range

"

smooth

inclination

an

horizontal plane for

time

"n

will
j

keep

and will

2a

sm

have

at

r^

S'(l-e)

horizontal planeis
reversed in direction after impingingsuccessively
two fixed smooth
on
vertical planes of the same
material at rightanglesto each other.
13.

The

14.

makes

one

of
velocity

ball is

sphere moving

projectedfrom

rebound,

that

show

greatest height which

the

on

smooth

point in

if the

ball

second

attains,the

horizontal
range

is

angle of

plane and
equal to the
projectionis

tan~i 4e.

equal balls are two inches in

directions each with velocity
lengthand the balls are moving in opposite
lines one
their centres
inch apart. The coeflStwo parallel
V with
on
cient of elasticity
and direction of motion
is | ; find the velocity
of each
ball after impact.
15.

The

16.

A ball is

h with
one

velocity
v

of the walls

ceilingand

of each

diameters

from
projected
and
so

of two

pointin

elevation 6 in

that sin 6=

*/-^

of height
the floor of a room
vertical plane perpendicular
to
.

After

meeting

one

wall,the

the

oppositewall it returns again to the floor. If

be e, the distance between
the walls a and
elasticity
the pointof projection
from the first wall d, prove that

coeflScient of

distance of
distance from

where
an

the second

is the horizontal
angle 6.

17.
struck
motion

wall at which

the ball meets

the
the

the

the floor is

e^{R-d)- ae,
with velocity
v at
range of a body projected

There

two equalperfectly
elastic balls,
are
one
is at rest and
obliquely
by the other,show that after impact their directions
are

at

rightangles.

is
of

CHAPTER

XIV.

GEAPHICAL

209.

STATICS.

In

the presentChapterwe
shall investigate
some
methods
for finding
the resultant of forces given
graphical
in position
and magnitude,
and the stresses in the bars of
frameworks.

210.

Construction

for

the

line

of

action

of

the

resultant.

Fig.ii.
a

Fig.

142.

four forces F, G, H and K, whose lines of action

in fig.
F in magnishown
i,draw a line ah representing
are
tude
he representing
and
and direction,
0, cd representing
jff,
will representin magnitude
Then
K.
ae
de representing
and direction the resultant of F, G, H and K, Art. 79.
Take

to find the line of action of this force.

proceed
Take any point0 (whichis called the pole)in fig.
ii,and
joinit to the pointsa, h,c, d and e ; from any pointL on

We

the line of action of F draw

LT

and LM

MM
to Oc,NB
parallel
Ob respectively,
to Oe.
RT parallel

to Oa and
parallel
to Od and
parallel

220

ELEMENTS

THE

We

shall prove that jT is

the resultant force.
For

we

can

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

the line of action of

pointon

F by forces acting
alongLM
replace
ML

But
the

from

MN,

...

NM

RN

ii,by Art. 78,we

fig.

NB,

...

BT.

...

that

see

lines LT

and LM

ML

...MN

NM...

BN

components of J* alongthe

LT,

and

NB
...

BT

are

...

...

...

aO and Ob,
bO
cO
dO

Oc,

...

...

Od,

...

Oe.

Thus
the forces alongthe lines LM, MN, NB
destroy
each other, being equal and opposite,
the
forces
leaving

represented
by aO

Oe

and

T their intersection must

of the resultant.

actingalongLT and BT,

be a pointon the line of

The line of action of the resultant of

therefore the line throughT parallel
to ae.
When

the forces

are

all parallel
the

below.
represented

F
Fio.

143.

F, Q, H

are
figures

hence
action

and K

modified

is

as

222

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

directionto that
Notice that we
go round in the opposite
would
of the motion of the hands of a clock. The force BA
to the force AB.
denote a force equaland opposite

rightis the force polygon. The forces beingin

the force polygonis closed. It is to be observed
equilibrium
in magnitudeand direction
that the force AB is represented
by the line ah,the force BC by the line he,"c.
On

the

213.

Frameworks.

at their
When
of rigid
bars are joined
a number
together
ends by smooth pinsthey are said to form a frame. We
shall suppose for the present that the weightsof the bars
may be neglected.
'Q. T

P_

T
Bi

-"

"

"

t-T

v-i

Fio.

The
The
har.

la"

""

145.

is an important
proposition:
following
action of a bar on a pin at its end acts along the

under the
For consider the bar PQ, it is in equilibrium
actions of the pins at P and Q upon it,hence these actions
be equal and oppositeand must
therefore each act
must
alongPQ, let the magnitudeof each of them be T, thus the
action of the pin P on the bar PQ is T, and hence the
action of PQ on the pin P is a force equal and opposite
to T, i.e.a forcealongthe har.
These
on
acting

214.
We

of magnitudeT
said to form the stress in the bar.

equal and oppositeforces

two

the bar

are

Examples.
shall

use

the methods

which

have been described to

some
simplecases.
investigate
I. A jointedframe PQR
in the form of an equilateral
has a weight W attached to the jointP and the
triangle
ends of its base,which is horizontal,
rest upon fixed supports.
Find the forces alongthe bars.

Letters are
attached to the spaces divided from
other by the different forces,
in Art. 211.
as explained

each

GRAPHICAL

Thus

force at
the bar

the

weightF

Q which
QR acts

at P

223

STATICS,

is denoted

by AB,

the

upward

is equalto JTf by BG, the force with which

the pin Q by CD, and so on.
on

Observe that in the case of any

in the contra-clockwise direction.

pin we

take the forces

actingon

it

The force polygonconsists here of a vertical linein which

ah is of lengthW, he and ca each of length
^W.

Through a
to the bars PR

and
and

h draw

PQ,

ad and
joindc.

hd

parallel
respectively

The pin P
forces AB, BD

is in equilibrium
under the action of the
and DA, but the sides of the triangle
ahd
these
and
ah
is
forces
to
the
to
force
are
equal
AB,
parallel
hence hd and da are equalrespectively
to the forces BD
and
DA.
Art. 78.
under the forces DB, BG and
The pin Q is in equilibrium
dhc represent
GD, but the sides dh and he of the triangle
and BG, hence the side erf
in magnitudeand direction DB
the force CD in magnitudeand direction.
represents
Hence

cd must

be

to the
parallel

bar

QR.

action of the bar QP on the pin P

is represented
by hd, hence dh is the action of the pin on
to a compression,
such a
the bar, that is the bar is subjected
bar is called a strut. The action of the bar QR on Q is
We

saw

that the

by cd, and therefore dc representsthe action

represented
to a tension,
of the pin on the bar,thus the bar is subjected
such

bar is called a tie.

224

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

II. A frame
pinR and rests on

PQRS
two

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

has

weightW

supportsat

attached

to

the

P and S.

Fig. 147.

The supporting
forces BG and GA
at P and S are only
find their
shall now
not in magnitude,
we
givenin direction,
scale,the
magnitudes.Draw ab to represent W on some
forces BC and CA
are
represented
by he and ca but the
Take any pole 0 and
of c is not as yet known.
position
joinOa and Ob, we have to find the direction of the line Oc.
do this we construct the funicular polygon,
i.e.take
the line of action of BG
and draw KL
on
any point K
to Ob, throughL draw LM
to Oa, we shall
parallel
parallel
show that Oc is parallel
whose direction has been
to KM
To

found.
the
By observing

W (=

ab)may be

BG

(= be)may be

GA

(=ca) may

force

polygonwe

resolved into

see

that

and
force alongKL (==0b)
ML
a force along
(= a 0),

resolved into a force alongLK (= bO) and

to Oc,
a force in direction parallel

be resolved into a force alongLM(= Oa) and

to cO.
a force in direction parallel

geAphical

The forces W, BG, GA

225

statics.

and their components

equilibrium
alongKL and ML destroyeach other,hence the
forces reduce to two, one
throughK and one throughM,
these two forces must be equaland opposite
and therefore
act alongKM, and since we
have seen
that these forces are
each parallel
Hence
to KM.
to Oc,therefore
Oo is parallel
0 a line parallel
to KM, and
c is found by drawingthrough
the forces BG and GA are represented
by he and ca.
The pin R is in equilibrium
under the forces AB, BE
and EA.
Then by the same
as in Ex. I. if we
reasoning
draw ae and be parallel
find
to the bars jR^S and RQ we
that he and
The

in

representthe forces BE

ea

and EA.

under the forces EB, BD

equilibrium
by eb through6 and e
beingrepresented
and QS, then as
to the bars QR
parallel

is in

pin Q

and DE, but EB

draw bd and ed

before we
and DE.

are

that

see

bd

and

de represent the

forces BD

are DB, BG and

forces which keep P in equilibriiim
GD, joincd,then db and he havingbeen shown to represent
DB and BG cd must represent
GD; thus cd is horizontal.

The

under th" forces AE, ED,

The pin 8 is in equilibrium
have seen
to be represented
DG and GA which we
by ae,
ed,do and ca. The stresses in all the bars have now been

found *Particular attention should be paidto the fact that the

force denoted by any two of the largeletters,
e.g.BD, will
sponding
be found in the other diagram by lookingfor the correviz.in this case hd.
small letters,
To find whether
strut

we

proceedas

any

bar,say QS, is a
particular

tie or

follows:

Q8 is
pins,
say Q, the force on Q alon^
DE, now
comparingwith the line de in the other diagram
the pin Q is from Q towards 8,
that the forcem
see
we
the bar out,
the pinin,hence the pinpulls
the bar pulls
or
thus Q8 is a tie.
Take

one

That is,we
These
he
"a.
ae,
*

of its

lines
ah
in
which
the
scale
in
forces
the
represents
lines represent

can

find their

measuring the
magnitudesby actually

W.

15

226

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

III. A framework of five bars PQRS has two opposite

sides horizontal and to the pins at P and Q weightsW
and W are attached,the frame resting
upon fixed supports.

The

lines db and

respectively.
Any pole0 is

be

are

drawn

to

representW

and

joinedto a, b and c ; KL, LM

drawn parallel
to Oc, Oh and Oa, then as before,
and MN
are
will meet ah in d so that cd
to KN
a line Od drawn
parallel
the forces CD and DA,
and da represent
to the
Through a and h, af and hf are drawn parallel
and BF, and the forces on the pinP will be repreforces AF
sented
forces
and
We
then
find
the
other
as
fa.
by ah, hf
taken

and

before.

symmetricalframework of the form shown in

the figureis loaded at its highest
pointwith a weightW
the
and rests upon smooth
supports. The diagramgiving
be able to follow
forces is shown, the student will easily
IV.

the stepsof the construction.

GRAPHICAL

V.

227

STATICS.

of two
system of bars consisting

horizontal bars
joinedby cross bars equally
inclined to the vertical is called
a Warren
girder.Equal weightsare attached to the lowest
at each
pinsof such a girderand the system is supported
end.

1C fD I

E
Fig.

ad

1.

150.

We

find the forces on the pinsin the order 1,2,3,4, 5 as

indicated in the figure.
The forces NP, PC, CD at the
pin 5 are represented
by np, pc and cd; in order to get
the force MN-vfe
have to draw throughd a line drniparallel
and throughn a line nm
to DM
to MN, but these
parallel
lines intersect in n, showingthat n and m coincide,
hence
the force MN
is zero and there is no stress in the corresponding

bar.
215.

Heavy

jointed

bars.

Fio.

151.

presentArticle we shall discuss the equilibrium

or pins
of a system of bars connected by smooth joints
; in
have four such jointed
for instance,
the figure,
we
bars,on
In the

15"2

228

THE

the
show

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OP

MATHEMATICS.

rightthe bars are drawn separatedfrom

the action between the bars
more
clearly

the
and

to
joints
pins.

pin which joinsthe bars AB and BG; its

hence it is in equilisupposedto be negligible,
brium

Consider the

weightis

under the two forces R and S, the actions on it of

the bars AB and BG respectively
the right.
on
as shown
It and

8 must

therefore be

equaland opposite.

Next consider the bar BG.

The

forces actingon it {exclusive

of the actions of the
such as its weight"c., may be replaced
pinsat its extremities)
B
and
two
the
other
at
forces,
one
by
acting
acting
Let these forces be F and F' respectively.
at G.
The

bar BG

(i) the
(ii)

is in

under the two

equilibrium
resultant of F and 8 actingat B,
^'and^f'

forces

G.

The

forces (i)and (ii)must

therefore be equal and
and therefore act alongthe bar BG, let the magniopposite,
tude
of either be T.
and G' act on BA at B and A, the resultant
of G and R will be a force T' alongBA.

if G
Similarly

Lastlyconsider all the

forces which

act at B.

Tj.-'Fig. 152.

Since T is the resultant of F and 8 we see that F, 8, and

hence the force 8 on the pinB
r reversed are in equilibrium,
be replacedby F and T reversed,
R may be
similarly
may
and
T' reversed,
thus the pin is in equilibrium
replaced
by G
under the action of

(1)the

resultant of F and G,

(2)T reversed,(3)T' reversed.

230

THE

The

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

dcO, taken in order,are protriangle

portiona
to the forces actingon the pin D, dc equals*
W,
hence cO and Od equalthe forces along7 and S respectively
sides of the

of the sides of the triangle

edO, viz. ed and dO,
equaltwo of the forces on the pin E, hence Oe equalsthe
force alongEF.
It follows that Oe is parallel
to e.
Two

We

that the forces in

similarly
Ob respectively.

see

aO and

are

Since
hence

dc

cO

W,

dc tan 60"

and y8on

the

pinB

WjS,

each component of the stress in 7 is of

magnitude

Wj3.
dO

Also

60"

sec

2W,

hence the components of the stress in S and

/8 are each of

magnitude2W.
If

is the
"f)

tan d" =

inclination of

"

Oe

to the vertical

which

-jr-

2Fsec^

findthe reaction on

determines d",
^

2W

ce

and

To

=
"^.^

^^^^ Tr^/7.
=

the pins.

The reaction on the pinE beingthe action of either bar

which it joinsupon it,is the resultant of forces represented
by Oe and ^ed, it is thus represented
by Op, where p is
the middle pointof ed. Similarly
the reaction at D is represented
by Oq,where q is the middle pointof de.
2.

number
of equalbars are connected by smooth
and
two
extremities fixed,if the system hangs freely
pins
the bars make angleswith the horizon whose
tangentsare
in Arithmetical Progression.

Any

Denote

the bars

by

a,

/3,7, S,...and let F be the lowest

pin.
*

The

measure

of the line and the

measure

of the force

are

equal.

GRAPHICAL

231

STATICS.

Measure oflfequallengths
to represent
ah,be,cd,de,ef,...

Fio.

W, through/ and
0 to the

draw

fO

154.

and eO

to f and
parallel

e,

join

pointsa, b, c, "c.

before,the sides of the triangle

/eO represent
the forces on the pin F, those of the triangle
edO the forces
the pin E, and so on.
Hence the lines Oe, Od,
are
on
Then

as

...

to the
parallel

bars e, S

The
Draw
the horizontal line On.
with the horizon the angles
aOn, bOn,
.

an

bn

en

On'

Wi'

Oil'

bars a, /8,
make
whose tangentsare
...

"""'

W
and these form
3.

an

a.p.

whose

hexagon formed

of

common

difference is

jointedbars

ABGDEF

^r

"

has its

lowest side horizontal and rests on a peg Q at the middle

of AB
and FE
The middle points
are joined
pointof AF.
the
form
of
is
in
a regular
and the figure
hexagon.
by a string
Find the tension of the string.
be T. In addition to the
the tension of the string
weightsof the bars we have a force of magnitude T at the
and FE and a force equalto 6 TT acting
oi AB
middle points
upwards at 0. These have to be resolved into
vertically
Let

forces

s-

bars.
and 3 TT at the ends of their respective

232

ELEMENTS

THE

Denote the bars

by a, /8,7, B,e, ? respectively.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

Fig. 155.

pin A

The

is in

under
equilibrium

forces

alonga

and

/S,

T
2 W

vertically
upwardsand

horizontal.

"

"1

The

pinB

and

The

pin C

is acted

on

by

T
forces in y3 and 7,
-^

horizpntal,

downwards.
vertically

Hence

is acted

the force

on

by

S and

forces in 7 and

polygonis constructed

as

follows

T.
and 2W
Let ah representthe resultant of
-^

^andFat

be

cd,drawn

Through a
they therefore

wards.
down-

:
"

a,t A,

JS,

downwards, representW
vertically

at C.

and b draw aO and bO parallel

to a and
include an angleof 60". Join Oc and Od.

0,

Then
before it follows that Oc and Od are parallel
as
The part of the force polygon below ad is
to 7 and S.
exactlysimilar to the part above and refersto the left side
of the

hexagon.

Draw bn perpendicular
to ad. The horizontal
of ah and be are each ^T and bn is equalto 2 W.

components

GRAPHICAL

Thus

we

STATICS.

have

Ore

^,

2Fcot60"

73

Od=Fcot60"=?=
73
hence

adding

^T

dn

jl,

or

T=2j3W.

XV.

CHAPTER

MOTION.

CIRCULAR

217.

in

motion

Uniform

circle.

Fig. 156.

Consider

the

of

ference
body moving in the circumof a circle with uniform
velocityv. The rate at
which the radius joiningthe body to the cefitre turns round
This we
is called the body'sangular velocity.
shall denote
by 0). Thus if 6 be the angleturned throughin a time t,
case

Hence

if T

be the whole

time

taken

to

=T.

"

(O

Also if an

arc

is described in t seconds
e

s
V

a-

=
V

aw.

cumfere
describe the cir-

CIRCULAR

218.

Acceleration

Let P

in

circular

motion.

be successive positions
of the body,
then since its velocities at
P and Q are equal in magnitudeand
to OP and OQ respectively
perpendicular
we

and

235

MOTION.

at P and
representits velocity

may

Q by OP

and

OQ.

The

to changethe
velocity
required
at P to that at Q is therefore
velocity
of Velocities represented
by the Triangle
to PQ and
by PQ and is pei-pendicular

directed inwards.

Hence
P to

in passing
from
changeof velocity
at P
velocity

"

"^

_
~

OP
0

(when 0 is very small).

occupiedin

the (very small)time

Hence
if t denote
goingfrom P to Q,
"

PQ

Q
_

^^'*-^^''"

from
in passing
changeof velocity

P to

T
a
=

at P
velocity

mv

"

aar.

Hence

the

of the acceleration at P

measure

directed inwards along the radius.

acceleration alongthe tangentat P.
219.

We

have

seen

moving uniformlyin
mass

is m

radius is m

the force
-

is

body has

The

that the acceleration of

circle of radius

actingon

the

is

and is
thus

no

particle

hence if its

"

inwards alongthe
particle

This is the force which

is

to keep
required

the particle
in its circular path;if,for instance,
particle
attached
on
a smooth table at the end of a string
is revolving

the

23.6

ELEMENTS

THE

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

is the force
fixed point,
then the tension T of the string
therefore
which acts on the particle
and keepsit in its path,
to

we

must

have

off alongthe
will move
stringbreaks, the particle
breaks,
tangent at the pointat which it is when the string
in
there beingnow
force
constrain
it
to
a circle.
to
move
no
If the

220.

The

Hodograph.

Fig. 158.

When
a
body is describing
any curve, from any fixed
pointlet lines be drawn which representin magnitudeand
direction the velocitiesof the bodyin its successive positions.
The extremities of these lines form a curve
which is called
the Hodographof the path described by the body.
Take

as

an

examplethe

case

of uniform

The lines Op, Oq "c. are drawn

and direction the velocities of a
The
v.
PQ with uniform velocity
lie on a circle.

circular motion.

in magnitude
represent
the circle
body describing
selves
points
p, q "c. thus themto

notice that.Op beingthe velocity

of the body at P
and Oq its velocity
at Q, pq will represent the change of
from P to Q, hence if P and
of the body in passing
velocity
the measure
near
Q are indefinitely
points,
of the velocity
of
is equalto the measure
the pointwhich describesthe hodograph
eftheaccelerationof the body.
We

238

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

when
This motion is oscillatory,
the pointN is
at A
at its greatest
distance from 0, it will then move
towards 0,
will pass through0 and reach A',its velocity
then changes
and it returns through0 to A again. The whole
direction,
time taken from

leavingA

A againis clearly
the
reaching

to

2
aS

same

The
time

the time taken by P,

or

is called the

distance OA

Art. 217.

"

the
amplitudeof vibration,

the periodof vibration.

^

"

The

of
velocity

to
parallel

OA

In harmonic

N is the
and is therefore

that

as

same

of P

resolved

sin PON

aw

CO

PN

motion

we

CO

Ja^

a;'.

have therefore,

the acceleration

co^. cc,

the velocityo) Va^

=

the

period
=

"

a^,

"

the
We

observe

amplitude

that the

a.

perioddoes

not

depend on

the

amplitude.
223.

Particle

falling down

any

smooth

curve.

We saw
in Art. 82 that when a particle
has fallen down
inclined planeits increase of velocity
is that which
a smooth
it would have acquiredif it had fallen freely
throughthe
heightof the plane.

Similarlyif

the
particle
slides down
series of planes
a
ABODE
inclined at different
its final
anglesas in the figure,
will be that which would
velocity
be due to the entire vertical
heightif falling
freely.Notice
that this is a particular
of
case
the theorem in Art. 152, that the

239

MOTION.

CIRCULAR

the kinetic energy is equalto the work done by

and h the
the forces. Fpr if m is the mass
of the particle
and v, u the final and initialvelocities,
heightfallen through,
then since we have seen that v^ u'' 2gh,therefore

changein

"

^m (ijF u') mgh.

"

is the work done by the weightof the particle

;
the reaction does no work since it is at each pointperpendicular
to the direction of motion.

And

mgh

portionsof the inclined plane very

small and increase their number
we
indefinitely
get the case
slides down a
of a smooth
Hence
when
a
curve.
particle
smooth curve
the velocity
is that which is due to the
acquired
totalverticalheight
fallenthrough,
When

take

we

224.

Motion

the

of

pendulum.

discuss the motion of

the other end
to the end of a string,
of which is attached to a fixed point.
will oscillate in a verThe particle
tical
with the string,
circle and will,
constitute a simple
pendulum. We
shall confine ourselves to the case in
We

shall

now

attached
particle

the whole arc throughwhich

oscillates is very small
the particle
and shall show that in that case the
periodof the oscillationis the same
which

for all such

arcs.

be L and P any
of the particle
position
of it,the angleLOA
beingequalto a and
position
particular
to 0.
the anglePOA
the radius OQ to bisect the angle6. It is clear
Draw
half the arc which P does
over
that since OQ always moves
is half that of P.
time that its velocity
in the same
Let

one

Draw
of

M,
If

so

extreme

QM

that when
is the

let K be one
P is at L, M is at K.

vertical and

of P, since
velocity

is the

extreme

position

of Q, the
velocity

240

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

of iifis
velocity
^

cos

be taken to be

which may

"

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

"

sirwe

6 is very small.
if it were
of a circle,
the reaction of the arc
on
a smooth arc
oscillating
and we have seen
beingequalto the tension of the string,
that in that case
The

motion

2g y.

v^ =

is
particle

of the

the

vertical distance between

2ga (cos6

cos

"

as

same

L and P,

a),

^1"0K^-0M^).
a

Hence

JOK^-OM\
sj\
V

of Jf is
Also since the velocity
^

of which the

by Art.
is
period

222

^
And

this is also the

we

a/^JOK^

of ilf
velocity
Therefore

have that

OM".

Cff

moves

with

harmonic

motion,

2.y^.

hence the
simplependulum for small oscillationsis equalto

periodof P,

periodof a

"'/I

seconds.

The expression
for the period is seen
to dependonly
and the value of g at the
upon the lengthof the string
placewhere the pendulum swings. A method qfjmdingthe
value of g is thus afforded
the time of
us, viz. by observing
oscillationof a simple
pendulum whose lengthis known.

CIRCULAR

The efifect
the
on
be
found
lengthmay
If the

if

the

follows

as

of

square

its
pendulum of slightly
increasing

lengthis increased by

the
neglect

we

periodof

241

MOTION.

small

Hence

quantity
m,

the

the

periodbecomes

periodis increased by

"

njag

seconds.

Seconds Pendulum.

A
which

pendulum such that its periodis

i.e.one
second in its swing,
two seconds,
one
occupies
is called a 'seconds' pendulum. The lengtha of such a
pendulum is givenby the equation
TT

/-

1, or

-"

feet.

TT^

Taking the value of g as 32, the lengthof

pendulumis 3'3 feet nearly.
225.

Pendulum.

of mass
particle
m, attacljed
formly
unistringto a fixed point,moves

When

by

Conical

in

horizontal circle whose centre

below the
vertically
are
stringand particle
conical pendulum.
is

fixed point the

said to form a

Let 0 be the inclination of the string

then since the weight of
to the vertical,
is supported
the particle
by the vertical
component of the tension T of the string
Tcosd--

"

force

must

"

is

where
required,

the radius of the circle it

be such that
Tsia0

162.

...(1).

is the

FiG.

mg

To maintain the uniform circular motion

and

the seconds

of the

a
particle

of the particle
velocity

therefore T
describes,

"

16

sin 0

242

THE

If the

ELEMENTS

makes
particle

therefore

Tsm.6

where

lengthof

I is the

revolutions per second

we

the

4iin-n^nHsin 6,

or
string,

(2).

T=4mnrVl
Therefore

from

have

^ima,

miir^n^a

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

(1)
^

cose

"

47rVi
the tension of the
the inclination of the string
to the vertical.
We

have

determined

now

EXAMPLES.

and
string

XLVI.

1.
A particle
is placedon
a
rough horizontal plate(/i=")at a
distance of 9 inches from a vertical axis about which the platecan
rotate; find the greatestnumber of revolutions per second the plate
make without moving the particle.
can
2.

revolve
cause

of 10 lbs.
of turns per minute
must
a mass
inches
15
the
end
of
at
a
long so as to
string
horizontally
lb. were
the same
tension in the string as if one
hanging
At

what

number

vertically?
3.

When

pendulum whose lengthis I makes

its

lengthis

altered it makes
slightly

oscillationsin 24 hours.
oscillations in 24
m+n
2w

hovirs. Show

that the diminution

of the

lengthis

"

nearly.

A heavy particle
table in a
i.
of mass
is moving on a smooth
m
circle beingconnected by a string,
which passes through a hole in the
table at the centre of the circle,
of mass
with a particle
2m which hangs
?
What must be the velocity
of the first particle
vertically.
600
5. A locomotive engineweighing9 tons passes round a curve
feet in radius with a velocity
of 10 miles an hour; what force tending
towards the centre of the curve
must be exerted by the rails?
6.

7.

The

clock which gains15 seconds a day has to be set

the alteration in the pendulum which should beat seconds,
g

weight

of 29 "905 cubic inches

of mercury

equalto that of 29 'SOS cubic inches in Manchester.

will a pendulum clock
for London?

gainin

year in Manchester

How

find
right,
being32.

in London

is

seconds

many
if properly
regulated

CIRCULAR

8.

243

MOTION.

Takingthe

values of g at the Equator and at the poleto be

and 32-25 respectively,
Clock
find how
much
a
pendulum which would beat true seconds at the pole

32-09
respectively

regulatedby
wiU lose in
A

9.

an

hour

at the

Equator.

hanginghorizontally
by two vertical
36 lbs. and is
a ball weighing
suspendingropes at its ends projects
raised by the recoil 2-25 feet above its lowest position.
Find the
cannon

and

momentum

after

weighing12

cwt.

energy of the ball and

of the

cannon

at the instant

discharge.

10. A particle
weighing^oz. rests on a horizontal disc and is
attached by two strings
4 feet long to the extremities of a diameter.
If the disc be made to revolve 100 times a minute
about its centre,
find the tension of each string.
11. When
in a curve
of 242 yardsradius at 15
a train is travelling
miles per hour,the stringby which a hea-srjr
is attached to the
particle
roof of a carriage
will be inchned to the verticalat cot"! 48.
of mud
12. Show that pieces
thrown from the top of a cab-wheel
whose diameter is d feet,
the cab moving with a velocity
of v feet per
strike
the
will
when
be
at
distance
a
second,
they
ground,
Jw^cJfeet
in front of the position
then occupied
by the pointof contact of the
wheel with the ground.
If T is the time of revolution of the bob of a conical pendulum
of a shaft of a mine of depth I,the pendulum being
suspendedfrom the surface of the Earth,the value of g at the bottom
13.

at the

bottom

of the shaft,is

(1

"

I , where

is lengthof the Earth's radius.

pendulum performs21 completevibrations in 44 seconds,

its length47-6875 cms.
it performs21 completevibrations
shortening

14.
on

-yj^

in 33 seconds ; from

these data find the value of g.

15. Two small bodies of weights8 and 27 ozs. weightare laid on a

5 feet long passing
smooth table and connected by a string
througha
small fixed ringin the table at the distance of 2 and 3 feet from the bodies
hne joining
them.
and in the straight
at right
They are then projected
towards
the
of
it
with
side
the
velocitiesof
to
same
3 and
string
angles
that
each
in a circleand
Prove
2 ft.
-sees, respectively.
body wiU move

that if the

stringbreaks

after

seconds the bodies will meet

at the

end of the next second.

at two different places
lose t and
pendulumsoscillating
the
if
which
at
oscillatebe
sees,
a day respectively
places
they
;
interchanged
theylose t and T' sees. Prove that "-f-T=t!-\-T nearly.
16.

Two

16"2

PART

II.

CHAPTER

FLUID

XVI.

PRESSURE.

A RIGID
body is such that it offers an indefinitely
speakingthere
greatresistance to change of form. Strictly
are
no
absolutely
rigidbodies,for if force be appliedto a
body it will in generalproducein the body a changeboth of
1.

size and shape. Bodies which have

their size or shape when
they have
these

respectsare said

bodies
which

putty, clay,mortar

as

tend

to

force is removed
2.

to be

Fluid

their

recover

tendencyto recover
undergone a changein
plastic.Of this nature are such
and

no

malleable

form
original

metals.
when

Bodies

distorting

said to be elastic.

are

Bodies.

A perfect
fluidis a substance such that the stress between
it and any (small)
in contact with it is entirely
area
dicular
perpenresistance to
to that area, and such that it offers no
change of shape.
The

area

immersed
Such

spoken of

solid
a

or

any

may

area

fluid behaves

as

be either a portion of the surface

taken within the fluiditself.
if it consisted of very small

smooth

of

an

hard

spheres.

fluidis a substance which offers very littleresistance to

changeof shape. The stress between a fluid and any (small)
in contact
with it is not quite perpendicular
to that
area
nearlyso, owingto the existence of a property
area, although
called viscosity
somewhat
friction.In the sequel
resembling
shall assume
the fluids treated of to be perfect
fluids.
we
A

246

THE

6.

The

ELEMENTS

OF

of

method

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS,

separate

equilibrium.

order to obtain the properties

of some
of fluids at rest is as follows : the equilibrium
the forces which act
portionof the fluid is considered,
definite
the pressures of
are
(i)its weightand (ii)
upon this portion
and these
the remaining
portionof the fluid upon its surface,
forces are in equilibrium.
The

method

which is

adoptedin

In order to separatementallythe portion

of fluid considered,
more
from
the
of
the
become
rest
to
it
is
sometimes
clearly,
fluid,
supposed
But this supposition
is quiteunnecessary.
iolidijied.

7.

The

intensities

horizontal

same

plane

of pressure

at

all

points

in

the

equal.

are

Fis. 1.

fluid with very small ends.

side is x, the
Let one
a vertical square whose
ing
of sides x and y. The forces actother,LMNR, a rectangle
this prism are in equilibrium.
The pressure of the
on
is horizontal and in the direction
rest of the fluid on ABCD
Take

horizontal
end A BCD
be
a

prism of

of the

lengthof the prism.

letLMNR
be inclined to the vertical at some
First,
angle0.
Then if^ and^' are the intensities of pressure at the centres

of the

p'xxy
Denote
The
of its

those ends are pxx^ and

Art. 5.
We
shall prove that p=p'respectively,
these two forces by P and Q.
two

ends, the forces

forces which

prismin the direction

lengthare (1) P, (2) the component of Q in that
the onlyforces in this direction
these are
direction. And
since the pressures -on the other faces and its weightact
to the length
of the prism.
perpendicular
Hence since there is equilibrium
have
we
P
component of Q alongthe prism.
=

tend to

on

move

the

FLUID

Draw
are

247

PRESSURE,

MS

to AB, the sides of

parallel
to Q and
respectively
perpendicular

the triangle
LMS
its horizontal and

vertical components, hence

horizontal component of Q

Therefore

that is

px^ : p'xy
=

MS

x:y.

LM

x:y,
x:y,

.'.p

=p'.

Y
N

Fig. 2.

some

be verticalbut inclined to ABGD

let LMNR
Secondly,
to AD, then as before
angle0,draw LS parallel

component

of

in the direction of the

=

at

prism: Q

L8:LM

the
the direction of the face LMNR
of
of pressure at its centre is equalto the intensity
intensity
It follows that the intensiti
of ABGD.
pressure at the centre
the same
at all
of pressure in any direction are
horizontal plane.
in the same
points
whatever

Hence

of a horizontal area the

that at all points
of pressure is the same, hence the pressures on
intensity
equalareas are equal,or the pressure is uniformand the;
is the pressure per unit area.
of
intensity
Thus

we

see

pressure

248

THE

Both

ELEMENTS

P=

Alternative

the

that

is zero.
Take
the face BOC.

intensity

of

at

pressure

if 6 be the

have,p
X

area

point

any

of

form

tetrahedron

"

anglebetween

to ABO
OA and the perpendicular
and
of
BOG
intensity pressure over
p' over ABC^

beingthe

BOC-p'

^_

ABCy.

x area

5+ resolved part of weightof

cos

tetrahedron=0
Now
the

the resolved part of the weightof the tetrahedron

anglebetween OA and the vertical,
of the tetrahedron

volume

is the

the direction perpendicular

to
The forces in this direction

(i) the pressure on the face BOC,

the
(ii) resolved part of the pressure on ABC,
the resolved part of the weight of the
(iii)
tetrahedron.

we

5,

cos

directions.

Consider a very small portionof fluid in the

OABC, the faces through 0 being mutually
at rightangles. Since the tetrahedron is in
of the resolved parts
the sum
equilibrium
of the forces actingupon it in any direction

Hence

follows j

6,

cos

x=i/

"

as

be the value of 6.

p=p' whatever may

proof

all

for

Q alongthe prism

cos
6, and
px'^=p'm/

.".

same

of

component

.'.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

foregoingmight have been shortened

of the

cases

OF

of unit volume

mass

(1).
is,^ being

of the fluidx

cos

0,

and the volume of the tetrahedron is= J x area J.5Cx perp. from 0 on
is negligible
in comABC
parison
; which,since the tetrahedron is very small,
hence
omit
the
last
with the area ABC
term of (1)as
we
;
may
in comparisonwith the others. Hence
negligible
p

And

since the

area

area

BOC=p'

BOG
area

is the

ABC

however

Hence

of pressure
intensity

remains

near
indefinitely

area

d.

cos

area

ABC,

BOC

P=P'-

it remains
0.

the equilibrium
of
By considering
of fluid we
in the same

the direction of the

over

of the
projection

cos

"""

ABC

x area

the

area

same

ABC

be altered the
providedthat the area

circular cylinder
a horizontal right
of pressure is the same
that the intensity
at all points
horizontal plane.

see

FLUID

8.

The

heavy

intensity

liquid varies

249

PRESSURE.

of

in

pressure

directly

the

as

homogeneous

depth.

To find the

of pressure at any point

P,
intensity
o
f
thin
vertical
a
equilibrium
cylinder

the

consider

^^^^

of fluid,whose
base ,A is horizontal and
contains P, the upper end beingin the sur-

face.

r=lr^
"

The

in equilibrium,
forces,
actingon this

cylinder
are,
A'

(i)the pressures
which

are

on

pressure

we

see

the base,which

on

the weightof
(iii)

the

w-

horizontal,

(ii)the

Hence

its curved surface,

the

is vertical,

wards.
downcylinder
acting
vertically

that,

upward pressure

the base

on

weightof the cylinder.

of the base,this upward pressure is

pA, and w beingthe weightof unit volume of the fluid the
is whA, hence
weightof the cylinder

Also,A beingthe

area

pA
p

or

Thus

the

of
intensity

whA,
wh.

pressure

is

to
proportional

the

depth.
Notice that p is the pressure

on

horizontal unit of

area

at the

depth h.
the vertical pressure of
have not taken into account
if its intensity
the free surface of the fluid,
on
the atmosphere
is n, we have
We

wh + Ii..

this is the
a square inch is 14'7 lbs.,
on
whose
is
feet
of
34
and base
column
water
vertical
height
weight of a
in
inches
column of mercnury 30
height.
one
square inch,or of a

The

atmospheric
pressure

250

THE

9.
a

The

ELEMENTS

OF

f]ree surface

horizontal

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

of

heavy

liquid

rest

is

plane.

Take two pointsA and B in the same

"within the fluid. The
intensities of
Art. 7,
equal,
pressure at A and B are
hence if h and h' are the depthsof A
and B below the free surface,
have
we
by the last Article,

wh+Il

at

wh' + Il, or

horizontal

plane

h'.

that all points

of
"*'
the free surface are at the same
vertical
distance from this horizontal plane,hence the free surface
is itself
a horizontal plane.
we
Similarly

show

maintain their level.

Liquids
The proofof this proposition
appliesto

the

case

where

the free surface consists of several detached portions.

If,
tubes
of
number
into
the
for instance,
have
we
a
fitting
top
of a closed vessel and water be pouredthrough one
of the
rise to the same
the vessel,
tubes,it will,after filling
height
referred to by saying
in each tube.
This fact is sometimes
that liquids
maintain their level.'
'

10.
'Which

When

The
do

not

of

surface
mix

is

separation
horizontal

of two

heavy

liquids

plane.

have two liquids

which do not mix, the lighter
of pressure
liquidbeingtherefore uppermost, the intensity
at any pointP in the lower liquid
is,by reasoning
precisely
similar to that of Art. 8,
we

wh + w'k + n,
where w and w' are the weightsof unit volume of the upper
and lower liquids,
and h, k the respective
of a vertical
portions
line throughP contained in the two liquids.
is the same
for all pointsP in
the same
horizontal plane,
Art. 7, and since the free surface
of the upper liquid
Art. 9, h + k is the same
is horizontal,
in the same
horizontal plane; hence,for points
for all points
in such a plane,
both h and k are the same, i.e.the depth
is the same.
of the upper liquid
This

of
intensity

pressure

FLUID

11.

251

PRESSURE.

The

heightof the free surface

above a horizontal planeis called the
with regardto that plane.

of a column of
"head" of the

liquid
liquid

Pressure is often

givenin "feet" of water or "inches"

mercury, the meaningbeingthat the pressure is that due
head of the givennumber
a
of feet of water or inches

of
to

of

mercury.
Ex. 1.

Find the pressure per square

If p is the requiredpressure

water.

weightof

cubic foot of water

depth of

100 feet in

p=ioh, Art. 8, and

since the

inch at

is 1000 oz., w

is

also
:rfr^ oz. ;

A=1200,

hence
wt.
p=1200x^^2gOz.

lbs. wt.

=43'4

Ex.

Find

2.

in mercury.

the pressure

Mercury

per square inch at a depthof 30 inches

is 13 '6 times as heavy as water, the weightof a

will therefore be

cubic inch of mercury

Hence

nearly.

yfna

the pressure per square inch is

^^'^

13'6

Find

3.

the pressure

on

horizontal

30

oz.

wt.

14'8 lbs. wt.

Ex.

oz.

plane5

nearly.

sq. feet in

area

placed25 feet deep in mercury.

The
,

weightof
,

-whose base
,,

the

planeis

"

is

one

sq.

of mercury

column
^

foot,is

1000x13-6

r^

1000x13-6x25,,

25x5,,lbs.

Find

the pressure per square

the
length,

area

",n"n-n,i,

of

the pressure
lo^-jhence ^,

^3

on

4.
lbs.wt.

106250

EXAMPLES.
1.

feet in

25

I.
inch

due to

head of 34 feet of

-water.

Find the head of water

square inch.
2.

to which

is due

pressure

of

one

lb. per

If the pressure at a depth of 26 feet in a longvessel containing

i
liquids 3 times the pressure at a depthof 8 feet,find the pressure on
" square foot of the free surface.
3.

252

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

of a well is 4 times that at the

of
depth
depth the well if the pressure of the
to 34 feet of water 1
atmosphereis equivalent
4.

If the pressure

of 2

5.

at the bottom

is the

bottom 20 feet below

square is made in a ship's
be exerted to keep the water out by
force must
line. What
pieceof wood againstthe hole,assuming that a cubic foot of

A hole 6 inches

the water

holdinga
sea-

what
feet,

water

weighs 64

lbs.?

different fluids the intensities of pressure are the same

at the depths of 5 and 6 inches. Neglecting
atmosphericpressure
of
and 10 inches.
the
at
8
intensitiesof
depths
pressure
compare
6.

In two

On the top of a house 47 feet high is placeda cistern 6 feet

force is exerted on a plugin a tap whose section is of area
What
deep.
half a square inch when the cistern is half full ; the plugbeing2 feet
above the ground?
7.

circular cork of a bottle has a diameter of '75 inches. It

force
far must the bottle be
of 35 lbs. to push it in. How
requiresa
in
that
this
take
sunk
the sea
place,neglectingatmospheric
may
8.

The

pressure?
12.

Transmission

of fluid

pressure.

When
of the surface of a
to a portion
pressure is applied
fluid at rest this pressure is transmitted
to all other portions
of the fluid.
equally
For if to an area at P in the surface of
the fluid a force F is applied,
and Q is
struct
any other point within the fluid,cona
cylinderhavingthe area at P
and an equalarea
Then
at Q as ends.
since the cylinder
is in equilibrium
and
force
F
has
been
a
appliedat P, there
be
additional
must
an
pressure equal
Pm
g
and opposite
F
to
the end Q, since
on
the pressures on the sides of the cylinder
all perpenare
dicular
to the axis.
This is known

Pascal's Principle.
The operation
of this
might be shown as follows : Let a closed cistern
principle
be filled with water, the cistern beingprovidedwith airtight
pistons
passing
throughholes in its sides. If the areas
of the pistons
are
equal and a force be appliedto one of
them tendingto push it in,an equalforc^
be applied
must
to
each of the other pistons
the effect of the first
to counteract
as

"

254

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

If this justsupportsa

Tf

APPLIED

weightW
=

MATHEMATICS.

we

have

Px-.
a

Fio. 8.

the down stroke of the smaller plungerthe valve on the rightis

and water is forced into the large cylindera? the large
displaced,
On again raisingthe small plimgerthe valve on the
rises.
plunger
while the
rightcloses and the largeplungeris kept in its position
from the
valve on the left is raised and water enters the small cylinder
in the Article on Pumps.
tank below as explained
On

In the figurethe tap T is turned so as to form a channel for the

water from the small to the largecyUnder. The water in the large
be released by turningthe tap through a rightanglewhen
can
cylinder
the water escapes downwards
throughthe tap.

In connexion

with the

the water pressure.

there
largecylinder

is

gauge

O to indicate

255

PRESSURE.

FLUID

of this apparatusa very large

pressure may be
of a comparatively
small force,
secured by the application
providedthat the area A be considerably
greaterthan a.
the total
of a lever,
The force P is usually
applied
by means
mechanical
advantagewill therefore be the productof the

By

means

mechanical
The

of the
advantages

lever and the press.

remained
for a longtime comparatively
useless since it was
found that the water leaked out
round the larger
able.
pistonwhen the pressure became considerTo remedy this Bramah
invented the cuppedleather
of which a section is represented.
A groove aa is cut
collar,
round the cylinder
and in it is placeda leather ringbent so
section. When
enters this
water
a semicircular
as to have
side of it against
the groove and the
collar it presses one
water
other closely
so that no
can
againstthe piston,
escape ;
and more
more
as the pressure increases the collar is pressed
the piston.
tightly
against

Hydraulicpress

plungerhas 100 times the area of

press the larger
of the lever are 4 and 16 inches long,what
the smaller,the arms
to the larger
transmitted
will
be
plungerby a force of 40 lbs.
pressure
weight?
Ex.

In

Bramah

mechanical advantageof the lever is 4, and of the press is 100,

hence
the mechanical advantage of the combination is 400, thus the
total pressure on the largerplungeris 16000 lbs. weight.
The

14.

Hydrostatic

Paradox.

of the sections of
be the areas
narrow
cylinderconnected by a pipe.
tight
is fittedwith an airThe wide cylinder
Let A

and

wide and

which a weight W can

be placed.If water be pouredin at
it will
the top of the narrow
cylinder
raise the weighta distance depending
Q
of water
the amount
so poured
on
lid

on

in.
If the water

in the

narrow

cylin-

der stands at a heighth above that

in the wider,the pressure on the area
wah.

'

at

'

P is by Art. 8

256

THE

The

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

pressure transmitted

is therefore

to A

wah,

"

or

MATHEMATICS,

wAh.

If W

be the

weightsupported
W=wAh.

This result is independent

of the section of the narrower
and by takingthe section extremelysmall we
cylinder,
get
the result that a very small amount
of water can be made to

support a very greatweight. This fact is sometimes known

the Hydrostatic
Paradox.
as
Observe,however, that a considerable
increase in the

liquid
onlyincreases
slightly.
15.

Liquids

Let BAG

be

length of the longercolumn of

lengthof the shorter column very

the

in

bent

tube.

bent tube containing

which
two liquids
and water.
Let a be the
not mix, say mercury
of their common
surface a.t A,h the height
area
of the column
of water
above A, h' of the
column of mercury above A, the pressure over
to the mercury
be equal to the
must
a. due
due to the water, hence if w
a
pressure over
and wf are the weightsof the unit volume
of
water and of mercury respectively
a

wah

w'ah',
w

or

Hence
two

Fw.

'

the

heightsabove the common

to the weightsof
proportional
liquids.

Ex.

1.

Two

liquidsthat do

Q=v/

: w

ov

w'

10.

inversely
of the

are

bent

tube;

and

the distance of the free

surface is 6 inches,
compare

The
height of the lighterliquidabove
inches,hence
10

surface
unit volume

mii'are contained in

not

the difference of their levels is 4 inches

surface of the heavier above their common
the weightsof their units of volume.

10

do

the

-5

:3.

common

surface

is

FLUID

257

PRESSURE.

Ex. 2. Two vertical cylindrical

vessels A and B are connected at
the bottom by a very narrow
tube,and stand on a horizontal table.
The diameter of 4 is 6 inches,
that of 5 is 4 inches. A liquid1-4
times as heavyas water fiUs the vessels to a heightof 6 inches above
the base,
when an equalvolume of water is pouredcarefully
the top
on
of the liquid
Where will be the common
in A.
surface of the hquids
when equilibrium
has been restored,
do not
assuming that the liquids
mix?
The volume
Hence

by

the

of water

heightof

this Article the

surface is

"

=-7

is tt

pouredin

the column

heightof

78 cubic inches.

of water
the other

is

78
inches ; and therefore
-^

above
liquid

the

common

inches.

9x1-4

Let X be the distance of the

since the new
volume is twice the

Ty j
+

a;

97r+

surface from the

common

base,then

volume
original

/K^
^g-^j^
+

4jr 2
=

(6X

9,7+ 6

4n-),

givesa; =4*1 inches nearly.

which

Ex. 3. Water is poured into a U tube the arms of which are 6 inches
is then poured
long until theyare half full. As much oil as possible
What lengthof the tube will it occupy if water
into one of the arms.
is half as heavyagainas the oil?
surface above the base of the
Let a; be the distance of the common
tube,then if A isthe area of the cross-sectionthe weightof oilis that of

(6"af)%A cubic
heightof the
hence
inches,

The
6

"

2x

thus the

water

above

the

{6-x)%=6-2x,
tube
of
by the
occupied
length
EXAMPLES.

1.

inches of water.

If the diameter of the

or

obviously

x=l^,

oilis 4^ inches.

II.

of a
larger
plunger

times that of the smaller one, what

if that on the former is half a ton 1

surface is

common

pressure

Bramah press is twenty

is applied
to the latter

The diameters of the two plungersof a hydraulic

press are
o
f
the
of the
the
and
inches
and
arms
20
2 inches
lengths
respectively,
the
which
be
can
lever are 2 inches and 18 inches. Find
weight
lbs.
of
40
force
a
weight.
by
suppoi-ted
2.

and the
If a pressure of one ton is produced
by a force of 5 lbs.,
the
ratio
of the
the
8
to
find
ratio
of
in
a
re
the
of
1,
diameters
plungers
work
to
the
lever
of the
of the arms
pistonplunger.
employed
lengths
3.

J.

17

258

THE

4.

way

water,

find

How

13

The

6.
1

tubes

7.
until

by

occupied

Find

8.

9.

by

bottom
is

base

flat

inches

21

plate

the

hollow

long

to

cylinder

plate

without
the

below
it

detach

from

the

20

inches

sq.

in

and

section

[A

of
as

foot

the

as

tube

water.

diver

atmospheres,

inch.

is

closed

in

water

be

must

cubic

is

heavy

as

submarine

square

weight
?

cylinder

to

is immersed

What

surface.

per

poured

heavy

due

lbs.

times

as

Water

length

which

at

15

weight

the

the

larger
inch

one

mercury

'SS

times

pressure

be

to

pressure

'6

The

the

by

tube.

the

is

Find
13

fathoms

bear

can

which

tube.

in

depth

has

of

top

into

tube

are

tube.

poured

length

the

being

mercury

he

of

being

sections

cross-

smaller

equal

alcohol

fill the

to

greatest

top

leg

one

mercury

by

be

must

from

and

as

atmospheric

of

whose

the

in

are

liquid,

supposing

the

taking

so

water

inches

branch

other

each

other,

connected

are

mercury

arms

is

one

the

work,

can

of

at

the

till

the

placed
water

upon

weighs

ozs.]

1000

The

10.
34

into

much

the

whose

surface

the

respectively

of

into

poured

the

tubes

vertical

two

how

level

tube

into

water

the

each

poured

now

of

mercury;

raise

to

up

half

the

tube.

be

in

stood
to

water

inch

sq.

inch

and

mercury

filled

is

the

must

water

one

mercury

as

ends

"1

contain

tube

in

lower
and

inch

sq.

heavy

as

leg
in

with

originally

mercury
one

mercury

of

inches

the

then

the

of

height

the

If

and

filled

partially

is

leg.

one

tube

cubic

raise

to

times

'6

the

many

tube

in

the

of

ends

both

at

open

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

placed
leg

5.
a

then

the

up

with

tube

is

water

ELEMENTS

lbs.

square

to

the

inch,

pressure

in

square

inch,

find

the

height

water-pipe
whereas
of

the

at

at

third

the

the

basement

third
floor.

floor

of
it

is

18

building
lbs.

to

is

the

CHAPTER

PRESSURE

16.

Pressure

ON

on

the

XVII.

IMMERSED

SURFACES.

of

base

containing

vessel.

When
is contained in a vessel the total pressure on
liquid
the base varies according
vertical or inclined.
as the sides are
The figures
illustratedifferent cases.

(i) Sides

vertical. Here the pressure between the liquid

and the sides is entirely
arid the weightof the
horizontal,
counterbalanced
liquidis therefore entirely
by the upward
pressure of the base of the vessel.

Fig.

this case the pressure

weightof the entire liquid.
In

two

11.

on

the base is

equal to the

side inclined inwards as in fig.

(ii).Take any
then since A
and B in the base of the vessel,
horizontal plane,
in the same

(ii)One
A
points

and B

are

of pressure
intensity

at 5

of pressure
intensity

at A

w.AG.
17"2

260

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

of the base is that

of
weightof a cylinder
liquidendingin the freesurfaceof the liquid.Thus the
total pressure on the base is equalto the weightof a cylinder
of liquidwhose base is the base of the vessel and whose

Thus the pressure on each unit of

the
which would be due to sustaining

heightis that

area

of the free surface.

Here the pressure on the base is greaterthan the weight

the reason
of the contained fluid,
beingthat at any pointin
side there is a downward
the oblique
pressure on the liquid,
transmitted to the base.
which is,by Pascal's Principle,

(iii)One side inclined

outwards as in fig.
Here the
(lii).
pressure on the base is less than the weightof the contained
liquid.The inclined side supportsthe weightof a portionof
the liquid.
In every case the pressure on the base dependsonly on
the area
of the base and its depth below the free surface.
17.
We

Floating
have

bodies.

that when a surface is in contact

jected
liquidevery portionof it is subto a normal pressure by the

with

seen

liquid.
The single
force

which is the
resultant of all these normal pressures
is called the resultantpressure
of the liquid.
When
in

immersed
bodyis partly
find the resultant
we
can
liquid
a

pressure of the

liquid

upon it as follows :
The onlypart of the body acted on by the liquid
is the
immersed
portionof its surface;let us imaginethe body
removed
and the space it occupiedin the liquidfilled up
by a portiona of the same
liquid(thusa is the amount of
then obviously
liquidwhich was displaced
by the solid),
"

the

action

action

on

is acted

of the

the

liquid

body, but

on
a

is

is the

same

as

was

in equilibrium,
and
clearly

by
(i) its weightacting
throughits c. G.,
vertically
the action of the rest of the liquid
on
a ;
(ii)
on

its

262

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

ness
hollow cube of lead is 8 cms. long,and its thickis 2 cms., find itsweightin water if lead is 11 '35 times as heavy as
water.
3.

The

4.

edgeof

pieceof

weighedin water

metal

has the

which

is 9 times as
of
weight 56 grammes,

heavy as water,
find its true

when

weight.

It
of a cone is filledwith water.
5. A vessel shapedlike a portion
is one inch in diameter at the top and eightat the bottom,its heightis
12 inches. Find the intensity
of pressure (in lbs. per square inch)at
the centre of the base,and the total pressure on the base.
A vessel in the shapeof a pyramid on a square base,a side of
which measures
6 inches,is filledwith water.
If the pyramid is
18 inches highfind the pressure on the base.
6.

7. A body whose weight in air is 0"9 lbs. weighs0-48 lbs. in water

and 0'6 lbs. in a certain liquid.Compare the weightsof equalvolumes
of this Uquid and of water.
8. A vessel is quitefull of water,and a pieceof wood is put to
floaton the water; does this alterthe pressiffe on the bottom?
Answer
the questionsupposingthat the vessel had not been overflowing.
9. A pieceof wood
poured upon the water

whether this will make

surface of the water.

18.

Immersed

floats partlyimmersed
in water,and oil is
tillthe wood is completely
covered ; explain
in
of
the portion
wood below the
any change

body

attached

to

string.

Fig. 13.

those of an
immersed
are
Specialcases of equilibrium
body either sustained or held down by a string.The forces
in equilibrium
are

PRESSURE

1. The

ON

IMMERSED

263

SURFACES.

weightof the body.

2. The resultant pressure of the liquid

upwards
acting
at the C.G. g of the displaced
liquid.
3. The tension of the string.
Since

these

in the former

forces
parallel

in

are

we
equilibrium

have

case

weightof the body weightof liquid

displaced
+ tension of string,
=

in the latter case

weightof

the

body weightof liquid

displaced
tension of string.
In the latter case the body is clearly
than its own
lighter
bulk of liquid.
=

"

Ex.
A body six times as heavy as water and whose volume is 36
cubic inches is suspendedby a staring
to be totally
in
immersed
so as
water,find the tension of the string.
The

the

from

weightof

is
displaced

water

body is six times this,hence

which,tension =104J
19.

Resultant

ozs.

we

36

and
r^=^ ozs.,

the

weightof

have

weight.

Pressure.

We
have defined the resultant pressure on an immersed
surface as the force which is the resultant of allthe pressures
of the liquid
the surface.
Art. 17. In the case of a plane
on
and
these pressures are all perpendicular
to the plane,
area
So that finding
the resultant
hence parallel
to each other.
thing as findingthe resultant of a
pressure is the same
forces.
number
of like parallel

The pointin the

area

at which

the resultant pressure acts

is called the Centre of Pressure.

Resultant Pressure. To find the magnitude
follows:
of the resultant pressure we proceed
as

Magnitudeof the

into very small

of pressure at one
such
the intensity
pressure on this area is

Divide the

pa

"

wza,

area

where

and let
be p, then the

equalareas
area

a,

is itsdistance from the free surface.

264

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

To get the resultant pressure

we

take the

of all these

sum

giving
w^za.(2 indicating
the sum
of").
be the depthof the c.G. of A below the free surface,

pressures

"

But

if z

Xzoi
_

wSza. wAz
resultant pressure
of pressure at the
Awz
A y. intensity

Hence

of A.

C.G.

rule :
get the following
whose measure
is A,
The resultant pressure on a plane area
is equalto the prodvAst
ofpressure
ofA and the intensity
at the c.G. of the area.
thus

We

Taking the atmospheric

pressure

into consideration p has the value

and the resultant pressure is wAz+AU.

wz+n,

Ex. 1. Find the magnitude of the resultant pressure

of a cubical vessel filledwith water.
If

inches is the

is ia,
thus in this
'
^

lengthof

side,the depth of the

Aiiizhas the value a' x

case

r^rrrr

This is half the pressure

7:

c.a.
or

1728

the side

on

of the side
oijs.

,"."-

wt.

1728

the base.

on

Ex. 2.

Find the magnitude of the resultant pressure on a vertical

inches long and 6 inches broad immersed
in water with
the longerside horizontal and with the upper side 2 inches below the
surface
The lower edge is 8 inches below the surface and therefore
the c. G. is i (2+ 8) inches,or 5 inches,
below the surface. Therefore

rectangle10

the resultant

pressure

is

wt., that is 173 '61

eOxr-s^QxSozs.

ozs.

weightnearly.
Ex. 3. A cubical vessel contains
find the resultant pressure on a side.

The
heavier

which
liquids

figure
representsa

side of the

the
vessel,

liquidfillsit

depthAB,

the

liquidto
Let

two

Take

not

lighter

depthBC.

BC; let w
of the two

to

do

be the lengthof AD, h of AB, and c of

and w' be the weightsof unit volume

B'
"

liquids.
a

point P

the
lower liquid,

below

pressure

on

the
a

A''surface of the
small area
a
is,

Art. 10,

{wMN+ ti/FM]a [wPiV+ {iv'w) PM]

=

a.

j,

mix,

PRESSURE

Hence

ON

IMMERSED

the resultant pressure

viSPNa

For
area

on

265

SURFACES.

AB'

+{v/-w)

is
XPNa.

the resultant pressure

a pointP in the upper
liquid,
is wPNa, hence the resultant pressure is

on

small

WS,PNa.
Thus

the entire resultant pressure

is

ivSPJVa

(takenover the whole area ACC'A')

+{v/-w) ^PMa
(takenover the area ABB' A').

In other words

find the resultant pressure

we

as

follows

ant
to extend to the bottom and And the resultvpper liquid
it
it
then
removed
and
a
produces,
liquidthe
pressure
suppose
weight of whose unit volume is w' w to occupy the volume of the
lower liquidand find the resultant pressure it produces,
and then add
the two pressures together.

Supposethe

"

Applyingthis to

the

presentcase

we

have

as

resultant
required

the

pressure

toxa(b+c) X

"

^-f-(w' *")"6
"

/,^c\^

X
Q

,ab^

method
appliesto the case of any number of liquids
which do not mix and which are contained in one vessel ; we add the
each layer
of liquid,
of layers
escteTuMng
pressures producedby a number
to the bottom.
The

same

stands with its base on a horizontal table.

Ex. 4. A hollow cone
8'64 sq, inches.
and the height
The area of the base is 100 square inches,
filled
it
will
contain.
When
Its weight is equalto the weight.of water
with water compare
the liquidpressure on the base with the pressure
of the base on the table.
is \ area
of base x height. Hence
The volume of a cone
of water contained is that of ^^ cubic inches of water.

the

weight

The pressure on the base is the weightof a column of water whose

base contains 100 sq. inches and whose heightis 8'64 inches. It is
therefore equalto the weightof 864 cubic inches of water.
The pressure on the table is that arisingfrom the weight of the
it is therefore the weightof 2 x s"Acubic
and the water it contains,
cone
Hence we have
inches of water.
pressure

on

base

pressure

of base

on

table =864

| 864=3

2.

is filledwith water,its base beinghorizontal

Ex. 5. A hollow cone
and vertex upperrnost. Find the resultant pressure on the curved
The figure
surface of the cone;
representsthe cone and the cylinder
which stands on the base.

266

cone

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

Let the space between the cone and the cylinder

be filled with water and the water inside the
removed.

The intensity
of pressure at any pointof the
curved surface is the same
in magnitudeas before,
but oppositein direction. The resultant pressure
which is twice
is the weight of this portionof fluid,
-pj^^ 15.
the weight of the fluid contained by the cone.
acts
the resultant pressure on the curved surface of the cone
Hence
the
is
twice
the
of
to
water.
and
equal
weight
vertically
upwards

EXAMPLES.

IV.

is one foot in lengthand its altitude 10

The base of a triangle
1.
when it is
inches. What will be the resultant pressure on the triangle
of
and
with its vertex in the surface
the middle
immersed
the water
pointof its base 4 inches below the surface,neglecting
atmospheric
as
being
pressure and takingthe weight of a cubic foot of water
62-5 lbs.?
In the vertical side of a water-tank there is a rectangular
plate
is
horizontal
feet
the
and
below
of
surface
the
eight
upper edge
the
of
the
is
foot
and
breadth
two
feet.
Find
plate one
depth
water,
the resultant pressure on.theplate.
2.

whose

A triangular
plateis immersed in water with one side in the
and the oppositeangle two decimetres below the surface.
If
of
the
each side
be 6 decimetres,
find the resultant pressure.
triangle
3.

surface

A vessel whose base is a square the side of which is 3 inches

contains
to the depth of one
long
inch,and water is poured
mercury
the
of
the
to
10 inches. Find the pressure on
depth
upon
mercury
the base and on a side of the vessel,
takingmercury to be 13"6 times
4.

as

heavy as

water.

Find

5.

mercury

the pressure on
and half of water.

one

side of

decimetre cube if half full of

6. A vessel in the shape of a decimetre cube is filled to one-third

of its height with mercury
while the rest is filledwith water.
Find
the resultant pressure on a side in kilogrammesweight.

7.

A cube whose
edge is
face horizontal and at a

upper
the pressure

on

one

foot is

suspendedin

depthof 2^ feet below

water

with

the surface.

its

Find

each face.

A square platewhose area

is 64 sq. inches is immersed
in seawater, its upper edge which is horizontal being 12 inches below the
surface.
Find the pressure on the platewhen it is inclined at an angle
of 45" to the horizon,assuming a cubic foot of sea-water
to weigh
8.

63 lbs.

PRESSURE

ON

267

SURFACES.

IMMERSED

A vessel containing
of the
water is placedon a table. The area
base of the vessel is 10 sq. inches and the depthof the water is 4 inches.
If ^ of the water is vertically
the base and the weight of the
over
vessel is 5 ozs., find the intensity
of pressure at any pointof the base,
the resultant pressure on the base,and the pressure on the table.
9.

10.

which
on

spherewhose

covers

internal radius is one

of the vertical diameter.
Find

horizontal planepassingthrough the centre of the

that a cubic inch of mercury
weighs3500 grains.

20.

Determinatioii

of

the

Centre

df

The Centre of Pressure of a planearea

which the resultant pressure acts. Its
be easilyfound by a method
can
which
now

foot contains mercury

the resultant pressure

Pressure

of

assuming
sphere,

plane

pointin
position
is the

area.

the

area

at

will be

explained.
Let

ABG

be

S ;

plane area

through each

pointof the boundary of S draw vertical lines to

meet
the free surface. The pressure on each small
elementaryarea of 8 is equalin magnitudeto the
of liquidwhich
weight of the vertical column
stands upon it and is perpendicular
to the area.
The pressures on the various elements of area
forces perpendicular
form a system of parallel
to
the area, and the centre of this system of parallel
forces will be unaltered if we
turn each of them,
Fig. 16.
into the vertical
about its point of application,
direction. The forces are then simply the weightsof the various
the several elements of the
columns
of liquid
over
standingvertically
is
of
forces
centre
the
point P where the vertical
parallel
area, and the
cuts the area.
liquid
throughthe c. g. of the superincumbent
21.

Triangle

with

vertex

in

the

surface

and

base

parallel

to

the

surfoce.

be a triangle
having its vertex A
to
in the free surface and the side BG parallel
the free surface. The vertical planesthrough
AB, BG and CA meet the free surface in the
The portionof fluid
and EA.
lines AD, ED
considered whose weightis sustained by AGB
is a pyramid whose vertex is A and base BGED.
Let ABC

that the vertical throughthe

in the required
ABG
c.G. of this pyramidmeets
centre of pressure P.
We

have

seen

But the c. G. is at g, f of the way

where G is the c. G. of the base BGED.

down

AG,

Therefore the centre of pressure P is f of the way

F is the middle pointof BC.

down

AF,

where

268

THE

22,

Triangle

ELEMENTS

with

its base

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

sur"aee.

in the

Fia. 18.

ABC
is a triangle
having the side BC in the surface. Proceeding
before we get a tetrahedron.
The c. g. of this is f of the way down
where
O
is
of
the
BCD.
the c. G.
area
AG,

as

we
DrawinggpP vertically

that

see

Gp=^DG=lx%DE=^DE,
.-.

Dp=lDE-lDE=lDE,
and

Dp=\DE

or

23. Farallelogrsuu

with

its

edge

.-.

AP=IAE.

in the

sur"ice.

is ABCD
and
parallelogram
of the method
the application
gives
the wedge-shapedfigureABGDEF.
This may be divided into thin plates
all parallel
The c. G.s of all
to BCF.
these plateslie in a planewhich is
The

and J of the distance

the
of AB
from
it. Hence
of pressure P is J of the way
centre
down
the line Gff, which joins the
middle pointsof AB and CI".
to CDEF
parallel

24. Triangle

with

its vertex

in the

Fig.

20.

-pm. 19.

surface.

270

THE

The

4.

is

sides

of

square

full

of

and

25

of

which

cistern

47

side

is

same

as

air,

22

of

weight

horizontal

depth

its

the

in

the

base

Find

is

grammes

Find

alcohol.

in

its

and

long.

each

on

pressure

'8 grammes

feet

J3

is

side

MATHEMATICS.

vertical

are

glass weighs

of

piece

APPLIED

OF

the
the

water

5.

ELEMENTS

when

if

on

in

grammes
cubic

it

base.

its

water

of

centimetre

alcohol.

Hiero's

6.
a

crown

constructed

and
a

volume

the

found

the

of

per

7.
sink
that

the

but

of

salt

axis

of

Show

the

from
50

that

ABC

is

heavy

rods

equal

AB,

AC,

floats

with

the

weight
tension

immersed,

of

the
W=

an

string
weight

covered,
discaused

silver

what

caused

did

amount

of

prices

gold

and

triangle

hinged
angle

is
-=

of

"

each

W,

rod.

just

the

supposing

immersed

with

densities

of

the

two

its
and

"r

divides

liquids

1.

right-angled
at

2a

A,
in

immersed

where

to

Prove

"T

together
A

inch.

one

tons,

liquids

two

separating

observed

was

rise

64.

floats

water
to

6500
:

\/

ratio

isosceles

65

density

plane

coal

about
as

9.

into

it

water
of

Of

fresh

of

containing

the

the

in

cone

are

of

cone

into

tons
was

water

vessel

of

the

make

to

Archimedes

and

gold

being

p^

salt

burning

fresh

in

of

respectively.

and

p^

full

vessel

this

going

circular

right

respectively.
the

and

in

gold

of

lbs.

alloy,

masses

v^

displacement

downwards

vertex

and

king,

after

steamer's

densities

8.

in

steamer

inches,

the

respectively

gold-silver

equal

v^

of

mass

placed

while

volumes
cheat

goldsmith
lb.

when

that

of

one

overflow,

to

overflow

silver

received

goldsmith

but

length

at
and

composed
a

rod,

that

26=

two

out
with-

BC

Show

water.

of

string

of

the

length

CHAPTER

XVIII.

SPECIFIC

26.
which

The

weight of

have

we

GRAVITY.

the

unit

hitherto denoted

volume

of

substance,

is called its

by w,

Specific

"Weight.
27.

weightof any volume of a substance to

weight of an equal volume of distilled water is called
Gravityof that substance.
Specific

The
the
the

Specific Gravity.
ratio of the

if

Hence

is the

and
gravity,
specific

In
of water

specific
weightof a substance, s its
the specific
weight of water, we have

w'

foot-lb.system w', or the weight of a cubic foot

hence
at temp. 4" C, is 1000 ozs. or 62"5 lbs.,

the

In the

s X

C.G.S.

62'5 lbs. wt., or

system

the

weightof

ozs,

wt.

the unit volume

at temp. 4" C. is the

of water
centimetre)
hence
unit of weight,
gramme, or the

cubic

Observe

1000

that in any

weightsof two

w'=

system

if

and

substances and s, s' their

weightof

one

1, or

weight.

grammes

(one

_s
s''

w'

the

specific
specific
gravities
are

272

THE

ELEMENTS

28.

Density.

The

densityof

if d be the

Ex.

is the

What

1.

MATHEMATICS.

is the

substance

of the substance,hence
weight of a substance

71200

APPLIED

OF

of

mass

densityand

unit volume

a
w

the

specific

g.

specific
gravityof

copper

if 8 cubic

feet

weigh

ozs.?

Since 1 cubic foot of water

feet

weighs 1000

ozs.,

weigh

ozs.,

8000

71200
,

hence

--

sp. gr. of copper =-3^^^^

=8-9.

oOOO

Ex. 2.
lead whose

The sp. gr. of lead is 11-3,what

is 432 cubic inches ?
volume
1 cubic foot of water
.

.-.

the

or

176-56 lbs. nearly.

Ex.

of 432

The

3.

cubic

ozs.,

1728"'"-'
weigh

inches

of

lead

specific
gravity of gold
112

is the

cwt.

gold weighs

-i=---

is

432

^^^^

is 19-3.

ozs.

432

What

11-3

volume

19'3

weight

times

as

of

19^

Ex.

will

cubic

much

feet of water, and

water, the required bulk

as

~iQQQ
4.

which

is

'

What

is the

weigh
100

85

nearly-0928

of gold is
D

grammes

centimetre

substance

of which

100 cubic

cubic centimetres

gravityof the substance

cubic feet.

specific
gravityof

.*. 1

1 cubic

since

16

centimetres

but

ozs.,

16

112

pieceof

cwt. ?

weigh one
One

weight of

1000

inches

432

weight

weighs 1000

'""^

.""

is the

weigh

85

grammes,

weighs "85
of water
is "85.

weighs

grammes,

1 gramme,

hence

the

specific

SPECIFIC

VI.

EXAMPLES.
1.

273

GRAVITY.

Find the specific

of
gravity
lbs.

substance of which 16 cubic

yards

weigh35000

The specific
of
gravity
centimetres.
2.

goldis 19"3,find the weightof

A cubic foot of copper

gravity?

weighs8900

3.

4.

Find

the volume

ozs., what

kilogrammesof

of 75

wood

216 cubic

is its

specific

whose

specific

is '5.
gravity

the volume is 1'6 cubic centimetres

w
hose
is 0'85. Find the
liquid
specific
gravity
and
substance.
of
the
gravity weight
5.

solid of which

in

3-4 grammes

6.

weighs
specific

The sp. gr. of brass is 8, find its density.

29.

between

Connexion

weight,

volume,

and

specific gravity.
lbs.and its volume V units
W
but this is the
of volume, the weightof unit volume is
lbs.,
-y=
If the

weightof

body is W

weightor
specific

hence

w,

w,

or

W=Vw.
Since

is equalto

Art. 27,we
62*5 lbs.weight.

s x

62-5 lbs.weight,

W=Vsx
=

In the c.G.s.

system

Vs
w

have

1000

ozs.

grammes

weight.
hence
weight,

in the

system,

C.G.S.

W=Vs

grammes

weight.

is equal
freely
Since the weightof a bodyfloating
Cor.
if V and V denote
displaced,
to the weightof the liquid
the whole volume of a floating
body and the
respectively
the sp. gr. of the body
volume immersed, s and s'denoting
and the

have
we
respectively,
liquid
the factor 62'5
Vs
V's', (since
=

J.

cancels out).
18

274

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

if it
Ex. 1. How much of a cubical block of ice will be immersed
floats in water,the edgeof the block being 10 feet and the sp. gr. of

icef?
therefore
"=f, "'=!, F=1000 cubic feet,
7'=fx 1000 cubic feet
=888'8 cubic feet nearly.

Here

2. A pieceof iron of 275 grammes

weightfloatsin mercury of
Find the volume
and
of
its
volume immersed.
sp. gr. 13'59 with f
sp. gr. of the iron.
Ex.

Let

be the sp.

Fx

Fs=f
Also

the iron and

gravityof

F*=275

13-6 ;

.-. s

V its

7-55

volume,then

nearly.

cubic centimetres

; .". F=36'4

nearly.

Ex. 3. An inch cube of a substance whose sp. gr. is 1'2 is immersed

which
do not mix.
The sp. grs. of
two liquids
in a vessel containing
Find how far the cube will
these liquidsare 1 and 1"5 respectively.
penetrateinto the second liquid.
Let I be the lengthof the part immersed
weightsof the whole and the two parts are
I -I, therefore

in the heavier

The

lxl-2=.Zxl-5+(l-0xl,

to
proportional

liquid.
1, I and

Z=-4 inches.

.'"

rod of uniform
section is formed partlyof platinum
(sp.gr. 21) and partlyof iron (sp.gr. 7"5). The platinumportionis
is the lengthof the iron portionif the whole
two inches long. What
floats in mercury
(sp.gr. 13-5)with one inch above the surface ?
A

Ex. 4.

Let a: be the length of the iron

is 2+^"1
immersed
inches. The
this heightand cross-section A is
.4

(*-+1)X

This is equalto the combined

therefore

(2

this

From

21 +a;

7-5)A

equationx

portion. The length of the part

weightof

13-5 X

1.

2.

body

What
it floated in a

of
liquid

of

13-5

platinum,

1000.

is found to be 4'75 inches.

VII.
sp. gr. 0'6 floats in
a
projectbove the water ?

high and of
will

of its volume

portionof its volume

would

above

the surface of pure

above
the surface if
project

sp. gr. 1'25?

pieceof wood
volume immersed,what
3.

If

floats with

of mercury

the iron and

1)^

1000=(^+

A cylinder
of wood 16 inches
with its axis vertical ; how much

water.

column

.rjr^ ozs.

weightsof

EXAMPLES.

water

weighing120 lbs.floats in
is its whole volume

water

with

of its

SPECIFIC
4.

volume

275

GRAVITY.

A cylinder
of glass(sp.gr. 3-5)floats vertically
with
above the surface of a liquid.Find the sp. gr. of the

|^ of

its

Uquid.

5. An inch cube of ice (sp.gr. 0-918)is floating

in water of which
the sp. gr. is 0-99987,
its height
find accurately
above the siuface of the
water.
6. If the sp. gr. of iron be 7-6,
what will be the weightof one cwt.
of iron when weighedin water,and what weightof wood of sp. gr. 0-6
is required
to justfloatthe iron if attached to it ?

7.

The

apparent weight of

"60 grammes,
and
twice as largeas

a
pieceof platinum in water is
the absolute weightof another pieceof platinum
the former is 126 grammes.
Find the sp. gr. of

platinum.
8. A pieceof copper and a pieceof silverfastened to the two ends
of a string
when both are
passingover a pulleyhang in equilibrium
in
w
hose
the relative
is
immersed
Find
1-15.
a
liquid
entirely
sp. gr.
volumes of the copper and
10-47 and 8-89.

the
silver,

sp. gr. of silverand copper

being

9. A cylindrical
tub of givenweightfloats with i of itsaxis below
the surface of a fluid,
find the least weightwhich wul totally
immerse
the tub.

is completely
filled with
bottle weighing100 grammes
10. A
of iron of
If
is
then
and
water
found to weigh 900 grammes.
a piece
sp. gr. 7-2 is placedin the bottle the contents are found to weigh1100
Find the

grammes.

weightof the iron.

pieceof metal (sp.gr. 16)weighing20

lbs.is droppedinto a
with
is
additional
the
what
f
illed
water,
cylinder
pressure on the base ?
11.

of wood of sp. gr. 0-75 one decimetre high with a

12. A cylinder
with its axis vertical in
of 16 sq. cms., is immersed
sectional area
is
least
the
What
of
alcohol
weight which placedon the
sp. gr. 0-8.
will bringit down to a levelwith the alcohol 1
top of the cylinder
tons goes from fresh water to salt water.
If the area of a section of the shipat the water-line be 15000 sq. feet,
and her sides verticalwhere theycut the water,find how much she will
takingthe sp. gr. of sea- water as 1-024.
rise,
13.

shipweighing1000

immerse
to completely
Find the least force required
14.
and whose volume is 1000
cube which weighs850 grammes

in water

c. c.

a body whose sp. gr.

Find the weightof iron which will cause
is -5 to float with f of its volume below the surface of water,

15.

(i) when the

(ii)
16. A pieceof

iron is above the

suifaoe,

below

silverand a pieceof goldare suspendedfrom the

ends of a balance which is horizontal when the sUver is immersed
in alcohol (sp.gr. -85)and the goldin nitric acid (sp.gr. 1-5).The
what are
10-5 and 19-3,
sp. grs. of the silver and goldbeingrespectively
their relativevolumes?

two

18"2

276

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

17. A cubic foot of water contains 1000 ozs., and a cubic foot of
The oil is poured on the top of the water without mixing
oil 840 ozs.
19 J ozs.
with it and a spherewhose volume is 36 cubic inches and mass
cubic inches of its volume \rill
is placedin the mixture.
How
many
be below the surface of the water,the layerof oil beingdeep enough
for the complete
immersion of the sphere?
A pieceof metal whose sp. gr. is 9 floats partlyin mercury
18.
much
of its volume is immersed
and partlyin oil of sp. gr. '9. How
in each ?

alloyof copper (sp.gr. 8-8)and

weigh 400 grammes, the volume is

An

19.

found

to

per cent, in volume

of lead (sp.gr. 11-3)is

40 c.c, find the amount

of each constituenl;.

whose heightis 10 inches and sp. gr. 6 floats in a

cylinder
whose sp. gr. is 9. What
liquid
depth of water must be poured upon
that the cylinder
the liquid
so
may be justimmersed,and how much
will the cylinder
have then risen out of the liquid
?
20.

21.

lump

44"6

crystal

in water
the sp. gr. of bees-wax,that of

grains. Find

pieceof lead weighs50 grammes in air,and when suspended

liquidwhose densityis 1-2 grammes
per cubic centimetre it weighs
the
o
f
Find
lead.
density
grammes.

22.

in

weighing2895 grainsis stuck on

and the whole when immersed
grains,

of bees-wax

of quartz weighing795
is found to weigh 390
quartzbeing2*65.

A uniform rod 12 inches long floats vertically

in a vessel containing
What
water.
depthof alcohol (sp.gr. "8)must be pouredupon
the water so that the rod may be completely
immersed,and how much
will it then have risen out of the water,the sp. gr. of the rod being-9 ?
23.

A wine-bottle which below the neck is cylindrical

24.
and has a
flatbottom is placedin pure water.
It is found to float uprightwith
The bottle is now
removed from the water and
4^ inches immersed.
into
the
oil
of
How
much
which
is
of it will be immersed
0-915.
put
sp. gr.
in the latterfluid?

30.
If

Specific gravity

of

mixture.

number
of different volumes
Fj,V^...of different
whose specific
are
liquids
weightsare w,, w^,
respectively
mixed together,
find the specific
can
we
easily
weight of the
mixture,for let w be the sp. wt. of the mixture,the volume
of the mixture is V^+ V^ + ..., or the sum
of the original
volumes,hence the weightof the mixture is
a

...

(v,+r,

...)w.

278

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

VIII.

EXAMPLES.
1.

Two

fluids of sp.

find
weights,

5 and
gravities

are

mixed

in equal
together

the sp. gr. of the mixture.

whose sp. gr. is 0'8 are mixed

Three partsby volume of a liquid
five parts of another whose sp. gr. is 1-04,find the sp. gr. of the
if there is a contraction of 5
mixtvu-e (i)if there is no contraction,
(ii)
volumes.
per cent, of the joint
2.

with

3. When
equal volumes of alcohol (sp.gr. -8)and distilledwater
mixed together
the volume
of the mixture,when it has returned to
the originaltemperature,is found to fall short of the sum
of the
volumes of its constituents by 4 per cent. Find the sp. gr. of the
are

mixture.
Four

kilogrammesof a substance
kilogrammesof another of sp. gr. 7, and
4.

0'2 per cent, less than the

is its sp. gr. ?

31.

sum

Determination

of sp. gr. 5 are mixed with six

the volume of the mixture is
of the volumes of its constituents,
what

of

Specific Gravity.

The specific
gravityof a substance may be determined in
several ways, either by means
of,(1)a specific
bottle,
gravity
balance,or, (4)a hydrometer..
(2)a U tube,(3)the hydrostatic
32.

Specific Gravity

Bottle.

This is a light
glassbottlewhich
with a
for this purpose it is provided
may be used for several purposes.

filled;
accurately
perforated
stopper. It

can

be

findthe sp. gr. of a solid.

The solid is weighed,
let its weightbe w,, then the bottle
is filled with water and weighed,
let the weightbe W, the
solid is placedin the bottle which is then filled up with
let the weightso determined
water and the whole weighed,
(1)

To

be W, then
Wj +

TF
W'

weightof solid and

filledbottle,

displaced
by solid;
displaced
by the solid
"

therefore the

weightof

water

w, +
hence sp. gr. of the solid is
=

W-

w^+W-W

water

W,

SPECIFIC

279

GRAVITY.

(2) To compare the sp. grs. oftwo liquids.

Find the weightof the bottle,
let it be W ; then find the
weightof the bottle when filled with the firstliquid,
let it
be w,; next find the weightof the bottle when filled with
the second liquid,
let it be w^.
Then

the

weighttaken

of the firstliquid
is w^
second

the ratio of the

of equalvolumes
weights

"

w^"
of the two

W,
W,
is
liquids

w.-TT
w^-W
which

is the ratio of their sp. grs.

(3) To findthe sp. gr. of a liquid.

In the previous
method let the second liquid
be water, we
then obtain the sp. gr. of the firstliquid.

EXAMPLES.

IX.

and when
sp. gr. bottle full of water weighs 44 grammes,
of
in
air
iron
10
into the
introduced
are
pieces
weighing grammes
and
with
the
bottle'
the
combined weightis
water
bottle,
again filled
1.

some

52'7 grammes.

What

is the sp. gr. of iron 1

empty weighs 16 grammes, when full of

sp. gr. bottle when
when
full of another liquidit weighs
it weighs 52 grammes,
mercury
find the sp. gr. of this liquid.
34 grammes,
2.

full of water is counterbalanced

A sp. gr. bottle when
of the empty bottle,
and
addition
the
to
in
counterpoise
grains
Find
the
of
alcohol.
alcohol.
when
filled
with
sp. gr.
grains
3.

by 983
by

773

If
bottle filledwith water is found to weigh 500 grammes.
found
be
t
he
is
to
550
be
of
introduced,
weight
powder
grammes
; find the sp. gr. of the powder.
grammes
4.

100

of powder,400
In a sp. gr. bottle capableof holding1000 grains
is
then
the
bottle
filledwith a
certain
are
of
placed;
powder
grains a
bottle
then
of
the
found to
are
contents
liquidof sp. gr. O'G,and the
find the sp. gr. of the powder.
weigh 800 grains,
5.

280

THE

33.

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

U tube.

The

The

OF

U tube may

be used to compare the sp. grs. of two

which do not mix.
For when placed
in the tube the
liquids
of their respective
surfaces above their common
face
surheights
of unit volume
to the weights
are
inversely
proportional
of the two substances,
and hence to their sp. gravities.
See

Art. 15.
34.

The

Hydrostatic

Balance.

The Hydrostatic
Balance is an ordinary
balance with a
hook attached to one of the scale-pans
by which a solid may

be

suspended.This balance

(1) To findthe sp. gr. ofa

Weigh the

be used for three purposes.

may

solid heavier than water.

solid in air,let the

weightbe W,

water, let the

the

weightbe W,

is W"
weightof water displaced

W, Art. 17,hence

the sp. gr. of the solid is

W
"

"7.

than
(2) To findthe sp. gr. of a solid lighter

water.

Weigh the solid in air,let the weightbe W, then attach

sinker and weighthe two in water, let the weightbe W,

weighthe

sinker in water, let the

W"W

then

solid

"

is the
W+ww, hence
by the solid,
=

weight of
W'

is

weightbe

displaced
by
of
water
weight

the

Take

To compare

the sp. grs.

==.

of two liquids.

solid that will sink in each liquid,

its
air beingIT,,
then weigh it in each liquid,
a

let the

the
placed
dis-

W+w-

(3)

;"

water

the sp. gr. of the solid is -=j=

^
*

hence

weightof this solid in

weightin

the firstliquid
be
second

W,

be W,
liquid

SPECIFIC

then W
W
the solid,

is the

"

"

is the

281

GRAVITY,

weightof

weightof

the firstliquiddisplaced
by

the second

by
displaced
liquid

the solid,
the ratio of the sp. grs. of the two

is therefore
liquids

A solid soluble in water but not in alcohol weighs346 grains

Ex.
in air and 210 grains
in alcohol. Find its sp. gr., that of alcohol being
"85.
in alcohol is 136 grains,
which is therefore the
weightof alcohol whose volume is that of -the solid. Hence the weight

weight lost

The

1 o^

of water
...

.,

whose

volume

346

the solid IS

"

if^g
lob

is that of the solid is

-85
",,.
=2'16

"

oil of

and the sp. gr. of

,
nearly,

EXAMPLES.

1.

-^^

X.

weighs 3 ozs. in air and 1*86 ozs. in

pieceof copper sulphate
that of turWhat
is
the
pentine
turpentine.
sp. gr. of copper sulphate,
being0-88 ?
A

the volume of which is 1 -6 cubic cms. weighs3-4 grammes

A solid,
fluid of sp. gr. "85. Find the sp. gr. and weightof the solid.

2.

in

3.

pieceof metal weighs211'6 grainsin vacuo, 187'32 grainsin

182'37 grainsin a solution of sodium chloride. Find the

water, and

of
gravity
specific
4.

this solution.

solid weighsin

88
another liquid

vacuo

grains.What

in water 85 grains,
and
100 grains,
is the sp. gr. of this liquid
?

in

in a vessel of water.
immersed
totally
is
and exactlybalances
some
In one ,seale-pan
glass(sp.gr. 2"5) placed,
lb. weight(sp.gr. 8) placedin the other scale-pan.Find the true
a
weightof the glass.
5.

An

accurate

balance is

pieceof wood which weighs4 ozs. in vacuo, a pieceof metal

are
is attached whose
weightin water is 3 ozs. and the two together
of
Find
the
the
in
wood.
water.
2
ozs.
to
found
weigh
sp. gr.
6.

To

282

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

pieceof cork weighingone oz. is fastened to a sinker weighing

it
S| ozs., is found that they will justsink when placedin water, find
the sp. gr. of the sinker,
that of cork being-25.
7.

solid whose sp. gr. is 1*8 is weighedin a mixture of alcohol

If the solid weighs72 ozs. in the air and 35 ozs.
(sp.gr. -8)and water.
in the mixture,find the proportion
of the alcohol to the water.
8.

35.

The

Hydrometer.

Common

hydrometerconsists of a long graduated

glasscylinderterminatingin two hollow
of which is filledwith mercury
bulbs,the lo'vyer
This

form

of

in order that the instrument

uprightin stable equilibrium.

may

In order to find the sp. gr. of a

proceedas follows: The tube is

float

liquidwe
graduated

from the top downwards, and a is the area

of its section ; let x^ and x.^ be the number
of graduations
in two liquids
not immersed
of sp. grs. s, and s^.
Then

if

is the volume
immersed
when
the hydrometersinks to zero, the volume
immersed
in the first liquid
is i) x^a, and
the weightdisplaced
of the first liquidis
v

"

{v x^a)s^times the
water
(Art.29).

of unit volume

wt.

"

of
Fio. 22.

of the
Similarlythe weight displaced
second liquidis {v x^ s^ times the wt. of unit volume
water; and each of these is equal to the weight of
hence
hydrometer,
iy xfi)s, (t) x^a)s^.
"

If the firstliquid
is water
V

"

X.

Ex.

the sp. gr. s of the second is

'

of
the

if a is unity.

"X,

The

stem of -a hydrometer is divided into

f
rom
the top. When
it is placedin a fluid of
beginning
surface of the fluid is at the graduation20, when in a
1 '6 it is at the graduation56.

lu8^te,duation
1-5 the
spEt-.
of sp. gr.
liquid

What
96 ?

is the sp. gr. of

fluid whose

surface would

reach the

tion
gradua-

SPECIFIC

283

GRAVITY.

The divisions 20 and 56 correspond

to the sp. grs. 1-5 and 1-6.
Hence if v is the volume immersed when the hydrometersinks to zero
the

weightof

the firstliquid
is {v
displaced
-

second

.-.("-20) l-5
Hence

1000

(i;-56)
1-6,from

which

ozs.,
ozs.

/E;=596.

if s is the

required
sp. gr.
(596-96)s=(596-56) 1-6,or

The

stem

The

sp.
Find

parts.

1-6x1000
(s;-56)

EXAMPLES.
1.

20)1-5

highest-6.

of

"=l-73

nearly.

XL

hydrometeris divided into 10 equal

to the lowest mark
is 1, to the
gr. corresponding
the sp. grs. corresponding
to each of the other marks.
a

common

If each division of the stem of a hydrometerbounds "! of the

find the ratio of the sp. grs. of two liquids
of the hydrometer,
in
which the hydrometerfloats with 5 and 6 divisions respectively
out of
2.

bulk
the

liquid.
The

and the highest

hydrometeris cylindrical,
of
while
the
lowest
to
1
to
graduationcorresponds a sp. gr.
corresponds
What
to the pointwhich is exactly
a sp.gr. of 1'2.
sp. gr. corresponds
3.

midway

stem

between

of

common

these two divisions ?

If the volume between two successive graduations

the stem
on
tilled
hydrometerbe the ^^^ part of its whole bulk,and it floatsin disin sea-water
with 50
water with 30 divisions above the surface,

4.
of

divisions
5.

above,find the
common

sp. gr. of sea-water.

in
hydrometerfloating

liquidwhose

sp. gr. is I'l

it floats in a

five inches of the stem above the surface. When

whose sp. gr. is 1-2 its stem is 6 inches above the surface,
how
liquid
much
of the stem will be above the surface when
it floats in a liquid
whose sp. gr. is 1'3 ?
has

36.

Hydrometer

of

Constant

Immersion.

kind of hydrometeris that in w^hich the same

Another
It consists
portionof the hydrometeris alwaysimmersed.
of a longstem which floats vertically,
and matters
essentially
so
are
arrangedthat a fixed pointof this stem is alwaysin
the surface of the liquid.This instrument may be used to
determine the sp. gr. both of solids and liquids.
The best
is Nicholson's.
known
hydrometerof this species

284

THE

37.

ELEMENTS

OF

Nicholson's

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

Hydrometer.

of brass. The
This hydrometeris made
top of which there is a well-defined mark,
supportsa trayor cup. To the bottom

stem,

the

near

weightedcup.
(1) To findthe sp. gr. of a solid.
in water and
(i)Place the hydrometer
sink it,
placingweightsin the trayuntil
there is attached

the mark

reaches the surface of the fluid.

(ii)Put the solid in the tray and

take out weightstillthe mark is again
in the surface. The weightstaken out
are
equalto the weight W of the solid.
Put the solid in the cup and
(iii)
add weightsuntil the mark is againin
the surface.
The weightsadded are the weight
of the water
let this be W.
displaced,

Fig. 2.S.

W
sp. gr. of solid

Then

Let the

~;

in the trayin (i),

and (iii)
be
(ii)
weights
W

then
and

w-w',

sp. gr.

of solid

w,

w',w",

w" -w',

"r,

-,

(2) To findthe sp. gr. ofa liquid.

be W lbs.
(i) Let the weightof the hydrometer
and add weights
(ii)Place the hydrometerin the liquid
the trayuntil the mark is in the surface. Let w lbs. be

in
added.

Place the hydrometerin water, let w' lbs. be the

(iii)
weightto be added to sink the hydrometeruntil the mark is
in the surface.
Then

the

is
weightof the liquiddisplaced
water

hence,

sp. gr. of the

liquid
=

W +

w,

W + w',
W -\-w
^

XIX.

CHAPTER

PROPERTIES

38.
fluid.

GAS

The

has been

theorems

OF

GASES.

defined in Art. 3

proved in

Art. 7 for

as
a

compressible
viz. that
liquid,
a

in every direction at
of pressure is the same
intensity
at all pointsin the same
any givenpoint,and is the same
horizontal plane,hold for gases, being established by the
same
reasoning.
Taking gas contained in a vessel of ordinarysize,then
in Art. 8, consideringthe equilibriumof a vertical
as
the

column

of the

the pressures on the ends of the column

differ by the weight of the column, but this is negligible
with either pressure, hence we may say that
in comparison
gas

equal. Thereforethe intensity

of pressure
It is usuallycalled
at every pointof the volume is the same.
for brevitythe pressure of the gas.
the

are

pressures

39.
When

ImOW

of

Boyle

or

Mariotte.

the

the surface of a given mass

of
pressure on
is diminished its volume
and if the pressure
increases,

gas
is increased
this

its volume

change of volume

diminishes.
is that which

The
was

law which

discovered

governs

by Boyle;

this law states that ;

the pressure
its
of a givenmass ofgas varies inversely
as
volmne providedthat the temperature does not change.
The

method
following

truth of this statement.

was

adoptedby Boyle to

prove

the

PROPERTIES

OF

287

GASES.

A U-tube is taken of which one arm

is much longer
than
the other and mercury is poured in until its free
surfaces are at A and B. The shorter arm
is now
the
closed,

air thus

pressure, which we
vertical column
a

enclosed is at atmospheric
have seen
to be that due to
of mercury about 30 inches

high.
If

is poured down 'the longer

mercury
arm
until the volume of air in the shorter arm
becomes reduced to half its former volume, it is
found that the free surface of the mercury in the
longerarm at E is 30 inches higherthan its free
surface in the shorter arm.
more

Also the pressure at C is

the pressure at JD,
the pressure of two

Fig. 24.
atmospheres.
twice the original
pressure.
that when the volume
Thus it is shown experimentally,
its pressure
of air is reduced by one half,
a givenquantity
=

of

is doubled.
it
If the volume
is reduced in any other proportion
will be found that the pressure is increased in the same
hence the law of Boyle is shown
to be true
proportion,

generally.
The
If a
then pv
the same.

40.

stated as follows :
usually
givenmass of gas has a pressure p and a volume v,
that the temperatureremains
is constant, provided

law is

Pressure

is

proportional

to

density.

densityof a gas is the mass

per unit volume.
of gas
Art. 28; denotingit by p, then if in is the mass
of this mass, we have that
v beingthe volume
considered,
m
pv
(i).
The

But
and the

law,if the temperature remains constant,

by Boyle's
mass

is at pressure p,
pv

constant

(ii).

288

the:

Hence

from

we
(i)and (ii)

see

that

constant.

mathematics.

applied

of

elements

written p
This is usually

varies
Kp, thus the pressure

as

the density.
greatpressure the quantitypv is not of invariable value,a
of its variation at high pressures is givenin Tait's Properties
description
Por very

of Matter.
of gas when the pressure
Ex. 1. Find the volume of a mass
its
400 cubic feet when
square inch is 75 lbs. weight, volume being
inch.
lbs.
is
3
weightper square
pressure
Let

be the

per

the

volume,
required
75=3x400,

.-. a; X

"=

or,

16 cubic feet.

Ex. 2. An air-bubble at the bottom of a pond 10 feet deep has a

when
it
becomes
volume of -00006 cubic ft. Find what its volume
the
at
30
barometer
the
reaches
inches,
standing
surface,
mercury being
13'6 times

heavy as

as

water.

30 cubic inches of mercury is equalto that of 408 cubic

of the pond the pressure is
inches of water ; so that at the bottom
inches high. Hence
if x be
528
column
due
of
to
water
that
to
a
equal

The

the

weight of

volume
required
a: X

408

.".

"00006x528,

a; =-00008

cubic feet nearly.

have seen Art. 8 that the atmospheric

pressure is that
if therefore a long
30 inches high,
due to a vertical column of mercury
be
then inverted in
filled
with
and
end
at
tube
closed
one
glass
mercury
in
the
the
tube
will stand at a
a troughcontaining
mercury
mercury,
at
level of about 30 inches above that in the trough,leaving
a vacuum
of the barometer which is fully
the top of the tube ; this is the principle
Ex. 3.

We

in
explained

the

sequel.

A barometer tube of half an inch internal diameter is filledin the

usual way and the mercury is found to stand at the heightof 30 inches.
A cubic ^nch of air at atmosphericpressure is introduced into the
the
which has the effect of depressing
above the mercury,
vacuum
the volume
of the vacuum
?
column by 5 inches. What was

volume imoccupiedby mercury,

Let X be the original
of this volume
is biefi cubic inches,or

5x^x^=one

nearly.

the increase

cubic inch

PROPERTIES

OF

289

GASES.

Hence the space occupied

by the air admitted is "+ 1 cubic
and the pressure p to which it is subjected
is such that

inches,

p+25o-5r=300-5',
o-

of mercury.
beingthe density

and

since this air

law
Boyle's

Therefore

at
originally

was

5("+l)=30xl,

the pressure

ZOa-g,we

have

by

cubic inches.

.'. a; =5

Ex. 4. Mercuiy is poured into a bent tube closed at one end so

that the surfaces in each branch are at the same
level. The air in
the short branch occupies
25 cms.
of the tube when the heightof the
More mercury is now
barometer is 76 cms.
pouredin tillthe difference
of levels is 20 cms.
Find the pressure in the closed branch and the
find also what volume of
lengthof tube the compressedair occupies,
has
the
section
of
the
been
tube being10 sq. cms.
pouredin,
mercury
of
The pressure in the closed branch is at first that due to 76 cms.
The
is
that
due
to
20
96
76
or
new
cms.
+
cms.,
pressure
mercury.
is 25 cms., hence
the
enclosed
air
The lengthoriginally
occupied
by
the new
lengthof tube beingx we have
."iyx96

25x76
X"

or

"

"

^TT,

=25x76,

,-"
=

19"79

nearly.

cms.

96

difference of levels being20 cms., and the mercury

of mercury
in the shorter arm, the total quantity
5-21 cms.
30'42 X. 10 cubic cms., i.e.304'2 cubic cms.
The

EXAMPLES.

havingrisen
pouredin is

XIII.

1. A bladder contains 4 cubic inches of air at a pressure due to a

column of water 34 feet high. It is sunk in watei- to a depthof 66 feet.
What does its volume become 1

of the U-tube used in Boyle's

arm
experiment
will
of
its
what
be the
to
be compressed J
volume,
original
in the two arms
1
difference of levels of the mercury
If the air in the closed

2.

The heightof the water barometer

cubic inch at a
a voltime of one
What
will
be its volume
surface of water.
3.

gas has

being33J feet,a bubble of

depthof 100 feet below the
on

reachingthe surface ?

and immersed
test-tube is held in a vertical position
A cylindrical
the niiddle of the tube is at
in water. When
mouth downwards
has risen halfway
up the
a depthof 32-75 feet it is found that the water
in
lbs.-wt. per sq. inch,
having
tube. Find the atmospheric
pressm-e
lbs.
62-5
water
cubic
foot
of
that
a
weighs
given
4.

J.

19

290

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

under water
downwards
5. A tumbler full of air is placedmouth
at such a depth that the surface of the water inside is at a depth of
25-5 feet. Compare the weight of a cubic inch of air in the tumbler
the barometer standing
at 30 inches
with that of a cubic inch outside,
and the sp. gr. of mercury
being 13-6.
6. A pint bottle of cylindrical
atmosphericair
shape containing
in
when
water
i
mmersed
floats
weightedwith 5 ounces.
just
entirely
and the bottle is immersed neck downwards,
The weight is then removed
when
the
Show
that it will justfloat freely
and gentlypressed
down.
will sink
level of the water inside the bottle is 11 feet below the surface,

and will rise if raised higher. The

further,
33 feet and a pintof water weighs 20 ounces.

if lowered

stands at
7.

If the volume

of the

of

vacuum

barometer

barometer

water

tube is 6 cubic

inches,the section of the tube beingone square inch and the heightof
the barometer 30 inches,
find the volume
of air at atmosphericpressm-e
which
lowers the height of the
on
being admitted into the vacuum,
barometer

3 inches.

the heightin the barometer changesfrom 29'55 inches to

8. When
what is the change in the weight of air which occupies
30'33 inches,
1000 cubic inches,
assuming that 100 cubic inches of air weigh 31 grains
when the barometer stands at 30 inches,
the temperaturebeingthroughout
0"C.?

41.

Standard

Pressure.

It follows from the fact that p is equal to Kp, that if

the density
of a gas is known
at a givenpressure, its density
other
at any
givenpressure (and the same
temperature)
if
found.
For
be
be
the
can
densityat the pressure p',
p
have
we
.: p : p'
p
Kp, p' Kp', and
p : p'.
=

The

standard pressure
76 cms.)of mercury.

is that

Since 30 cubic in.of mercury

or

14'7 lbs.,
we

weigh^

that the standard

see

due

to

30

inches

-j^

30

(or
lbs.,

pressure is that of

14"7 lbs.wt. per square inch.

It is worth

water, at

while

that
noticing,

pressure of 76

cms.

since the sp. gr. of air,referred to

of mercury and at 0" C. is -0013,therefore

cubic centimetre of air,under these conditions of temperature

and pressure, has the mass
'0013 grammes
nearly.
one

Hence

one

gramme

10,000

-^

"

of air then
^.
cubic

occupies
"""",.

cms.

769-2 cubic

cms.

nearly.

PROPERTIES

Ex. 1.

What

OF

is the sp. gr. of air at

Since the sp. gr. of

have that

If

one

be the
4

-0052.

in a vessel
of air at standard pressure be placed
and
its
w
hat
will
be
new
feet,
pressure ?
sp. gr.

1000

X s X
new

wt.

ozs.

1 oz.

wt.,or
,

nearly,
""

"

"19

=--^r^=

-0013

pressure per sq. inch="19x

.'. new

-00025.

"=

'00025

pressure

-Y3-i

old pressure

14'7

lbs.-wt.,

2-793 lbs.-wt.

Ex. 3.

"0013=

required
sp. gr., then

a
"

,
Also

and at 0"C.=4x

ounce

4 cubic
"containing

Let

?
atmospheres

pressure of four

i.e.as itspressure, we
gas varies as its density,

sp. gr. at pressure of 4 atmds.

Ex. 2.

291

GASES.

cubic centimetres

is "00143
of oxygen, whose density
collectedat a pressure of 30 cms. of
are
Find the density
and mass
of the oxygen.
1000

at standard pressure and 0" C,

mercury.
We
the

have that
at
density

pressure of 76

cms.

-00143

per cubic cm.,

grammes

-00143

76

=^x -00143.

30

Thus

the

1000 cubic

mass

cms.

of one cubic
is -57 grammes.

being-00057

cm.

of

Compare the densityof the

at a depthof 10
water and when

At
100 cubic

what

2.

cms.

3. The
-the volume

pressure will

air in
feet.

gramme

densityof oxygen

of

bubble when

of air occupy

the surface

on

volume of

of 10 grammes

at

under standard conditions is -00143,find

a

pressure of 100

One-fourth of a gramme
of air is
500 cubic cms., what will be its pressure ?
What

mass

4.

5.

the

grammes,

XIV.

EXAMPLES.
1.

nearly.

-00057 grammes,

is the

the pressure of 4

cms.

put

of air whose volume

of mercury \

mass

cms.

into

of mercury.
a

vessel

containing

is 380,000cubic

19"2

cms.

at

292

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

vessel having a moveable top

6. Air is contained in a cylindrical
of
the
the
which is quiteair-tight, weight
top being8 lbs. The density
it becomes changedto J
of the air (originally
atmospheric)surrounding
has an area of 2 square
If the top of the cylinder
of its former amount.
2
it
feet find how far it will rise, being originallyfeet above the bottom
at 33 feet.
of the vessel and the water barometer standing

42.

Law

of

Lussac.

Gay

of gas,
This law states that the volume of a givenmass
under constant
pressure, increases uniformlywith increase
of increase forfeach degree
of temperature. The amount
is very nearly'0037 of the volume at 0" C.
Centigrade
This

fraction is

nearlyequal to

states that if v^ is the volume

its volume at t" C. is

of

the volume

at

Denotingby

asswningthe pressure
43.

Absolute

to remain

^^

Hence

this law

givenmass

of gas at 0"

C,

therefore have

f, we

the same.

temperature.

of the Centigrade
thermometer
be
If 273" below the zero
taken as the pointfrom which the temperature is reckoned,
273 + " is the temperaturereferred to this zero, it is called
denoted by T.
the absolute temperatureand is generally
The

second law of gases may

"

44.

therefore be written thus

273

pv

^i^ is invariable.
T

of gas havingthe volume v^ at 0" C,

Let a givenmass
m
be raised from the temperature T to the temperature2",
peratures
under a pressure p, then if its volumes at these two temhave
are
v and u, we
respectively

(i)

y'

27^ ^y *^"
'

^^"^^ ^^^-

294

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

300 cubic inches at 15"

of gas occupies
at 40" C. under the same
pressure ?

Ex. 1. A
be its volume

mass

Applyingthe

formula

^y to

the

C, what will

presentcase, then since

it is

giventhat

^=y,
we

r=

273" + 15"
v'

have

288",7"

fjf") fj" x

=326
of gas at
Ex. 2. A mass
the
16 cubic inches when
when
it
has
the
same
pressure
Here

it is

273" + 40" =313",

300 cubic inches

inches,nearly.

cubic

of 35 lbs. per sq. inch occupies

temperature is 42" 0.,what will be the
volume
at a temperature of 56" C. ?
a

pressure

giventhat
v^t/, T=315", y=329",
35 Ibs.-wt. per sq. inch

?''="i5^

"'"

36f lbs.-wt. per

sq. inch.

Ex. 3. A mass
of air occupies10 cubic feet when the temperature
is 27" C. and the pressure that due to 76 cms.
of mercury,
what
is its.
of mercury
volume at 45" C. under the pressure due to 180 cms.
?

Here

jb

Therefore

76,p' l80, ;;
=

v'

^j

=4'4

10 cubic

|J"x

cubic

feet,7'= 300",^'

318".

10 cubic feet

feet,
nearly.

EXAMPLES.

XV.

1. One litre(cubicdecimetre)
of air at 0" and under a pressure of
76 centimetres of mercury
1-293
Find the weightof
weighs
grammes.
73 litresat the same
and
under 100 cms.
temperature
pressure.
2.

whose
3.

79-5

Find

the pressure of 10 grammes

is 10 litres,
at 0" C.
capacity

of air contained in

The

cms.

vessel,

of air at 0" C. is found to be that

pressure of a mass
of mercury, and its volume 38 cubic cms., iind the mass.

of

The

of air is that which is due to

pressure of a given mass
of mercury, its volvune is 1000 cubic cms.
and its temperature
15" 0. At a pressure of 250 cms.
the volume
becomes 300 cubic cms.,
what is the temperature ?
4.

100

cms.

5.

Find the value of

in Ibs.-wt. per square

absolute

*^for

foot,v
temperature.

givenmass

is the volume

of gas, where p is estimated

in cubic

feet,and

T the

PROPERTIES

46.
We

The

shall

OF

GASES.

295

atmosphere.

to the pressure
apply the laws relating
of gases to the case of the atmosphere. That air has weight
the weightof a largevessel
can
easilybe seen by finding
air and then having removed the air,weighing
containing
the vessel again. It will be found that a smaller weight
is indicated,
and this is owing to the loss of the contained
now

air.
If the temperatureis 0" C, and the pressure that which
is due to a column
of mercury
of
76 cms.
high,the mass
of air is 1'293 grammes.
a litre (orcubic decimetre)

Since the

equal volume of water is very

the specific
nearly1000 grammes (orone kilogramme)
gravity
of air referred to water is "0013 nearly.
47.

Air

mass

exerts

of

an

pressure.

beinga fluid exerts a normal pressure over the surface

As in the case of
of any body with which it is in contact.
at all pointsin the same
liquidsthe pressure is the same
horizontal plane. The pressure decreases as the elevation
Air

but it does not decrease

the Earth's surface increases,
for the pressure is proportional
to the density.
uniformly,
of air the
Art.
40, and owing to the compressibility
much
dense than the upper
lower layersof air are
more
hence the pressure decreases not only owing to the
layers,
increase of elevation hut also owing to the decrease of
above

density.
the
pressure of the air is well shown by covering
mouth of a bottle of water with paper and then inverting
done the water will not run out owing
it,if this is carefully
to the upward pressure of the air.
The

is that of the 'Magdeburghemispheres,'

which
Another experiment
of brass which fittogether
consist of two hollow hemispheres
accurately.
the
One of the hemisphereshas an openingfitted with a stop-cock,
connected
with
an
air-pump and
hemispheresare put togetherand
is then turned and the hemispheres
the air removed, the stop-cock
removed,it is then found that a considerable effort is necessary to
force them
apart,as the atmosphericpressure outside forces them
togetherand there is no air pressure inside.

296

THE

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

immersed
of a body completely
in the case
in a liquid,
the resultant pressure of the air on any body
is equal to the weight of the air displaced
by the body,
hence
48.

As

weightof a body is
weightofthe air displaced.
the true

be the true

Or if W

its apparentweight
+ the

weightof a body,and

its apparent

weight,
W

where
air.

p is the

of
density

body,and

the

densityof

the

the following
and the vessel is put under
case
: A cork floats in a vessel of water
the receiver of an air-pump,
for
as the air getsexhausted the cork will sink;
the weightof the cork is equalto the weightof the total fluid displaced,
i.e. of the water and air,as the air becomes less dense in order that the
cork may
be supportedit must displace
of water,
a greaterquantity
hence it must sink.
As

an

illustrationof the fact that air has

D the

49.

of

Height

homogeneous

weightconsider

atmosphere.

fluid to have the

Suppose a column of incompressible
same
densityas air has at the Earth's surface,and let its
heightbe such that the pressure due to it is the same as
the atmospheric
pressure at the Earth's surface.
Then if H be the heightof the column in centimetres,
and h and o- the height
and p the densityof the fluid,
and
densityof the column of mercury supportedby atmospheric
pressure,
ah

pH.

Therefore
76

13-6=

76

"
.
..

ti

0013
X

if;

13-6
,.
^
centimetres

8000

metres,

or

miles,nearly.

PROPERTIES

OF

297

GASES.

The heightof the atmosphereobtained on this assumption

is called the heightof the homogeneoits
atmosphere.
Since the density
of the air diminishes as the distance
from the Earth's surface increases,
the above result does
not give the heightof the actual atmosphere,
which is probably
than 50 miles.
more
50.

Torricelli's

Take

and
less than 32 inches in length
closed at one
end.
and invert it in
Fill it with mercury
in the tube
The mercury
a
troughcontaining
mercury.
will descend leaving
at the top of the tube.
a vacuum
a

glasstube

Experiment.
not

The upper surface of the mercury will be at a height

of about 30 inches or 76 cms.
above the surface of the mercury
in the trough.
The

heightof the column AB is proportional

of the atmospheric
to the intensity

pressure.
For the intensity
the
at any point on
surface of the mercury in the troughis that
due to the atmosphere,
at any pointon the
is
level inside the tube the intensity
same
of mercury
due to the heightof the column
AB
and is equalto
wx

where

is the

AB,

specific
weightof mercury.

intensities of pressure
These
two
equal,Art. 7, hence

intensity
of atmosphericpressure
The tube which has
form of the Barometer.

justbeen

are

AB.

described is the

simplest

troughand tube be placedinside the receiver of

an
air-pumpand the air removed,the mercury in the tube
will sink into the trough,
showingthat it was previously
by atmospheric
supported
pressure.
If the

298

THE

51.

ELEMENTS

Intensity

The

OF

of

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

atmospheric

pressure.

of atmospheric
intensity
pressure

may

be

pressed
ex-

in

(i) lbs. weightper square inch,this givesabout 14'7 lbs.wt.,

(ii)grammes weightper square cm., or about 1033'6 gms. wt.,
(;.G.s. units of force per square cm., or about 1033'6 x 981
(iii)
dynes.
The last is very approximately
1,000,000dynes.
52.

Different

forms

of

barometers.

detailed description
of different kinds of mercury-

A more
barometers

will be givenin the next chapter. If the liquid

instead of mercury, the heightof the column
water
were
of water sustained in the tube would be about 34 feet. For
of water
whose heightis 34 feet and base one sq.
a column
34

inch contains

cubic feet of water, hence it weighs

=-ti

34

1000
X

r-7-:

144
Ex.

16

"

"

^
,
I.e. 14'7 lbs. nearly.
lbs.,
"'
,

If the

heightof the barometer rises from 30 inches to

the increase in pressure per sq. foot ?
what
is
inches,
The increase in heightis ^ of a foot,
hence the increase in pressure
is jigof the weightof a cubic foot of
mercury, or
1.

30'25

13-6

1000

ozs.

283

ozs.

wt.

nearly.

Ex. 2. Glycerine
rises in a vertical tube to a heightof 26 feet
when the barometer stands at 30 inches. The sp. gr. of mercury
is
13 '6,find the sp. gr. of glycerine.
Let

be the sp. gr. of

26 feet
glycerine

glycerine.The

high is equalto that

highand having the

same

.-.

"x26,x

12
s

The

If

iron bullet
tube,how would
an

heightwould

weight of

column

of mercury

column

of

30 inches

sectional area,

or

Ex. 3.
barometer
affected 1

of

13-6x30,

1-3

nearly.

allowed to float in the mercury in a

the heightof the mercury column
be

were

not be affected,
of mercury
volume
a
whose
and the height of the
weight is that of the iron would be displaced,
top of the column above the mercury in the troughremains the same as
since it is proportional
to the atmosphericpressure.
before,

PROPERTIES

299

GASES.

OF

Ex. 4. A barometer tube of uniform bore is 34 inches in length.A

small quantityof air is acoidently
left above the mercury,
that the
so
barometer registers
30 inches,whereas it should register
30-05 inches.
What
should be registered
if this barometer stands at 28 inches ?
Let Fbe the volume of the enclosed air at atmospheric
pressure n.
the
be
of
at
surface
the
the
of
intensity
lijc)
pressure
upper
mercury,
which is due to '05 inches of mercury, p is also the
p IS the intensity
pressure of the enclosed air,and we have if w is the specific
weightot
mercury
U!x
30-05.
-05,U"wx
p
of the section of the tube,by
=

Hence

if A is the

area

law,
Boyle's

px4J.=nV,
-05

wx

"

V=

or

4A

-2A
=

30-05

30-05

Again,if 28+ a; inches is the correct heightof the barometer when

the mercury in the tube stands at 28 inches,we have similarly,
wxxxQA
QAx
__
_
~

~wx(28+^)
"""

53.

Variation

Consider

the

sm
of
case

2^^'
"'

of

'^^

"''=

witb

tbe

column

of

pressure

'

28+,r

temperature throughout,consistingof

^"""^^^^
"^^""^y-

height.

air of
n

heighth, at

the

same

layersof equal thickness

beinguniform in each layerand diminishing

density
abruptlyas we
each
to
from
the
next.
layer
pass upwards
The densities beginningat the bottom
layerare pi, pj,
By
p".
the

...

Art. 40 the pressures

at the lower boundaries

(Cpi, icp2)

by

"""

of these

layersare

tpn-

of the lowest layer,

its weightis supported
Consider the equilibrium
the difference of the pressures at its boundaries,

Pi

we
Similarly

have

300

THE

Hence

by multiplication

Pr=Pi\

Therefore
therefore have

We
As
in Q.

we

"

ascend

the

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

r.

followingresult :
the pressure diminishes

areinA.v.

which
throughheights

P.

the value of n, and the greater

the value of n the more
nearlydoes the case we have considered
approach the actual case in which the densityvaries continuously.
ascend in the atmosphere, supposingthe temperature
Hence
as
we
constant
throughout,the pressure diminishes in g.p. as we ascend

reasoningholds goodwhatever be

This

throughheightswhich

are

in

a. p.

Notice that here

when

is

indefinitely
great,
pressure
pressure

when

is

n)

'

at the

heighth_

at the

l-t_9j}i1V~'

ground

n)

'

great,
indefinitely
gh

=e"*,
where

is the base of the

54.

IMeasnxeinent

of

Napieriansystem
heights

the

by

of

logarithms.

barometer.

Since the pressure

of the air diminishes from the level of the sea

if
the
the
measure
upwards,
densityof air were uniform,we could easily
of
the
of
height any placeabove
sea-level,
by observingthe heights the
barometer
at the two levels. We may find this height
very approximately
that
of
the
difference
above
and
below is that due
by assuming
pressure
column
of air whose
height is the requiredheight and whose
of the two densities ; the
densityis uniform and equal to the mean
assumed
the
same
temperature being
throughout.
to

The height of the barometer

Ex.
is 30 inches at the bottom of a
mountain
and 29 inches at the top. Find the heightof the mountain,
if the sp. gr. of air (with regard to water) is '0013 at the base of the
mountain.
"

sp. gr. of air at the

^^^

top of the

mountain
~

29
_

~30"

-0013
29

Hence

the sp. gr. of air at the

top is

-0013

^jr

-00126

nearly.

302
8.

small

THE

OP

ELEMENTS

The

heightof a mercury barometer

quantityof air is admitted into the

found to be

20 inches.

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

is fomid to be 29 inches.

tube and the heightis now

Find the pressure of the air inside in Ibs.-wt.

per sq. inch.

The heightof the top of a uniform barometer tube is 33 inches
of air in the tube the
in the trough; but on account
above the mercury
29 inches.
it ought to register
barometer registers
28-6 inches when
when its actual heightis 29 '92 inches ?
What ought it to register
9.

is filledwith mercury
and the open
in an open vessel. If the tube
end dippedbelow the surface of mercury
what is the greatest
be inclined at an angleof 60" to the vertical,
length
the tube can
have so as to remain
full of mercury,
the heightof the
barometer beingat the time 30 inches ?
10.

tube closed at

one

end

11. A barometer tube has a diameter of half an inch exceptfor one

inch of its length,
where a cylindrical
bulb is inserted so as to increase
the diameter of the tube to 3 inches.
The
of the bulb is
bottom
27 inches above the mercury
in the tank,the lower portionof the ball
and the tube below contain mercury,
the upper part of the bulb and
tube contain water.

If the

ordinarybarometer

rise '5

surface of the Water

move,

the upper

distance will
the sp. gr. of mercury being13'6 ?

inches,throughwhat

A cylinder
whose base is one
and whose
square foot in area
is
inches
is
7
with
air
it
is covered
filled
at
height
atmospheric
pressure,
with a moveable lid whose weight may
be neglected.If a weightof
12.

336 lbs.be

placedon

the lid show

that it will sink

one

inch

nearly.

13. A vertical cylinder

6 feet high and one square foot in section is
An
filled with air at atmospheric pressure.
air-tight
pistonwhose
is
in
the
and
allowed
is
lbs.
fitted
to descend by its own
weight 540
top
weight; where will it rest ? If the temperatureof the included air be
raised to 65" C. how much
the original
will the pistonbe raised,
now
0"
C.
?
temperaturebeing
Two
vessels are of height|A, h being the
equal cylindrical
One of the vessels is open and filled
heightof the mercury barometer.
with mercury
and the other is closed and filledwith air of j of the
densityof the atmosphere,they are placedside by side and connected
is opened
by a small pipefitted with a stop-cock. When the stop-cock
of equilibrium
mid the position
of the mercury.
14.

A closed air-tight
cylinderof height2a is half full of water
half of air at atmosphericpressure.
Water
is introduced,
without
air escape, so as to fillan additional lengthh of the cylinder
and
letting
the pressure on the base is doubled,prove that
15.

and

where h is the

heightof

the water

barometer.

PROPERTIES

The

16.
is

divided

into

occupying
highest

of

of

the

the

inches,

27

inch

part

tuhe

the

tube,

cistern

of

of
of

height
show

that

being

which

harometer,

columns

equal

two

one

the

in

mercury

303

GASES.

OF

tube.

If

reading

of

the
the

by

inches

15

supposed

air

the

long,
of

quantity

the

air

the

to

escape

be

will

barometer

with

compared

large

very

inches

is 32

the

tube.

17.

cylinder

by

other

volume
latter

moveable

of

one

raised

twice

f,

The

that

the

both

are

other.

If
will

piston

the

0"

at

and

C.

the
the

of

temperature

move

each

from

separated

are

gases

the

of

that

prove

which

gases

distance

through

vacuum

are

It

where
Q

two

piston.
is

gas

be

gas

contains

I is

the

length

the

of

cylinder.

070

The

18.

readings

of

barometer

with

an

imperfect

and

28

29

inches

when

that

Prove

the

If

and

the

be

to

the

correction

heated

28J

are

for

applied

were

applied

contains
C.

and

there

originally

disregarded

to

air

during

the

remaining

pressure

being

100"

barometer

readings

true

be

to

vessel
to

of

readings

when

h^

20.
is

readings

true

correction

any

29|

respectively.

inches

other

reading

apparent

is

19.

Aj

the

the

and

in

same

the

any

at

0"

the

with

Aj+a,

are

other

0.

and

process

throughout.
vessel,

the

imperfect

an

Aj+yS
reading

at
one

ounce

expansion

are

show

that

is

atmospheric
How

vacuum

respectively,

of

the

the

escapes,
ounces

many

of

It

pressure.
air

vessel

of

air

itself

XX.

CHAPTER

DEPENDING

MACHINES

55.

The

UPON

FLUID

PRESSURE.

barometer.

which
the barometer
on
depends have
principles
In order to construct
Art. 50.
been alreadyexplained,
see
barometer
take a glasstube closed at one
a
we
mercury
end about 32 inches long,and nearlyfillit with mercury.
boils to expelthe air and
Heat
the tube till the mercury
filledwith mercury,
moisture.
The tube is then completely
care
beingtaken that no air is introduced.
and
closed with the finger
The tube is then temporarily
end beingplacedbelow the surface of
inverted,the open
contained in an open vessel,on removingthe finger
mercury
above the merfalls slightly
the mercury
cury.
leavinga vacuum
The

'

'

graduatedfrom the bottom upwards,the

cury
readingsat the surface of the top of the merthe troughis the 'height
of the barometer.'

The tube
difference of
and in
In

is

Fortin's barometer

troughcan

be

the

adjustedby

means

level of the
of

screw.

mercury
We

in the
can

thus

in the trough is
that the surface of the mercury
to the tube, this level
always at the same
heightrelatively
is taken as the zero pointof graduation.
secure

56.

Siphon

This

form

barometer.

of barometer
consists of a U-tube
than
unequal arms, the longerarm
being more
and
closed.
long

havingtwo
30

inches

MACHINES

DEPENDING

UPON

FLUID

305-

PRESSURE.

Mercuryis introduced so as to fillthe

then placed in a vertical position.
The mercury in the longer
will
arm

tube and

it is

fall until its level is about SO inches

above the level in the shorter ai-m.
If the cross-sectionsof the longer
and shorter arms
a and A
are
respectively,
then,if owing to a changein
the atmospheric
pressure, the mercury
in the longerarm
rises a distance x,
the mercury in the shorter arm
must
falla distance y, where
a

A.y,

.x^

since the volume of mercury which

risesin one arm
is equal the volume
which fallson the other.
The

^'"- ^^"

entire increase of the barometric column

x-^y
If the
is 2x.

arms

are

is therefore

x\\+^
.

equalin section,the

entire increase

The graduations
the scale for the shorter arm
on
are
marked
downwards, those on the scale for the longerarm
marked
the required
is got (if
are
upwards,
reading
A=a)
on these two scales.
by addingthe readings
57.

Water

Pumps.

The Common
the left(p.306),conon
sists
Pump, represented
which is traversed
of a cylinder,
called the pump-barrel,
communicates with the water in
by a piston.This cylinder
At
the well by means
of a tube called the suction-pipe.
and the pump-barrel
there
the junction
of the suction-pipe
is a valve openingupwards. There is a valve in the piston
also

openingupwards.

Let

us

suppose

the

to be
suction-pipe

at firstfilledwith

atmospheric
pressure. The water will then be at the
level inside the pipeand in the well.
same
from the bottom to the top^f-the barrel,
Raise the piston
below the pistonand therethis tends to produce
a vacuum
air at

j.

20

306

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

will open
fore the pressure of the air in the suction-pipe
the suction-valve and rush into the barrel. This has the

Fio. 27.

the pressure of the air in the suctioneffect of diminishing

pipe,hence water will rise in it to such a heightthat

of water
pressv/re due to this height
in the barrel
atmospheric
pressure.

+ pressure

of

air

the pistondescends the section-valve closes,

the
When
remains at the same
and the
water in the suction-pipe
level,
air in the barrel escapes throughthe pistonvalve.
compressed
and lowering
the pistonthe water is
On againraising
and more
air escapes. This
raised further in the suction-pipe
until water passes throughthe suction-valve.
is repeated
the pistonto the bottom of the barrel this
lowering
and on raising
the
will pass throughthe piston-valve,
water
throughthe spout.
pistonit will be discharged
On

MACHINES

DEPENDING

UPON

FLUID

PBESSUKE.

307

In order that water may be delivered at all,the piston

be less than 34 feet from the
must, in its lowest position,
surface of the water in the well,but,owingto the imperfection
of valves "c.,a pump
will seldom deliver water if
in its lowest position
the piston
be more
than 28 feet above
the water in the well.
The

Force

in
Pump differs from the common
pump
havinga solid plungerinstead of a pistonand in havinga
valve at the junction
of the spout with the barrel.
From the time when water has reached the suction-valve,
at each down-stroke of the plungerwater is forced through
the spout. At each up-strokewater
the barrel
enters
throughthe suction-valve. In order to make the delivery
the delivery-tube
of water by the spout continuous,
is made
of such a form that compressed
air is contained within it,
The pressure of this air ensures
at a, a in the figure.
as
that there shall be no stoppage in the delivery
of water
is ascending.
as the plunger
A force pump, the area
of the section of whose plungeris
^ a sq. foot,is employedto raise water from a well to a tank. The
that its lower surface is 20 feet above
plungerbeingin such a position
the level of the water in the well and 60 feet below the surface of the
to depress
the
to raise,
water in the tank ; find the forces required
(ii)
(i)
Ex. 1.

plunger.
isthe atmospheric
the upper surface of the plunger
since
the spout-valve
it
lower
surface
the
is,
on
downwards,
pressure
is
the
where
is closed,
w
n
specific
weightof water.
w x 20 upwards,

(i) The

force

on

in this case
The force required
") X

20

is,therefore,
1=625 lbs. wt.

dovmward
force on the upper surface is n-, on the lower
is open, that due to
force is,since the spout-valve
surface the iipward
60 feet of water +11, hence the total upwardforce is

(ii)The

wx60x^=1875lbs. wt.
of a liftpump be 10 sq.
Ex. 2. If the section of the suction-pipe
the height
of the lower
1
barrel
inches and the section of the
sq. foot,
the
find
lengthof the
valve above the water in the well being18 feet,
the
end of the
the
at
barrel
into
rise
if
water
the
stroke
just
upward
firststroke.
The volume

of the

is
suction-pipe
cub. ft.
ISxJ;?
cub.ft.=^cub.
4
144
=-7

20"2

308

ELEMENTS

THE

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

If the lengthof the stroke is x feet the barrel will contain x cubic
in
previously
feet. When
the water reaches the barrel the air that was
the suction-pipe
now
occupiesx cubic feet.
if H' be its

Hence

pressure

new

n'-|-wxl8=n='j"x33,
Also

:7=n

n', hence

EXAMPLES.

"

n'=""xl5.

or

^-^=2-75ft.
15

XVII.

whose sp. gr. is -9,what is

be used to raise a liquid
the suction-valve and the
the greatestdistance admissible between
to be raised ?
surface of the liquid
1.

If

2.

The

pump

lengthof

the

of
suction-pipe

pump

common

is 15

feet,

and the section of the upper pipe5 times that of the lower ; if at the
find the lengthof
end of the firststroke water just enters the barrel,
at 33 feet.
the stroke,
the water barometer standing
of the section of a force pump
the greatestforce that must be exerted on the
where it is 40 feet above the bottom
to a position
3.

The

area

is

square

foot,find

plungerto raise water

of the plunger.

into a boiler in which the

force pump
is used to drive water
of the
vapour
pressure is 78 lbs. wt. per square inch. If the area
section of the plungeris 6 square inches,
find the force that must be
exerted on the plungerwhose weight is 100 lbs.
4.

the area
of the barrel is
is 10 inches,
The stroke of a liftpump
if
the lower valve
i
s
that of the suction-pipe 2 sq. inches ;
4 sq. inches,
is 14 feet above the level of the water,to what heightwill the water
rise at the end of the firststroke ?
5.

is 3'5 sq.
of the section of the plungerof a force pump
force of 77 lbs. wt. justkeeps it in its position
; find the
the
water in
the
air
in
the
of
air-chamber
when
the
surface
of
pressure
it is one foot above the bottom of the plunger.
6.

inches

The
and

58.

area

Smeaton's

Air-Pump.

with a valve at
This air-pump has a barrel B provided
the bottom
openingupwards. In the barrel an air-tight
pistonworks, it is also providedwith a valve openingupwards.
At the bottom of the barrel is a pipeof small section
which terminates in a plateupon which is placeda large
the junctionof the receiver
glassjarA called the receiver,
and the platebeingair-tight.

310

THE

OF

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

the pistonthe above process is repelated,

againraising
air is removed.
and more
by continuingit,more
By
be again admitted into
of the stop-cock
D air can
receiver as shown in the figure.

On
and
means

the

diminish
indefinitely

the density
of
the air in the receiver,there are, however, limits beyond
which the exhaustion cannot
go, e.g.,after a time the pressure
of the air in A becomes
too small to liftthe valve in
we
Theoretically

can

the barrel.
59.

after

Density
V

Let

strokes.

of the

be the volume

and
receiver,

the volume

of the barrel.
the air which

Then

volume V, will,
the
raised,occupy
volume V+V.
of
the
air
be
the
if p
and p the density
density
before,

after the
Hence

at first occupied
the

pistonis first

afterdrawingup

the

piston
Vp {V+T)p',
=

V
,

or

On

the

closes and

of the

descent
therefore

P-

T+T

piston the valve

the air in the receiver

densityp, and if p" be the densitywhen the

have in like manner
in its highest
we
position,

in

the

remains

barrel
at the

pistonis again

^
n"-

-V+V'P'

n'

V
=(i
,vTv')PHence

if p^ be

the

densityafter

the

nth

ascent

of the

piston
V
Pn

And
the same,

since Pn'-P

P"-p,

[v+V

.)",

the temperatures beingsupposed

MACHINES

60.

DEPENDING

FLUID

311

PRESSURE.

Sprengel's Air-Pump.

This fonn of

consists of
air-pump

branches,
mercury
into

UPON

the cup

through

the

longtube

with three

is poured
and runs

tube, falling

into the vessel at E.

its passage through
the tube it extracts the air
from the receiver G in the

By

manner
:
following
On firstpassing
the bend
I" the firstportion
of mercury

breaks off,
this creates a vacuum
between this portion
and that which follows it,
and

hence the mercury now

passingB is on itslower side

unsupported
by any

pressure,
hence the air pressure at D
cuts it and a portion
of air
is inserted in the cavity.
This
air is carried off and emerges
at E, and this process is repeated
until the air is removed
from C. The tube Di:
is full of small columns
of

falling
by
mercury separated
air.

When

the air has been

exhausted these column's of
tom
mercury coalesce at the botof the tube to form a
solid column whose heightis
that of the barometer;as the
Fig. 29.
of mersuccessive portions
cury
noise is heard which is
fall upon this column a cracking
without the dampdue to the fact that the impactoccurs
ing'
of mercury
air. Of course
effect of interposed
as portions
leave at the
fall upon the top of the column other portions
'

bottom

so

as

to

maintain the barometric

height.

312

THE

ELEMENTS

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

The use of the bulb B is to collect such air as is carried

that
down by the mercury from the cup A, so as to ensure
this air is not carried into the receiver.
Notice that the
the barometer.

61.

lengthof

Condensing

DE

be

must

greaterthan the heightof

Air-Pump.

of a receiver and
This instrument consists essentially
be firmly
barrel to which it can
joinedor

disconnected at

pleasure.

of the instrument is to fillthe

The use
receiver with compressed
air. In the barrel
works a piston
with a valve opening
provided
inwards,there is also a valve,openingin the
of the barrel.
at the bottom
same
direction,
Communication
can

between

be cut ofifby

the
means

barrel and
of

ceiver
re-

stop-cock.

To use the condenser,

the barrel is firmly
attached to the receiver and the stop-cock
opened; as the pistondescends its valve will
close and it will force the air contained in
the barrel into the receiver. As the piston
ascends againits valve is openedby the pressure
of the external air and the other valve
the barrel is thus againfilledwith air.
closes,
each down-stroke
of the pistonthere
is forced into the receiver a mass
of air whose
volume at atmospheric
pressure is that of the
barrel.
Hence
if B is the volume
of the
and A that of the receiver,
and p the
barrel,
of the external air,after n strokes a
Fig. 30.
density
of air nBp has been forced into the remass
ceiver,
and since there was
a mass
Ap. in the receiver originally
the total mass
is

By

p(A+nB).
If p^ is the density
of the compressed
air in the receiver
the mass
of air in the bafrel is

Apn.

MACHINES

DEPENDING

Hence

UPON

FLUID

p^A -p{A+

or

p^

313

PRESSURE.

nB\

p{\+n-j^.

Ex.

If the volume of the barrel of a bondenser is 80 cubic centimetres

and the volume of the receiver 1000 cubic centimetres,
how
strokes are necessary to raise the air-pressure
in the receiver
many
from one atmosphereto five atmospheres
?
We

have

and pressure

seen

that

p"=p

(^ +

**

is proportional
to density,
therefore
80
K

by.the question,

400
^-

'='+'^1000' "=-8-='''The

number
required

"'"

of strokes is 50.

EXAMPLES.

XVIII.

1.
If the volume of the receiver in a Smeaton's Air-Pump is 5
times that of the barrel,
find the pressure in the receiver after 3 strokes
of the pistop,
the barometric heightbeing30 inches.

In a Smeaton's A^r-Pump the volume of the barrel is 24 cubic

inches,that of the receiver is 1000 cubic inches,and the pistonwill
not descend quite to the bottom
of the barrel but leaves -^ of its
lengthuntraversed. Find the densityof the air in the receiver after
two strokes.
2.

3. In the process of exhausting

after 10 strokes
a common
receiver,
the mercury in the gauge stands at 20 inches,the baroof the pump
metric
At
what
inches.
will
the
in
the
30
heightbeing
height
mercury
strokes 1
gauge stand after 20 more
of air and one-eighth
of this.be
4. If the receiver holds 2 ounces
removed by the firststroke of the piston,
how much
will be removed
by the second stroke ?
5.

Show

that

the upper

valve of the barrel of

an

will
air-pum]f)
"

open

when

the

pistonis at

where k is the reading of

barometric heightand I the

distance

from

the bottom

barometer placed,in the

lengthof the barrel.

where

a;=rl,

h the
receiver,

If the volume of the receiver be six times that of the barrel,

and if a barometer placedin the receiver stands at 28 inches after one
where will it stand after two more
strokes ?
stroke of the piston,
6.

314

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

7. Find the ratio of the volume of the receiver to that of the barrel
in a condenser,
if at the end of the fourth stroke the density
of the air
in the receiver is J of the original
density.
If the volume
of the barrel is J of the volume
find the pressure in the latter after 20 strokes.
8.

of the

receiver,

9. If the volume of the receiver be 7 times that of the barrel,

after
how many
strokes will the density
of the air in the receiver be twice
that of the external air ?

62.

The

Siphon.

The Siphon is a bent tube with open

branch longerthan the other. In
order to use it,it is filled with
and both ends temporarily
liquid
closed. It is then placedwith
the shorter branch dipping
into
whose contents
a vessel of liquid
to be transferred. If the ends
are
will pass
are
opened the liquid
in a continuous* stream through
the tube.
The explanation
of its action
is as follows :
The pressures at D and
also
at E is atmospheric,
pressure at A downwards

the
run

havingone

Pia, 3i_

hence
equal,

the pressure

pressure a,t E + pressure due to

the column AE

atmo.

Thus

are

ends

due
to AE.

pressure + pressure

at A exceeds
(downward)pressure of the liquid
will
(upward)atmospheric
pressure at A and the liquid

the

out at A.

If DG, the heightof the

above D, be less than k, where
crk

highestpointof

the

liquid

ph,
and mercury respec(a-and p beingthe densities of the liquid
tively,
and h the height
of the barometer),
the liquid
willrise in
DC and flow throughthe tube until DC becomes equalto k.
*

See however, Cotterill and

Slade,AppliedMechanics,p.

482.

MACHINES

Ex.
in
(ii)

DEPENDING

What would
the longerarm

UPON

PRESSUEE.

FLUID

happen if a small hole were

of a siphonin action ?

made

315

in the shorter,
(i)

all the
made above the level of the liquid,
(i) If the hole were
b
elow
above
into
the
the
allthe
hole
would
descend
liquid
vessel,
liquid
would ascend and pass throughthe longer
arm.
'

If the hole

effecton

the

were

below

the level of the water

there would

be

no

discharge.

in the vessel,
all
(ii)If the hole were above the level of the liquid
the liquid
below the hole would descend,all above it would flow back
into the vessel.

If the hole were

below the level of the
would issue from this hole.

63.

The

the liquid
in the vessel,
liquid

Balloon.

flexiblesubstance (usuallylight
than air. A balloon when free
a
silk)enclosing
gas lighter
is acted on by two forces,
to move
and enclosed
appendage's
(i) the weightof the envelope,
A balloon consists of some

gas,

(ii) the upwardpressure of the atmosphere.

If the weightof the balloon is less than the weightof
the displaced
air,it will rise. The difference of the forces
force' of the balloon.
is called the 'lifting
(i)and (ii)
to ascend the balloon is not entirely
Before beginning
which will be immediately
for a reason
seen; as
inflated,
hence
the balloon ascends the external pressure decreases,
placed
the gas inside the balloon expandsand the volume of disinflated
air increases. If the balloon had been fully
burst when the external pressure
at firstit would probably

diminished.
of the gas, p the pressure and p
the volume
of the external air,at any instant before the
the density
If V

be

law,pF is constant
inflated,
balloon is completely
by Boyle's
See p. 287.
and therefore pVis constant.
until
air remains the same
of displaced
the mass
Hence
therefore the difference of the
the balloon is quiteinflated;
the Hfting
and (ii)
or
forces
forceremains the same.

(i)

force
balloon is fullyexpanded the lifting
diminishes,but the balloon will rise until the weight
rapidly
air is equalto the weightof the balloon.
of
When

the

displaced

316

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

1200 lbs. If a cubic foot

of air weighs1 J ozs., how many
cubic feet of gas of sp. gr. '52 (referred
to air)
must be introducsed before the balloon will beginto ascend ?

Ex. I.

The

empty balloon weighs in air

An

weightof a

cubic foot of the gas is

13

13

^X^ozs.

2qOzs.,
13

therefore the

weightof

cubic feet is g^:;!;

ozs., and

the

weightof

a)

cubic feet of air is

Hence

ozs.

xi beingthe
beginto rise,

req. number

6
-r

in order that the balloon may

of cubic

just

feet,

13
x=

1200

le+jr;;X,'

.-.

^=32000

cubic feet,

20

is the effectof an increase of barometric pressure on

the lifting
filledwith gas ? Taking 8 lbs.
power of a balloon partially
find approximately
the volume of
as the weight of 100 cubic feet of air,
air
is
referred
to
"07)which a baUoon must
hydrogen(whosesp. gr.
contain in order that its total lifting
power may be equalto the weight
of 750 lbs.
Ex. 2.

What

With an increase of pressure the weightof air

solid parts of the balloon is greater,hence the
increased.
Let F be the

displaced
by
lifting
power

the
is

volume,the weightof the hydrogenis

required

''^ife'^ISo^^'F"

Hence

the

lifting
power

is

FxA(i_.o7)=FxjgLibs.wt.,
and

this is to be

hence
equalto the weightof 750 lbs.,
F=

64.

The

10,000 cubic feet,

nearly.

Diving-Bell.

The Diving-Bell
is a largemetal vessel open at the
bottom and heavier than the weightof water it would displace.
It is lowered with the open end downward
into water.
The contained air is compressedand the water rises in the
bell. When
the surface of the water
within the bell is at
a depth of about
33 feet below the free surface of the water
outside, the ball will be half-filledwith water, for the pressure
of the air within it will be that of two atmospheres.

318

THE

ELEMENTS

Position
The
chain

the

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

ofdiving-bell.
of equilibrium

if disconnected from the

equilibrium
is equalto
weightof the water displaced

bell will be in

when

the

weightof the

bell.

is unstable,
for when
that the equilibrium
pushed down
to greater pressure, displaces
the air within,being subjected
slightly
the other hand,it is pulled
less water,hence the bell will gink;if,
on
up
to less pressure will expand and
the air within beingsubjected
a little,
more
water,hence the bell will rise.
displace
Notice

If

lengthof the bell occupiedby air in this

lengthof the bell,1^ the weight of the bell,
weight of water which the bell would contain,

is the
I the
position,
X

and

the

have

we

^
-7

'"~

'

If the weightof the bell is greaterthan the weight

of
which it would contain there is alwaysa tension in
water
the bell.
the chain supporting
To
must
water

find the

volwme of air at atmospheric

pressure which
be introduced into a bell at a givendepthso that the
may be driven out.

Let V be the volume of the bell,then air which fills

the
bell when its top is d feet below the surface would occupy a
volume
V

at atmo.

Hence

the amount
be added, is

pressure.

of air at atmo.

pressure which

yh_"d"b_y^^b+d

has to

^..^_

is
Ex. 1. The depth of the surface of water inside a diving-bell
found to be 132 feet. The lengthof the bell is 5 feet. If the water
barometer stands at 33 feet,what heighthas the water risen iu the
beU?
Let

be the distance

of the water

in the bell from

the

top of the

then
bell,
132

Hence

by (i),

Therefore x=\

-^=depth

of the

top of the bell.

+ 132-^)
a;2+a;(33
foot,and the water has
-

165

0.

risen 4 feet in the bell.

MACHINES

DEPENDING

UPON

FLUID

319

PRESSURE.

Ex. 2. A diving-bell
whose volume is 200 cubic feet rests at the
bottom in water 150 feet deep. If the
heightof the barometer be 29-5
find how many cubic feet of,air at
inches,
atmosphericpressure must
be introduced in order to fillthe bell with air.
The

heightof the

barometer is

water
29-5

j2

13-6

^
feet
=33-4
""

feet,
,

150

hence

200
by (ii),

^^

cubic feet or 898 cubic feet must

But the bell originally

contained 200 cubic feet of
feet are required.
Ex. 3.

be introduced.

air,hence

1098 cubic

cylindrical
diving-bell
weighs 2 tons and has an internal
100 cubic feet,
while the volume of the material composing
it is 20 cubic feet. The bell is made to sink by weightsattached to it.

of
capacity
At

what depth may

ascend,the heightof

the weightsbe removed

and the bell
the water barometer being33 feet 1

just not

When
the bell is at rest the weightof the bell is equalto the weight
of the water displaced.
Let y be the number of cubic feet ttienoccupied

by air,
1000 ozs. wt.,
weightof water displaced
=(y -1-20)
.-.
(3/-I-2O)
1000=2x2240x16,
y=51'68 cubic feet.
The pressure of the air in the bell is due to a depth of "-h33 feet,
51 -68
100 x 33,
law,
.; by Boyle's
(33-|-^)
hence
"=30"8
feet,
nearly.
=

EXAMPLES.

XIX.

6 feet longis sunk until its top is 66 feet below

A diving-bell
the siuface. Find the heightto which water will rise inside the bell if
the heightof the barometer is 34 feet.
1.

is 20 cubic feet
4 feet long whose volume
its
is
feet
14
below
the surface of the
into water until
top
air is forced into it until it is | full. What
volume
would
the entire quantityof air occupy under atmospheric
the
water
pressure,
f
at
feet
33
barometer standing
2. A
is lowered
water and

bell
cylindrical

inside is 17 feet below

the surface of the water
In a diving-bell
What portionof the bell is filledwith
the surface of the water above.
at
barometer
the
standing 34 feet ?
water,
3.

tube one metre in lengthhas one end sealed and

cylindrical
dry air at the usual pressure and temperature. The tube is
into a tank of mercury
with its open end downwards
dippedvertically
A
contains
4.

320

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

tillthe air within it is compressedto f of its former volume.

Find the
distance of the top of the tube from the free surface of the mercury in
the tank,the heightof the barometer being75 cms.
of mercury.
whose heightis 5 feet is lowered until
5. A cylindrical
diving-bell
the depth of its top is 55 feet ; iind the lengthoccupiedby air,the
barometer standingat 33 feet ; find also how much air must
be forced
in to completely
expelthe water.
A cylindrical
whose
diving-bell
lengthis 5 feet is sunk to the
when
bottom of a river on a day
the atmospheric
pressure at the surface
is that due to 32 feet of water,and the water is found to rise 1 foot in
the bell. Find the depthof the river.
6.

is lowered into water

diving-bell
force
a
so as to keep the
supplied
by
pump
7.

allowingany
as

to escape.

How

must

at a uniform rate,and air

bell justfull of air without
the mass
of air supplied
be varied

the bell descends i

volume of a balloon when startingis 64000 cubic feet

8. The
and its mass
includingthat of the enclosed gas is 2 tons ; with what
acceleration will it begin to ascend,the mass
of a cubic foot of air
?
1-24
ozs.
being
9.
Assuming that a cubic foot of air weighsIJ ozs., and a cubic
1000
foot of water
of its
ozs., a balloon so thin that tbe volume
contains 1-5 cubic feet of coal gas, the
substance may
be neglected
The
balloon floats,
balloon weighing 1 oz.
without ascendingor
the
of
the
middle
i
n
Find
the sp. gr. of coal gas
room.
descending,
r
eferred
to water.
(i)referred to air,(ii)

balloon which will hold 300 cubic feet of gas is partly

inflated with 100 ozs. of a gas whose sp. gr. is J referred to air at
atmosphericpressure. Find the heightof the barometer at the place
to rest,the sp. gr. of air at sea-level being
where
the balloon comes
the
of
the
and
weight
"0013,
envelope2 ozs.
10.

An inverted U-tube whose arms

11.
are
equalin lengthjustdips
of the sp. grs. s and ^ respectively.
into two vessels containingliquids
and the free surfaces of the liquids
The tube is filledwith the liquids
in the vessels are at the same
level. If m and y are the distances
of the liquids
in the tube from the highest
of the surface of separation
of
in
the
which
lowest
it is,show that
arm
and
points

where h is the
Two

heightof

the water

barometer.

cylinderswith vertical sides

each filled to a depth

are
with
distilled
and
the other with sea-water.
of 40 feet,one
As much
is drawn
from each by a siphon,
the water in the second
as
possible
of a foot above that in the first vessel.
vessel then stands ^
of
the
the mercury
Find
barometer standingat 30
sea-water,
sp. gr.
12.

inches.

MACHINES

Two

13.

DEPENDING

UPON

FLUID

321

PBESSUEE.

each containing
an
equal cylinders

of
connected

equalquantityV

which
liquids
U-tube
a
by

will not mix and whose sp. grs. are s and s' are
exhausted of air and of small bore which reaches to the
of each cylinder
will run from one vessel
liquid
; find how much

bottom
into the other.
14.

small

closed ; will,
water

filledwith water
out at the other end ?

run

and

the shorter end is

cork of heightk is floating

with itsaxis
If the basin is placed
under the receiver
verticalin a basin of water.
of an air-pumpand the air pumped out,prove that the cork will sink a
-

15.

distance

siphonis

cylindrical
pieceof

(1"s)h, where

water,and

o-

is the ratio of the densities of air and

O"

"

that of cork and water.

If a vessel to be emptiedby a siphoncontain water and the

liquidwhose sp. gr. is a-, find the
siphonitself be filledwith some
when the lengthof the shorter is
the
of
minimum
lim^)
longer
length
work.
the
i
n
order
that
5 feet,
siphonmay
16.

The volume
and when
barrel,

17.

the

is a space between

of the receiver of a condenser is m times that of

there
the pistonis in its lowest possible
position
the

pistonand

volume of the barrel ; find the

by the condenser.

the valve of the receiver

condensation that
greatest

="

can

of the

be effected

is one ton and which can justfloatin

iron bell whose mass
water mouth
upwardsis immersed mouth downwards in water. What
the bell if the depthof the surface
is the tension of a rope supporting
within the bell below the free surface be equal to the
of the water
of the water barometer,the sp. gr. of iron being7-6 ?
18.

An

height

to draw apart a pairof hemispheres

force is required
19. What
if the pressure of the external
together,
4 inches in diameter and placed
exhausted so that
are
air is 15 lbs. per sq. inch and the hemispheres
?
outside
that
of
is
them
the pressure of the air within
^

If
20. A pieceof wood floats in the water inside a diving-bell.
fraction
what
find
is
half
it
bell
immersed,
outside the
when floating
is at
of it is not immersed when the surface of the water inside the bell
barometer
havinggiventhat the heightof .thewater
a depthof 20 feet,
air -0013.
is 32-5 feet and the densityof atmospheric
its distance
a
of the pistonof an air-pump,
/3its distance from
from the top of the barrel in its highestposition,
the
and p
densityof atmosphericair,
the bottom in its lowest position
densityof the air in the receiver will be
show that the limiting
21

If h be the range

21

322

ELEMENTS

THE

OF

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

(Dynamics.)
130 and 110 feet,
lengthswere respectively
observed to be
rails were
moving in oppositedirections on parallel
the
of
the
each
in
longertrain
4 sees,
velocity
other,
completely
passing
train.
of
each
the
rate
beingdouble that of the other. Find
1.

whose
trains,

Two

N.E. through a current running 4 miles an hour

2. A shipsailing
Find the velocity
of
has made good 4 miles S.E.
after 2 hours' sailing
the shipand the direction of the current.
If the resistance of the air is always| of the weightof a body in
with a velocity
find
how high a body will go if shot up vertically
vacuo,
Prove that the body wiU again reach the pointof proof 900 ft.-sees.
jection
after 62-5 Sees.
3.

from a train moving 40 miles per hour.

A carriageis slipped
travel
before
How far will it
coming to rest,reckoning the resistance
of the rails ^ of the weight?
4.

5.

When

two

unequal weights are

rough peg which

tension of the stringat
over

-th

part of

will be the

increased

the latter
same

by

th

as

has
one

connected

by

tension,
prove that the effecton

if the

stringpassing

the effect of preventingmotion until the

end be greaterthan that at the other by

peg

were

smooth

and

the acceleration

the smaller

weight

part of itself.

6. There are n forces actingat 0 represented

by 0.4 j, OA^,, OA^The middle point oi A^A^ is joinedto^j, the middle pointof OA^, the
to ^84,
middle pointof the line thus drawn is joined
a pointon
OA^,such
and so on.
Prove that if P be the middle point
of the
that 0^4 ^0.44,
the resultant of all the forces is reprelast of all the Hues thus drawn
sented
in magnitude and direction by 2" "^ OP.
...

rods meet in a point A and ringsslide

of smooth
7. A number
Prove that after a time t the ringsare
from A.
down the rods starting
all

on

the surface of

sphereof

radius

\gfi.

M hanging vertically
M'
draws a body of mass
8. A body of mass
smooth
of
inclined
smooth
a string
plane by means
passingover a
up a
pulleyat the top of the plane. If M starts from the top of the plane,
which is 14 feet from the ground,determine the velocityof M' just
before M strikes the ground.

ABCD
is any quadrilateral
and 0 is the intersection of two
t
he
l
ines
Prove
bisecting oppositesides of the quadrilateral.
straight
forces
OC
that
and OD are in equiactingat 0 representedby OA, OB,
librium.
9.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

323

DYNAMICS.

10. The sides AB, BC, CD and DA of the quadrilateral

ABCD
are
bisected at E, F, O and H respectively.
Prove that the resultant of
the two forces represented
in magnitude
by EG and HF is represented
and directionby AC.
11.

A ball
with a

lbs. leaves the mouth

of a cannon
zontally
horiof 1000 feet per second ; the gim and carriage,
velocity
"together
weighing12 owt.,slide on a smooth planewhose inclination to
the horizon is 30". Find the space of recoil up the plane,
havinggiven
that the pressure caused by the explosion
Ihe ball and on the end of
on
the bore of the cannon
is the same.

weighing12

Four forces P, Q, R and S, no two of which are parallel,

act in
one
plane. The resultant of P and Q meets that of R and S in A, the
resultant of P and R meets that of Q and S in B, that of P and S meets
that of Q and Rm.C;
line.
prove that A, B, C lie in one straight
12.

In the triangle
ABC
the line DE is drawn parallel
to the side
and meetingthe other sides in D and E, the lengths
of DE and BC
b and a respectively.
If h be the line drawn from A to bisect BC,
are
that
the
the
distance
of
c. g. of the figure
from A is
BCED
prove
13.

BG

a{fl+ b)

oflfthe

heavytriangular
platelieson the ground. If a verticalforce
A is justgreatenough to beginto liftthat vertex
at B or
ground,show that the same force will sufiBce if applied

C,the

other vertices.

14.

appliedat the vertex

is broughtto rest after n revolutions by a constant15. A fly-wheel

If k be the
irictionalforce applied
to the circumference.
tangentially
kinetic energy of the wheel before the frictionis applied
and r its radius
show that the force is kj^jrur.
of a giventriangle
be cut from the comers
equaltriangles
the o. G. of the remaining
to the respective
sides,
by lines parallel
opposite
the
w
ill
of
coincide
with
that
triangle.
portion
16.

If

of a
Forces P, Q, B, S act in the sides AB, BC, CD and DA
that
and
sufficient
conditions
Find
the
ABCD.
rectangle
necessary
force actingat A.
to a single
theyshould be equivalent

17.

to C and
is a square, E the middle pointoiAB is joined
18. ABCD
in AB and BC,
BD is drawn. Forces of 4 and 6 Ibs.-wt.act respectively
forces of ^2 and
and forces of 3 and 2 lbs.-wt.in AD, DC respectively,
and CE respectively,
moments
5 ijblbs.-wt.act in BD
prove 6y taking
"alonethat the system is in equilibrium.

is a regular
ABCDEF
hexagon,and five forces each equalto P
A to the other vertices. Show that
lines joining
act alongthe straight
their resultant is P (2-1-^3).
19.

of a stringpassingover
bodies connected by means
a
show
that the stress between
smooth peg touch one another at one point,
are
equal.
them cannot be horizontal unless their weights
20.

Two

21"2

324

THE

ELEMENTS

APPLIED

OF

MATHEMATICS.

sits in a chair which is suspendedfrom the axle of a

rides on a rope which is fixed to a horizontal beam
pulley
; this pulley
beam down
fixed to the same
above and passes over
a second pulley
againto the man's hand.
A

21.

man

If the man's weighttogetherwith the tackle is 150 lbs. what

of the
the three portions
must he exert to justsupporthimself,
1
beingparallel

force

string

is capableof havinga circle inscribed

A quadrilateral
ABCD
forces
and
represented
by BA, DA, DG, EG act on a rigidbody;
it,
line passing
show that the resultant acts alongthe straight
throughthe
of the diagonals.
centre of the circleand the middle points
22.

in

uniform rod AB
rests incUned at an angle a to the horizon
and
with the end A on a, rough horizontal planeand justabout to slip,
with the end B supportedby a stringinclined at an angle/3 to the
horizon. Prove that the coefficientof frictionis l/(tan
/3- 2 tan a).
A

23.

A cannon-ball of mass
24.
m
is free to recoil in a horizontal

relative to the
obtained

groundis

by givingthe

V.

gun

is shot from
so
direction)

Show

of
a gun
that its

(which
muzzle-velocity

that its greatest

range is

elevation of tan-*

an

(1 +

1?

mass

"

and is

)
"

tical
A stone is thrown from a givenpointwith horizontal and vervelocities v, and v respectively;
at the instant it reaches the
zontal
pointwith horihighestpointa second stone is thrown from the same
be the vertical
3m so as to hit the first. Find what must
velocity
second
of
the
stone.
velocity

25.

26.

put

over

moveable
of the

to its ends and is

the portionbetween them
two fixed pulleys,
supportinga
acceleration
all
the portions
Find
of
of
the
R.
mass
P,
pulley

lightstringhas

masses

and

Q attached

stringbeingvertical.

P and " lie on a smooth horizontal table near

each
27. Two masses
which
is
threaded
and
connected
other
are
a ring of
by a stringon
R.
The ringhangs over the edge of the table,,
mass
prove that it falls
with an acceleration

R{P+Q)

R{P+Q)+iPQ^On a smooth wire bent into a circle and placedin a vertical

nected
planeslide two ringswhose weightsare as 1 to ;^3,the ringsbeingconrod which subtends a rightangle at the
by a lightstraight
28.

centre.

Determine

the

of equilibrium.
positions

A bullet weighing1 oz. strikes a block of wood at rest with a

of 2400 ft.-secs.and remains
imbedded
in it,if the resultant
velocity
and
bullet
of
the
ft.-secs.
the
block
is
find
16
weightof the wood
velocity
and the loss of kinetic energy.
29.

326

THE

38.

Two

that passes

ELEMENTS

equalmasses
over

OF

connected

tension of the thread

thread
inextensible weightless
that the
in equilibrium.Show

by an

lightpulleyhang

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

is unaltered when

-th

is added to

of its mass

one

and

7:thof its masses

n.+2
Two

39.
at the

same

is removed

from the other.

marksmen, usingguns with the

moment

and

fire
muzzle-velocity,

same

hit the
simultaneously

same

mark.

is at the top of a tower of heighth,

The one, who fires horizontally,
is the
far off from the tower
and the other is on the ground. How
is
c??
the
tower
of
the
mark
from
if the horizontal distance
latter,
A mass
of ^ lb.,
falls from a height of 18 inches upon dough,
resistto the depth of 3 inches ; what is the average ance
which it penetrates
exerted by the dough?
40.

A weight TT hangs by a stringover a pulley.A monkey takes

41.
W is at rest beginsto
hold of the other end, and at an instant when
W.
mine
Deterclimb and climbs a heighthint seconds without disturbing
his motion and find his weight.

If at the end of the t seconds he ceases

wiU he ascend in the next t seconds ?

to

climb,how

much

further

A shot whose mass

is i a ton is discharged
from a gun whose
the
is
backward
motion
is
checked by a constant
110 tons,
mass
gun's
pressure equalto the weight of 10 tons,and the recoil is observed to be
of the shot is 1320 feet per
6^ feet. Show that the muzzle-velocity
second.
42.

starts at rightanglesto the bank of a river at the

of
uniform rate
IJ miles per hour to swim across; the current for part
for
of the way is flowinguniformlyat the rate of 1 mile per hour,ana
the remainder of the way at double that rate. He finds when
he has
reached the other side that he has drifted down the stream
distance
a
equal to the breadth of the river. At what point did the current
A

43.

man

change ?
is
ABC
in the form of a right-angled
triangle
If
s
taneously
imultwo
rightangle G.
starting
equalparticles
from G slide down the sides CA, CB, show that theywill reach
A, B aX the same
moment, and that the motion will not disturb the
o
f
the
equilibrium
triangle.
44.

heavy board

suspendedat the

rests upon 4 equal

a heavy rectangular
top ABGD
equallyheavy legsplaceda,t A, B, E, P where E and F are the
Show
that the table will be upset by a
middle pointsof BG and CB.
it
G
at
just greater than the weight of the whole
weightplacedupon
table,and find the greatestWeight that may be placedat D without upsetting
45.

A table with

and

the table.

MISCELLANEOUS
46.

EXAMPLES.

327

DYNAMICS.

An

endless stringwithout weight of lengthI hangs in two

horizontal line at a distance
loopsover two smooth pegs in the same
and on each loopis placeda small smooth ring,one of weight
a apart,
W and the other of weightW'. Find an equation
givingthe tension of
the string.
the

of work show that the pullof a locomotive

principle
for a mean
efifectivepressure p lbs. on the square
engineiapdH/p lbs.,
I the length
of the
inch,where d is the diameter of each of the cylinders,
the
diameter
of
B
the
of
the
stroke,
driving-wheel
engiigie.

47.

By

Show that the mechanical advantageof the pulley

in the cases
48.
and
II.
reduced
to
a
nd
I.
when it is
(1+"!.)"
(p.182) are
(l-|-m)"-l,
found that the friction of the ropes causes
the tension to be reduced
to m times its value in passinground a pulley.
Two equalrods AG, BG, each of
49.
at G and placedto stand with A, B on
and

AB=2a

A=height

justin equilibrium
it
=

of G above

the

weightW,
a,

hingedtogether

are

rough horizontalplane. If
that if they are

plane,prove

ar-

Also if u, exceed this value show

that

weight

"

"

placedat

G without

slipping
takingplaceat

or

"

might bp

fi/i

B.

elasticball of mass
m
moving on a smooth horizontal plane
is at
m' which
impingeson a ball of equal size but of different mass
rest on the plane. If just before impact the line of motion of the
the centres
impingingball be inclined at the anglea to the line joining
ball
wiU
be turned
of the balls,
prove that the direction of the impinging
(ecos^ a sin^ a).
through a rightangleif m=m'
50.

An

"

are
elastic spheresequalin all respects
Two
51.
moving towards
lines
their centres beingon two parallel
each other with equalvelocities,
will
that
after
move
Prove
is
impact they
whose distance apart, d^.
are
on
with
other
so that their centres
each
from
velocities,
equal
away
lines whose distance apartd^ is givenby
two parallel

-e^)d^} dPdi\
6?/{e2rfz+(l
diameter of either sphere.
=

where
52.

d is the
Two

equalivoryballs

are

suspendedin

contact

by

two

equal

zontal
stringsso that the line joiningthe centres of the ball is horiparallel
the
threads.
Find
of
and 2 feet below the pointsof attachment
ball to
when
it is found that allowingone
the coefficientof elasticity
of
60"
with
the
thread
makes
its
an
when
angle
start from the position
in
to
rest
a
to
come
positioa
the other ball after impact
vertical causes
of equilibrium
position
where its centre is 1 foot 8 inches from its original

is 3 ozs. revolves on a smooth horizontal

whose mass
particle
of length
10 feet.
table,
beingattached to a fixed pointby a lightstring
find
the
to
is
1
bear
can
the
cwt.,
equal
tension
string
If the greatest
break
the
to
string.
of revolution required
velocity
53.

328

MATHEMATICS.

APPLIED

OF

ELEMENTS

THE

elastic ball be reflected in succession by each of two

show that
vertical planesat rightanglesin a horizontal plane,
its directions before the firstimpact and after the second are the same.
54.
smooth

If

an

If the unit of time is 1

of a
the mass
the unit of mass
the equation
F=ma%
55.

minute,the unit
ton, what

of

length1 mile and

impliedin

unit of force is

50 tons through
unit of work is the work done in raising
20 feet,
the unit of acceleration is 16 ft. sees, per second,the unit of
densitythat of*a substance of which a cubic yard weighs2 cwt. Find
and force.
the units of length,
time,mass

56.

The

hour be the unit of time

If an
find the value of g.
length,

57.

and

4000

miles the unit of

If in a friotionlesswheel and axle a force of 10 lbs.wt. supports

58.
10 lbs. wt.
a load of 120 lbs. wt.,find the acceleration of the load when
is taken from it and added to the force.
is drawn from rest by a horse
througha feet and is then moving at the rate of h feet per second.
If the resistances are equivalentto c lbs. wt. per ton,show that the
work done by the horse is 35mJ2+mac
foot-lbs.
59.

truck

whose

is

mass

tons

ball of mass
mj, which is at rest,
m^ strikes a ball of mass
inside a smooth horizontal
with velocity
Both balls are free to move
u.
circular tube, prove that after n impacts the k.e. of the system is
60.

JmjM^(-2

S
"

j where
,

is the coefficient of

elasticity.

A uniform
rod of length2a sin a rests within a rough vertical
61.
circle of radius a, show that the greatest
inclination of the rod
possible
to the horizon

62.

^"
(
|
\C0S'*
a-i^ svaf' a)

is tan~i

"

"

"

rectangularin shape
picture-frame

vertical wall from

rests

againsta smooth

points in which it is suspended by parallel

attached
to
two
strings
pointsin the upper edge of the back of the
frame,the lengthof each stringbeing the heightof the frame.
two

will
Show that the picture

where

is the

heightof

the

rest

againstthe wall

frame,and

at

an

angletan""i

"

6 its thickness.

A smooth
wedge of anglea is free to slide along a smooth
horizontal table in a direction perpendicular
to the edge of the wedge.
On the surface of the wedge move
of masses
two particles
and m!
m
connected
fine
which
inextensible
round
smooth
a
by a
string
passes
63.

of the stringlie
portions
peg driven into the wedge. The two straight
along lines of greatestslope. If M is the mass of the wedge,prove that
the tension of the stringis
2"im'
if

(m

{M-\-M.

-H m')S'sin

-(-m')-)-4m7A' -^ sin^ a{m

a
"

m!)'^'

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

329

DYNAMICS.

64.
If a pendulum fits loosely
on
a horizontal axis of radius a and
is found to make
inclination 6 to the horizon when
a constant
the axle
is kept rotating,
the angleof friction ^ between the rubbingsurfaces

is

where
given by sin"^=-sintf,

h is the distance of the

c. g.

of the

eft

pendulum from
Show

65.
r

will

the
that

pointof suspension.
a

railwaycarriage
runninground

is greaterthan
upset if the velocity

distance between the

above the rails.

and
rails,

h the

of radius

curve

\/^, where

heightof

the

of the

c. G.

is the

carriage

sides of a triangular
framework
are
13, 20 and 21 inches
long,the longestside rests on a horizontal smooth table and a weight
of 63 lbs. is suspendedfrom the opposite
angle. Find the stress in the
side on the table.
66.

The

If four forces in one

and the lines of
planebe in equilibrium
of all be given but the magnitude of only one, show how the
magnitudesof the other three may be determined by the graphical
67.

action

method.

Four

rods equal in all respectsare freelyjointed

extremities so as to form the rhombus
If
ABCD.
this rhombus
be suspendedby two stringsattached to the middle
pointsof AB and AD, each stringbeinginclined at an angle6 to the
the anglesof the rhombus
will be '2,6
and n25.
vertical,

heavy

togetherat their

"

Two
equalheavy rods AC, BC are jointedtogetherat G and
their other extremities A and B jointedto fixed pegs in the
vertical line. Prove that the direction of the stress at C is horizontal
same
and determine by a geometricalconstruction the stresses at A
and B.
68.

have

If a weightwhich is equal to that of either rod be attached to the

centre of the lower rod,show that if a is the inclination of each rod to
the vertical and 6 the inclination to the vertical of the stress at C
tan fl=3 tan a, and that this stress is to the weightof either rod in the

ratio \/l+Stanza

4.

Three equaluniform rods,each of weightW, are joinedto form

equilateral
triangle.If the system be suspendedby the middle

69.
an

of
point
^

one

of the rods the stress at the lowest

at each of the upper

angle is

"

and that

2'v'3

i^W^Y-

angles

to their
weights are proportional
form
ABG
to
which
a
is
triangle
together
lengthsare freelyjointed
and
its
side
BC
on
vertical
a horizontal plane.
its
with
plane
placed
is given
Show that 6,the inclinationof the stress at ^ to the horizon,
by the equation

70.

Three

uniform

rods whose

tan-Bsin

(5-fl)=tanCsin (C+5).

330

THE

ELEMENTS

OF

APPLIED

MATHEMATICS.

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

(Hydrostatics.)
body

1.

specific
gravityis p floats half-immersed in a
in a mixture of equalvolumes of that fluid and
atmospheric
neglecting
pressure.

whose
immersed

fluid but is I
Eina p,
water.

in two
floats with its axis vertical and vertex downwards
of
fluids whose specific
s and
are
separation
s+s',if the surface
gravities
of the liquids
bisect the axis of the cone, show that its specific
gravity

2.

is "+

cone

Js'.
A

3.

pieceof

wax

weighs4^ grammes

in air.

pieceof pla,tinum

whose volume is ^ of a cubic centimetre

and specific
gravity21 is
in
1 J grammes.
attached to the wax, and the two together
water
weigh
Find the sp. gr. of the wax.
the sp. gr. of one
Two
vessels contain each 3 pintsof fluid,
out of
tumblers
of
the
Two
that
other.
twice
are
one
filled,
pint
being
each vessel,
and then each tumbler is emptied into the vessel from
Prove that after this process has been gone
not drawn.
which it was
through3 times the sp. grs. of the fluids are to each other as 41 : 40.
4.

the sea into a river sinks 6 inches,and after

that the weight
her
a part of
discharging
cargo rises 2 inches. Show
where
is to the weightof the ship as tr 1 : 3o-,
of the cargo discharged
the
the
section
of
the
vessel
made
the
of
salt
water
is
by
0;
sp. gr.
in the three cases.
water line being supposedthe same
from
shipsailing

5.

"

"6. A

siphonbarometer

is

so

long closed tube

inch,while the short

constructed that the

internal sectional area

equalto J of a sq.
sectional
of 4 a sq. inch. Find what
internal
area
an
open
this
barometer when the true
will
take
in
the
tube
of
fall
place
long
has

an

tube has

pressure

of the air falls one

inch.

hydrometerweighs 2 oz. in air and is graduatedfor

specific
gravities
varyingfrom 1 to 1'2. What should be the volumes
in cubic inches of the portions
of the instrument below the graduations
it
1'2
1, 1"1,
respectively; being assumed that a cubic foot of water
weighs1000 ozs. ?
7.

common

If a common
hydrometerfloat in water with one inch of the
above the surface and in a liquidof sp. gr. 1'2 with 2 inches
stem
what will be the sp. gr. of a liquid
in which it will
above the surface,
floatwith 3 inches above the surface?
8.

to a certain depth
is observed to have risen 2 feet in the bell. As much
air is then pumped in as would fill-""q
if at atmo. pressure,
of the bell,
the
surface
of
in
the
and
the water
bell is observed to sink through one
foot. Find the depth of the top of the bell and the heightof the water
9.

10 feet high is sunk

cylindrical
diving-bell

and the water

barometer.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

HYDROSTATICS.

331

10.

vessel whose external and internal radii are

cylindrical
and 3 inches respectively,
floats in water with the bottom
8 inches below the svu^face. When
a liquid,
whose sp. gr. is required,
is
pouredinto the vessel to a depth of 20 inches it sinks until the bottom
is 15 inches below the surface. Find from these data the
sp. gr. of the
_

5 inches

liquid.
cubical box, of one
11. A
foot external dimensions,
of
made
material of thickness one
in
floats
water
immersed
to a depthof
inch,
3J inches. How much water must be pouredin so that the water inside
and outside may be at the same
level1
A pieceof iron whose mass
is 26 lbs. is placedon the top of a
cubical block of wood floating
in water and sinks it so that the upper
surface of the wood is level with the water.
The iron is then removed.
of the iron that should now
Find the mass
be attached to the bottom
of the wood so that the top may as before be in the surface.
12.

end of a thin imiform rod is filled

13. A small hole drilled at one
.with some
much heavier material. It is observed that the rod can float
in water half-immersed and inclined at any angleto the vertical. Show
that the sp. gr. of the wood is ^.
floats
14. A block of wood, the volume of which is 26 cubic inches,
of
with
of
its
volume
find
the
volume
in water
a pieceof
immersed,
f
metal,the sp. gr. of which is 8 times that of the wood, which when
it to be justimmersed.
attached to the lower part of the wood causes
is fitted with a smooth pistonrestingon
15. A vertical cylinder
close to
from the side of the cylinder
water contained in the cylinder,
and also
its base rises a vertical tube commvmioating with the cylinder
water.
Find the area of the section of the pistonso that for
containing
each lb. placedupon it the surface of the water in the tube may increase
its heightabove the

pistonby

one

inch.

The barrel of a Smeaton's air-pump is of the same

capacityas
that
the
valve at
tube together
the receiver and connecting
; supposing
the bottom of the barrel is the firstto cease
working and that there is
the air-pump can
exhaustion
most
that
the
show
complete
no
leakage,
is
-01 of a sq. inch
of
the
valve
t
he
giveis at the end of 8 strokes, area
and its weight
ozs., the atmo. pressure being 2112 lbs. per sq.
foot.
16.

j^

box is constructed
rectangular-shaped

with its ends (weightless)

without
frictionbetween
of
and
the
base
to
moving
capable
hinged
The tops of
the sides but so as to enable the box to contain water.
of
inelastic
that
so
a
connected
string
piece
by
these equal ends are
make
inclined
inwards
and
in
equal
they are
when water is poured
varies as
that the tension of the string
Show
vertical.
the
with
angles
the cube of the depth of the water.
17.

332

THE

Show

18.

with
in

ELEMENTS

that

angular

one

the

other

APPLIED

OF

and

diagonal

and

surface

the

in

point

is

at

of

Pressure

of

Centre

the

MATHEMATICS.

depth

horizontal

diagonal

one

of

=|^

immersed

parallelogram

depth

the

lies

the

of

lowest

point.

bucket

19.

over

passes

To

Show

that

if

end

is

the

ball

does

between

where

W,

the

whose

touch

is

suspended
let

to

ball

not

equilibrium

and

is

water

enough
tied

this

overflows,

water

of

small

pulley

bucket.

half-full

sp.

the

is

gr.

bottom

possible
W

by

other

if

the

the

the

fall

of

into

the

greater

than

bucket

and

of

weight

weight

is

o-

of

which

string

end

the

the

2.
no

ball

lies

bucket

and

water.

20.
its

rises
that

highest

point

that

so

the

diving-bell

cylindrical

the

alteration

at

depth

increase
in

of

the

is

the

height

of

the

the

height

below

of

is

immersed

surface.

pressure
the

chain

'\/{z+hy+4bh/
water

the

whole

tension

where

of

barometer.

on

is

'

in

If
the

the

top

approximately

with

water

barometer
is

P,

show

334

ANSWERS

EXAMPLES.

THE

TO

Ex. VII.

Page

30.

1,

14-2; (iv)19-1,approximately.
(i)2-9; (u) 5-5; (iii)

3.

50 ft.per

6.

Vel.

:r^ ft-per

5. 30" E. of S.

nearly.

17-3

4.

see.

width of deck=40'6

sec,

ft.

15,^3

VIII.

Ex.
15ft.-secs.
15j3ft.-seos.,

1.
5.

9, 37-4,nearly.

7.

5-4 ft.-secs.
ft.-secg.,

Ex.

Page

36.

2.

28-3 ft.-seos. nearly.

6.

6'5 ft. per min.

8.

138 ft.-seos.ne?irly.

IX.

Page

39.

25 miles per hour.

4.
8.

30 miles per hour.

5. 10 miles per hour from N.W.
If a is the angleits direction makes
with the line of

9.

He walks in

35 miles.

direction making

an

Ex. X.

1. 28potindals.
4. 36,000 feet.

5.

141 ft.-seos.

9.

-017 nearly,855-5

sees.

36^ cms.

18J

12.

per sec,

980 in

4.

36 feet.

o.G.s.

10.

XII.

of a ton weight.
"s'ij
3. (i)Acwt.;
(ii)fjcwt.

1,

7.

Acceleration =4

"

"ot 6.

45.

6.

200

32,000 poundals.

poundals,-^ ft.-sec.units.

-0086.

Page

H.

5 lbs.

54.

in 6J
2, 52 feet,

Ex.

Zero.

7.

cms.

units.

5.

94 ft.-secs.nearly.

3.
8.

Ex. XI.
1.

Page

16 ft.

3200 units of momentum.

3.

wickets,tan a=||.
anglesin-^ f with his rank,in i^ sees.

2.

7,

100 ft.

nearly.

1.

2.

4.

ft.-sec

Page

3.

sees.

sec, 1 foot.

55.

2.

6 ft.-sec.units.

4.

(i)40

6.

5 sees., 80 ft.-secs.

units,tension

lbs. wt.;

=wt.

of

(ii)50

lbs. wt.

poundals,lOJ poundals.
9. (i)4-7; (ii)234-4 nearly.
11. -0174 sees, nearly.

*/lbs.; pressures are

The forces are equal.
lO. 3348 tons wt. nearly.
12. True weight 8-9 lbs!

13. 3-7

16.

24/-h23/'=^.

21.

sees., 17 ft.-secs.

18. 6-5 ft.-seos.,

7-3 ft.-secs.

8.

^^
P + iQ

"

ANSWERS

TO

THE

Ex. XIII.

1, 300 ft.,456 ft,

4, 12,100yds.

2.

1.

45",40;,y6
ft.-seoa.

3.

30

VlO

XIV.

ft.-seos.

Page

63.

XV.

Page

69.

(i)15-5 lbs. wt. nearly; (u)1-5 lbs. wt. nearly; (iii)

3 lbs. wt.;
3
-2
lbs.
wt.
(iv)
nearly.
3. 1 lb. wt., ^7 lbs. wt.
5. 2+;^31bs.wt.,2-^3
7. 5:3.
8.

18 lbs. nearly.

10.

5-8 lbs. making

12.

12
12^2 lbs.,

angleof

an

lbs.

1.

4 lbs.

3.

The tensions

5. 120".
20 lbs. wt., 10

Page
A force

7,

^3 lbs. wt.

11.

1.
5.

4-8 lbs. wt.

8-29 lbs.

10.

V-P^
+ g2 +

JS2 + S2

Page

4 lbs. wt. North.

2.

The
2PR

^
i|
5.

|#7^*^''^"'*'-

18.

2.

Ex.

XVIII.

Page

3.
2. ihi41 ft.-seos.
2.
8.
7.
6. ,k11. If A is the anglethroughwhich the

12.

angle 90"

14-1 tons

-^

"
.

^'3^.
by AB.

4.

poundals.

13.

CA.

1.

an

East.

2QS.
16. JP^+ Q'+B^-QB-BP-PQ.
19. 3 lbs.,
120", 30".
135",135",90".

20-

77.

resultant is rep.

^3

II

17.

due
2{v/2-l)lbs.wt.

3.

15.
17.

1.

8 lbs.

oo

XVII.

lbs.

"

representedby ,^3.

6 and

P~Q.

Ex.

Ji

H.

73.

equal to the weightsof

6.

Q~Q'.

-\. 15. ^ lbs.,^^

14.

2.
are

lbs. wt.

30" with the vertical.

Ex. XVI.

10.

3. 96 ft.

15. nT*/g2
Bci.feet.

4. 21bs. weight.
6.

59.

2. 173 ft.-seos.nearly.

Ex.

1.

Pagk

10,000ft.,20,000ft.
2700 yds.,U,400 yds.

6.

Ex.

335

EXAMPLES.

21.

30".

82.

3.

4.

iV-

32.

9.

llb.wt.

5.

981.

force is turned,the resultant makes

with the direction of this force produced.

weightnearly.

,13.

50 feet per

sec.

nearly.

336

ANSWERS

15.

20.

120".

25.

30".

of

ton

weight.

18.

The

EXAMPLES.

givenforce each component is

Page

XIX.

greaterforce ;

the

60

3.

22^,7^ lbs. weight.

4^7-

6.

The distances

7.

are

as

4.
"

: a

40

lbs.,120 lbs.

6.

is the weightof the bundle, and a, x, the distances of the bundle

If W

and his hand

8.

^^ P.

95.

2. 4 inches.
5.

17 lbs. weight.

19.

shorter.

8| inches from

lbs. wt. distant

(i)35
(ii) 5

THE

If P is the

24.

Ex.

1.

TO

from

the
shoulder,

his

is 1^ 1 1 +

pressure

]
.

16^ inches,13^ inches.

XX.

Ex.
15 inches.

4.

8 inches from the middle

9.

50 ;
"

lbs. wt,,where

98.

16 lbs.,48 lbs. wt.

1.

2.

Page

3.

the force 9 acts.

5. In the middle.

point.

I is the

Where

lengthof the rod in inches.

i + D

Ex.

1.

XXI.

Page

6,?^feet from the boy.

102.

As

2.

1 : 5.

3.

4^, 7| feet.

requireddistance is equal to the radius of the inscribed circleof

the triangle.
to BG
and distant 3 feet from BC.
7, 40 lbs. weight,parallel
by CD, where D is a pointin AB such that
11. It is represented
4.

The

AD

15.

The

other forces

are

DB

::

XXIII.

is 6.and 30 inches from

Page

1.

The

2.

Itt inches from the pointof contact.

4.

xfX inches from the centre of the rod.

(i) if inches from the centre.

5.

(ii)5^\ inches
fl
(iii)

(iv)J

from

inches from

an

inch from

5.

in the directions CB, CD, AD.

Ex.
c.a.

the

118.

ends.
respective

3.

13

inches,2;^34inches.

the centre of the largerplate,

the centre of the square,

the centre

of the rod.

ANSWERS

-TO

THE

Ex. XXIV.
1.

The

midpointof

Page

119.

the middle

weights.
2. BJ inches from the midpoint.
3. 2A inches.
4. 3^ feet.
Ex. XXV.
1.

2.

4.

The

337

EXAMPLES.

gibs.

5.

Page

6.

122.

is ||o, l^a distant from the sides which

weight2 is placed,a beinga side of the square.
CO.

-yg

The

if

is a side.

lies on

3.

8J|in.

where

meet

the

the middle side.

from

the

productionof the line joiningthe centre to the

which there is no particle
and at a distance ^r, where r is the

o.G.

vertex at

radius of the

circle.
circumscribing

-^

5.

a.

from

the firstside.

26

6.

o-

^7

7.

,"

the vertex,where

from

is a side.

\/^

2 inches.

-Y-inches from the bottom.

8.
Ex. XXVI.

Page

127.

from the centre of the square, if a is a side.

1,

g" ^

3.

The

CO.

The

centre of the inscribed circle.

4.
5. 0 is the

is distant ^
of the

a,

+ J2.

2. r=l

^^a from the sides throughthe firstvertex.

2^^ in. from the angle.

8. If S, y are the distances of the c. q. from the middle pointof one side
10. 7fl in.,8S in.,from two edges.
2a^=Sx'.
13. S|^inches.
15. The c. g. bisects the rod,which weighs12 lbs.
2{2+y2^2Jr 3B
22.
21. On the base of the triangle.
55-;
-s"
c. a.

triangle.

6.

jti+ V

Ex.

1,

XXVII.

Page

142.

diagonalthroughthe pointis inchned

The

such that tan

2.

a
J.
Tension=101b8.wt., pressure

6.

Each

8.

To

9.

Pressure

"

"

to the vertical at

an

anglea

6 lbs.wt.

3. Bequiredweight=6'61bs.
A

13.

is a force of 3 lbs. wt.

pointin the
=

horizontal

10.

jr.

Two

planeas the

The
J.

11.

17.

=iWeot--.

centre.

ozs.

tan-f^-^i^^
).
2cos 0/
\sin
a

23.

same

Thrust

7.

W'^
2

vZ-B^-r"

15a.

anglebetween

the

is
strings

2 cos-'

^i^.
22

338

ANSWERS

XXVIII.

Ex.
1.

EXAMPLES.

THE

TO

Page

147.

3. 79H foot-PO^tlB.

5040.

50m foot-lbs.

4.

5. 22,400 foot-lbs.
XXIX.

Ex.

1.

75 mUes

per hour.

lilfeet.

4,

18

71-55 ft.-secs.nearly.

3.

1^

6.
10.
12.

1200.

2.

XXXI.

feet'

155.

2.

90,367,200foot-lbs.

4.

88 foot-lbs.

Page

Unit

3.

of

159.

length I feet,unit

of time

f sees.
-00007,-0000000024 nearly.
The units are 2240 lbs.,
800 feet,5 seconds.
7, twststs foot-sees.
lbs.
11. 66,000,000ft.-lbs.,
2000 h.p.
3332yVT
30
660,000, H.p.
13. 179-2.
14. 10-7 nearly.
3'

20*.

H.p.

20.

x/31bs.

16.

1,161,600joules.

18.

1000 feet.

21.

4320.

23.

30

Ex.

XXXIII.

Page

1,

If lbs. wt.

3.

Fulcrum

5.

9# lbs. wt.

7.

Shorter wire is inclined to horizon

8.

13J feet,15 lbs.

is

2.

2J ft. from the

166.

5 ft.and 2 ft. from

centre.

6.
9.

4.
The

the ends.

170 lbs. wt.

9

11.

angleoot~'

^3.

arms

at the

H.p.

are

as

62J lbs. wt.

50 lbs. wt., neglecting

weightof lever.

Ex.

1.

26J lbs.

7.

He

5.

=3-2.

15.

10.

151.

Page

XXXII.
3.

W-

130^.

poundals,7500 poundals.

weight.
Ex.

4.

150

5.

1.

1.

Page

4.

30-72.

48,020,000ergs; 12,005,000ergs; 0.

2.

Ex.

tons

149.

3.

XXX.

10'" ergs,

6^-

2.
Ex.

1.

Page

2.

loses "19

XXXIV.
56

Page

169.

3.

ozs.

'

ab

Ex.

1,

44 inches.

4.

If 0' be the

5.

One

XXXV.

Page
2.

new

inch from

zero
one

of

end.

172.

2J inches.

graduationC(y=:^CO.
6.

18 lbs.

1, 8 lbs.

ANSWERS

Ex.

1. 3

5. Fix
as

on

XXXVI.

weight so that

o.o.

174.

3,

y.

and

the

XXXVU.

4^ lbs. weight.

4. 3181flbs.wt.
8.

Page

4.
mass

are

inches.

both

the

same

before.

Ex.
1.

the

339

EXAMPLES.

20 inches.

2.

ozs.

THE

TO

300 lbs. wt.

Ex.
1.

12 lbs. -wt.

4.

207 lbs. wt.

Page

177.

2.

120 lbs. wt.

3.

12, 36 lbs. wt.

5.

3^ inches.

6.

2tflbs.wt.

9.

32f lbs. wt.,

XXXVIII.

^^4ss

H.P.

Page

181.

2. 4P.

3. 2 lbs. wt., 7 pnUeys.

5. li of the man's weight.

the weight of the pulleys.

7, 9 stone weight,neglecting
8. The radii of the wheels in the upper block are in the proportion

"o., and those in the lower block in the proportion1

2:4:6

XXXIX.

Ex.

Page

1.

141bs. wt.

2.

15|lbB.wt.

4.

1 lb. wt.

6.

4 lbs. wt.

971bs. wt., llb.wt.

9.

701bs. wt.

13.

62 1bs. wt.

,8.
12.

14|lbs.wt.

16.

The

distance from

the

XL.

3.

290 lbs. wt.

7.
10.

Unity.
71J lbs. wt.

14.

36-2.

Page

5 "c.

186.

pointof action of Tj is ^

Ex.

+ 8m"j}.
{20)^+10j"i

189.

1.

12 feet.

2.

1 owt.

3.

9 lbs. wt., 15 lbs. wt.

4,

121bs. wt.

5.

724,5.

7.

Sflbs.wt.

8.

60".

9,

841bs. wt.

Ex.

XLI.

Page

191.

2. 60",120" with the plane,

1. 20^3.
5. 120" with inclined plane.
Ex.
1.

2fJlbB.wt.

2.

XLII.

Page

13Albs. wt,

3. ooB-if"2P.

196.

3,

A.

340

ANSWERS

7=::=

"

the

It makes

5,

Page

XLIII,

Ex.

EXAMPLES.

THE

TO

205.

angle tan~i

^- with

the

horizon.

2^2759
6.

10.

2^.

V2-1,

off the

XLIV.

Bm(o

1.

-T-

3.

moves

209.

3,097,600 sin

where

is the

foot-lbs.

e)

Ex.

vel. of the

217.

Page

XLV.

striking sphere.

35

15.

Page

j;^^^sm(o-e)
I

which

one

floor.

Ex.

1
'""

the

edge verticallyabove

point of the

middle

the

At

3808ft.-lbs.

7.

The

veL

of

/5

^.

impulses"

J,

each

ball

4.

As

1:50.

'^^ v,

is

makes

and

3-7 sees., 45

10.

an

angle

nearly.

sees.

with

the

2,^

cwt.

joining their

centres

where

Ex.

4.

Jr, where

is the

tan

a=^"Tx.

XLVI.

radius

Page

of the

242.

circle.

5.

6.

Pendulum

be

must

nearly.

7,

8692

9,

Momentum

-107 lbs. wt.

:pg"

inches

is 12'

123x56,

112

K.E.

units
of

==

-014

inches

8.

of each
=

10.

lengthened

sees,

nearly.

of momentum,

baU=1122x288.

14.

981.

nearly.

k.e.

of

cannon

line

342

ANSWERS

VII.

Ex.

1.

6-1inches.

5.

-082 inches

8.

466

11.

2.

12.

(")

where

16.

965

20.

3i inches,A of
6 inches,4-8.

23.

1780.

17.

5f.

2.

an

18 inches.

inch.

7A-

VIII.

2i"j.

5.

iHlb.

2.

5
-^#,

15/(24,
23, 22,

5.

...

16).

2.

1,

1-36 cubic inches.

4.

14-21 lbs.

XII.

The

3.
5.

densities are

17

7.

Page

3.

HJ-

6-21

nearly.

2.

5. -9.

Page

Page

4.

'8.

l^^-

5.

6H.

285.
1-080.

4.

289.

3.

5.

as

8.

8-06

weightsare
grains.
Page

4.

^A'^''"'-^

liV

The

22.

22.

283.

60 inches.

4 cubic inches.
7

4.

291.
584-6

^'i^xlO*.

4.

29-2

26 grammes.

6.

2Jf feet.

48, 52.

nearly.

8.

2.

as

4.

1'20

3.

3.

XIV.

19.

4.

Hi-

2.

Ex.

46.

281.

grs.

XIII.

iron.

279.

wt.

XI.

sp. gr. of

\h

3.

2. |.

323^

^1- inches.

1.

150 gr.

nearly.

3.

7.

Ex.

TT

14.

278.

Page

-8.

6.

7.

'965.

Page

X.

grammes

Ex.

1.

21.

Pagk

IX.

Ex.

1,

As 81

(i) -95; (ii)1.

Ex.

1.

18.

Half that of mercury.

2.

body, 5

4-9 inches

24.

Ex.
1.

of

W=vi.

,.

Ex.
1.

wt.

grammes

-672 inches.

13.

21.

(i)-o'

7.

348^$

10.

8 grammes.

15.

SW.

13-5.

4.

owt.

M owt., 1^

6.
9,

ISjlbs.

2| cubic feet.

3.

nearly.

274.

Page

^-

387.

EXAMPLES.

THE

TO

cms.
cms.

nearly.
of mercury.

2f oz.

ANSWERS

TO

Ex.
1.

124-2 grammes

3.

"05 grammes

5.

96

where

XV.

-49 lbs. wt.

4.

rk-

2.
4.

9.

30-5

13.

The

14,

The

20.

3-73

XVI.

2.

(i)at

wiU

37-7 feet.

5.

14 inches

5^

2.

4-4

nearly.

5-037 inches

nearly.
base,

8.

H.

height of 4-8 feet nearly from

nearlyfrom the base.
a

nearly.

cms.

the

feet.

nearly.

17-4 inches

12

height above the base.

3,

6.

21-57 lbs. per sq. inch.

4 feet.

5.

1-8 feet nearly,1^ F.

7,

If F

Page

whei-e
'96/3,
4. ^ oz.

Page

densityof
20f inches.

6.

7.

9.

319.

3.

J.

6.

9 feet.
feet per

height of the

the

nearly.

p is the

pressure.

bell in cubic feet,n

lowered, and

280 lbs. wt.

2.

XIX.

of the

4.

313.

cubic feet.

22^

is the volume

lbs.

Six times atmo.

Ex.

it is

2500

nearly.

8.

1.

308.

3.

S-S inches.

1.

2.

Page

XVIII.

of mercury

air.

atmo.

which

'^-"

7.

XVII.

Ex.

7,

22-6

3.

ozs.

1.

As

its sp. gr. referred to air.

301.

rise in the air vessel to

Ex.

1.

Page

60 inches.

IQ.
rest

of mercury.

cms.

57" c.

10-8 inches of tube.

distance of 5-9 feet

mercury

58-5

32 lbs. per sq. inch.

nearly,
piston will

at
(ii)

294.

of the gas in lbs.and

mass

nearly.
5.

Page

nearly.
is the

343

EXAMPLES.

wt.

Ex.
1.

THE

water

4.

61-25

sec.

the rate at

cms.

barometer,the

nV

quantityof
8.

3f

air at atmo.

pressure

ft.-sec. units.

1-03.

13,

which

the shorter

17,

Max.

density=mx

19.

176 lbs. wt,

12,

4
arm

"

"

cubic feet.
8 inches

nearly.

16.

where

k is the

depth to

is immersed.

density of

appUed

is

10,

s'

see.

t's,-00058.

9.
s

suppliedper

to each

atmo.

air.

18.

hemisphere. (t=^.)

^f

of

ton

20.

weight.
fngT-

344

ANSWERS

EXAMPLES.

THE

TO

EXAMPLES.

MISCELLANEOUS

DYNAMICS.
13/x,27JV miles

per hour.

2.

322.

x/3miles

per hour

; 15" to W.

4.

11.

2-49 feet.

17.

25.

Vertical

29.

9'3125 lbs.,99i per cent.

32.

450

35.

tVV;

40.

3J lbs. wt.

43.

Three

tt of

=".
velocity

mile.

Q .AB

+ R

J28 M--M'smay
T+M'
I

8.
AI)

1.

F.B-iQ.R+iP.Q

Acceleration of P=

26.

poundals.

is lost.

k.e.

lbs.

iP=W+A-C.

37.

across.

1
=

dr^JW^.

hgfi
2hlt^'2gt^+h'
45. iW.

7 revolutions per second

56.

224000

58.

iw9-

Vl

52.

"

53.

nearly.

poundals.

P=H.

55.

102g lbs.

57.

IOt't-

6"lbs.

66.

"

HYDROSTATICS.
1.

is lost.

46.

k.e.

Wg
g +

of the

38.

41.

quartersdistance

4:PQ

18 minutes.

31.

8 J miles per hour;

33.

50 lbs.

21.

{P+Q)R

2000

of S.

M-

62-5 seconds.

3.

Page

3.

Page

i-.

" inches.

6.

7.

2-88,3-14,3-46 cubic inches nearly.

9.

3 inches ; 33 feet.

10.

330.

8.

U-

11,

1-5.

900 cubic inches.

26s

where

12.

-^

15.

27-648 sq. inches.

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