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Encyclopedic Entry
Vocabulary
5. China
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration
Proven Reserves
These nations have the worlds largest proven oil reserves.
1. Saudi Arabia
2. Venezuela
3. Canada
4. Iran
5. Iraq
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration
Playtime
A petroleum play is full of drama! A petroleum play is a group of oil fields in a single
geographic region, created by the same geologic forces or during the same time
period. A petroleum play may be defined by a time period (Paleozoic play), rock type
(shale play), or a combination of both.
Tar Pits
In Los Angeles, California, bitumen has been seeping to the Earths surface for
thousands of years at what is now called the La Brea Tar Pits. The pits have
preserved fossils of saber-toothed cats, mastodons, turtles, dire wolves, horses, and
other plants and animals that were trapped in the sticky substance 40,000 years ago.
Bitumen continues to bubble up through the ground today.
Petroleum (also known as crude oil or simply oil) is afossil fuel that was formed from
the remains of ancient marine organisms.
Millions of years ago, algae and plants lived in shallow seas. After dying and sinking
to the seafloor, the organic material mixed with other sediments and was buried.
Over millions of years under high pressure and high temperature, the remains of
these organisms transformed into what we know today as fossil fuels.Coal, natural
gas, and petroleum are all fossil fuels that formed under similar conditions.
Today, petroleum is found in vast underground reservoirs where ancient seas were
located. Petroleum reservoirs can be found beneath land or the ocean floor. Their
crude oil is extracted with giant drilling machines.
Crude oil is usually black or dark brown, but can also be yellowish, reddish, tan, or
even greenish. Variations in color indicate the distinct chemical compositions of
different supplies of crude oil. Petroleum that has few metals or sulfur, for instance,
tends to be lighter (sometimes nearly clear).
Petroleum is used to make gasoline, an important product in our everyday lives. It is
also processed and part of thousands of different items, including tires, refrigerators,
Sedimentary basins, where ancient seabeds used to lie, are key sources of
petroleum. In Africa, the Niger Delta sedimentary basin covers land in Nigeria,
Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea. More than 500 oil deposits have been discovered
in the massive Niger Delta basin, and they comprise one of the most productive oil
fields in Africa.
Chemistry and Classification of Crude Oil
The gasoline we use to fuel our cars, the synthetic fabrics of our backpacks and
shoes, and the thousands of different useful products made from petroleum come in
forms that are consistent and reliable. However, the crude oil from which these items
are produced is neither consistent nor uniform.
Chemistry
Crude oil is composed of hydrocarbons, which are mainly hydrogen (about 13% by
weight) and carbon (about 85%). Other elements such as nitrogen (about 0.5%),
sulfur (0.5%), oxygen (1%), and metals such as iron, nickel, and copper (less than
0.1%) can also be mixed in with the hydrocarbons in small amounts.
The way molecules are organized in the hydrocarbon is a result of the original
composition of the algae, plants, or plankton from millions of years ago. The amount
of heat and pressure the plants were exposed to also contributes to variations that
are found in hydrocarbons and crude oil.
Due to this variation, crude oil that is pumped from the ground can consist of
hundreds of different petroleum compounds. Light oils can contain up to 97%
hydrocarbons, while heavier oils and bitumens might contain only 50% hydrocarbons
and larger quantities of other elements. It is almost always necessary to refinecrude
oil in order to make useful products.
Classification
Oil is classified according to three main categories: the geographic location where it
was drilled, its sulfur content, and its API gravity (a measure of density).
Classification: Geography
Oil is drilled all over the world. However, there are three primary sources of crude oil
that set reference points for ranking and pricing other oil supplies: Brent Crude, West
Texas Intermediate, and Dubai and Oman.
Brent Crude is a mixture that comes from 15 different oil fields between Scotland and
Norway in the North Sea. These fields supply oil to most of Europe.
West Texas Intermediate (WTI) is a lighter oil that is produced mostly in the U.S.
state of Texas. It is sweet and lightconsidered very high quality. WTI supplies
much of North America with oil.
Dubai crude, also known as Fateh or Dubai-Oman crude, is a light, sour oil that is
produced in Dubai, part of the United Arab Emirates. The nearby country of Oman
has recently begun producing oil. Dubai and Oman crudes are used as a reference
point for pricing Persian Gulf oils that are mostly exported to Asia.
The OPEC Reference Basket is another important oil source. OPEC is the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. The OPEC Reference Basket is the
average price of petroleum from OPECs 12 member countries: Algeria, Angola,
Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
Emirates, and Venezuela.
Classification: Sulfur Content
Sulfur is considered an impurity in petroleum. Sulfur in crude oil can corrode metal
in the refining process and contribute to air pollution. Petroleum with more than 0.5%
sulfur is called sour, while petroleum with less than 0.5% sulfur is sweet.
Sweet oil is usually much more valuable than sour because it does not require as
much refining and is less harmful to the environment.
Classification: API Gravity
The American Petroleum Institute (API) is a trade association for businesses in the
oil and natural gas industries. The API has established accepted systems of
standards for a variety of oil- and gas-related products, such as gauges, pumps, and
drilling machinery. The API has also established several units of measurement. The
API unit, for instance, measures gamma radiation in a borehole (a shaft drilled into
the ground).
API gravity is a measure of the density of petroleum liquid compared to water. If a
petroleum liquids API gravity is greater than 10, it is light, and floats on top of
water. If the API gravity is less than 10, it is heavy, and sinks in water.
Light oils are preferred because they have a higher yield of hydrocarbons. Heavier
oils have greater concentrations of metals and sulfur, and require more refining.
Petroleum Reservoirs
tungsten rods used to cut the rock. Petroleum drill bits can be 36 centimeters (14
inches) in diameter.
As the drill bit rotates and cuts through the earth, small pieces of rock are chipped
off. A powerful flow of air is pumped down the center of the hollow drill, and comes
out through the bottom of the drill bit. The air then rushes back toward the surface,
carrying with it tiny chunks of rock. Geologists on site can study these pieces of
pulverized rock to determine the different rock strata the drill encounters.
When the drill hits oil, some of the oil naturally rises from the ground, moving from an
area of high pressure to low pressure. This immediate release of oil can be a
gusher, shooting dozens of meters into the air, one of the most dramatic extraction
activities. It is also one of the most dangerous, and a piece of equipment called a
blowout preventer redistributes pressure to stop such a gusher.
Pumps are used to extract oil. Most oil rigs have two sets of pumps: mud pumps and
extraction pumps. Mud is the drilling fluid used to create boreholes for extracting oil
and natural gas. Mud pumps circulate drilling fluid.
The petroleum industry uses a wide variety of extraction pumps. Which pump to use
depends on the geography, quality, and position of the oil reservoir. Submersible
pumps, for example, are submerged directly into the fluid. A gas pump, also called a
bubble pump, uses compressed air to force the petroleum to the surface or well.
One of the most familiar types of extraction pumps is the pumpjack, the upper part of
a piston pump. Pumpjacks are nicknamed thirsty birds or nodding donkeys for
their controlled, regular dipping motion. A crank moves the large, hammer-shaped
pumpjack up and down. Far below the surface, the motion of the pumpjack moves a
hollow piston up and down, constantly carrying petroleum back to the surface or well.
Successful drilling sites can produce oil for about 30 years, although some produce
for many more decades.
Secondary Recovery
Even after pumping, the vast majority (up to 90%) of the oil can remain tightly
trapped in the underground reservoir. Other methods are necessary to extract this
petroleum, a process called secondary recovery. Vacuuming the extra oil out was a
method used in the 1800s and early 20th century, but it captured only thinner oil
components, and left behind great stores of heavy oil.
When oil spills in the ocean, it floats on the water andwreaks havoc on the animal
population. One of its most devastating effects is on birds. Oil destroys the
waterproofing abilities of feathers, and birds are notinsulated against the cold ocean
water. Thousands can die of hypothermia. Fish and marine mammals, too, are
threatened by oil spills. The dark shadows cast by oil spills can look like food. Oil can
damage animals internal organs and be even more toxic to animals higher up in the
food chain, a process calledbioaccumulation.
A massive oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, theDeepwater Horizon, exploded in
2010. This was the largest accidental marine oil spill in history. Eleven platform
workers died, and more than 4 million barrels of oil gushed into the Gulf of Mexico.
More than 40,000 barrels flowed into the ocean every day. Eight national parks were
threatened, the economies of communities along the Gulf Coast were threatened as
the tourism and fishing industries declined, and more than 6,000 animals died.
Rigs to Reefs
Offshore oil platforms can also act as artificial reefs. They provide a surface
(substrate) for algae, coral, oysters, and barnacles. This artificial reef can attract fish
and marine mammals, and create a thriving ecosystem.
Until the 1980s, oil platforms were deconstructed and removed from the oceans, and
the metal was sold as scrap. In 1986, the National Marine Fisheries Association
developed the Rigs-to-Reefs Program. Now, oil platforms are either toppled (by
underwater explosion), removed and towed to a new location, or partially
deconstructed. This allows the marine life to continue flourishing on the artificial reef
that had provided habitats for decades.
The environmental impact of the Rigs-to-Reefs Program is still being studied. Oil
platforms left underwater can pose dangers to ships and divers. Fishing boats have
had their nets caught in the platforms, and there are concerns about safety
regulations of the abandoned structures.
Environmentalists argue that oil companies should be held accountable to the
commitment they originally agreed upon, which was to restore the seabed to its
original condition. By leaving the platforms in the ocean, oil companies are excused
from fulfilling this agreement, and there is concern this could set a precedent for
other companies that want to dispose of their metal or machinery in the oceans.
Petroleum and the Environment: Bitumen and the Boreal Forest
Crude oil does not always have to be extracted through deep drilling. If it does not
encounter rocky obstacles underground, it can seep all the way to the surface and
bubble above ground. Bitumen is a form of petroleum that is black, extremely sticky,
and sometimes rises to Earths surface.
In its natural state, bitumen is typically mixed with oil sands or tar sands, which
makes it extremely difficult to extract and an unconventional source of oil. Only about
20% of the worlds reserves of bitumen are above ground and can be surface
mined.
Unfortunately, because bitumen contains high amounts of sulfur and heavy metals,
extracting and refining it is both costly and harmful to the environment. Producing
bitumen into useful products releases 12% more carbon emissions than processing
conventional oil.
Bitumen is about the consistency of cold molasses, and powerful hot steam has to
be pumped into the well in order to melt the bitumen to extract it. Large quantities of
water are then used to separate the bitumen from sand and clay. This process
depletes nearby water supplies. Releasing the treated water back into the
environment can further contaminate the remaining water supply.
Processing bitumen from tar sands is also a complex, expensive procedure. It takes
two tons of oil sands to produce one barrel of oil.
However, we depend on bitumen for its unique properties: about 85% of the bitumen
extracted is used to make asphalt to pave and patch our roads. A small percentage
is used for roofing and other products.
Bitumen Reserves
Most of the worlds tar sands are in the eastern part of Alberta, Canada, in the
Athabasca Oil Sands. Other major reserves are in the North Caspian Basin of
Kazahkstan and Siberia, Russia.
The Athabasca Oil Sands are the fourth-largest reserves of oil in the world.
Unfortunately, the bitumen reserves are located beneath part of the boreal forest,
also called the taiga. This makes extraction both difficult and environmentally
dangerous.
The taiga circles the Northern Hemisphere just below the frozen tundra, spanning
more than 5 million square kilometers (2 million square miles), mostly in Canada,
Russia, and Scandinavia. It accounts for almost one-third of all of the forested land
on the planet.
The taiga is sometimes called the lungs of the planet because it filters tons of water
and oxygen through the leaves and needles of its trees every day. Every spring, the
boreal forest releases immense amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere and keeps
our air clean. It is home to a mosaic of plant and animal life, all of which depend on
the mature trees, mosses, and lichen of the boreal biome.
Surface mines are estimated to only take up 0.2% of Canadas boreal forest. About
80% of Canadas oil sands can be accessed through drilling, and 20% by surface
mining.
Refining Petroleum
Refining petroleum is the process of converting crude oil or bitumen into more useful
products, such as fuel or asphalt.
Crude oil comes out of the ground with impurities, from sulfur to sand. These
components have to be separated. This is done by heating the crude oil in a
distillation tower that has trays and temperatures set at different levels. Oils
hydrocarbons and metals have different boiling temperatures, and when the oil is
heated, vapors from the different elements rise to different levels of the tower before
condensing back into a liquid on the tiered trays.
Propane, kerosene, and other components condense on different tiers of the tower,
and can be individually collected. They are transported by pipeline, ocean vessels,
and trucks to different locations, to either be used directly or further processed.
Petroleum Industry
Oil was not always extracted, refined, and used by millions of people as it is today.
However, it has always been an important part of many cultures.
The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China as early as 350 CE. The wells were
drilled almost 244 meters (800 feet) deep using strong bamboo bits. The oil was
extracted and transported through bamboo pipelines. It was burned as a heating fuel
and industrial component. Chinese engineers burned petroleum to evaporate brine
and produce salt.
Diesel-powered generators are used in many remote homes, schools, and hospitals.
During emergencies, when the power grid is interrupted, diesel generators save lives
by providing electricity to hospitals, apartment complexes, schools, and other
buildings that would otherwise be cold and in the dark.
Petroleum is also used in liquid products such as nail polish, rubbing alcohol, and
ammonia. Petroleum is found in recreational items as diverse as surfboards, footballs
and basketballs, bicycle tires, golf bags, tents, cameras, and fishing lures.
Petroleum is also contained in more essential items such as artificial limbs, water
pipes, and vitamin capsules. In our homes, we are surrounded by and depend on
products that contain petroleum. House paint, trash bags, roofing, shoes,
telephones, hair curlers, and even crayons contain refined petroleum.
Carbon Cycle
There are major disadvantages to extracting fossil fuels, and extracting petroleum is
a controversialindustry.
Carbon, an essential element on Earth, makes up about 85% of the hydrocarbons in
petroleum. Carbon constantly cycles between the water, land, and atmosphere.
Carbon is absorbed by plants and is part of every living organism as it moves
through the food web. Carbon is naturally released through volcanoes, soil erosion,
and evaporation. When carbon is released into the atmosphere, it absorbs and
retains heat, regulating Earths temperature and making our planet habitable.
Not all of the carbon on Earth is involved in the carbon cycle above ground. Vast
quantities of it aresequestered, or stored, underground, in the form of fossil fuels and
in the soil. This sequestered carbon is necessary because it keeps the Earths
carbon budget balanced.
However, that budget is falling out of balance. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil
fuels have been aggressively extracted and burned for energy or fuel. This releases
the carbon that has been sequestered underground, and upsets the carbon budget.
This affects the quality of our air, water, and overall climate.
The taiga, for example, sequesters vast amounts of carbon in its trees and below the
forest floor. Drilling for natural resources not only releases the carbon stored in the
fossil fuels, but also the carbon stored in the forest itself.
The oil-rich, developing nation of Iran, which has a much lower consumption rate,
has an RPR of more than 80 years.
It is impossible to know the precise year for peak oil. Some geologists argue it has
already passed, while others maintain that extraction technology will delay peak oil
for decades. Many geologists estimate that peak oil might be reached within 20
years.
Petroleum Alternatives
Individuals, industries, and organizations are increasingly concerned with peak oil
and environmentalconsequences of petroleum extraction. Alternatives to oil are
being developed in some areas, and governments and organizaions are encouraging
citizens to change their habits so we do not rely so heavily on oil.
Bioasphalts, for example, are asphalts made from renewable sources such as
molasses, sugar, corn, potato starch, or even byproducts of oil processes. Although
they provide a non-toxic alternative to bitumen, bioasphalts require huge crop yields,
which puts a strain on the agricultural industry.
Algae is also a potentially enormous source of energy. Algae oil (so-called green
crude) can be converted into a biofuel. Algae grows extremely quickly and takes up
a fraction of the space used by other biofuel feedstocks. About 38,849 square
kilometers (15,000 square miles) of algaeless than half the size of the U.S. state of
Mainewould provide enough biofuel to replace all of the U.S.s petroleum needs.
Algae absorbs pollution, releases oxygen, and does not require freshwater.
The country of Sweden has made it a priority to drastically reduce its dependence on
oil and other fossil fuel energy by 2020. Experts in agriculture, science, industry,
forestry, and energy have come together to develop sources of sustainable energy,
including geothermal heat pumps, wind farms, wave and solar energy, and domestic
biofuel for hybrid vehicles. Changes in societys habits, such as increasing public
transportation and video-conferencing for businesses, are also part of the plan to
decrease oil use.
Vocabulary
Term
Part of
Speech
adhesive
Noun
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
sticky substance.
air pollution
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Encyclopedi
c Entry: air
pollution
Term
Part of
Speech
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Verb
to burn.
consequence
Noun
Verb
Encyclopedi
c Entry:
climate
Term
Part of
Speech
controversial
Noun
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
Verb
density
Adjectiv
e
very important.
Noun
Noun
directional
drilling
Noun
distillation
tower
Noun
drill bit
Noun
searching for underground oil using nonvertical well shafts. Also called horizontal
drilling.
Noun
Noun
Encyclopedi
c Entry:
density
Term
Part of
Speech
Definition
Noun
Noun
export
Verb
Verb
to pull out.
fossil fuel
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Encycloped
ic Entry
Term
Part of
Speech
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
(GHP)
Noun
hydrocarbon
Noun
Noun
Noun
impurity
Adjectiv
e
Noun
Industrial
Revolution
Adjectiv
e
Noun
Encyclopedi
c Entry:
iceberg
Term
Part of
Speech
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
Verb
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Encyclopedi
c Entry:
natural gas
Term
Part of
Speech
oil field
Noun
Definition
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
Noun
peak oil
adjectiv
e, noun
Noun
Noun
Encycloped
ic Entry
Term
Part of
Speech
petroleum
Noun
Definition
Noun
plankton
Plural
Noun
porosity
Noun
Noun
Noun
Verb
Noun
Encycloped
ic Entry
Term
Part of
Speech
secondary
recovery
Noun
sedimentary
basin
Noun
seismic
reflection
Noun
sequester
Verb
Definition
to isolate or remove.
stratigraphic
trap
Noun
structural
trap
Noun
substrate
Noun
Noun
Encycloped
ic Entry
Term
Part of
Speech
Definition
Encycloped
ic Entry
generations.
taiga
Noun
Noun
Noun
Verb
Noun
vapor
Noun
wreak
Adjectiv
e
Verb
Encyclopedi
c Entry:
taiga