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Профессиональный Документы
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02
62&Z
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PS4.02, "Vinyl Painting System, Three-And Four-Coatrn
was adopted on October 3, 1994 for use by the Department of
Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD activities must be
submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Commanding Officer,
Naval Construction Battalion Center, Code 156, 1000 23rd
Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD activities may
obtain copies of this standard from the Standardization
Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue, Building 4D,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other
Government agencies may purchase copies from the Steel
Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301,
Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Adopting Activity
Navy - YD-1
Custodians:
Army - ME
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
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SSPC-PAINT25
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT25, "Primer, Raw Linseed Oil and Aleyd, Red Iron
Oxide, Zinc Oxide," was adopted on October 3, 1994 f o r use
by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity:
Commanding Officer, Naval Construction Battalion Center,
Code 156, 1000 23rd Avenue, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301.
DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the
Standardization Document Order Desk, 700 Robbins Avenue,
Building 4D, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private
sector and other Government agencies may purchase copies
from the Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
Custodians:
Army-ME
Navy - YD-1
Air Force - 99
Adopting Activity
Navy - YD-1
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release;
distribution is unlimited.
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SSPC-PAINT 1
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 1, "Red Lead And Raw Linseed Oil Primer," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N998)
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
W 2 5 9 5 5 3 2 0079382 T30 B
SSPC-PAINT 2
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 2 , "Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Raw Linseed Oil And Alkyd Primer," was
adopted on April 11, 1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed
changes by DoD activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval
Construction Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA
93043-4301. DoD activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense
Printing Service Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins
Avenue, Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government
agencies may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry
Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N997)
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is
un1imited.
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SSPC-PAINT 13
ADOPTION NOTICE
SSPC-PAINT 13, "Red Or Brown One-Coat Shop Paint," was adopted on April 11,
1995 for use by the Department of Defense (DoD). Proposed changes by DoD
activities must be submitted to the DoD Adopting Activity: Naval Construction
Battalion Center, 1000 23rd Avenue, Code 156, Port Hueneme, CA 93043-4301. DoD
activities may obtain copies of this standard from the Defense Printing Service
Detachment Office, Bldg. 4D (Customer Service), 700 Robbins Avenue,
Philadelphia, PA 19111-5094. The private sector and other Government agencies
may purchase copies from Steel Structures Painting Council, 4516 Henry Street,
Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA 15213-3728.
Adopting Activity:
Navy - YD1
(Project 8010-N996)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Custodians:
Navy - YD1
FSC 8010
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
GUIDE 61 (CON)
SSPC
GUIDE 71 (DIS)
STEEL STRUCTURES
SSPC 92-07
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~~
DISCLAIMER
These specifications, guides and recommendations
have been developed in accordance with voluntary consensus procedures by SSPC Advisory Committees and
are believed to present good current practice. They are
monitored and revised as practices improve, and suggestions for revision are welcome. Other methods,
materials, and specifications may be equally effective or
superior. SSPC is not responsible for the application,
interpretation, or administration of these specifications,
guides and recommendations. Moreover, SSPC does
not issue interpretations of its specifications, guides or
recommendations; and no person is authorized to issue
an interpretation of an SSPC specification, guide, or recommendation on behalf of the SSPC. SSPC specifically
disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of these
specifications, guides and recommendations. The supplying of details about the patented formulations, treatments, or processes is not to be regarded as conveying
any right or permitting the user of this manual to use or
sell any patented invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
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First Edition
March 1 , 1992
S T E E L S T R U C T U R E S PAINTING COUNCIL
Pittsburgh, PA 15213-2683
SSPC T I T L E * A
**
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SSPC T I T L E X A
STEEL
XX
8627940 0003420 T T 9
STRUCTURES
PAINTING
MANUAL
Volume 1
PITTSBURGH, PA 15213-3728
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I
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SSPC T I T L E * A
YS
in
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IBSN 0-938477-81-1
II
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SSPC T I T L E S A * Y
= 8627740
0003422 87%
DISCLAIMER
The techniques, procedures, regulations and other information presented in this volume have been reviewed by
experts in each field and are believed to represent good current practice. They are monitored and revised as practices
improve, and suggestions for revision are welcome.
SSPC is not responsible for the application, interpretation, or administration of the information outlined here. SSPC
specifically disclaims responsibility for the use or misuse of
any product, procedure or technology or misinterpretations
of any regulations referred to in this manual. The supplying
of details about patented formulations, treatments, or
processes is not to be regarded as conveying any right or
permitting the user of this manual to use or sell any patented invention.
When it is known that the subject matter of the text is
covered by patent, such patents are reflected in the text.
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Ill
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IV
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SSPC T I T L E X A X X
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1.O
Chapter 1.1
Chapter 1.2
Chapter 2.0
Chapter 2.1
Chapter 2.2
Chapter 2.3
Chapter 2.4
Chapter 2.5
Chapter 2.6
Chapter 2.7
Chapter 2.8
Chapter 2.9
Chapter 3.1
Chapter 3.2
Chapter 4.1
Chapter 4.2
Chapter 4.3
Chapter 5.1
Chapter 5.2
Chapter 5.3
Chapter 6.0
INTRODUCTION
SSPC Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
SU RFAC E PREPARATION
b y H . W i l l i a m Hitzrot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
22
M ETALLI C ABRASIVES
byEinarA.Borch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
NO N - METALLIC ABRASIVES
by H. William H i t z r o t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
52
64
68
...................................
75
78
CHEMICAL CLEANING
b y Melvin H. Sandler and Sam S p r i n g .
.........................................
90
98
104
PAINT MATERIALS
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l .
117
ZINC-RICH PRIMERS
byCharlesG.Munger
.......................................
.......................................................
125
138
PAI NT APPLICATION
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l . .
......................................
150
SCAFFOLD ING
by Sidney B. Levinson and Saul S p i n d e l .
.......................................
168
.......................................
176
INSPECTION
by Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber
....................................
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181
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Foreword
SSPC T I T L E X A
Chapter 7.2
Chapter 8.0
Chapter 9.0
Chapter 10.0
Chapter 11.O
Chapter 12.0
Chapter 13.0
Chapter 14.1
Chapter 14.2
Chapter 15.0
Chapter 16.1
Chapter 16.2
Chapter 17.0
Chapter 17.1
Chapter 17.2
Chapter 17.3
Chapter 17.4
Chapter 17.5
Chapter 17.6
Chapter 17.7
Chapter 18.0
Chapter 19.0
Chapter 20.0
207
213
....................
222
242
263
280
293
307
315
.................................
320
330
349
363
377
379
390
396
412
.........................................
...................................
420
429
442
....................................
448
452
456
...........................................
VI
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Chapter 7.1
X t
SSPC T I T L E t A t t
Chapter 21 .O
Chapter 22.0
Chapter 23.0
Chapter 24.0
Chapter 25.0
Chapter 26.0
Chapter 27.0
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000342b 417
465
481
486
516
528
..
538
556
560
573
580
Appendix A
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
595
Appendix B
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
596
Appendix C
Appendix D
629
Index . . . . . . .
............................................................................
630
Chapter 27.1
Chapter 27.2
Chapter 27.3
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FOREWORD
new realities. Because the list of specifications in the back
of Volume 2, Systems and Specifications has been enthusiastically received, we have added such a list to Volume 1.
Coatings for structural steel have been called the principal means of protecting our principal construction
material-steel-from
its principal weakness-corrosion.
This technology has been the subject of an intensive program by the Steel Structures Painting Council since 1950.
The purposes of the SSPC are to assess and advance the
technology of surface preparation and coating of industrial
structures by conducting research, developing standards,
and disseminating information: More specifically:
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field investigations of techniques to mitigate corrosion through the use of
protective coatings;
2. To develop standards, specifications, and guides covering techniques and materials of surface preparation and coating of structures; and
3. To organize and communicate information intended to further improve and make more effective the protection of industrial structures.
111. ORGANIZATION
The affairs of the Steel Structures Painting Council are
managed by a Board of Governors composed of sixteen (16)
elected members, a non-voting Secretary and Treasurer, and
additional ex-officio members appointed by the President.
The board of Governors annually elects a five-person Execu--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VIII
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ft
m 8627940 0003428
Bernie Beethe
R. Wayne Beason
Bernie Appleman
Barbara Fisher
President
President-Elect
Vice President
Technical Committees are standing or ad-hoc groups assigned to address a specific or general technical topic within the scope of SSPC. Activities of technical committees
include developing consensus standards and providing forums for exchange of information on pertinent technical issues. Technical committees are open to those interested in
participating in the above activities, including members and
non-members of SSPC.
COMMITTEES AND CHAIRMEN
(1993)
Name
COATING MATERIALS
Chair
c.1
c.1.0
c.1.1
C . l . l .a
C.l.1.b
C . l . l .c
Coatings Steering
Zinc-Rich (Unit)
ZR Performance Specs (inactive)
ZR Topcoating Systems
ZR Preconstruction Primers (inactive)
Mary McKnight
Dan Griffin
Gerald Evarts
Gary Tinklenberg
John Peart
Number
2T
c.1.2
C.1.2.a
C.1.2.b
METALLIC COATINGS
Painting Galvanized Steel
Thermal Spray (Metallizing)
c.1.2.c
C.1.3
C.1.3.a
C.1.3.b
c.1.3.c
C.1.3.d
C.1.3.d.l
C.1.3.e
C.1.3.f
C.1.3.g
C.1.3.h
SOLVENTBORNECOATINGS
Coal Tar Epoxy (inactive)
Chlorinated Rubber (inactive)
Epoxy Polyamide (inactive)
Polyurethanes
Thick Film Polyurethanes
Vinyls (inactive)
Silicone-Containing Coatings (inactive)
Alkyds
LOW-VOCAlkyds
c.1.4
C.1.4.a
C.1.4.b
C.1.4.c
WATERBORNE COATINGS
Waterborne Epoxies
Water Miscible Coatings
Latex Coatings
C.1.5
C.1.5.a
C.1.5.b
C.1.5.c
C.1.5.d
C.1.5.e
C.1.6
C.1.6.a
C.1.6.b
C.1.6.c
c.2
-
SURFACE PREPARATION
c.2.0
c.2.1
c.2.2
C.2.3
C.2.4
C.2.5
C.2.6
C.2.7
C.2.7.a
Visual Standards
Industrial Blast Cleaning
Soluble Salt Contamination
Chloride Extraction
g&3
C.3.0
C.3.1
C.3.2
c.3.3
Application Steering
Application Methods
Paint Thickness Measurement
Inspection
c.3.4
Quality Assurance
c.3.5
Applicator Pre-Qualification
C.4.1
C.4.2
c.4.3
c.4.4
Maintenance Painting
Performance Evaluation
New Specifying Methods (inactive)
Economics
IX
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Dick Drisko
Joe Butler
AI Kay
AI Roebuck
AI Beitelman
Dick Wakefield
Dean Berger
Dick Hergenrother
Jeff Jarboe
Bill Johnson
Clive Coady
Susan Simpson
Marcel Gaschke
Richard Benton
Bob Washburne
Dave Watson
Steve Delich
Steve Draskovich
Gary Tinklenberg
Tim Race
Tim Leise
Tim Leise
Bob Ketterlin
Tim Hyde
Alan Holub
Ken Trimber
Bill Hitzrot
Duane Bloemke
Jerry Woodson
Lydia Frenzel
Ken Trimber
Ken Trimber
Simon Boocock
William Johnson
TBA
TEA
Forrest Couch
Dean Berger
Dick Drisko
Nick Kozuska
Stan Gillard
Ralph Trallo
Eric Kline
TEA
Mary McKnight
AI Roebuck
Gordon Brevoort
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SSPC T I T L E f A
SSPC T I T L E m A
**
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003429 1 2 6
c.5
-
C.5.0
C.5.1
C.5.1 .a
C.5.l.b
C.5.1.c
C.5.l.d
C.5.1 .e
C.5.1.f
C.5.2
c.5.3
c.5.4
C.5.4.a
C.6
-
C.6.0
C.6.1
C.6.2
C.5.3.a
C.5.3.b
C.5.3.d
C.6.4
C.6.3
C.6.5
C.6.6
ADMINISTRATIVE
C.A.l
C.A.2
C.A.4
Local Chapters
National Conferences
Volume 1 Revision
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C.A
-
IV. PUBLICATIONS
John Peart
Wallace Cathcart
c.4.5
C.4.6
c.4.7
C.4.8
c.4.9
Dennis Justice
Simon Boocock
Dan Adley
Dan Adley
Scott Ecoff
Richard Thompson
Bill Dixon
Frank Pokrwyka
Doug Stephens
Richard C. Miller
James A. Giese
John Baker
Lloyd Smith
Ken Trimber
Lloyd Smith
Vincent Coluccio
Bob Klepser
Bob Klepser
Steve Pinney
Steve Pinney
Bernard Appleman
John Keane
Dean Berger
Harold Hower
September 1993
Harold Hower
Ron Hayden
Ralph Trallo
Mark Schilling
Richard LaVergne
Ed Feige1
Rose Mary Surgent
Terry Sowers
Abrasive Blasting
NACEISSPC TG B
SSPCINACE TG C
SSPCINACE TG D
Thermal Cleaning
Wet Abrasive Blasting
Water Jetting
SSPCINACE TG E
NACEISSPC TG F
Solvent Cleaning
Surface Preparation
of Concrete
Ken Trimber
Fred Lichtenstadter
Carroll Steely
Jerry Woodson
Carroll Steely
Lydia Frenzel
Sy Solomon
TBA
Tom Aldinger
X
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BIOGRAPHY
Dr. Bernard R. Appleman
has been the Executive Director
of the Steel Structures Painting
Council since 1984. In this position, he is responsible for organizing
and
managing
operations of a technical society whose activities encompass
research, development of industry standards, and dissemination
of technical information via
reports, presentations, training
programs and conferences. He
has directed and coordinated
numerous projects in coatings performance evaluations, surface
preparation techniques, development of specifications and guides,
and lead paint removal and abatement.
His past work experience includes work as a CorrosionlCoatings Specialist for Exxon Research and Engineering Company. From
1977 to 1982, he was Project Manager, Coatings, for the Federal
Highway Administration. He also worked as a Research Chemist
for the Naval Ship Research and Development Center.
BIOGRAPHY
Dean M. Berger received his
B.S. degree at North Central
College and did advance studies
at the University of Wisconsin.
He has had over 20 years of
research experience at PPG
Industries, and eight years at
Union Carbide Research. Beginning in 1974, he worked for
GilbetVCommonwealth,advising
engineers and architects on the
application and use of coatings.
In 1988 Mr. Berger retired from
Gilbert Associates and formed
his own coatings consulting firm, Berger Associates Inc., of Leola,
Pennsylvania. He has attained specific expertise in zinc rich coating technology, epoxy, coal tar epoxy, urethane, and vinyl coating
systems.
He has been a member of the Steel Structures Painting Council
since 1960, chairman of the Epoxy Advisory Committee, and CoChairman of both the Research Committee and the Inspection Committee. He was chairman of the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Subcommittee 0-1.46 on Industrial Protective
Coatings. He is the Executive Director of the Board of Registration
of Nuclear Safety-related Coating Engineers and Specialists, and
a member of ASTM Committee D-33 on Coatings for Power Generation Facilities. Mr. Berger is a recipient of the Man-of-the-Year
Award from the Washington Paint Technical Group, and belongs
to the Gallows Bird Society. In 1957 Mr. Berger was President of
the Pittsburgh Society for Coatings Technology Corrosion Committee, and of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
He is also a director of the Institute of Applied Technology, and a
member of the American Water Works Association Committee D102.
Mr. Berger is a licensed Professional Engineer in California, a
Nuclear-Safety-RelatedCoatings Engineer, and a NACE Corrosion
Specialist. He has published over 100 technical articles and presented many papers on coating technology.
BIOGRAPHY
BIOGRAPHY
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SSPC T I T L E t A t t
SSPC T I T L E * A
Y*
b 2 7 9 4 0 0004097 T30
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XII
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CHAPTER 1.0
INTRODUCTION
by
SSPC Staff
1. To instigate and carry on laboratory and field investigations of techniques to mitigate corrosion through
the use of protective coatings;
3. To organize and communicate information intended to further improve and make more effective the
protection of industrial structures.
The first edition appeared in 1954 and the revised issue in 1964. The new edition is a technical update and editorial revision of the work that for nearly 40 years has been the
bible in protective anti-corrosion coatings. Its aims remain
the same as that of the original: the manual is written from
the viewpoint of paint users; it is not intended to be a scientific or highly technical treatise on paint formulation, but rather
a practical encyclopedia on painting methods, equipment,
and systems that in the recent past have proved to be both
economical and satisfactory.
The manual is still appropriate to the varied audiences
using it: contractors, engineers, specifiers, formulators, inspectors, suppliers, technicians, maintenance painters,
users, and manufacturers. Given this wide audience with
different levels of understanding about the subjects of the
manual, it is necessary to present some material in a general rather than a detailed way, although some chapters have
always been more detailed than others because the subject
demanded it.
I. PRINCIPAL CHANGES
Volume 1 is intended as a companion to Volume 2,
Systems and Specifications. The latter was revised in
1991. Like Volume 2, it now includes a list of specifications
referenced throughout the book.
During the last decade, there has been a tremendous
increase in the number and the complexity of environmental and health and safety regulations. These regulations now
apply in some way to most coating operations. Often, many
different aspects of the same omperation are affected by a
number of different regulations.
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SSPC CHAPTER*L.O
93
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scientific to engineering to jargon in legitimate use in special contexts. Proprietary names have been avoided
whenever a term could be described in any other way.
2
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L - L
8627940 0003433 b 5 7
93
CHAPTER 1.1
F.L. La Que
I. ENERGY EXCHANGE
3
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Ic
E,Y
\CATHODE
FIGURE 1
It may be possible under some circumstances to prevent corrosion by interfering with the anodic reaction by a
process called passivation or reduction of the tendency of
the iron to go into solution. In the case of steel, passiva
tion usually is accomplished by very thin adherent oxide
films which change the corrosion potential of the iron in
the more noble direction (towards gold in the electromotive series).
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ATH O D
-.-
SSPC
CHAPTER*L.L
93
m 8627940 0003435
42T
1
Corrosion Current
Limited by Resistance
and Polarization
Equation 1
Corrosion CurrZnt
Limited by Polarization
FIGURE 3
I = (PA
Cp)
Equation 2
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RDt
OTHER METAL
Equation 3
PRIMER
1 AN
(PC
ELECTROLYTE 7
- Ap) -
5
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discontinuity decrease and the thickness of the coating increases, the discontinuity resistance factor RDt may increase dramatically; especially when, as frequently occurs, the discontinuity becomes clogged with rust (Fe203)
which has a very high electrical resistance.
The positive effect of thick coatings is shown by sea
water tests of steel covered with a paint of proper
thickness, but subsequently found to have many very
small pores. The steel showed no visible evidence of corrosion after immersion in sea water for more than a year.
What has just been described supports the advantage
of increasing the thickness of a paint film, especially i f the
application involves exposure under conditions of immersion.
The factor R L covering the resistance of the solution
or film of moisture explains why corrosion is likely to be
more severe in sea water than in fresh water and under
conditions of immersion as compared with atmospheric
exposure. In the case of the latter, humid atmospheres
containing chlorides, sulfur dioxide or other pollutants can
promote more corrosion than dry, unpolluted atmosp heres.
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6
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SSPC CHAPTER*L.L
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003437 2T2
Cathodic protection is usually monitored and controlled by measurement of the potential of the protected
metal. This potential is measured relative to that of an appropriate bench mark reference electrode. One such
electrode is a saturated calomel half cell.
It is assumed that protection of steel has been
achieved when its normal potential in sea water of about
- 600 mV has been raised to - 850 mV.
Potential measurements can be used, as well, to
avoid hydrogen blistering of paints by restricting the
potential resulting from cathodic protection. A conservative maximum polarized potential would be about
- 1000 mV versus a saturated calomel half cell.
7
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SSPC
CHAPTERaL.1 9 3
Untreoted Surface
01% Cu Steei
Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-P Steel
0.2% Cu Steel
Cr-Ni-Si-Cu-$ Steel
FIGURE 4
Effect of Surface Treatment on Painted Steels Exposed Eight
- Months in Atmosphere 80 Feet from the Ocean at Kure Beach,
N.C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Roy Boyd, Theodore Dowd, Richard Drisko, Arnold
Eickhoff, W.P. Gallagher, Clive Hare, William Hitzrot, William
Mathay, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
The late Francis L. LaQue,
former Vice President of inco
Ltd.,(formerly International Nickel Co. of Canada), was often
called a pioneer in corrosion
research and had a distinguished career in metallurgy. He
devoted half his life to the
research and development interests of the company, retiring
in 1968, as Vice President and
Special Assistant to the
President.
An honored member of many technical societies, Mr. LaQue
served as President of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers from 1948 to 1949, the American Society for Testing and
Materials from 1959 to 1960,the ElectrochemicalSociety from 1962
to 1963, the American National Standards Institute from 1966 to
1971, and the international Organization for Standardization (ISO)
from 1971 to 1973. He was a Fellow and Honorary Member of the
American Society for Metals.
XI. CONCLUSION
Knowledge of the reactions involved in the corrosion
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8
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SSPC
CHAPTER*Z.L
REFERENCES
1. W.R. Whitney, The Corrosion of Iron J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol.
22, p. 394, 1903.
2. T.P. Hoar and U.R. Evans, The Velocity of Corrosion from the
Electrochemical Standpoint, Part II Proc. Roy. Soc. (A) 137,
343, 1932.
3. G.D. Beniouah.
U.R. Evans. T.P. Hoar and F. Wormwell. The
,
Corrosion of Metals by Salt Solutions and Natural Waters an Agreed Statement, Chem. ind., p. 1043, 1938.
4. R.B. Mears and R.H. Brown, Causes of Corrosion Currents
J. Ind. & Eng. Chem., Vol. 33, p. 1001, 1941.
5. W.W. Kettelberger and A.C. Elm, Water Immersion Testing of
Metal Protective Paints, ind. & Eng. Chem, 39, 1947.
6. S.K. Coburn, C.P. Larrabee, H.H. Lawson and 0.8. Ellis, Corrosiveness of Various Atmospheric Test Sites as Measured
by Specimens of Steel and Zinc, ASTM Metal Corrosion in
the Atmosphere Symposium June 1967; published June 1968.
7. H.R. Copson and C.P. Larrabee, Extra Durability of Paint on
Low Alloy Steels ASTM Bull. 242, 68, Dec. 1959.
8. F.L. LaQue and J.A. Boylan, Corrosion, 9, 1953, p. 237.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9
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SSPC
C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3 W 8627940 0003440 8 9 7
CHAPTER 1.2
I I . BARRIER PRIMERS
The removal of surface contamination is important
not only for adhesion, but also for good corrosion
resistance. The barrier film prevents corrosion by increasing the electrical resistance (RCt) of the path of currents
generated by slight differences in electrochemical potential between adjacent areas of the metal surface or between the underlying metal and another metal having a different potential. Paint films are not completely impermeable to the concentration of water and oxygen, and
transmission of both is normally high enough so that
prevention of the cathode reaction is impossible6.'.*.
Penetration by water and oxygen does not produce a
resistance low enough to maintain a corrosion current,
and though most paint films take up water relatively quickly, they take up ion solutions only very slowly3. This keeps
the electrolyte resistance relatively high and the corrosion
low since corrosion is dependent upon ionic flow.
However, even when the electrical resistance of
penetrating moisture is reduced by absorption of ions, the
resistance of a good barrier film remains high enough to
achieve an important reduction in the magnitude of the
corrosion current.
Underfilm ionogenic (ion producing) materials (particularly chlorides and sulphates) that are left after poor
surface preparation can be dissolved as ion-free water,
penetrate the film, form conductive electrolytes, and increase corrosion.
Also, under conditions of immersion, differences in
ionic concentration between liquids beneath and outside
the film give rise to osmotic migrations of water into the
film. This promotes blistering and eventual film rupture.
Further degradation and loss of protective value can result
from electroendosmosis generated by differences in the
electrochemical potential on the metal surface at and
around the film disruption.
Salts may also form from soluble matter within the
film. The effect of corrosive salts such as chlorides is obvious. Inhibitive ions, themselves, however, may also
cause problems. At the interface, the ionic solution from
inhibitive pigments passivates the metal by increasing
the polarization of the anode (Ap in equation 2 in Chapter 1.1). However, such passivation of underfilm sur-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10
Not for Resale
faces can have a detrimental effect under certain conditions by accelerating the corrosion at bare spots. There
will be a considerable difference between the potential of
the unpassivated metal at a bare spot (PA in equation 2)
and the relatively large areas of passivated metal (PC in
equation 2) under the paint film. This can result in accelerated corrosion at the bare spot. For this reason the
use of inhibitive primers (containing passivating pigments)
is avoided by some formulators on surfaces submerged in
conductive electrolytes such as salt water.
Unlike well cured films, insufficiently cured films
allow the penetration of much more ionic materiallo,ll.
Polymer groups such as carboxyls and hydroxyls tend to
foster ionic p e n e t r a t i ~ n ~ ~ As
~ , ~pigment
~ . ~ ~ ,volume
~ ~ ' . concentration (P.V.C.)' is increased, these factors are overwhelmed because interstitial penetration dominates.
Good barrier films, therefore, are high molecular weight
films with uniform crosslink density, cured uniformly, formulated well below the critical pigment volume concentration (C.P.V.C.)** with low water solubility pigments.
Lamellar pigments (leafing type aluminum) dramatically
reduce ionic transmission rates. Care must always be
taken in using metal flakes (such as copper or stainless
steel) to ensure complete pigment encapsulation to avoid
unwanted galvanic effects. Lamellar metallic pigmented
barrier films are best used as finish coats, with a nonmetallic primer to improve adhesion. Similarly, tie coats
should be used to improve adhesion between such
metallic barrier films and zinc-rich primers.
All things being equal in atmospheric service, thicker
barrier systems give better protection, as shown in work by
SSPC and the FSCTl8. In general, the more severe the environment, or the longer the requirement for protection, the
greater will be the coating dry film thickness required.
Care should be taken, however, in the application of high
build systems to thin walled structures and other dimensionally unstable substrates. Thick films (particularly
those of rigid thermosets) are less able to provide the
necessary flexibility to substrate movement (e.g. expansion and contraction) than are thinner films, and can easily
undergo adhesive and cohesive failure leading to subsequent disbondment. Such delamination has been found in
rail car tank linings, for example.
Vehicle choice for barrier primers is also important.
High molecular weight thermoplastics (e.9. vinyls and
chlorinated rubbers) are effective, particularly at high
builds. Thermosetting systems such as epoxylphenolics
and certain polyesters are also effective vehicles, as are
the coal tar epoxies. Vehicles with high hydroxyl or carboxyl contents (oils, alkyds, acrylics, etc) tend to attract
water into the film.
11
= 8627740
0003442 bbT
12
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*L*2 9 3
unknown. Surface preparation requirements are exacting (particularly with the alkaline silicate
systems), a commercial blast being the very
minimum acceptable, and a white or near white
blast with a typical surface profile of 1 to 2 mils being more usual and often mandatory. Alkyl silicates
are rather more tolerant of poorly blasted
substrates than the water-based type, probably
reflecting their higher organic content and lower
surface energies.
Despite their incompatibility with poorly
prepared surfaces, the inorganics may be considered safer coatings than the organics. Not only
are the organics subject to encapsulation, but also
they can mislead the applicator by adhering initially to poorly prepared substrates. But adhesion is
not protection, which is possible only through intimate contact of iron and zinc (the more contact,
the better the protection). Inorganics require such
contact (through good surface preparation) not only for protection, which may be initially difficult to
determine, but also for good initial adhesion, which
is easy to determine. If an inorganic sticks,. it
should protect. If an organic sticks, protection is
still an open question.
3. Single-package
Single-pack inorganic primers of the polyol silicate
type involving ester exchange or interester exchange reactions with alkyl, alkoxy and hydroxy
alkoxy silicates to form mixed esters pursue the
same basic chemistry to provide similar film
matricesz4.Organic moieties remain within these
films and subtract from their wholly inorganic
nature. Other routes to single package inorganic
zinc-rich primers include the use of amine-initiated
hydrolysis of alkyl p o l y s i l i c a t e ~and
, ~ ~the
~ ~ use
~ of
alkali metal alkoxide catalysis of hydroxyl free
alkyl silicatesz7. Single pack inorganic silicate
vehicles are now generally available. Some are
modifications of silanes.
5. Secondary Mechanisms
If cathodic protection were the sole mechanism of
zinc-rich primers, they would rapidly break down as
zinc was consumed. In practice, this is not the
case. As zinc corrodes, its corrosion products
(depending upon the environment) tend to polarize
the reaction, coating the zinc and bridging the
voids within the film, thereby packing them so that
the primer is sealed from the environment. The film
is slowly transformed from a zinc-rich primer to a
barrier primer, and, in this state, it is maintained
until the zinc is again exposed by some abuse. The
zinc will then corrode again and be healed with corrosion product (providing that the agents of
physical or chemical abuse have been removed).
These phenomena are primarily responsible for
long term zinc-rich protection.
Zinc-rich primers are normally applied at approximately 3 dry mils. Some compositions form
good films at thicknesses up to 6 mils, while others
may severely mud-crack at these high builds.
The porosity of zinc-rich films (particularly the
inorganic) can lead to problems because of air occlusion on top coating. The resultant bubbling and
pinholing of applied top coats may necessitate the
use of mist coats, thinned finish coats or tie coats
(such as the WP-1 wash Orimer, SSPC-Paint 27)
before finish coat application28.Careful formulation of solvent system and pigmentation of the
finish coat can mitigate this problem, and many
manufacturers carefully tailor finish coats for
bubble-free application over the zinc-rich
SSPC-PS Guide 8 includes a list of such finish
coats.
13
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * L - 2 9 3
SSPC C H A P T E R * L - 2
9 3 W 8627940 0003444 4 3 2
6. Pre-Construction Primers
Single component inorganic zinc-rich films make
good pre-construction primers, protecting steel
during storage and fabrication. In thin films, they
allow easy cutting of steel and good weldability,
particularly when modified with the conductive extender, di-iron p h ~ s p h i d e ~ After
' . ~ ~ .fabrication, preconstruction primers may be recoated with a
suitable primer and top coat. Further considerations on zinc-rich primers are discussed in a
separate chapter.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
14
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R + L * 2 9 3
C. OXIDIZING SYSTEMS
Oxidizing systems are thermosets which convert to
three-dimensional polymeric networks by absorption of atmospheric oxygen. Such systems are based on fish and
vegetable oils (esters of glycerol and vegetable oil, fatty
acids) or modification of such materials with other
species. Unmodified oils are rarely used now except in certain specialized primers. They are slow drying and suscep
tible to alkalis, but have excellent low surface energies
and are perhaps the best vehicles where surface preparation is poor.
Alkyds are oxidizing systems, the polycondensation
products of multi-functional polyols and di-functional
acids which are generally oil modified to give a wide variety of vehicles. Alkyds may also be copolymerized with
phenol, silicones, styrene, acrylics and other resins. Still
the backbone of the coatings industry, alkyds have limited
applications i n heavy-duty maintenance. As with oils, the
ester groups in the alkyd backbone are easily cleaved by
alkalis. Chemical resistance is poor, .and they are not
suitable for immersion service, cementitious substrates,
or for use directly over zinc-rich primers. They lend
themselves well to polymer modification and may be used
with certain thermoplastics to provide increased gloss and
adhesion.
Alkyds make an excellent choice of vehicle in lightduty environments. Thirty percent silicone modification
provides finish coats that have excellent ultraviolet light
resistance and exceptionally good weathering properties.
More alkali-resistant oxidizing vehicles are obtained
with the phenolic varnishes and epoxy esters (epoxy resins
esterified with oil fatty acids). Both vehicles have better
chemical resistance than either the unmodified oil or the
analogous alkyd, and, as phenolic or epoxy content of
such resins increases, so does their chemical resistance.
Unfortunately, as with all epoxies, epoxy esters yellow and
chalk markedly during exterior exposures, and while
deterioration is not progressive, chalking restricts usage
on aesthetic grounds. Epoxy esters are hard, resistant to
abrasion, and soluble in aromatic and even aliphatic
hydrocarbons.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. LATEX
Latex systems show every possibility of expanding in.
to the maintenance painting area as technologies dgvelop.
Unlike lacquers, latexes are dispersions (not solutions) of
thermoplastic polymers in water. Molecular weights are
not restricted by solution viscosities, and much higher
solids of very high molecular weight polymers are possible. Film formation involves evaporation of water followed
by coalescence of discreet particles of polymer (micelles)
dispersed in the water. Total coalescence has never been
and systems give higher moisture and oxygen
transmission rates than their lower molecular weight
analogues cast from solution. Great strides are being
made and their excellent durability and mechanical properties indicate a bright future for latex maintenance systems
in moderate environments. The PACE program of SSPC
15
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L.Z 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VII. CONCLUSION:
The design of effective anticorrosive coatings for
steel structures is a complex discipline that borrows extensively from both corrosion science and coatings
technology. Unhappily, all too often there is too little communication between these parent technologies and fewer
attempts by scientists and engineers of either practice to
cross the interface and assess the same problem from
the others perspective.
If we are to serve our respective disciplines to mutual
benefit in our avowed war on corrosion, a more intensive
effort to appreciate the problems involved on both sides of
the interface is required of us all - corrosion engineer and
paint chemist alike. A desire to foster such effort has been
the driving force behind the presentation of this chapter.
16
Not for Resale
93
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 - 2
TABLE 1
SOME PROPERTIES OF FINISH COAT MATERIALS FOR EXTERIOR EXPOSURE
Oil Paints
Alkyd-Long Oil
Alkyd-MediumOil
A l k y d - S M Oil
Alkyrhstyrenated
Alkyd-Siliconized
Alkyd-AminoComb.
Silicone
Siliconized Polyester
Thermoplastic Acrylic
Thermosetting Acrylic
Acrylic Latex
Fluorocarton
Epoxy-Polyester
Epoxy-Phenolic
Epoxy-Amine
Epoxy-Amide
Epoxy Ester
UrethaneOil Modified
UrethaneMoisture Cure
UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack
Urethanekomatic Two Pack
Vinyl Lacquer
Chlorinated Rubber
Styrene Butadiene
Asphaltics
Coal Tar
Coal Tar-Epoxy
Oil Paints
F
F
G
F
F
P
P
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
F
F
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
F
P
P
P
P
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
P
F
'
VG
G
'
*
F
E
G
G
F
G
E
G
E
G
P
G
E
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
E
E
E
G
F
F
G
G
G
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
G
F
G
E
E
E
E
G
G
G
G
F
F
G
G
G
E
E
P
P
P
P
P
F
E
F
E
P
G
G
F
P
F
E
F
E
G
E
G
G
F
F
G
E
E
VG
F
E
E
VG
F
P
G
E
E
E
G
E
E
VG
G
F
G
E
E
E
E
E
E
E
G
F
G
E
E
G
G
F
F
F
F
F
G
F
G
G
G
G
G
P
F
E
G
G
G
G
G
F
F
G
E
E
E
G
G
G
P
E
E
E
G
G
F
P
P
F
F
E
E
E
G
G
V
E
E
E
E
E
E
P
P
P
P
P
P
G
P
P
P
P
P
P
E
P
E
G
G
E
G
G
'
'
Alkyd-Long Oil
Alkyd-Medium Oil
Alkyd-Short Oil
Alkyd Styrenated
AlkyrhsiIiconized
Alkyd-AmimCmb.
Silicone
'
'
Siliconized Pdyester
Thermoplastic Acrylic
Thermocetting Acrylic
'
*
'
'
'
'
'
Acrylic Latex
Fluorocarton
Epoxy-Polyester
Epoxy-Phenolic
Epoxy-Amine
Epoxy-Amide
Epoxy Ester
Urethane01Modified
UrethaneMoistureCure
UrethaneAliphaticTwo Pack
UrethaneAromatic Two Pack
Vinyl Lacquer
Chlorinated Rubber
Styrene Butadiene
Asphaltics
Coal Tar
Coal Tar-Epoxy
Key: E = Excellent
VG = Very Good
G=Good
F = Fair
P = Poor
BIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Ted Dowd, Jarry Drake, Dick Drisko, Arnold Eickhoff,
Harlan Kline, Frank LaQue, Bob Martell, William Mathay, John
Montle, Chuck Munger, Bruno Perfetti, Percy Pierce, E. Praschan,
Melvin Sandler, Ron Skabo, William J. Wallace, Jr., and Harry
Wonders.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
17
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERaL.2 9 3
REFERENCES
1. L.I., Shreir, Corrosion Vol. 2, p.15.26 Wiley, New York, 1963.
2. C.H. Hare, Anti-Corrosive Barrier and Inhibitive Primers Unit
?7 Federation Series on Coatings Technology, Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1979.
3. C.H. Hare, Corrosion and the Preparation of Metals for Painting Unit 26 Federation Series on Coatings Technology,
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, Phila., 1978.
4. K.W. Allen, Strength and Structures Aspects of Adhesion
Vol 1, 14, University Press of London, 1965.
5. T.R. Bullet and A.T.S. Rudram, J.O.C.C.A. 11, 1959, 789.
6. J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 24, 325, 127, 1952.
7. D.M. MacDonald, Official Digest 33, 432, 7, 1961.
8. Pittsburgh Society for Paint Technology, Official Digest 33,
436, 1427, 1961.
9. W.W. Kittelberger and A.C. Elm, Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 326,
1952.
10. J.E.O. Mayne, Br. Corr. J., 5, 106, 197.0.
11. J.E.O. Mayne and D.J. Mills, J.O.C.C.A., 58, 155, 1975.
12. C.C. Maitland, Ph.D. Thesis U. of Cambridge, England, 1959.
13. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Official Digest, 33, 435, 469,
1961.
14. G.W. Raothwell, J.O.C.C.A., 52, 219, 1969.
15.. B.W. Cherry and J.E.O. Mayne, Sec. Int. Congress on Metallic
Corrosion (N.Y.) 680, 1966.
16. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach and C. Bosch, J.P.T., 41, 533, 372,
1969.
17. A.W. Peabody, Principles of Cathodic Protection, NACE Basic
Corrosion Course National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, 1974.
18. M.J. Stern of Electrochemical Soc., 105, 11, 638, 1958.
19. A.J. Eickhoff, Am. Paint Journal, July 16, 1973, p54.
20. M. Kowalik, N. Intorp and N. Lange, 7th Int. Cong. on Metallic
Corrosion, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1978.
21. C.G. Munger, Mat. Perf. 14, 5, 25, 1975.
22. T. Ginsberg, C.N. Merriam, L.M. Robeson, J.O.C.C.A., 59,315,
1976.
23. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
24. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, 27, 1979.
25. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, US. Pat. 3,615,730 and 3,653,930.
26. G.H. Law, W.M. McMahon, Dutch Pat., 6,900,749.
27. A. Oken, U.S. Pat. 3,660,119.
28. M. Tellor, Mat. Perf., 17, 9, 37, 1978.
29. K.B. Tator, Mat. Perf. 15, 3, 9, 1976.
30. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, October 1980.
31. F.A. Simko, Jr., V.P. Simpson, J.C.T., 48, 614, 61, 1976.
32. R. Cressey, Bath Iron Works, Private Communication.
33. D.M. Berger, Metal Finishing, April 1978.
34. C.H. Hare, J.P.T. 47, 605, 69, 1975.
35. R.G. Young, J.C.T., 49, September 1977.
36. D.M. Berger, PDCA, November 1976.
37. D.M. Berger, Modern Paint and Coatings, July 1981.
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18
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73
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0
8627740 0003447 T L 4
CHAPTER 2.0
SURFACE PREPARATION
by
H. William Hitzrot
I. INTRODUCTION
II. DISCUSSION
Mechanical surface preparation has been the traditional approach to preparing metal substrates for subse
quent coating systems. Surface preparation methods vary
from the most rudimentary hand scraper to laser beams.
The broad spectrum of tools available suggests that surface preparation is in fact a complex process and therefore
requires a good understanding of the mechanical surface
preparation process and job parameters that dictate the
process. As an aid in selecting the proper mechanical surface preparation process, the following brief discussion of
job parameters and associated techniques is provided.
A. LOCATION OF JOB
Although often not considered, the location of a job is
an important parameter in the selection of a surface
preparation method. I f the job is on a production line, then
an automatic operation such as a centrifugal wheel
machine should be considered. On the other hand, outside
fabrication, maintenance or repair jobs generally call for
portable hand and power tools and manual sand blasting. If
the job is located in an area where soluble salts could be a
surface contaminant, such as near the ocean or in an industrial atmosphere, then wet blast cleaning may be
preferable.
B. CONDITION OF SURFACE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C. DEGREE OF CLEANLINESS
The required degree of cleanliness as defined by the
SSPC Surface Preparation Specification is a determining
factor in the method of cleaning. Hand tool and power tool
specifications apply only where localized surface prepara19
Not for Resale
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003450 736
F. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS
In recent years environmental constraints have played
an ever larger role in the selection of surface preparation
methods. To minimize dust, cheaper sands are being
replaced by costlier and less abundant products such as
boiler slags or copper slags. Also, enclosed rather than
open blasting is being favored. If enclosed blast cleaning
is necessary, consideration should be given to recyclable
steel abrasives and automated centrifugal wheel blasting
E. PROFILE
The surface finish (or profile) resulting from surface
preparation should be compatible with subsequent coating
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERsZ-0 93
TABLE 1
Typical Profiles Produced by Some Commercial Abrasive Media
Maximum
U.S. Sieve
Size
Steel Abrasives
Shot 5-230
Shot S-280
Shot S-330
Shot S-390
Grit G-50
Grit G-40
Grit G-25
Grit G-14
20
18
16
14
30
20
16
12
2.9
3.5
3.8
4.6
2.2
3.4
4.6
6.5
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8
2.2
2.5
2.8
3.5
1.6
2.4
3.1
5.1
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
Medium-Fine
Medium-Fine
Medium
Medium
Coarse
Medium-Fine
Coarse
Medium
Medium-Fine
Fine
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.6
6.0
2.6
6.0
4.5
3.5
2.5
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
f
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.7
2.6
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.7
2.2
5.5
4.0
3.0
2.0
f
f
f
f
0.4
0.4
0.4
.7
.5
.5
.5
0.4
0.5
fi 0.7
f 0.4
f .5
f .5
f .5
f .5
SSPC CHAPTER*2.0
73
BIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: William Chandler, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko, M.
Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee and William Pearson.
REFERENCES
1. J.R. Allen and C. Calabrese, Corrosion, pp. 331-338, Vol. 34,
No. 10, Oct. 1978.
2. A.N. McKelvie, Evaluation of Various Cleaning Processes for
Steel, Paint Research Association, Waldegrove Rd., Teddington Middlesex, TW11 8LD, England.
3. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver, Surface Profile for
Anti-Corrosion Paints, Steel Structures Painting Council,
1976.
4. Keane, et. al.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
21
Not for Resale
CHAPTER 2.1
W.Mallory
Among the most prominent applications of centrifugal
blast cleaning is surface preparation of structural steel for
painting. Centrifugal blast cleaning of structural steel
FIGURE 1
Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Development of Blast Pattern.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye Inc.
FIGURE 2
Centrifugal Blast Wheel; Abrasive Feed and Blast.
Courtesy of Pangborn.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Centrifugal blast cleaning relates, not only to cleaning structural steel, but to a wide range of applications
that include etching, deburring, deflashing, texturing, shot
peening, cleaning and descaling. It is typically used for
machine parts, castings, forgings, steel mill rolls, steel
plates and shapes, fabricated units, molded plastic and
rubber parts, cut stone and acoustical ceiling tile. The list
grows annually as new applications are discovered, as
costs of other means become prohibitive, and as pressures increase from OSHA, environmentalists and ecologists. The art of air blasting began prior to the turn of the
century, but centrifugal (airless) blast cleaning, since its
introduction in 1932, has emerged as an efficient process
for ever increasing types of applications.
22
Not for Resale
BLAST P A T T E R N FOR T Y P I C A L
FABRICATED BEAM
RECOMMENDED
30
MINIMUM EFFECTIVE
ANGLE OF IMPINGEMENT
FIGURE 3
Typical Blast Pattern; Wide Flange or Fabricated Beam (4 Blast
Wheels).
Courtesy of Pangborn.
dates back to the late 1940s and, of steel for major construction projects, to the middle 1950s. Since then, centrifugal blast systems have been developed for cleaning
structural steel before and after fabrication, including
massive fabrications of irregular shapes and complex construction. Machines are often integrated into in-line,
@l
WHEEL UNIT
2 CABINET
~-
FIGURE 5
,Y, _,
5DUST
I. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Centrifugal blast cleaning machines use motordriven, bladed wheels to hurl abrasive at the surface by
centrifugal force. The abrasive used for structural steel
cleaning consists of tiny particles of alloy steel, generally
ranging in size from 0.005 to 0.040 inches in diameter.
These particles, unlike sand, resist fracturing despite repeated impacts at high velocity. Abrasive is fed to the
center of the wheel and moved onto the inner end of the
blades by an impeller. As abrasive particles move down
the blade (Figure l), they are accelerated and hurled at
high velocity at the surface. Centrifugal blast wheels are
available in several sizes and may be equipped with drive
motors of up to 100 hp (horsepower) for high production
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
23
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTER*Z.L
93
ab27940 0003454 3L
DESCALING MACHINE
ABRASIVE REMOVAL SECTION
EXIT ROLL CONVEYOR
FIGURE 8
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System (4 Blast Wheels); Cleaning of
Small Parts on Racks.
Courtesy of Pangborn.
C l A l & & *L
I i 4
FIGURE 7
Pre-Fabrication Descaling System Channels-Prior to and After
Blast Cleaning.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
24
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 1 9 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
__--
~-~-
-Y
FIGURE 9
Post-Fabrication Descaling System.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
Essential components of all centrifugal blast cleaning systems are blast wheels, blast enclosure, work
conveyors, abrasive recovery and recycling system, and
dust collector (Figure 4). The type and arrangement of components will differ greatly, depending on application of the
system. It is essential to provide sufficient ventilation to
ensure that air pressure within the blast enclosure is lower
than the ambient pressure. That allows dust generated by
the blast cleaning to be drawn into the dust collector and
prevents it from escaping from the blast enclosure into
adjacent work areas. Openings provided for conveying the
work through the blast enclosure must be equipped with
good seals to prevent flying abrasive and dust from
escaping.
Spent abrasive thrown by the blast wheels drops into
hoppers beneath the blast chamber. There it is recovered
and conveyed to an abrasive reclamation system, where
contaminants are removed in an air-wash separator
(Figure 5) and reclaimed abrasive is returned to a storage
hopper. From there it is again fed to the wheels. Dust is
drawn from the machine into a dust collector, keeping adjacent areas clean and dust-free.
25
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * L
93 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000345b 1 5 4 W
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 11
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Rack
Loading; Drag Chain Work Car Conveyor.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
FIGURE 10
Post-Fabricating Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels). Rack
Gantry Crane Conveyor.
Loading
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
Aside from reduced cleaning time obtained with automated cleaning systems, there are several advantages of
cleaning steel prior to fabrication. They include:
1. Inspection of cleaned steel for defects revealed by
the blast.
2. More accurate layout for fabrication operations.
3. Faster steel cutting and burning.
4. Improved tool life (punches, shears, saws, etc.).
5. Improved weld quality.
l
i or reduction
~
i of ~blast ~
cleaning
~ after
~
6. ~
fabrication.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 12
~
Post-Fabricating
~
Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); Roll Conveyor.
Courtesy of Pangborn.
26
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z - L
93
FIGURE 13A
Post-Fabrication Descaling System (Roll Conveyor); Entry Conveyor-prior to blast cleaning.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
Exit Conveyor-after
tions such as welding, burning and punching can be performed without removing primer. Minimal touch-up is
required before applying the final prime coat. Depending
on the type of primer, a drying oven may also be required.
There are fast-drying primers available that do not require
a post cure at elevated temperatures, and, in lieu of a drying oven, a flash-off tunnel at the paint booth exit may be
required to exhaust volatile paint fumes.
FIGURE 138
blast cleaning.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
B. POST-FABRICATION SYSTEMS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 14
Post-Fabrication Descaling System (8 Blast Wheels); adjustable
wheels to accommodate deep girders.
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
27
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*Z.L
93
8627940 0003458 T 2 7
Ship Hull Bottom Cleaning System: Two Wheel Blast Head Units
in Foreground. (Official U.S. Navy Photograph)
Shii, Hull-Side Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Cleaning'width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
c. SYSTEMS APPROACH TO
FIGURE 17
Ship Deck Cleaning System (Two Wheel Unit; 48 inch Cleaning
Width). (Official U.S. Navy Photograph).
Courtesy of Wheelabrator-Frye, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
EQUIPMENT
SELECTION
28
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTER+Z.L
93
8627940 0003459 9 6 3
DUST AND
FIGURE 18
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 19
29
Not for Resale
73
8 6 2 7 7 4 0 00034b0 685
FIGURE 20
Portable Cleaning System; Ship Deck Cleaning. (Official U.S:Navy Photograph)
REFERENCES
1. B. Baldwin, Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast Cleaning.
Plant Engineering, pp. 116-125, Feb. 16, 1978.
2. P.J. Bennett, Current Occupational Safety, Health, and
In 1974 and early 1975 portable systems custom designed to Navy specifications were put into production first at the Norfolk U.S.Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull
sides (Figure 16) and hull bottoms (Figure 15), and then at
Long Beach U S . Navy Shipyard for cleaning hull sides.
These systems now are used routinely in ship hull
maintenance painting operations. Machines incorporate
one or two blast wheels and clean a swath approximately
28 and 48 inches wide, respectively. Similar but less costly
and less complex systems are being developed for application on commercial and military vessels.
A mobile, self-propelled centrifugal blast cleaning
machine (Figures 17 and 20) for removal of heavy, anti-skid
coatings from aircraft carrier decks was first put into service at Long Beach, California, in 1975. Like the hull bottom
and side cleaners, two blast wheels are used to clean a
48-inch path. Smaller and more maneuverable companion
machines subsequently have been put into routine service.
Smaller units employ a single blast wheel and clean a
swath 20 inches wide.
In principle, the portable machines use the basic components required for stationary installation, .e., the blast
wheel, abrasive recovery and re-circulation, system ventilation, dust removal and collection and a work conveyor
(Figure 18).
In many applications, where small amounts of dust
are generated during blasting or where minor dust effluent
from the ventilationlcollector system is permissible, blast
cleaning units are completely self-contained except for
8-12, 1971.
4. Centrifugal Wheel Blast Cleaning of Steel Plate, Shapes and
Fabrications, NACE Publication 6G-174, Materials Performance, June, 1974.
5. B. Cromwall, L. Thureson and V. Victor, Centrifugal Blasting
of Steel: Cleaning and Coldworking. Swedish Corrosion
Institute Bulletin, No. 67, 1971.
6. Impact Finishing: Synthetic Abrasives Erode the Natural
Markets. lnd. Materials, No. 121, pp. 19-21,23, 25-27, 29, 31,
Oct., 1977.
7. A.W. Mallory, Centrifugal Blasting for Surface Preparation,
Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Technical Paper
MR79-764, 1979.
8. A.W. Mallory, Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of Surfaces for
Painting, Materials Performance, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 11-17,
February, 1977.
9. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Committee
T6-6-13, Cleanliness and Anchor Pattern Available Through
Centrifugal Blast Cleaning of New Steel. Materials Protecfion, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 9-13, April, 1976.
10. F.A. Scrima and A.W. Malldry, Centrifugal Blasting for Surface Preparation, American Society for Materials, Conference
Specialized Cleaning, Finishing and Coatings Processes,
February, 1980.
30
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.L
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 1 73
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
A. W. DUKE MALLORY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
31
Not for Resale
CHAPTER 2.2
METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
Einar A. Borch
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
32
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 2 9 3
8627940 0003463 3 9 4
TABLE 1
SAE SHOT & GRIT SIZE SPECIFICATIONS WITH SUGGESTED REMOVAL
SIZES(')
Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Maximum and Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
S I E Shot Number
Screen
Size
(in)
5550
S1320
S460
(3)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
80
120
200
4.75
4.00
3.35
2.80
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.18
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.300
0.180
0.125
0.075
S330
S2O
S230
5170
(4)
(0.187)
(0.157)
(0.132)
(0.111)
(0.0937)
(0.0787)
(0.0661)
(0.0555)
(0.0469)
(0.0394)
(0.0331)
(0.0278)
(0.0234)
(O 0197)
(0.0165)
(0.0139)
(0.01 17)
(0.007)
(0.0049)
(0.0029)
I
S390
Ail Pass
5 % max Ail Pass
5 % max All Pass
5 % max All Pass
85% rnin
5 % max
96% m i n 85% m i n
96% min 85% min
96% min 85% mir
96% mir
-
00117
O0082
0.0117
All Pass
10% max
Ail Pass
10% max
35% min
Ali Pass
37% min
10% max
80% min
90% min 80% min
90% min
-
Jggestei
0.0138
0.0070
0.0059
I
0.0049
0.0029
Standard
mm
Screen
Size
Screen Opening Sizes and Screen Numbers with Minimum Cumulative Percentages Allowed on Corresponding Screens
CAE Grit Number
(in)
G10
G12
G14
G16
016
(4)
(0.187)
(0.157)
(0.132)
(0.111)
(0.0937)
(0.0787)
(0.0661)
(0.0555)
(0.0469)
(O 0394)
(0.0331)
(0.0278)
(0.0234)
(0.0197)
(0.0165)
(0.0139)
(0.0117)
(0.007)
(0.0049)
(0.0029)
(0.0017)
(3)
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
80
120
200
325
4.75
4.00
3.35
280
2.36
2.00
1.70
1.40
1.18
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.300
0.180
O 125
0.075
0.045
Suggested
Removal Sizes for
Cleaning of
structural Steed2)
AllPass
80%
90%
All Pass
80%
90%
-
Ail Pass
80%
90%
Ail Pass
75%
85%
-
All Pass
-
75%
85 %
-
G40
GSO
70%
80%
0.0232
0.0165
0.0165
0.0138
0.0117
0.0062
6200
G325
Ail Pass
-
All Pass
-
70%
80%
-
65%
75 %
0.0059
0.0049
65%
75%
-
All Pass
All Pass
60%
70%
All Pass
55%
65%
20%
0.0029
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
G120
Ail Pass
GE0
All Pass
-
025
33
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERU2.2
93
TABLE 2
DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTIES
HARDNESS
GRIT
ABRASIVES
SHAPE
SIZE
SHOT
Cast Steel
Shot or Grit
May be specified:
commercially available cast steel abrasives
have mid-range hardnesses of approximately
35 Rc, 45 Rc, 55 Rc, 65 Rc.
Malleable Iron
Shot or Grit
1 range
(28 RC - 40 RC)
1 range
(28 RC - 40 Rc)
Shot or Grit
1 range
(57 RC - 68 Rc)
1 range
(57 RC - 68 Rc)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
34
Not for Resale
93
B. ADVANTAGES
C. CONSTRAINTS
Basic constraints that must be recognized in the use
of metallic abrasives as a substitute for non-metallic
abrasives in airblast equipment are
1. The blast-cleaning operation must provide effective reclamation and recycling to realize the
durability advantage of the metallic abrasive
(abrasive leakage must be kept to the minimum by
proper maintenance of the blast-cleaning system).
2. To achieve consistent production cleaning quality, and optimum operating costs, careful attention must be given procedures for maintaining a
stabilized work mix, or operating mix, in the
system.
3. Metallic abrasives must be protected in such a
manner that they are not exposed to moisture or
corrosive environments.
4. Overblast must be avoided to assure proper profile for long-range performance of high-performance coatings.2
(M = mass; V = velocity)
8 6 2 7 7 4 0 O003465 Lb7
35
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 2
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2
93
m Bb2799O 0003466
OT3
TABLE 3
EFFECT OF ABRASIVE SIZE O N IMPACT ENERGY AND COVERAGE
SA
Shot
-~
Size (1)
Approxima te
Shot Pellets
Per Pound (2)
S-390
S-330
s-280
S-230
65,000
110,000
210,000
360,000
660,000
1,700,000
7,000,000
110
60
40
20
10
S-I70
s-110
S-70
5
1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 1
Fracture Failure (shot particles from work mix)
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
36
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 O003467 T 3 T
FIGURE 2
Evolution of the working mix using steel grit: While all particles in
the working mix started as original size G-25 (upper left), they
eventually rounded up and diminished in size under repeated impact, which imposes the two modes of abrasive failures. (approximately 1OX magnification)
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
37
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 . 2
93
70-X
FIGURE 3
Flaking failure of shot particles from work mix
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
38
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
700-X
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2
93
Original size
Original shape
Original hardness and density
Velocity of thrown abrasive
Hardness of work being cleaned
Angle of impingement
Adjustment of air-wash separator (to control
abrasive size withdrawn from the system)
Loss of usable abrasive due to carry-out with work
pieces
Manner in which abrasive additions are made.
Figures 4,5, and 6 illustrate size distribution of typical
shotlgrit work mixes.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
330
280
230
170
110
S330 Work-Mix
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
FIGURE 4
S.330 work mix. Work mix should contain all of above sizes, and should be neither predominantly coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse
particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
39
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2 9 3
G=25
8627940 0003470 5 2 4
G-40
tal work in both laboratory and plant. Also see Commentary on Surface Preparation in Volume 2 of the Steel
Structures Painting Manual. Each abrasive type, size and
shape has its own inherent impact life cycle, generally
measured in pounds used per blasting hour. Theoretically,
new abrasive should be added to the system every blasting
hour in amounts equal to the rate of withdrawal, or loss,
from the system. In practice, however, making additions
once a shift, or every eight hours, is acceptable. A continuous automatic system of abrasive replenishment is
the preferred and most reliable method of maintaining a
uniform work mix in a production operation.
Delay in making new abrasive additions tends to
decrease the percentage of coarser sizes in the work-mix;
the result will likely be poorer quality cleaning and reduction of anchor pattern depth. Conversely, adding a large
quantity of new abrasive at one time increases the percentage of coarser sizes, resulting in a coarsening of surface
profile, and for a given through-put speed, insufficient
coverage and poorer cleaning.
Maintaining a uniform and stabilized operating-mix
also requires the abrasive particles removed from the blast
machine to be of uniform size. To realize the greatest
economic benefits of using metallic abrasives, the particle
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
.0394
(18-M)
93
.O165
(40-M)
.0278
(25-M)
(50-M)
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
FIGURE 6
S-330/Gm18*work mix (from centrifugal blast unit). Work mix should contain all of the above sizes, and should be neither predominantly
coarse nor predominantly fine. Coarse particles provide optimum impact energy; smaller particles provide optimum coverage.
55-60 RC
SHOT
SHOT
t4
GRIT
I-
1
I - S t d Deviotion
Std Deviation
GRIT
E
n
E
1 O0
FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
From Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, by Keane, Bruno, Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
41
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 2
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003472 3 T 7
X. ABRASIVE SELECTION
S 230
S280
*
S390
S330
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NEAR-WH I
COMMERCIAL (SP 6)
FIGURE 9
From: Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, by Keane,
Profile (h,J
and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM
Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
stereo micrographs.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
42
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 2
93
V A R I O U S G R I T BLASTED SURFACES
1OOX 60 VIEW
GL25
hnax
GL40
GL50
Approximately 4 mils
WHITE (SP 5)
NEAR-WHITE ( S P 10)
COMMERCIAL ( S P 6)
BRUSH-OFF (SP 7)
FIGURE 10
From: Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion
Profile (hmeX)and density (NJ estimated visually from SEM
Bruno and Weaver, 1976. (Ref. 2)
stereo micrographs.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
43
Not for Resale
. dints.
bv Keane.
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 2
93
8b27940 0003474 L 7 T
)(l. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
1. ASM 6705-J, Specialized Cleaning, Finishing, Coating
Process. ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073.
2. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints, Steel
Structures Painting Council Report, Oct. 25, 1976.
3. H.J. Plaster, Blast Cleaning and Allied Processes - Vols. I
and II,Garden City Press Ltd., Letchworth, Hertfordshire,
England SG6 1JS.
4. C.A. Reams, Modern Blast Cleaning and Ventilation, Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939.
5. William A. Rosenberger, Impact Cleaning, Penton
Publishing, Cleveland, OH, 1939.
6. SAE J792a, Manual on Blast Cleaning. Handbook Supplement 124, Society of Automotive Engineers, 400 Cornmonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096, June, 1968.
7. SAE J827, Cast Steel Shot, Society of Automotive
Engineers, June, 1962.
8. SAE J444a, Cast Shot and Grit Size Specifications for Peening and Cleaning, Society of Automotive Engineering,
November 1976.
9. SFSA 20-66, Cast Steel Abrasives, Steel Founders Society
of America, Cast Metals Federation Bldg., 455 State, Des
Plaines, IL 60016, 1966.
10. SFSA 21-68, Malleable Iron Abrasives, Steel Founders
Society of America, 1968.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BIOGRAPHY
Einar A. Borch has been in the
44
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R l t 2 . 3
93
CHAPTER 2.3
NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
by
H . William Hitzrot
Non-metallic abrasives used for blast cleaning may be
classified as (1) naturally occurring, (2) by-product and (3)
manufactured abrasives. This chapter deals with these
types, their physical attributes and the choices among
them. Physical data are summarized in Table 1.
B. BY-PRODUCT ABRASIVES
I. TYPES OF ABRASIVES
A. NATURALLY OCCURRING ABRASIVES
Naturally occurring sands and flint sand are probably
the most commonly used abrasives. Sands are a readily
available source of abrasive and have been used for the
blast cleaning of steel since the inception of this technique. Sand particles (Figure 1) range from sharply
angular to almost spherical, depending on the source.
Silica sands are an effective abrasive for blast cleaning
new steel and for maintenance cleaning in non-critical
areas. Since sands are often dusty, with a high degree of
breakdown, they are not desirable for critical blast cleaning. In recent years silica sands have been replaced by
heavy mineral sands or other products that contain little or
no free silica.
Nonsilica sands may also be used for blast cleaning.
These are generally termed heavy mineral sands and include magnetite, staurolite, olivene rutile - either by
themselves or in various combinations. These sands are
tough and dense but generally of finer particle size than
silica sand, with median size in the 70 to 100 rather than 20
to 40 sieve size range more typical of silica sands. An example of a heavy mineral sand is shown in Figure 2. Heavy
mineral sands are effective for blast cleaning new steel,
but are generally not recommended for maintenance applications.
Garnet (Figure 3) is a tough, angular abrasive suitable
for specialty-type blast cleaning of steel parts and
castings, .e., cleaning in a closed system that permits
recycling the abrasive. Available in a range of sizes, it can
be recycled a number of times because of its toughness.
The high cost of garnet restricts its use to specialty cleaning applications that require only small quantities of
abrasive.
Zircon is another tough, angular abrasive (Figure 4).
Its fine size limits its use to specialty blasting for removal
of fine scale, leaving a smooth, matte finish. Like garnet, it
has higher density and greater hardness than silica sand
and is considerably more costly.
Novaculite, a very pure, siliceous rock, is ground to
fine sizes for specialty blast cleaning. It leaves a satin
FIGURE 1
45
Not for Resale
- Magnification 8 diameters)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 4 7 6 T42
C. MANUFACTURED ABRASIVES
FIGURE 2
Heavy Mineral Sand Abrasive X8
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
Garnet Abrasive X8
FIGURE 4
Zircon Abrasive X8
46
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2.3
93
FIGURE 5
A. TYPE OF SURFACE
FIGURE 6
The abrasive selected to do the most efficient cleaning will depend on whether the surface is rusted, scaled,
painted or produced in a foundry. Rusted steel requires an
angular abrasive to scour the corrosion product. Scaled
steel requires dense, spherical particles to pop off the oxide scale. Painted surfaces require coarse, angular particles to bite into more resilient paint coatings. A foundry
casting requires a hard, high density particle to remove
fused sand and metal flashing.
FIGURE 7
coal Fired, il^^ Bottom Ash slag X8
47
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
73
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 8
Corncob Shell Abrasive X8
by-product slags or replacing open blasting with enclosed blasting. Enclosed blasting is commonly associated with reclamation of the abrasive, which must
be a high quality, tough, durable material if it is to be
recycled many times. Although the most commonly recycled abrasives are the steel abrasives, manufactured and
naturally occurring abrasives that exhibit excellent
durability should also be considered for recycling. The carbide and alumina abrasives and naturally occurring
garnets and heavy mineral sands can be reused many
times. If conditions such as job location make recycling
impossible, copper slag is recommended because it produces the least dust.
C. COATING SYSTEM
Most manufacturers recommend a minimum surface
texture on the abrasive-cleaned surface for good coating
adhesion. The coating system will therefore also influence
the choice of abrasive for surface preparation.
D. CLEANLINESS
Not all abrasives provide the same surface
cleanliness. An abrasive effective for a commercial blast
(SSPC-SP6) may not be able to provide a near-white (SSPCSP 10) or white-metal (SSPC-SP5 ) blast-cleaned surface. It
is important to know whether an abrasive can meet the
specified degree of cleanliness.
FIGURE 11
Aluminum Oxide Abrasive X8
FIGURE 10
Silicon Carbide Abrasive X8
48
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 3
SSPC CHAPTER*2*3 93
Direction of Travel
Twisting d u e to
offset center of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 13
Impact of Angular Abrasive Particle on Steel Surface
FIGURE 14
Sponge abrasive used for sponge jetting
- no magnification.
49
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 3
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003480 473
TABLE 1
PHYSICAL DATA ON NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
5
5-7
6.5-7
7.8
7.5
4
Bulk
Shape
Specific
Gravlty
rounded
rounded
angular
angular
cubic
angular
2-3
3-4
2-3
4
4.5
2.5
1 O0
128
80
145
184
1O0
Free
Slllca
wt Yo
Degree
of
Dusting
Reuse
white
variable
grey-white
pink
white
white
90 +
nil
nil
90
high
med
med
med
low
low
poor
good
good
good
good
good
black
black
green
brown
brown
nil
nil
nil
nil
nil
high
low
high
low
low
poor
good
poor
poor
poor
black
brown
nil
nil
low
low
good
good
Color
Density
Ibslcu ft
Naturally OccurringAbrasives
(5
90
+
+
By-product Abrasives
Slags
Boiler
Copper
Nickel
Walnut shells
Peach pits
8
8
3
3
angular
angular
angular
cubic
cubic
2.8
3.3
2.7
1.3
1.3
80-90
100-120
84
44
44
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sands
Silica
Heavy Mineral
Flint
Garnet
Zircon
Novaculite
Hardness
(Mohr Scale)
ManufacturedAbrasives
Silicon carbide
Aluminum oxide
9
8
angular
blocky
3.2
4.0
105
* 120
50
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 3 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003483 3 0 T
BIOGRAPHY
A biographical sketch and photo of Bill Hitzrot appear at the
end of Chapter 2.0.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Harlan Kline, A.W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, R.N. McCorrnick
and William Wallace.
51
Not for Resale
CHAPTER 2.4
Abrasive air blast cleaning provides a method of surface preparation that is rapid, proven, and well established. An understanding of air blast cleaning with
various abrasives is essential for a successful operation.
Proper surface preparation by this method provides a
foundation for the paint system, resulting in a clean surface, uniform etch, and a long, economical coating
life. In abrasive air blast cleaning, surface preparation
can be achieved on parts or weldments that are not
uniform in size or shape. Uniform or flat pieces may,
especially on new work, be cleaned more efficiently with
mechanical cleaning machines.
I. DESCRIPTION
Air blast equipment contains and meters abrasive into
a compressed air stream through conveying hoses and
nozzles to the work piece. In effect, the part being cleaned
is eroded away by a mass of abrasive particles until a firm,
clean surface results. Abrasive blast cleaning with a compressed air source, air hose, abrasive blast machine,
abrasive hose, and nozzle imparts a velocity to the
abrasive particle that becomes a working force. Because
of its effectiveness in cleaning metals, the process has
been widely accepted to remove mill scale, rust, paint and
other contaminants.
Various abrasives are used in the process, but the
most widely used abrasive is silica sand that has been
processed for a blasting abrasive. Respiratory protection
must be given to the operator and workers in the blast
cleaning area because of .spent abrasive and the contamination being removed from the surface. Selection of
the abrasive in this process becomes a major factor in
cleaning speed, surface etch and coating adhesion. The
trend is to a finer size of abrasive because of increased
cleaning speed on new or lightly rusted steel; a coarser
size of abrasive is used for more corroded steel or harderto-clean surfaces. Paint coating manufacturers have found
a uniform etch with a cleaner surface much more effective
for coating adhesion than an overly smooth surface of
similar cleanliness. It is important to maintain a proper
size of abrasive for air blast cleaning.
A. PRESSURE TYPE
In a pressure-type abrasive blast system the abrasive
machine is under the same pressure as the entire system,
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
52
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 4 73
have a check list of each component to ensure peak performance. Each component is discussed in detail.
A. AIRSUPPLY
Air supply provides energy for the entire operation
and is responsible for maintaining pressure and volume.
Volume requirement is determined by the orifice nozzle
size.
The nozzle size in Table 1 indicates air consumption in
cfm (cubic feet per minute) at 100 psi (pounds per square
inch) without abrasive going through the nozzle.
When determining the compressor size the next larger
size compressor available for the nozzle should be used. It
is also wise to consider other air requirements from the
compressor, such as for an air-fed hood (20 cfm) and airdriven ventilating equipment (approximately 120 cfm). A
separate air source for air-fed hoods may be required,
unless a carbon monoxide detector is installed in the air
system. Insufficient air supply results in excess abrasive
and slower cleaning rates.
FIGURE 1
EQUIPMENT
To achieve efficient abrasive air blast cleaning,
specific attention must be given to each component of the
air blast equipment (Figure 8).
Components are air SUPPlY, air hoSe and CoUPlings,
abrasive blast machines, abrasive blast hose and
couplings, nozzles, operator equipment, air-fed hoods and
control valves, and oil and moisture separators.
A manager of an abrasive air blast operation should
c.
TABLE 1
AIR CONSUMPTION
NOZZLE
ORIFICE
C F M REQUIRED
@ 100 PSI
ABRASIVE CONSUMPTION
PER HOUR
3116
1I4
5116
318
7116
112
518
314
60 CFM
105 CFM
160 CFM
232 CFM
315 CFM
412 CFM
580 CFM
840 CFM
260 Lbs.
490 Lbs.
812 Lbs.
1152 Lbs.
1584 Lbs.
2024 Lbs.
2518 Lbs.
3174 Lbc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
53
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 2 - 4 93
Cover
(Optional)
---
Screen
(Optional)
-Coded
Pressure
Sand Valve
(Grit Valve not shown)
FIGURE 2
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
Two chamber continuous action pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
54
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R w 2 . 4
93
8627740 0003485 T 5 5
, -.. e
/'
F. CONTROL VALVES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Diagram of two chamber continuous action pressure blast
machine.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
E. NOZZLES
There are many types of blast nozzles, but construction material used in liners of nozzles determines the life
and cost. Liners are constructed of ceramic, cast iron,
tungsten carbide and boron carbide. Ceramic and cast iron
are short life nozzles. Carbide nozzles are long life.
Average life of tungsten nozzles is 200 hours. Ceramic and
cast iron are 2-4 hours. Boron carbide nozzles can maintain their size for 1500 hours i f properly handled to prevent
cracking of the brittle carbide material.
During construction of these nozzles a soft metal
(lead and aluminum) is used to absorb shock and protect
the liner. It is common to put a small, 4-6 inch piece of
rubber hose over these nozzles for added protection. A
polyurethane cover is also used over liners, but they
should be checked for threads wearing.
Nozzle shapes provide great advantages to nozzle
construction. Venturi style nozzles (large throat converging to the orifice and then diverging to the outlet) proCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 5
55
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2*4 93
m 8627990
000398b 991
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
Suction blast cabinet.
Courtesy of Clsmco Industries.
of these manual valves, the inlet and outlet, can be replaced. When these valves are replaced, the air blast
machine becomes an automatic, one-man operated
machine, remote controlled by the blast operator. Further
advantage is obtained when an abrasive hopper is placed
above the blast machine. This method is well suited for
recycled abrasives in abrasive blast rooms or enclosed
systems (Figure 13).
The choke valve is seldom used, except for removing
clogged abrasive, paper or foreign particles that block flow
of abrasives. The choke valve is closed momentarily to
force all pressure through the machine, freeing a clogged
line. This usually takes 10 seconds.
The abrasive metering valve is the carburetor that provides proper abrasivelair mixture to the nozzle orifice. It is
very important that this valve be in good condition. Once it
is set, it does not require constant or continual change.
FIGURE 7
Vacuum blast equipment.
Courtesy of Pauli 81 Griffin Company.
56
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 4
93
8627940 0003487 8 2 8 W
Points to Check
FIGURE 8
Essential components of a successful sand blast operation.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
FIGURE 9
Large (8 ton capacity) portable pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Large Compressor
2. Large Air Hose and Couplings
3. Portable High Production
Sandblast Machines
4. Large Size Sandblast Hose
with External Couplings
5. Large Orifice Venturi Nozzle
6. Remote Control Valves
7. Moisture Separators
8. High Nozzle Air Pressure
9. Proper Sandblasting Abrasive
10. Safety Air Fed Helmet
11. Training of Operators
57
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 . 4
73
TABLE 2
ABRASI VE
TYPE
ABRASIVE CHART
MAJOR
COMPONENT
Metallic
Iron
Steel Shot
Metallic
Iron
Steel Grit
Metallic
Iron
Iron Grit
Alumina
Alum. Oxide
Oxide
Silicon Carbide
Silicon Carbide
Oxide
Iron-Silica
Oxide
Garnet
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Slag-Coal
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Slag-Copper
SlagNickel
Conglomerate
Iron-Alum Silica
Silica
Flint
Silica
Silica
Silica
Sand
Caco2
Limestone
Oxide
Mineral
Silicate
Magnesium Silicate
Mineral
Silicate
Staurolite
Vegetable
Cellulosic
Walnut Shell
Mineral
Silica
Zirconium
Vegetable
Cellulosic
Corn Cob Grit
Chemical
Sodium Bicarbonate
Sodium
Silica
Glass Beads
Oxide
Plastic Beads
Organic
Polymer Resin
'Soft materials are < 4 on Moh's hardness scale; Medium 4 5 6; Hard 2 6
""Various Hardnesses Available
HARDNESS
Round
Angular
Angular
Angular
Angular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Hard*'
Hard'
Sharp
Irregular
Irregular
Round
Round
Irregular
Round
Irregular
Irregular
Round
Round/lrregular
Hard
Hard
Hard
Hard
Hard
Very Hard
Hard
Medium
Medium
Soft
Medium
Hard
Soft
Hard
Soft
Soft
Medium
SoftlMedium
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
7.2
7.6
7.4
3.8
3.8
4.0
2.8
3.3
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.4
3.2
4.5
1.3
4.5
1.2
1 .o
2.7
1 .o
Table 2 is a guide for abrasive selection. Metal etching will remove mill scale, rust and other contaminants
from metal to produce a white metal surface condition
with an etch (anchor pattern) on the surface. Light cleaning removes only old paint and loose rust. It is generally
used for maintenance or repainting.
Tests for abrasives, derived by the NACE T-6G Committee, using a certain volume of abrasive to blast clean a
steel plate at a constant pressure and distance, determine
the breakdown rate of the abrasive and the abrading or
metal removal quality.
Although this test is lengthy, it provides accurate information on abrasives. Silica abrasives (sand) range from
soft to hard and poor to good for metal removal.
Field tests of abrasives by a qualified engineer should
consider
Size - Approximately 16 x 40 mesh (U.S. Sieve)
(.0469" x .0165" x 1.19mm x .42mm).
Cleanliness - Fresh Water Washed.
Contamination - (clay, iron, salt, etc.) that would remain on surface cleaned.
Metallic abrasives present different problems. These
abrasives are normally heat-treated to various hardnesses
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SHAPE
A. PROCEDURE
To correctly set up an air blast the following procedures should be followed. Assume the correct size of
nozzle, hose, machine and compressor.
58
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 4
93
= 8627740 0003489 b T O
Connect respirator and safety equipment and
check for operation.
Depressurize machine, add abrasives, start blast
cleaning operation, adjust abrasive metering valve
to allow proper flow of abrasive to nozzle. The correct abrasive flow will be a steady flow to nozzle.
Uneven flow or surging indicates too much
abrasive.
On completion of blast cleaning, the blast machine
should be emptied to prevent introduction of
moisture into abrasive.
Prior to painting the surface, dry air from nozzle
without abrasive should be used to blow down the
surface to remove spent abrasive dust. The surface
is now ready to be coated.
FIGURE 10
Large stationary pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
FIGURE 11
Portable bulk abrasive pressure blast machine.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
59
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. VARIABLES
S S P C C H A P T E R s 2 - 4 93
given area and run a cleaning test to achieve a more accurate cleaning rate.
Special consideration should be given to interior blast
cleaning. A wide variation in production rates exists on interior cleaning, as much as 2:l (112 exterior cleaning rate),
because of visibility problems, ventilating problems, and
inaccessi bi Iity . These variables can be mi ni mized with
good lighting, ventilation and good scaffolding techniques.
~~
TABLE
EXAMPLES
OF C L E A N I N G R A T E S W I T H T Y P I C A L A B R A S I V E S
ABRASIVE
CONSUMPTION
'Garnet 36 Grit
*Aluminum Oxide
36 Grit
Crushed Flint
12/30 Mesh
3 Mils
Staurolite
501100 Mesh
Mil Etch
Smooth Surface
Coal Slag
16/40 Mesh
2% Mil Etch
Reusable-Imbedding
Copper Slag
3.1 Lbs./St. Ft.
16/40 Mesh
*These abrasives are normally reused.
2 Mil Etch
Reusable-Imbedding
ABRASIVE
RATE
COMMENTS
- Reusable
B: ---sf
-11
'
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
60
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*2.4
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003493 2 5 9
_-
FIGURE 14
Effect of nozzle pressure upon cleaning rate. Cleaning time is two
minutes.
Courtesy of Clemtex Ltd.
A. SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
It is necessary to stress the safety aspects of air blast
cleaning. At the work place everyone should be advised of
health hazards of improper grounding, abrasive dust, contamination, spent abrasive removal and known hazards of
working with high pressure equipment. Scaffolding is not
included in this section, but should not be overlooked.
Safe scaffolding is very important and can provide many
benefits.
Safety requirements should be in accordance with all
applicable federal, state, and local rules and requirements.
They should also be in accord with instructions of the
paint manufacturer and of insurance underwriters. A
checklist of necessary precautions would include but not
necessarily be limited to the following:
1. Proper grounding techniques - With the use of
anti-static abrasive blast hose, the static electricity cannot build up as it dissipates immediately;
however, precautions should be used when working with volatile, flammable materials. An example
is petroleum storage tanks or similar containers.
Equipment and the piece that is abrasive blast
cleaned should be grounded. Quite often, patches
(or repairs) to the vessel, valves and gauges are insulated from the tank itself by gaskets or epoxy
adhesives; therefore, it is very important that all
items be grounded and checked for ground potential. These pieces, when abrasive blast cleaned,
build up high static electricity potentials.
In some extreme cases the nozzle and worker
should be grounded to the part being abrasive
blast cleaned.
FIGURE 13
Abrasive recycle system for blast room.
Courtesy of Clemco Industries.
61
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 15
Effect of nozzle size increases production rate from 96 to 180 to 252 cq. ft. per hr.
Courtesy of Ciemtex Ltd.
If no respiratory protective device is used, crystalline silica abrasives can cause silicosis after several years of constant exposure. Therefore, extreme
caution should be used with these abrasives. Use
of a low silica substitute (less than 1% free silica)
should be considered.
Although particles in excess of 10 microns are
not readily breathable, the nuisance dust should be
avoided with respirators designed to guard against
this dust. Metal abrasives, copper slag and coal slag
abrasives do not contain free silica; however, they
do break down and cause a dust that should be
avoided. ALL abrasives used in abrasive blast cleaning do break down and create a dust hazard. Workers involved in blast cleaning operations should be
provided with personal protective equipment.
Water blast cleaning minimizes dust levels.
(Refer to Chapter 2.5.) Compressed air cooled aftercoolers also serve this purpose. They cause the compressed air to expand, lowering the dewpoint and
eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system. By
drying the air, the aftercooler reduces abrasive use
and resulting dust considerably. (Refer to Section
IIIG)
4. Contaminated Dust - This dust is often overlooked and can be more of a problem than abrasive
dust. As abrasive and the contaminant dust combine, it is wise to ensure that respiratory and skin
protection devices are adequate to protect
workers from such contaminants as old lead
paint, coal tar derivatives, and various metal oxide
decay.
62
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
FIGURE 16
Air-fed helmet with filter.
BIOGRAPHY
P.J. BENNETT
P.J. Bennett is a Registered
Professional Engineer with 38
years experience in the fields of
surface preparation and abrasive blast cleaning. He received
a Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineeringfrom Texas A&M in
1950. He is a member of a number of professional organizations.
REFERENCES
FIGURE 17
By eliminating moisture in the blast cleaning system, compressed air aftercoolers reduce abrasive use and dust levels.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
63
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 5
93
8627940 0003494 T b B
CHAPTER 2.5
Water blast cleaning (sometimes called hydroblasting) uses water at high pressure, 10,000 or more psi,
and low volume, 2 to 15 gallons per minute, to prepare
metal for painting. This process removes loose, flaky rust
and mill scale. It has gained wide acceptance where dry
abrasive blast cleaning dusts and contamination present a
hazard to personnel and machinery.
Water blast cleaning does not replace abrasive blast
cleaning. Water alone cannot etch a metal surface. injection of dry abrasive at the nozzle achieves a surface etch.
Many applications prior to painting are enhanced by this
method with these major advantages: fast cleaning of
soiled surfaces, a neutral surface for application of paint
coatings, and low cost. It is important to exercise caution
when using high pressure forces, taking care to protect
personnel and equipment.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
*For further information on water blasting, see Recommended Practices NACE RP-01-72: Surface Preparation
of Steel by Water Blasting by L.L. Sline.
64
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 = 5 93
8627940 0003495 9 T 4 W
FIGURE 1
Typical Water Blast Equipment with Sand Injection.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation of Houston
IV. EQUIPMENT
The basic waterblast unit consists of an engine driven
pump, inlet water filter, pressure gauge, hydraulic hose
of burst pressure 3 times working pressure, gun and
nozzle combination. The water gun should be a fail-safe
dump gun, to relieve pressure should the operator release
the trigger. Nozzles are usually circular orifices for concentrated round spray and tapered for flat or fan spray.
Long hose may be used (200 - 300 feet) without loss of
pressure. Air compressors are not required for hydroblasting.
V. INTRODUCTION OF ABRASIVES
Any type of abrasive commonly used with air blast
cleaning can be used in waterblast cleaning. Sand is the
most common abrasive. Injecting abrasive into water
eliminates dust that normally accompanies dry use of
friable abrasives. Use of expensive abrasives i s limited
because spent abrasive becomes wet and contaminated.
In this condition it cannot be economically dried, screened
and recycled.
FIGURE 2
Low pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection.
Courtesy of Acme Cleaning Equipment Company
FIGURE 3
High pressure water blast cleaning with sand injection.
Courtesy of Tri-Tan Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
65
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 5 93
TABLE 1
SOME WATERBLAST CLEANING RATES*
SURFACE
CONDITION
Easy to clean, dusty
settlement, flaky flat
surface, light oil or
grease
-W
Sand Injection - SI
0-2000 PSI
Water Only
5 GPM
- 6000 PSI
6-8 GPM
10,000PSI
10 GPM
3000
150
350
500
SI
200
450
650
W
SI
75
1O0
200
225
250
350
20
75
125
SI
25
1O0
175
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VII. INHIBITORS
FIGURE 4
Gasoline driven trailer mount
showing optional hose reel.
Courtesy of Tritan Corporation
66
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 5 9 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: James Flaherty, A. W. Mallory, Joe Mazia, Marshall
McGee, William Pearson, John Perchall and Bill Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
A biographiwl sketch and photo of Jim Bennett appear at
the end of Chapter 2.4.
FIGURE 5
Steel blasted to white finish (SSPC-SP 5) at 10,000 psi.
Courtesy of Partek Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
67
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER+Z.b
93
a b 2 7 9 4 0 0003502 964
CHAPTER 2.6
S. Hollister
I. HAND CLEANING
Scrapers may be of any convenient design. Figure 3
shows practical scrapers used by maintenance crews.
Scrapers should be made of tool steel, tempered and kept
sharp to be effective. Some scrapers are made by sharpening the ends of 1-112 to 2-inch wide flat files or rasps and
fastening them to a handle. The handle may be up to 5 feet
long to increase the area that can be reached. Other chipping and scraping tools made from old files or rasps have
both ends sharpened. Several inches from one end, the file
is bent at right angles.
Hand-chipping hammers are advisable in maintenance work where rust scale has formed. A chipping
hammer is about 4 to 6 inches long with two wedge-shaped
faces at either end of the head, one face perpendicular to
the line of the handle and the other at right angles to the
first face. Typical tools are illustrated in Figure 3.
Auxiliary equipment includes dust brushes, brooms,
various sizes of putty knives and conventional painters
scrapers, coated abrasives, and safety equipment such as
goggles and dust respirators.
B. PROCEDURES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6%
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.b
93
8b27940 0003503 B T O W
P L I N T E R S RUST CHISEL
PAINTERS' SCRAPER
FIGURE 3
Shop drawings of typical hand tools.
FIGURE 2
Non-woven abrasive pad attached to plastic backup holder.
Courtesy of 3M Company.
69
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 6
73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
A selection of various chipping hammers and the chisels they
use.
Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
FIGURE 6
Types of brushes used with power tools. On the left is shown a
wheel type of stiff wire brush; in the center and on the right are
shown cup types of wire brushes of knotted construction; on the
lower right is a wire brush with a crinkled wire construction. On
the lower left is a wire brush used for cleaning corners, etc.; in use
it is held in an adaptor illustrated in the lower center.
A. CLEANING MEDIA
There are three basic types of cleaning media for
rotary power tools: non-woven abrasives, wire brushes and
coated abrasives. As subsequently described, these media
can be used on two basic types of tools.
B. TOOLS
Tools for the three above media are divided into two
basic types: straight, or in-line machines (Figure 9), and
vertical or right angle machines (Figures 10, 11).
The straight or in-line machine style is used with
radial wire brushes, coated abrasive flap wheels and nonwoven abrasive wheels. The vertical machine style is
suited for cup wire brushes, coated abrasive discs, nonwoven abrasive discs, cup wheels and wheels. The type of
machine varies with job conditions. It is advisable to have
both types on hand and generally both are used on field
jobs.
Operator fatigue is an important factor in power tool
cleaning. An operators preference should be considered
in selecting a machine. In some cases, where much overhead work is to be done, small lightweight machines may
be used. Machines may be operated by pneumatic or elec-
FIGURE 5
Typical needle scalers.
Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
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73
FIGURE 7
Non-woven abrasive products are available (from right to left) in
disc, wheel and cup wheel forms.
Courtesy of 3M Company.
tric motors. Lightweight machines operated by high frequency current are available.
The machine should be compatible with the size and
speed rating of the cleaning media and should produce
enough power to perform the operation efficiently. Most
air powered machines contain governors to limit the free
operating speed. Governors respond to tool load resulting
from thrust applied to the work surface and supply more
air to the motor, increasing power output and maintaining
its rated speed while under load. Electrically driven
machines operate at a fixed speed.
FIGURE 8
Coated abrasives disc (left) or coated abrasive flap wheels (right)
are used for surface preparation.
Courtesy of 3M Company.
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003506 50T
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 11
A non-woven abrasive cup wheel in use on a vertical power tool.
Courtesy of 3M Company.
FIGURE 10
Three air-powered vertical or right-angle power tools.
Courtesy of ARO Corporation.
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93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
This electric tool (right) used a flap loading of heavy duty rcitary
peening (left) to remove mill scale from carbon steel.
Courtesy of 3M Company and Desco Manufacturing Company.
73
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93
Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, seventh edition, National Safety Council, 1121
Spring Lake Drive, Itasca, IL 60143-3201.
Also, various Occupational Safety and Health
;ociation
regulations may be applicable. Reguiations
As2
are available from the Occupational Safety and Health Admiriistration, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHIES
Preston Hollistergraduated
from the University of Illinois at
Champaign-Urbana in Decernber, 1979 with a B.S. in chemical engineering. He worked as a
technical service engineer with
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, Building Service and Cleaning Products
Division, where he specializedin
non-woven abrasive productsfor
industrial applications. He actively represented3M not only in
the SSPC but on ASTMs D33
committee on Protective Coating and Lining Work for PowerGeneration Facilities and the Utilities Nuclear Coatings Work Committee.
SUGGESTED READING
V.M. Gin, 3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto Peen Flap Wheel Coating
Removal System, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1977.
V.M. Gin, Mill Scale. Removal with 3M Brand Heavy Duty Roto
Peen Flap Wheel, BS&CP Division, St. Paul, MN, 1976.
P.S. Hollister, Surface Preparation Procedure for Repairs of
Nuclear Grade Coatings on Steel and Concrete, BS&CP Division,
St. Paul, MN, 1980.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * b
SSPC CHAPTERr2.7
93
CHAPTER 2.7
B. Roth
I. DISCUSSION
It is not reasonable to expect a worker to use conventional heavy, vibrating power tools or equipment continuously for an eight hour day. Experience shows that
three to four productive hours per day can be expected.
Power tools have other pitfalls: power wire brushes can
polish or burnish the substrate; chipping hammers and
power chisels can gouge the surface; and power sanders
clean only the high areas leaving some areas untouched.
It is reasonable to assume a cleaning rate of 100
square feet per hour in an eight hour shift or 400 square
feet per person per day for power tool cleaning. It is also
reasonable to expect a minimum of two items such as wire
discs, cup brushes, sanding inserts, or chisels and varnox
tip sets to be replaced per person per eight hour day.
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73
m 6627740 00035LO
T30
10 person hours
E. SSPC-SP 8 PICKLING
Pickling employs large dip vats and large cranes or
handling equipment and is a shop or fixed-facility operation. Costs are elusive, particularly since each shop
employs a proprietary process and keeps divergent cost
records involving equipment depreciation, discounted
cash flow and related economic factors. In modern industry, pickling has been decreasing in volume practice.
Expect lower cleaning rates when blast cleaning a pickled
substrate. Depending on the pickling process used, field
sandblasting rates can be reduced by as much as 50 to 60
percent.
V. COST REVIEW
When making an estimate of surface preparation cost,
consider these factors:
1. Labor
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 7
TABLE 1
Cleaning Rate Data
Blast Cleaning
Specified
Average Cleaning
Rate Per Three
Person Crew Day
Abrasive
Used Per
Crew Day
7,000 Ibs.
8,000 I bs.
12,500 Ibs.
10,000 Ibs.
Relative
costs
1
2+
3 /2
5+
SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 - 7 93
2. Labor
Fringes
8627940 0 0 0 3 5 1 1 9 7 7
VI. SUMMARY
etc.
4. Material
5. Equipment
Rental
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
Robert B. Roth is Past President of Oliver B. Cannon and
--
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CHAPTER 2.8
I. INTRODUCTION
Most painting and corrosion scientists consider surface preparation to be the key factor in coating performance and protection. The more commonly used techniques
such as abrasive blasting, water blasting, hand and power
tool cleaning, chemical cleaning and pickling are covered
in separate chapters. This chapter describes the many new
approaches to surface preparation of structural steel that
have developed from the need t o protect worker health and
the environment. Several of these proposed new techniques also offer the prospect of improving the quality,
safety or cost of many surface preparation operations.
Open air sandblasting is being restricted in certain
locales because the paint and dust pollute the air and
water. In addition the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is concerned about protecting
workers against silicosis and other respiratory diseases. In
cleaning an existing structure, it may be necessary to
recover and dispose of old paint particles, particularly
those containing lead or chromium compounds.
The selection of the method of surface preparation
depends on a variety of complex factors such as location
and criticality of structure, availability of funds, existence
and enforcement of regulations, and the experience and ingenuity of owner and contractor.
Several of the alternative methods are variations, improvements, and modifications on existing techniques,
such as water blasting or abrasive blasting. Others are
based on non-mechanical forces such as xenon lamps,
lasers, ultrasonic waves or plasma streams. Both of these
categories are covered in this chapter(). This chapter also
describes some of the specialized equipment and
engineering approaches attempted by government agencies and industry to recover the abrasive dusts and paints.
Other chapters describe the latest advances in blast cleaning, power tool cleaning, and chemical cleaning.
78
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SSPC CHAPTER*Z.B
73
m 8627740 0003533
74T
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~~
Area of Concern
Permitted Limits
Worker Health
Worker Health
Federal: OSHA
Federal: OSHA
Worker Health
Federal: OSHA
Worker Health
Clean Air
Clean Air
Solid Waste
Federal:
Federal:
Federal:
Federal:
Clean Water
Silica (Respirable)
Nuisance Dust
(Respirable Fraction)
Lead (Total)
(Construction and
General Industry)
Chromium (Respirable)
Lead (in air)
Suspended Particulates
Leachable Lead &
Chromium
Lead Residues
OSHA
EPA
EPA
EPA
waste. A similar standard exists for hexavalent chromium. The used abrasives (often several hundred tons)
would then require disposal in a more costly and often
difficult to find toxic waste disposal site. Recent blast
cleaning of some bridges in Massachusetts has resulted in
lead concentrations of up to 60mg/liter(g).
In summary, conventional sand blasting and other
paint removal methods may produce the detrimental effects listed above (Table 1).
Let us consider the prospects for alleviating the above
conditions and satisfying the regulations. It is useful to
divide the technology into those methods which alleviate
the air pollution problem and those which alleviate the
dust and paint fallout into water, roadways, etc. As will be
discussed, the new techniques have had reasonable success in reducing the air pollution hazards associated with
abrasive blasting. The problem of preventing dust and
paint from being deposited into the ground and water is
much more difficult and costly.
against the surface to be cleaned by means of compressed air as in dry sand blasting. A separate hose
delivers the water to the nozzle. In the water curtain
version, the water forms a ring around the sand
nozzle. In this method sand and water emerge from
separate orifices. There is little loss of abrasive
velocity leaving the nozzle; cleaning rates are much
the same as with dry blasting(ID).
FIGURE 1
A typical sand injection blast unit.
Courtesy of Partek Corporatlon
79
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93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 2
Typical marine use of the hydraulic equipment with sand injection.
Courtesy of WOMA Corporation
2. Sand Volume
The sand injection method uses considerably less
sand than dry blasting or water curtain. The airwater-sand processes provide a greater degree of
control of the abrasive and consume still smaller
quantities of sand, with the British version using
the least.
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SSPC CHAPTERUZ.8
93
FIGURE 3
Cleaning underside of European bridge with air-water-sand unit.
Coauthor observed separate sections which were cleaned to
white metal (passing potassium ferrocyanide test) and others involving spot removal of individual coats.
Courtesy of KUE, Ltd.
4. Dust
The dust created by dry blasting can be controlled
through the use of either a water injected system or
a water curtain.
5. Costs
It is difficult to compare wet abrasive cleaning
costs with other surface preparation methods.
Equipment and labor costs, surface conditions, and
production rates all vary and have not been well
documented. Compared to hand tool cleaning, the
higher equipment costs of wet abrasive blasting
are more than compensated in lower labor rate
costs per square foot, a cleaner surface, and higher
production rates. The total cost of wet abrasive
blasting is in almost all cases higher than dry sand
blasting. Observed rates vary from 125 to 200% of
the latter.
For the air-water-sand approach, the equipment costs are high compared to other methods;
economics dictates that its use be limited to large
scale appl cations.
FIGURE 4
Flash rusting of water-blasted steel rail.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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CHAPTER*Z.B
93
m 8b27940
00035Lb 459
injection method has been documented as producing from 50 to 125% of the cleaning rate of dry
blasting; most users concede that dry blasting is
faster than a comparably-sized wet blast cleaning
technique. The water curtain method should have
little effect on the production rate, although some
ad hoc or home built modifications have displayed
considerably reduced rates.
Because of the lack of extensive field experience by the users and manufacturers, these
techniques are expected to have a higher rate of
malfunction and down time than conventional dry
sand blast and high-pressure water units.
FIGURE 5
Controlled cavitation blasting of galvanized steel.
Courtesy of SEACO, Incorporated
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5).
The efficiency and productivity of cavitation
jetting depend on the operating pressure and flow
rate, design of nozzle, size of orifice, standoff
distance and angle of impingement. The application of this technique to surface preparation is still
i n the early development stage. Current research efforts focus on a number of different areas pertaining to surface preparation, as well as related areas
such as steel cutting and concrete rehabilitation. A
government-sponsored program is concentrating
82
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003537 395 M
FIGURE 6
Automated robot high-pressure water jet blasting.
Courtesy of Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation
FIGURE 7
Xenon flash lamp for surface preparation.
Courtesy of Maxwell Laboratories
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 * 8 73
D. OTHER ABRASIVES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Zinc shot blasting (zincing) is a modification of the normal blast cleaning procedure in which metallic zinc particles are substituted for all or part of the shot, grit, or
sand. The result is a thin discontinuous deposit of metallic
zinc left on the nascent, freshly-cleaned steel surface
du ring blast i ngIz2).
This deposit is only about 0.05 mils (1.3 microns) thick
but is sufficient to prevent rusting during the days, weeks,
or months required for fabrication and construction. Since
zinc metal is sacrificial to steel, the coating need not be
continuous in order to protect the steel completely. These
islands of zinc are so thin that they do not affect cutting,
welding, or painting. To date the method, originated by the
SSPCI22A) has been proven in both laboratory and pilot
plant, but not yet demonstrated on a full scale.
The zinc deposit can be achieved through either a onestep or two-step operation, but the two-step process appears to be the more practical. It consists of blast cleaning
with steel (or sand) particles, followed by a separate blasting with zinc particles (usually in the same equipment sequence). Alternatively, both the cleaning and the zinc
deposition can be carried out together in a single stage
operation. Both the one- and two-stage processes have
been demonstrated by the SSPC and cooperators with
both nozzles and centrifugal wheel blast cleaning equipment. Only a small portion of the zinc is transferred to the
clean steel by each particle impact. The zinc particles are,
of course, recycled just as the steel shot and grit are
recycled. During the recycling, zinc dust fines are removed
just as steel dust is removed in the shotlgrit blast cleaning
operation.
The zinc deposit has been shown by SSPC to be compatible with conventional coatings, and actually to
lengthen their protective life. Preliminary cost estimates
indicate substantial savings in materials, time and manpower compared with conventional pre-fabrication
primers. Additional work, however, would be necessary to
demonstrate whether or not the new process, or avariation
thereof, is applicable to a production construction or painting operation.
SSPC work has been reported in 1963-73 and subsequently. One variation of the SSPC process, reported in
1976 and developed in Denmarkcz31,is to the use of zinccoated abrasives. Another variation uses sand coated with
zinc dust. One investigator has achieved protection up to
four months with the two-stage zinc blasting process in
which conventional blast cleaning is used to remove rust
and mill scale followed by blasting with zinc powder(24).
NASA approved a variation of the process in 1973(22c).
SSPC work indicates that although zinc is the most effective inhibitive substance to date which can be applied in
blast cleaning equipment, it is not the only one. In early
work a wide variety of other inhibitive materials were investigated but were found to be less desirable because of
the complicated particle-coating process, handling difficulties, toxicity, safety, shorter protection period, or
necessity of removal before coating.
Recently, however, one process has been offered
which uses zinc-coated abrasive and has been used in
blast cleaning below water.
Subsequent to publication of the SSPC work, a
modification was investigated elsewhere using a stearic
acid inhibitor which gave temporary protection but had
to be removed from the surface before painting(25).
Attempts have been made to combine inhibitive
phosphating treatment with blast cleaning(26).
Although the
SSPC has explored several alternative inhibitive materials
to be used in solid, liquid, or vapor form during blast cleaning, additional work would be necessary in order to determine whether or not any of these have promise.
Common practice for cleaning previously painted
process equipment near machinery in industrial plants has
been to use vegetable grit such as corn cobs, walnut
shells, cherry pits, etc. Flintstone is also used.
E. BACTERIAL CLEANING
The Japanese127) have been experimenting with
biological methods of cleaning steel. Scale and rust stains
are removed by dipping or spraying the article with a solution containing a bacterium (thiobacillus ferrooxidans WU66-B or thiobacillus thiooxidans WU-79-A) plus an inorganic
salt (iron sulfate or ammonium sulfate) plus glucose. This
process has been shown to be environmentally acceptable.
It is felt that this method might be applicable for those
FIGURE 8
a4
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 - 8 73
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003539 3bA
F. EXPLOSIVES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 9
6 . LASERS
Preliminary tests have shown that scale or other
adhering deposits can be removed, at least from small
specimens, when they are subjected to thermal shock or
chemical decomposition using a laser beam(31).When
rusted steel was exposed to laser beams of several
kilowatts, the hydrated oxides were changed to a dense,
hard scale of magnetite (Fe,O,), which could then be
removed. It may prove practicable to carry out such operations in a reducing atmosphere to produce a readily
removable layer of metallic iron. Although already applied
to sculpture restoration, laser cleaning i s not believed likely to have an impact on the cleaning of structural steel in
the foreseeable future because of requirements of energy
input and equipment development.
C. ULTRASONIC CLEANING
Ultrasonic cleaning is in widespread use in speeding
the solvent cleaning of small parts, etc. Although it has
been proposed for cleaning of larger structural steel, no
85
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SSPC CHAPTER*ZmB
93
= 8b27940
D. FLAME CLEANING
The heat energy of a direct flame of heated gas has
also been used for steel cleaning.
Surface preparation specification, SSPC-SP 4-64,
"Flame Cleaning of New Steel" described a process for
dehydrating and removing of rust, loose mill scale, and
some tight mill scale by passing a flame over the surface.
The surface is theh wire brushed to remove all loose
materials. (SP 4-64 has been dropped from the new edition
of Volume 2.)
This technique can be hazardous or detrimental when
used on previously painted surfaces. In addition, because
of poor cost effectiveness and limited use, the SSPC has
dropped this specification.
E. PLASMA
- HOT GAS
A combustion unit that uses a mixture of liquid propane and compressed air to produce a blast of hot gas has
been used extensively to remove road markings'33).The
high temperature, 3000" F (1700" C), is sufficient to
vaporize many organic paint films or at least to char them
to the point where the high-velocity air blast can blow the
surface clean. Treatment of a paint film with the hot air
blaster makes any remaining paint easier to remove by
conventional sand blasting.
Use of this unit in the surface preparation of previously painted steel structures is not widespread. However, it
shows considerable promise in those situations where a
heavy vinyl or thermoplastic coating is to be removed,
since the abrasive has a tendency to bounce off rather than
fracture a thick flexible coating.
In preliminary field tests some problems were found
with this
Red lead primer is not completely
removed by the hot air blaster and must be removed by
FIGURE 10
Vacuum blasting of bridge beam.
Courtesy of Massachusetts Pori Authority
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0003520 9 8 T
86
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SSPC C H A P T E R * Z = B 73
FIGURE 11
Enclosed blasting cages and residue collection system.
Courtesy of Massachusetts Port Authority
B. BLASTING CAGES
Another approach to containing dust and paint involves the useof movable enclosures around the blaster. In
an early version, a California contractor built an enclosure
that covered the handrail assembly and longitudinal
girders. It consisted of a rigid frame around scaffolding
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
87
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * Z . 8
93
8627940 0003522 7 5 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Much of the material in this report benefits from a survey
made by the SSPC for the U S . Maritime Administration through
the Avondale Shipyard.
The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Einar A. Borch, Theodore Dowd, Preston S. Hollister, A.
W. Mallory, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, William Pearson,
William J. Wallace, Jr., and Raymond Weaver.
BIOGRAPHY
Portraits and biographical sketches of Dr. Appleman and Mr.
Keane appear at the end of the Foreword.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VIII. SUMMARY
In this chapter we have described a variety of methods
which have had varying degrees of success. The future of
many of these methods depends largely on the regulatory
authorities. Almost all of the newer techniques are more
costly and less productive than sandblasting. In locales
where sandblasting will continue to be permitted, it will
probably remain the most cost-effective way to clean structural steel.
For situations in which the major problems are those
of air contamination, e.g. dust or lead paint particles, the
use of some form of wet-blasting technique appears to be
the best choice at present. Several of these water methods
are highly sophisticated and are able to reduce the airborne particulate levels by 80-90 percent.
In certain locales, such as near sensitive machinery, in
densely populated areas, or over sensitive waterways, it
may be necessary to eliminate any particles from contaminating the environment. For these conditions, it would
be necessary to use the less productive, most costly
techniques such as vacuum blasting or closed cages. Even
these, however, are not sufficiently developed to be applicable to most of the structural conditions encountered.
To improve these techniques would require substantial
commitment by users, equipment manufacturera, and contractors. Thus, it is essential that the regulatory agencies
provide clear guidelines and policies for the standards
governing air and water quality, worker health and safety,
and other requirements.
The overall regulatory picture, however, is likely to remain complex. Several of the federal standards are not yet
finalized; others are being considered for revision. State
and local regulations vary enormously from one jurisdiction to another. California, for example, frequently imposes
the earliest and most severe restrictions. There is a wide
variation i n the awareness and enforcement of existing
federal and state regulations. It is therefore not likely that
any set of uniformly applied regulations would be adopted
in the foreseeable future.
There are factors other than actual or anticipated
regulations which influence the development of surface
cleaning techniques. These include the cost and supply of
abrasives, the efficiency and cleaning rate of new equipment, the availability and cost of power and water, improved worker safety and comfort, and the requirements of
varied coating materials. Thus, there is a continuing need
to develop and evaluate new procedures and techniques
for surface preparation of steel.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
88
Not for Resale
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1o.
lla.
llb.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
73
REFERENCES
John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Survey of Existing and Promising New Methods of
Surface Preparation. (Report prepared by Steel Structures
Painting Council for US. Maritime administration through
the Avondale Shipyard).
OSHA, Standard for Abrasive Blasting. See Proposed ANSI Standard A10.29, American National Standard Practice
for Construction Abrasive Blasting October, 1980.
Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Register, Volume
36, Number 84, April 30, 1981, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards and Revisions of
November 25,1981, July 1, 1976, December 1,1976, October
5, 1978, February 8, 1979.
US. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines Informational
Circular 8333. Ringlemann Smoke Chart, May 1967.
Environmental Protection Agency, National Ambient Air
Quality Standard for Lead. Title 40, CFR Section 50.12, Appendix G (sets limits of 1.5 micrograms of lead per cubic
meter averaged over 90 days)
OSHA, Final Standard for Occupational Exposure to Lead.
Federal Register Vol. 43, No. 220 (Section 1910.1025, Table
2-2, amended to limit exposure to lead to 50 micrograms per
cubic meter averaged over 8 hours), November 14, 1978.
OSHA, Title 29 - Labor. (29CFR1910.1000, Sub-part Z,
Table 2-2 sets ceiling of 100 micrograms of chromic acid and
chromates per cubic meter.)
Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), Federal
Register, May 19, 1980, pages 33127-33132, and amendments.
L. Stevens, Massachusetts Department of Public Works and
M. Tobey, Massachusetts Port Authority, Private Communications, 1981.
A. Ticker, and S. Rodgers, Abatement of Pollution Caused
by Abrasive Blasting: Status in Naval Shipyards. NSRDC
Report No. 4549, 79 pps., 1975.
U S . Coast Guard, (Code G-EOE), Washington DC, District;
Fifth Coast Guard District, Miami, FL; and Seventh Coast
Guard District, Portsmouth, VA; private communication.
Federal Highway Administration, Evaluation of Commercial
Blast Cleaning Systems. Report N-FHWA TS 81-xxx,
Federal Highway Administration, Washington, DC 20590.
KUE Engineering Ltd., KUE: System 9-18, Polymers, Paint
and Colour Journal, (Great Britain), pp. 202, March 9, 1977.
Equipment Technology, Inc., 5620 New Peachtree Road,
Chamblee, GA, Private Communication.
Steel Structures Painting Council, Volume 2 Systems and
Specifications, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991 Printin
V.E. Johnson, Jr., R.E. fohl, and A.F. Conn, Tunneling,
Fracturing, Drilling, and Mining with High Speed Water Jets
Utilizing Cavitation Damage. First International Symposium
on Jet Cutting Technology, Coventry, England, 1973, Paper
A 3 and Supplement.
Federal Highway Administration Reports FHWA RD-82-001
and FHWA RD-82-002, Development of System for Controlled Cavitation Blasting for Surface Preparation of Structurai Steel.
T. Appling, Texas Department of Highways and Public
Transportation, Private Communication, 1980.
M. Hosoda, N. Saiki, and J. Nakamura, Sand Blasting with
High-pressure Steam. Japanese Patent 7533,121, Dai Nippon Tokyo Company, Ltd.
C. Fong, Pollution-Free Blasting. National Paint and
Coatings Association 16th Annual Maine Coatings Conference, 7 pps. 1976.
C.J. Sandwith, and T. Briewick, High Velocity Ice Particles
for Cleaning Ship Hulls - A Feasibility Study. 4th International Congress of Marine Corrosion and Fouling, May,
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
1975.
S. Usami, and H. Kozu, Microbial Surface Treatment of
Metals. Ger. Offen, 2,409,649 (September 19, 1974) and
Japan Appl. 23,749 (March 1, 1973).
P. Barrillom, Preservation of Materials in the Marine Environment - Analysis of Replies to the inquiry on Methodsof Surface Preparation in Shipyards, 1964.
Anonymous, Bright Ideas - Xenon Lamps Intense Flash
Burns Off Steel Truss Rust. Engineering News Record, pp.
11, May 31, 1979.
Maxwell Laboratories, Inc., Surface Preparation by
Flashblasting. Technical Literature, San Diego, CA.
J.W. Hill, M.J. Lee, and I.J. Spalding, Surface Treatments
by Laser. Optics and Laser Technlogy, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp.
267-268, 1974.
Branson Cleaning Equipment Company, Ultrasonic Cleaning and Vapor, Parrot Drive, Shelton, CT 06484, 1980.
Prismo Universal Corporation, Hot Compressed Air (HCA)
Equipment, Parsippany, NJ 07054.
A. Beitelman, US. Army Construction Engineering and
Research Laboratories, Champaign, IL, private communication.
F.A. Boyle, New Methods of Surface Preparation by the
US. Navy. Paper presented 1978 Federal Highway Administration Research Review Conference, College Park,
Maryland, October 3-5, 1978.
National Shipbuilding Research Program, Procedure Handbook: Surface Preparation and Painting of Tanks and Closed
Areas, 1981, Cooperative cost shared efforts by Maritime
Administration, Avondale Shipyards (J. Peart, R&D Program
Manager) and Complete Abrasive Blasting Systems, Inc.,
(J. A. Geis, Project Manager).
B. Baldwin, Methods of Dust-Free Abrasive Blast
Cleaning. Plant Engineering, pps. 116-125, February 15,
1978.
M. Tobey, Painting of Mystic River (Tobin) Bridge. Paper
presented 1980 Federal Highway Administration Research
Review Conference, December 10-11, 1980.
Iowa Department of Transportation, Special Provisions for
Repainting Bridges (Environmental Protection). SP-240,
Ames, IA, March 27, 1979.
1976.
T.W. Burke, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., Allentown,
Pennsylvania, 18105, Private Communications, 1981.
22. J.D. Keane, Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel. SSPC
Report, April 1964.
22A. J.H. McAuliffe, Zinc Shot Blasting of Structural Steel.
Scientific Australian, March 1964.
21.
89
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*Z.A
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 . 9 93
8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003524 525
CHAPTER 2.9
CHEMICAL CLEANING
by
Melvin H. Sandler and Samuel Spring
The importance of surface preparation to the durability of any coating system has been emphasized throughout
this manual. Without proper surface preparation the finest
coating applied with the greatest of skill will fall short of
its maximum performance or may even fail miserably. A
coating can perform its function only so long as it remains
intact and firmly bonded to the substrate.
An adequately prepared surface not only provides a
good anchor for the coating, but also ensures a surface
free of corrosion products and contaminants that might
shorten the life of the film by spreading along the coating
substrate interface and destroying adhesion, or by actually
breaking through the coating.
Thus, the initial step in any finishing operation is
cleaning the surface. This chapter describes chemical
cleaning materials and methods. Other chapters of this
manual cover mechanical surface cleaning.
B. ALKALI
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
90
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SSPC CHAPTER*2.9
93
FIGURE 1
Steam cleaning of large or assembled structures. The steam
cleaner may be directly fired or use plant steam as in the above
photograph. When the distance from the gun is small, the
temperatures are close to 2OOOF so high melting soils can be
removed more readily. At more normally used distances of the
gun from the surface, the temperature may be 160 to 180'F but a
larger area is covered. The cleaning operation is under considerable control by the operator in terms of the time of exposure of the
soil to the detergent spray and the distance from the gun.
C. ACIDS
Acid cleaners are usually composed of fairly strong
acids with small quantities of surfactants, water miscible
solvents and organic wetting and emulsifying agents. Acid
cleaners remove a soil by chemical attack and by dissolving the reaction products. They are used primarily to
remove corrosion products.
A. SOLVENT WIPE
Wiping with solvent followed by a second wipe with
clear solvent or by removal of excess solvent with a clean
cloth can be effective depending on the soil. Mineral spirits
and stoddard solvent are relatively convenient and inexpensive to use. The quality of cleaning obtained depends
largely upon the severity of the soiling and the expertise
of the operator. Good, well supervised workers using
clear solvent and clean wiping rags can do a reasonably
good job. Some soils may require more effective solvents
such as xylene or chlorinated solvents other than those
mentioned above. Solvent cleaning is most effective for
removal of oils and greases from limited areas of structures and for occasional cleaning prior to painting. Where
the complete structure is to be cleaned, other methods are
more practical.
D. DETERGENTS
Detergent cleaners are composed of buffering salts,
sequestering agents, dispersants, inhibitors, wetting
agents andlor soaps. They function by wetting, emulsifying, dispersing and solubilizing the soil. They are generally
used at temperature ranging from 150F (SSOC) to boiling.
111. CLEANING
WARNING - In the use of any cleaning method, appropriate safety precautions must be taken to protect personnel from materials and conditions which may present
fire hazards, cause skin irritation, or have toxic effect when
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
91
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERl(2.9
9 3 W 862'7940 0003526 3 T B W
TABLE 1
S o m e U.S. Government Specifications for Chemical Cleaning*
S D e c i f i c a t i o n No.
Title
Material
Application
Purpose
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P-c-111
Carbon Removing
Compound
Monoethanolamine
Soak
MIL-STD 338
Cleaning and
Treatment of
Aluminum Parts
Alkaline base
Immersion
P-C-436
Cleaning Compound,
Alkali
Hot alkaline
phosphate solutions
Immersion
P-c-437
Cleaning Compound,
High Pressure
(Steam) Cleaner
Alkaline phosphate
& non-phosphate
TT-C-490
Cleaning & P r e
treatment of
Ferrous Surfaces
for Organic
Coatings
Solvent, Alkaline,
emulsion &
phosphoric acid
Immersion,
spray or
brush
MIL-(2-10578
Corrosion Removing
and Metal
Conditioning
Compound
Phosphoric-acid base;
6 types
Immersion.
spray or
brush
Rust remover.
MIL-C-11090
Cleaning Compound,
Degreasing &
Depreservi ng
Solvent
Esters and
organic salts
Soak, brush
or spray
MI L-H-13528
Acid, Hydrochloric,
Inhibited, RustRemoving
Hydrochloric
acid
Soak
MI L-C-14460
Corrosion Removing
Compound
Sodium hydroxide
base
Electrolytic
or immersion
MIL-C-22542
Cleaning Compound,
High Pressure
Cleaner, Liquid
Optional
High pressure
steam cleaning
machines, coil
type
MI L-C-38334
Corrosion Removing
Compound, Prepaint,
for AircraftAluminum Surfaces
Phosphoric acid
Spray or
wash
MIL-C-43616
Cleaning
Compounds, Aircraft
Surfaces
Opt ional
Spray, brush
or foam
MIL-'2-46156
Corrosion Removing
Compound
Sodium hydroxide
base
Immersion
At elevated temperatures,
will remove rust, paint,
scale, grease, dirt,
asphalt & carbon.
MI L-C-81302
Cleaning Compound,
Solvent
Trichlorotrifluorethane
Spraying,
flushing,
vapor
degreasing,
ultrasonics
MIL-C-87936
Cleaning
Compounds, Aircraft
Surfaces
Optional; water
dilutable
* T h e following specifications have b e e n removed from this table to reflect current practice: MIL-C-25769,
MIL-C-27251, MIL-C-81533, MIL-S-10561, MIL-T-7003
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
92
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 . 9
TABLE 2
USED IN CLEANING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PATENT FIBER -
PAYMYRA FIBER -
PALMETTO FIBER
BOAR BRISTLE -
ACRYLIC PLASTICS
BRASS -
STAINLESS STEEL -
B. STEAM CLEANING
A high pressure jet of steam, with or without cleaning compound, is used to clean ferrous, non-ferrous
and painted surfaces. Steam removes grease, oil, and dirt
by a combination of detergent action, water, heat and impact. Alkali cleaners used in steam cleaning will attack
aluminum and zinc alloys, unless specifically inhibited
against such action. They should be used selectively over
painted surfaces to assure no damage to the paint i f
removal is not desired.
The equipment required is a pressure jet steam
cleaner (Figures 1 and 2). A separate solution tank or drum
may be required for preparation of the cleaning compound.
One type of steam cleaner stores the concentrated cleaning solution and mixes it with water at a constant rate to
produce a uniform cleaning solution through a heating unit
in which it is partially vaporized and put under pressure.
The hot solution and steam are forced through the nozzles
onto the surfaces to be cleaned. The same equipment can
be used for cleaning with dry steam or with cold water
under high pressure. This type of steam cleaner may be
either portable or stationary.
i\
_
.
c
._
FIGURE 2
Functional perspective of an oil-fired steam cleaner.
Courtesy Allied Kelite
Div. Richardson Corp. Chicago
93
Not for Resale
D. FOAM CLEANING
Foamed detergent solutions are popular for cleaning
food processing plants and automotive equipment such as
trucks (Figures 6 and 7). They are also used to acid clean
the inside of towers under conditions in which the tower is
actually filled with foam, obviating the necessity for filling
it with liquid. The foam is normally used t o cling to vertical
surfaces long enough for detergency to take place. Sometimes a gel is sprayed onto the surfaces to achieve even
longer contact time. In general the foam is neutral SD that
a limited residue may not adversely affect paint if rinsing
is not complete.
In this process foam is generated by mixing a high
foaming surfactant, often containing foam stabilizer and
detergent builder, with water and compressed air. Variations in foam cleaning (Figures 5A, 58 and 5C)include (A)
the small unit that has a tube to pick up foaming concentrate from a drum, (6) the unit that pumps diluted foaming
94
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 - 7
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 = 9 93
E. BRUSH CLEANING
FIGURE 4
High pressure spray machines in which the hot detergent solution
is made up in a reservoir rather than being injected into hot steam.
This provides a more predictable concentration of detergent and
permits the spraying of a high volume solution of known
detergent concentration.
Courtesy, Oxford Chemicals
Div. Consolidated Foods Corp.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A
,R
I
INLET
FOAM OUTLET
95
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SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 . 7
73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
Portable Foamer.
Courtesy Oxford Chemical Division,
Consolidated Foods Corp.
96
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SSPC CHAPTER*2.9
93
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: P.J. Bennett, J. Carroll, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Arnold
Eickhoff, Aaron Greenberg, Mark Kuchner, Robert McCormick, C.
Munger, William Pearson, William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Melvin H. Sandler has been
involved in research and development and technical services
on chemical coatings, metal
preparation prior to painting,
and corrosion control for over
35 years. During his service as
a chemist and Division Chief at
the former U.S. Army Coating
and Chemical Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, he
was responsible for the development of coatings for the
preservation of Army material.
Mr. Sandler is the author of more than 50 technical publications
and 20 military specifications dealing with coatings and corrosion
and has served as a consultant to government and industry. In
1976 he joined Lenmar, inc., an industrial finishes manufacturer,
with responsibility for new product development and other
coat i ngs con su It ing servi ces.
REFERENCES
S . Spring, Industrial Cleaning, Prism Press, 1974.
S. Spring, Preparafion of Metais for Painting, Reinhold Publishing
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Corporation.
Departments of the U S . Army, Navy, Air Force Technical Manual
No. 5-618, NAVFAC MO 110, AFM 85-3, Paints and Protective
Coatings, January 15, 1969.
U.S. Air Force Technical Manual No. T.O. 1-1-1, Cleaning of
Aerospace Equipment, Change 9 - March 15, 1976.
97
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SSPC CHAPTERm3-L 93
= 8627940 0 0 0 3 5 3 2
hTL
CHAPTER 3.1
The zinc phosphate coating is formed by crystallization onto the surface by chemical reaction, but is integral
with the surface rather than deposited on the surface. The
continuous structure consists of the steel substrate, a thin
layer of adherent iron oxide, then a mixed oxide-phosphate
(iron andlor zinc), and finally a crystalline zinc phosphate.
There are no sharply defined interfaces between the
layers. When paint is applied to this adherent surface, it is
held almost as tightly as though it were in good contact
with clean steel itself. In addition, the surface area in contact is greatly increased, and a high quality surface treatment i s obtained. Thus, there i s a substantial barrier to atmospheric moisture and considerable resistance to chipping, cracking, and underpaint corrosion; and often a
heavier paint film can be held in position in a single
coating. Small crystals of limited porosity in such coatings
provide the best performance.
Iron phosphate coatings have been referred to as
non-crystalline conversion coatings, but microcrystalline would probably be more appropriate. The
coating is a mixture of adherent iron oxide and iron
phosphate with minor quantities of other components
from the bath occluded in the crystals. It is considerably
thinner than zinc phosphate and essentially non-porous.
The thinner deposit allows more flexibility with paints that
are intrinsically less flexible but more enduring.
Treatment with phosphoric acid does not provide
much coating, but sometimes good results are achieved
with certain highly impervious and inert paint systems.
Prolonged treatment with phosphoric acid removes oxides
and sometimes provides a light etch that is beneficial to
adhesion. Residues from phosphoric acid treatment are
less detrimental than those from sulfuric or hydrochloric
(muriatic) acids.
Phosphate coatings function in the following ways:
1. They put the surface in a non-alkaline condition:
alkaline residues undermine paint finishes and thus promote corrosion;
98
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - L
TABLE 1
TYPES OF PHOSPHATE CLEANING OF STEEL
Characteristics
Spray
3 or 4 stage
Non-crystalline phosphatelcleaning
5 or 6 stage
zinc DhosDhate
Immersion
Zinc phosphate
Excel lent.
Non-crystalI ne phosphate
Acid DiCkle
Vapour degreaser
Manual
Wipe-on wipe-off phosphoric acid
clean
Solvent clean
Minimum performance.
Mechanical Abrasion
A. ZINC PHOSPHATING
In this method the steel is treated with a chemical
solution prepared by diluting a proprietary concentrate to
the 2 to 4% level. Immersion baths are more concentrated
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
99
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - L
93
TABLE 2
PHOSPHATE PROCESS OPERATIONS
Size
Large: (e.g., an assembled bus or large tank assembly)
Manual
Substantial: (e.g., automobiles or large cabinet assemblies)
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1O0
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - 1 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003535 300
Title
TY Pe
Requirements
Application
TT-C-490
Phosphate
Paint adhesion,
sait spray
MIL-S-5002
Surface Treatments
and Inorganic
Coatings for Metal
Surfaces of Weapon
Systems
Phosphate
Salt spray
MIL-C-13924
Coating, Oxide,
Black, for Ferrous
Metals
Oxide
Corrosion resistance
for moving parts.
DOD-P-16232
Phosphate Coatings,
Heavy Manganese and
Zinc Base (for Ferrous
Met a Is)
Manganese
phosphate,
zinc
phosphate
Corrosion protection
resistant to alkaline
environments, and
prevention of galling.
MIL-C-46487
Cleaning: Preparation
and Organic Coating of
Steel Cartridge Cases
Iron
phosphate
- alkaline cleaner
2. Rinse
3. Zinc phosphate
4. Rinse
5. Passivating final rinse
An intermediate stage may be interspersed between
stages 2 and 3 for the purpose of improving the crystal size
of the zinc phosphate by use of a colloidal titanium salt.
Cleaners containing titanium may also affect the grain
refining function. There will be further discussion below of
the final rinse, which applies both to zinc and iron
phosphate.
101
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 3
Some Government Specifications
on Phosphating Steel Surfaces
SSPC CHAPTERJ3-II 9 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Solvent Phosphating
The more widely used phosphating processes,
such as those which have been discussed up to
this point, are water-based. There is also a system
using trichloroethylene as the base for cleaning,
phosphating, and subsequent finishing.
This method involves three stages and requires special equipment:
a.vapor degreasing i n a boiling bath of
trichloroethylene at 188 F;
b.phosphating by either spray or dip in the
organic acid phosphates;
c. c o a t i n g w i t h an organic f i n i s h using
trichloroethylene as the solvent.
102
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Jim Bennett, James Davis, Ted Dowd, Larry Drake, Arnold Eickhoff, H. Kline, Mark Kuchner, Howard Lasser, M.F.
Maher, Jim Maurer, Joe Mazia, Robert McCormick, Lou Nowacki,
William Pearson. Melvin Sandler and William Wallace.
lack of adequate control of composition and concentration. The desired concentration is so low (e.g., 2 to 4 oz/lOO
gal) that small amounts of contaminant can reduce too
much of the chromate to the chromic condition. Excessive
concentration, on the other hand, can result in blistering
under highly humid conditions.
The rinse sometimes is used after excessive contamination by electrolyte salts. Disposal regulations are
another diffjculty: the amount of chromate that can be introduced into the effluent is extremely small, for practical
purposes, almost nil. This has resulted in the use of nonchromated final rinses, often merely very dilute phosphoric
acid or de-ionized water, which are of limited value. Some
chromium-free rinses are almost as effective as the
chromic acid type when used with zinc phosphate
coatings. Some of these also contain ions which have
limited acceptance in effluent. These can be adequate for
some purposes but are less safe to use than the chromic
acid rinse, and require very close control. The low concentration of chromium in the chromic acid rinse makes it
feasible to treat this effluent without high cost.
BIOGRAPHY
A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Spring may be found
at the end of Chapter 2.9.
REFERENCES
1. M.F. Maher and A.M. Pradel, Phosphate Coatings, Metal
finishing Guidebook, pp. 674-687, 1981.
2. Samuel Spring, Preparation of Metals for Painting, Reinhold
Publishing Co., New York, 1965.
3. Samuel Spring and K. Woods, Phosphatizing with NonCrystalline Coatings, Metal finishing, Volume 78, No. 9, p.
31, 1980.
4. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, Selection of a Paint Pretreatment System, Mefal finishing, Volume 78, No. 6, p. 17, 1980.
5. K. Woods, and Samuel Spring, Zinc Phosphating, Metal
finishing, Vol. 77, No. 3, p. 24 and No. 4, p. 56, 1979.
6. K. Woods and Samuel Spring, Chromating as a Prepaint
Treatment System, Metal Finishing, Vol. 79, No. 6, 1981.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
103
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2
93
CHAPTER 3.2
I. INTRODUCTION
Pickling is the immersion of objects in dilute acids.
Pickling in metal working industries is a process in which
metals are immersed in acid solutions to remove oxides or
scales. Many excellent references are available1-16.
The primary reference is the second edition of the
Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume i on Chemical
Surface Preparation by F.P. Spruance, Jr., then Chief,
Research and Development Section, American Chemical
Paint Company. Most of the basic technical data on pickling is valid and included in this chapter with appropriate
changes. Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 8 covers several pickling processes.
Various acids used in commercial pickling are
sulfuric, hydrochloric or muriatic, nitric, hydrofluoric,
phosphoric and mixtures of these. In the United States,
sulfuric acid, because of its low cost, high boiling point,
availability and general suitability, is used extensively in
pickling simple and low carbon steels. They represent the
bulk of tonnage pickled. Increased use of reclamation and
regeneration of acids has made hydrochloric acid pickling
prominent for most low-carbon steels. Without acid
regeneration and reclamation some batch plant operations are being curtailed due to the high cost of disposing
of waste pickle liquors. Disposal problems result from envi ronmental reguIat ions.
Hydrochloric or muriatic acid alone or in combination
with sulfuric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid is used to
brighten stainless and some alloy steels. The use of
hydrochloric acid with some grades of stainless steel,
especially 300 and 400 series, can increase the susceptibility to pitting and stress corrosion cracking and must
be used with caution. This chapter primarily concerns
structural grade low carbon steels.
Pickling is usually done by immersing work into pickle
baths in tanks. The same principles apply if the pickle
solution is sprayed or flowed over the work or if the work is
pulled through baths of acid as i n the continuous pickling
of strip steel.
Acids suitable for pickling should remove only scale
from base metal, but a substantial amount may be wasted
dissolving the metal itself. Waste can be prevented with
suitable inhibitors.
For the rolling process steel is heated below the
melting point, usually i n open furnaces i n which oxygen
from the furnace atmosphere combines with hot metal to
form oxides of iron and alloying elements. On cooling,
these oxides set as a hard, brittle, adherent and usually
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
104
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,-fRACKS
I N SCALE
93
1. Cold Rinsing
When metal is removed from the pickle bath, a
thin film of pickling acid and salts, resulting from
reaction of acid with metal, clings to it. The acid
and salts, with the exception of some produced
from phosphoric acid, actually stimulate rust formation and must be completely removed before
they dry. An ample supply of clean water must be
available for rinsing, which may be accomplished
by any convenient means. Steel, wood, or concrete tanks provided with a skimming trough to
take care of an ample overflow of water are
generally used, although water can be applied
liberally with a hose.
Pickled work should be rinsed promptly, particularly i f the acid is hot. If the film dries, it is difficult to rinse away residues that can cause trouble in many of the following operations.
FIGURE 1
Mili scale is composed of several layers: A. Fe,O, B. Fe,O, C. F e 0
D. F e 0
Fe.
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
105
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 . 2
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2
73
TABLE I
Acids and lining materials that resist them
Sulfuric
Muriatic
Phosphoric
Hydrofluoric
Nitric
Stainless
Wood
Lead
Rubber
Steel
(Brick)
Vemporary)
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
106
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8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003543 bo4 M
SSPC C H A P T E R a 3 . 2 9 3
B. TEMPERATURE
While the activity of the acid solution within the usual
pickling range is proportional to its strength, the activity of
a pickle bath is markedly affected by its temperature, as is
shown in Figure 4 for sulfuric acid.
C. IRON SALTS
A fresh pickle bath at a fixed temperature continues
to remove scale from steel at the same rate; however,
pickle baths do not stay fresh. Small amounts of scale and
large amounts of metal that dissolve in the acid form iron
salts, such as iron sulfate (copperas), in solution. The
presence of iron salts in the bath has a significant effect
on pickling. As salts build up, removal of scale is delayed,
making the bath act as though the amount of acid in it had
been reduced.
With sulfuric acid pickling the effect of varying
amounts of sulfate in the bath is shown in Figure 5. As a
result of the retarding action of iron sulfate, or salts from
other pickling acids, the pickle baths should be discarded
before they become saturated.
D. TIME
Time is an important factor in scale removal. Some
time is required for acid to penetrate the scale and blow it
off, and even more time is needed to undermine "rolled-in
scale" or scale embedded in pits. Enough time must be
allowed to remove scale completely.
.PUURIG
FIGURE 2
E. AGITATION
107
Not for Resale
-,.I
/ \
usual method is to keep acid strength constant and to increase temperature to offset the slowing action of the accumulating iron sulfate.
When a pickle bath has dissolved about 2% pounds of
iron sulfate per gallon, its scale removing property is appreciably reduced (Figure 5). It is at or near this point
that most picklers discontinue adding acid, so that which
remains can be consumed as completely as possible in
useful pickling and so a minimum amount is left to be
discarded. To offset weakening acid and accumulating ferrous sulfate, bath temperature is gradually raised, eventually to the boiling point, and the bath is used as long as it
pickles in a reasonable time. It is then discarded. In this
way acid strengths can be reduced markedly but continue
to be used; thus, substantial savings in acid can be made.
The literature further discusses the influence of these
factors.
i
---I
i-I
IL
40--
I
--'?
>
30---
20 -
IO
40
60
EQUIVALENT PERCENT OF 2C
FIGURE 3
Rate of attack of hydrochloric or muriatic acid on mild steel.
Courtesy of Amchem Products, Inc.
4
I I
A I
3600
FIGURE 4
Effect of temperature on the rate of attack of sulfuric acid on mild
steel.
Courtesy of Anchem Products, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-I
SSPC C H A P T E R s 3 - 2 93
1 - burette stand
2 - 250 ml. glass beakers
2 - stirring rods
1 - glass indicator bottle
Reagents required:
1.0 normal sodium hydroxide solution
0.1 normal potassium permanganate solution
methyl orange - 1 gm./liter of H,O
c.p. sulfuric acid, concentrated
a
Y
W
CY
BO
II
~SULPHPITECONCE~TRCIO~
I;TWHICH
CONCENTR'ATIONS
S~LPHATE
A; WHICH
ADDITIONS OFACID ARE USUALLY
DISCONTINUE0
2
W
o
K
290
IOOL
1. Calculation
The number of mls. of 1.0 normal sodium hydroxide used, multiplied by the appropriate factors
shown in Table 2 below, gives the desired quantity
of 66" or 60" Be sulfuric acid or 20" or 18" Be
muriatic acid.
TABLE 2
ICOL TABLE
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grams per 100 m l . ....................
Poundspergal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percent by Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grams per 100 ml .....................
Poundspergal .......................
66O Be
Sulfuric
60 Be
Su If uric
0.573
1 .O53
8.771
0.740
1.263
10.525
20 Be
Muriatic
1 8 O Be
Muriatic
1.999
2.319
19.353
2.288
2.612
21.796
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1 o9
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*3.2
93
3. Calculation
The number of ml of 0.1 normal potassium permanganate used, multiplied by 0.0465, equals the
pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon of pickling solution.
Pounds of iron (Fe) per gallon, multiplied by 12,
equals grams of iron (Fe) per 100 ml of pickling
solution.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Records
With facilities to analyze the bath, pickling can be
efficient. Complete records are essential. A simple procedure for recording strength and temperature of the pickle bath, its iron content, when and
how much acid is added, the number of tons pickled, etc., is to plot the data at regular intervals on
a chart.
These records show consumption of acid per
ton. Other pertinent data can be calculated. The
graph indicates whether the bath has been
discarded with too much acid or before enough
iron has been dissolved. Records like this show
the effect of different pickling procedures over
periods of time.
Other records help in cost accounting or
comparing one practice with another. An example
is comparing the effect of an inhibitor throughout
the life of a pickle bath. Data and calculation
sheets provide for calculation of the necessary
cost per ton, or preferably, per 1000 square feet.
When this figure is compared for two or more pickling practices, advantages can be seen.
V. INHIBITORS
Analysis and record keeping of tonnage, acid consumption, etc. make it possible to prevent careless waste.
Pickling in uninhibited acid is a wasteful process because
to remove scale it is necessary that acid dissolve some of
the underlying metalt8. Uninhibited acid does not stop
dissolving metal after scale comes off. The result is that
parts of the steel are usually badly over-pickled before
all scale is removed. This wastes good metal and acid.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 6
Pickling machine in use for the pickling of mild steel. Acid tank is
on the left, while the rinse tank is on the right.
Courtesy of Arnchern Products, Inc.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 . 2
73
= 8627940
0003546 196
ml of distilled water.
Add 0.18 normal potassium permanganate
from titration burette, with stirring, to solution
in the 125 ml Erlenmeyer flask until the solution first turns a permanent pink color. Record
number of ml of permanganate solution used.
Calculation: Each ml of permanganate solution used is equivalent to 0.08 Ib./gal. iron in the
phosphoric acid bath. If 3.0 ml were required to
obtain the pink color then 3.0 x 0.08 Ib./gal. =
0.24 Ib./gal. iron in pickle bath. A titration requiring 12 ml of permanganate solution would
equal an iron concentration of 1 Ib./gal.
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FIGURE 7
Immersing steel plates in sulfuric acid pickling tank.
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FIGURE 8
Pickling set up for sulfuric-phosphate pickling. Sulfuric acid tank is on the right, rinse tank in the middle, and phosphate tank on the left. A
pickled plate is being withdrawn from the sulfuric acid bath.
acid and operate closer to the 1YO concentration by occasional additions of phosphoric acid. It is not necessary to
hold immersion time to a minimum of three minutes. Successful results can be obtained with immersion of approximately one minute. Though results are successful within
all mentioned ranges, the lower phosphoric concentration
and shorter immersion tends to produce thinner and less
porous phosphate coatings. This type of coating is an excellent base for most paints, even though the thicker
phosphate film might be more rust inhibitive by itself.
Either way, the film of iron phosphate prevents surface
rusting in a sheltered exposure, such as a fabrication
shop, for an extended period of time, even though primer is
normally applied while the steel is warm.
To prepare this bath the necessary amount of iron in
the form of steel drillings, steel wool, etc., should be
dissolved in 8-10% phosphoric acid heated to 176F (80C)
and then diluted with water to the required concentration.
The dilute phosphoric acid bath may be used over a
number of runs provided that the pickled material when
taken from the bath is clean and free from loose deposits.
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H. METHODS
SSPC C H A P T E R * 3 - 2
73 W 8627740 0003548 T b 7 W
All paint systems are not detailed other than t o say
they were various manufacturers proprietary systems, as
well as several of the standard systems from AWWAD102-64. These included vinyl, epoxy, chlorinated rubber,
phenolic, asphalt and coal tar epoxy systems. Ratings
were tabulated from the three exposure zones; .e. the
vapor zone above the high water level, the fluctuation zone
and below the fluctuation zone or continuous immersion.
The results, especially as related to surface preparation,
were:
I. CONTROL
The control necessary is simple and rapidly becomes
routine. A full strength concentration of sulfuric acid in the
descaling bath is not usually maintained in acid-pickling
work, although there is no objection to the concentration
being increased up to 10%. In fact, the higher concentration tends to produce a cleaner plate in less time, but
careful time control may be required to prevent pitting. The
iron content of the dilute phosphoric acid bath almost controls itself, since the bath makes up considerably from the
live steam used for heating, and as the amount of iron going into the solution is small, the concentration never exceeds the maximum specified. The amount of sulfuric acid
carried over into the dilute bath is, of course, small and
need not be considered at all. Traces of sulfuric acid in this
bath do not seem to affect the efficiency of the iron
phosphate film on the pickled plate. Technical phosphoric
acid can be used, which contains the usual small amounts
of impurities.
It is desirable to add a suitable inhibitor to the sulfuric
acid bath to reduce the attack of the acid on good metal.
3.
K. ELECTROLYTIC PICKLING
Electrolytic pickling of iron and steel is used to avoid
difficulties encountered in still pickling. The removal of
rust is comparatively easy with still pickling methods, but
removal of the black magnetic oxide of iron, Fe,O,, which
is slowly soluble in sulfuric acid, is difficult without the
use of electrolytic methods.
Electrolytic pickling is usually much more rapid than
still pickling because of greater evolution of hydrogen during electrolytic pickling, which agitates the pickling solution, reduces scale, and tends to pry off scale from the surface of the steel. In acid consumption, however, there is Iittle difference between electrolytic pickling and inhibited114
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
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REFERENCES
1. F.P. Spruance, Jr., Chemical Surface Preparation, Chapter
Three, Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, 1963.
2. American Chemical Paint Company, Bulletin No. 13, Efficient Pickling with Rodine , September, 1952.
3. J.M. Camp, and C.B. Francis, The Making, Shaping and
Treating of Steel, Sixth Edition.
4. G.G. Eldredge, and J.C. Warner, Inhibitors and Passivators,
Corrosion Handbook, The Electrochemical Society, Inc., New
York, New York.
5. H.B. Footner, A Modern Method of Pickling Steel, Fifth
Report of the Corrosion Committee, Special Report No. 21,
The Iron and Steel Institute, London, S.W.l.
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8627940 0 0 0 3 5 5 3 5 5 3
CHAPTER 4.1
PAINT MATERIALS
Sidney 8. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. INTRODUCTION
B. METHOD OF CURE
2. Solvent Evaporation
The binder is dissolved in a mixtureof solvents. (See
Solvents.) When applied, the solvent evaporates,
leaving a dry film that does not undergo further
change. However, the coating can generally be
softened or dissolved with strong solvents or
solvents similar to that in which it was dissolved
originally. Coatings that dry by solvent evaporation
are called lacquers. Vinyl or chlorinated rubber
coatings are examples. Since drying depends
only on solvent evaporation, lacquer coatings can be
applied at relatively low temperatures.
3. Chemical Reaction
The paint is supplied in two packages or two components: a base and a hardener. When mixed, the
two react to form a final coating. Since the reaction
continues whether the mixed paint is in the container or applied, the paint has a limited pot life
(useful life), usually a working day or less. Epoxypolyamides are typical of this type of coating. On the
other hand, since two-component paints do not rely
on oxidation to cure, some formulations can be
applied in relatively thick coats.
A. PIGMENTS
Here is a list of several reasons for adding pigments.
1. Opaque pigments are added to enable the paint film
to obscure the surface painted. These materials are
available in various colors.
4. Coalescence
Latex binders are made of synthetic colloidal latex
polymer particles dispersed in water. Often called
emulsions, they are actually colloidal dispersions or
suspensions. When the paint is applied, latex
particles begin to press together or coalesce, as the
water evaporates. A coalescing solvent in the paint
softens the particles and causes them to form a continuous film. Latex coatings tend to allow movement
of water vapor through the coating, although after
the film has coalesced they are essentially resistant
to water. Consequently, latex paints can be used on
finishes), to aid intercoat adhesion properties, to increase viscosity and to decrease cost. (See chapter
on pigments.)
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8b27940 0003552 4 9 T
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C. PAINT BINDERS
The paint binder is the major ingredient in the paint and
determines the major performance characteristics of the
coating. The binder is the cement or adhesive that binds
pigment and provides adhesion to the surface, .e., steel or
previous coat of paint. The more commonly used paint
binders are discussed below. They are listed in alphabetical
order.
I. Alkyd
Alkyd binders of coatings used on structural steel
are vegetable oil-modified phthalate resins that air
dry by oxidation.
Alkyd finishes are of the general purpose type,
are economical and available in a wide range of
colors and gloss levels, from high gloss to flat
finishes. They are relatively easy to apply and can,
if necessary, be used on surfaces that have been
only moderately cleaned, e.g., SSPC-SP 3. Alkyd
finishes have excellent durability in rural environments, but are only fair in marine or corrosive
environments. Typical specifications are SSPCPaints 101 and 104 as well as the SSPC-Painting
Systems 2.00 and 2.05.
2. Epoxy
Epoxy binders are available in three types: epoxy
ester, epoxy lacquer resin and two component
epoxy.
3. Epoxy Ester
These are vegetable oil-modified epoxy resins.
Consequently, they are similar to alkyds except
they are more expensive and produce films that are
harder and somewhat more alkali resistant.
Generally, they have less gloss retention when exposed. Epoxy esters are sometimes used where
slightly more alkali resistance than provided by
alkyds is desired, but at a lower cost than twocomponent epoxies.
4. Epoxy Lacquer
Very high molecular weight epoxies can be formulated as lacquer-type binders by solution in a
mixture of strong solvents. (See Solvents.) They are
sometimes used in organic zinc-rich primers
because they dry quickly at low temperatures and
can be recoated with topcoats, such as two-component epoxy paints. The two-component epoxies
contain strong solvents that will soften the primer
slightly and improve intercoat adhesion.
5. Two-Component Epoxy
Epoxy resins of this type cure by chemical reaction.
Ethyl silicates are not true inorganics but are generally included in
this group.
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15. Vinyl
Vinyl binders are available in three types.
a . PVB - Polyvinyl butyral resins are the binders
used in wash primers. When combined with
basic zinc chromate pigment and phosphoric
acid, they improve adhesion of the paint system
tremendously. This can be critical for some
vinyl paint systems, which have excellent
resistance and durability but may be sensitive
t o surface conditions with respect to adhesion.
Wash primers are also used as metal treatments for galvanized steel and aluminum.
b . Polyvinyl Chloride and Polyvinyl Acetate Vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate resins produce lacquers that dry rapidly by solvent
evaporation t o form extremely durable coatings
for use in marine or corrosive environments.
They generally are not brushed, due to rapid drying, but can be sprayed. They are low in solids,
so multiple coats are usually necessary and surface preparation is critical (see polyvinyl butyral
resins). One spray coat of vinyl may yield only
one mil of dry film thickness. However, because
vinyls release solvents so rapidly, as many as
4-6 coats may be applied in a 24-hour period.
Vinyls are extremely resistant (except to
strong solvents), durable in most environments
and can also be used for lining tanks for water immersion service. Low-solids, high-polymer vinyls
are covered in SSPC-Paints8, 9, and 106, as well
as in SSPC-Painting Systems 4.00 through 4.05.
c. Vinyl-Alkyd - A compromise, which is effective
for most environments, is to combine hydroxylmodified vinyl and alkyd resins. Surface preparation requirements are slightly less critical than
for vinyl binders. Brush application can be easier,
total solids are higher, and exterior durability is
excellent. However, they are not recommended
for highly corrosive environments.
E. SOLVENTS
The third major ingredient in paints is the solvent. Paint
binders are polymerized to accelerate drying or curing and
to produce as tough acoating as possible. When pigment is
added, the viscosity of the mixture is increased sharply to a
point that would make the product incapable of application.
Therefore, the major functions of solvents are to
dissolve (or disperse, in the case of latex) the pigment/
binder and to make its viscosity low enough to enable
application by brush, roller or spray.
Solvents, with the exception of water, can also be
chosen andlor blended to produce the desired rate of
evaporation during application. For example, brush or roller
applications require relatively slow solvent evaporation,
while spraying is improved with fast solvent evaporation.
Slower evaporating solvents improve applications and leveling during hot weather. Table 5 compares the major solvents used in paints and lacquers. Note that some of these
solvents are also used for cleaning before painting, or
cleanup after painting. This data is presented under the
fol lowing head i ngs:
Evaporation Time - Relative time to evaporate the
same amount of solvent. The lower the number, the faster
the evaporation rate.
Flash - Flash Point in O F (Tag Closed Cup).
TLV - Threshold Limit Values in parts per Million
(ppm). This is an 8-hour day with no ill effects.
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0003555 l T 9
TABLE 1
APPLICATION PROPERTIES
Alkyd
Solvents
Min. Surface Preparation*
Stability During Use
Brushability
Method of Cure
Speed of Cure
50 OF-90OF* *
35 OF-50OF*
Film Build per Coat
Use in Primers
Use on Damp Surfaces
Aliphatic
or
Aromatic
SP 3
EX
G
Oxid.
EPOXY
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Lacquer
SP 6
F
F
Chem.
Water
SP 6
EX
EX
Coal.
Al i phat ic
SP 2
EX
VG
Oxid.
Aromatic
SP 6
EX
G
Oxid.
Aromatic
SP 6
EX
F
Evap.
Lacquer
F
G
Chem.
Lacquer
SP 6
EX
P
Evap.
G
NR
VG
EX
G
EX
NR
F
F
VG
F
P
G
EX
P
EX
G
G
G
P
EX
G
VG
G
G
EX
G
G
G
G
2-Can
***
Vinyl
TABLE 2
APPEARANCE PROPERTIES
Alkyd
2-Can
Epoxy
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
VG
NR
VG
NR
EX
NR
G
VG
F
G
NR
EX
F
G
EX
P
F
VG
F
EX
G
EX
EX
EX
EX
VG
EX
Alkyd
Epoxy
Acrylic
Latex
Linseed
Oil
Phenolic
Chlorinated
Rubber
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
G
G
G
VG
EX
G
F
F
EX
P
VG
VG
VG
G
F
VG
VG
VG
EX
VG
VG
G
F
EX
VG
EX
EX
VG
EX
G
F
F
F
F
G
F
P
P
P
P
P
F
G
EX
G
EX
G
G
VG
EX
P
EX
EX
NR
EX
VG
EX
EX
VG
G
VG
EX
P
EX
EX
NR
2-Can
Hardness
Adhesion
FlexibiIity
Resistance To A brasion
Water
Strong Solvents
Acid
Alkali
Heat - 200F
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TABLE 3
PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
SSPC CHAPTER*LI-L
9 3 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003556 035
TABLE 4
DURABILITY
Moisture Permeability
Normal Exposure
Marine Exposure
Corrosive Exposure
Color Retention
Gloss Retention
Chalk Resistance
CODES
EX - Excellent
VG - Very Good
G - Good
F - Fair
P - Poor
NR - Not Recommended
Alkyd
Mod
VG
F
F
G
G
2-Can
EPOXY
Low
VG
EX
EX
P
P
P
Acrylic
Latex
High
VG
Linseed
Oil
Mod
F
NR
F
VG
EX
VG
F
P
P
Low
VG
G
G
P
G
G
SOLVENTS
Aliphatic - Mineral spirits
Aromatic - Xylene, toluene, etc.
Lacquer - Aromatic plus ketone, ester, or
ether solvents (See Solvents)
Chlorinated
Rubber
Low
EX
EX
VG
G
G
G
Aliphatic
Urethane
Vinyl
Low
EX
EX
EX
EX
EX
EX
Low
EX
EX
EX
VG
VG
VG
ABBREVIATIONS
- Oxidative polymerization or oxidation
Oxid.
Chem. - Chemical reaction (two component)
- Coalescence (latex)
Coal.
Evap. - Solvent evaporation (lacquer)
Min.
- Minimum
C. INTERMEDIATE COAT
on structural steel.
A. METAL TREATMENT
Wash primer is discussed under vinyl. It is sometimes considered a metal treatment (or etch primer) rather
than a primer, since it is applied at very low film thickness
(0.3-0.5 mils) and is used primarily over galvanized steel or to
improve adhesion of paints, such as vinyls, which are sensitive to surface conditions and surface preparation. Use of
this product is designated as SSPC-Paint 27. Metal treatments do not replace anti-corrosion primers.
D. TOPCOAT
B. ANTI-CORROSION PRIMER
Anti-corrosion primers prevent or inhibit corrosion or
rusting of steel if moisture gets to the steel surfaces
through missed spots, breaks or pinholes i n the coating.
To be effective, primers must be in direct contact with
steel, except when used over wash primer, which contains
an anti-corrosive pigment (basic zinc chromate).* Primers,
with the exception of zinc-containing paints, are not formulated to be exposed to the environment, but require a
topcoat for protection. Furthermore, they are rarely
colored, other than the color produced by the anti-corrosive
pigment. This may be grey, yellow, orange, white, red or
shades thereof, depending on the pigment used.
Zinc-rich primers are durable and can be used without
a topcoat in normal environments where there is no danger
of reaction with very acidic or very alkaline chemicals. In
the latter exposure, they must be topcoated. SSPC-PS Guide
8 provides more information on choosing topcoats for zincrich primers.
E. PAINTING SYSTEMS
The paint system is the combination of surface preparation, primer, intermediate coat and topcoat. However, it may
have more or less than 3 coats to achieve the desired
thickness. For most painting systems, increased film
thickness decreases permeability and improves performance and durability.
In repainting, the painting system consists of surface
preparation followed by application of the touch-up primer
plus the topcoat (see SSPC-PA 4). Details of the painting
system are described in Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual.
*Chromate pigments are toxic substances. Follow all applicable health, safety and environmental requirements in
applying, handling or disposing of these materials.
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REFERENCES
1. Paints and Protective Coatings, Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-3, U S . Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1969.
2. A.G. Roberts, Organic Coatings, Properties, Selection and
Use, Building Science Series 7, National Bureau of Standards, US. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
3. A. Banov, Paints and Coatings Handbook, Structures
Publishing Co., Farmington, Michigan. 1973.
4. Paint/Coatings Dictionary, Federation of Societies for Coating Technology, Blue Bell, PA 1978.
5. S.B. Levinson, Solvents, American Paint Journal, July 19,
1966.
6. Handbook of Organic Industrial Solvents, Technical Guide
No. 6, American Mutual Insurance Alliance, (now Alliance of
American Insurers), Schaumburg, IL.
TABLE 5
PAINT SOLVENTS
Evap.*
Flash T L V * *
Time
(OF)
(ppm)
VM&P Naphtha
Mineral Spirits
20
50
Toluol (Toluene)
Xylol (Xylene)
20
35
45
85
1O0
1O0
8
10
30
50
40
50
90
1O0
400
250
150
4
8
5
30
750
200
20
65
50
70
200
115
145
50
50
1O0
66
500
104
124
141
5
5
25
20
60
O00
25
70
1O0
65
105
115
400
50
100
None
Safe
30
1O0
10
5
2
None
None
300
1O0
Ethyl Acetate
Isopropyl Acetate
Butyl Acetate-N
Amyl Acetate
1O0
Acetone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
(MIBK)
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone
(MIAK)
Diacetone alcohol
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
EGMEE
EGMEEA
EGMBE
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this chapter: AI
Beitelman, Alex Chasen, Lawrence E. Drake, Arnold Eickhoff, Dave
Eskra, J. R. Garland, Dan Gelfer, Joseph F. Guobis, W. A. Haldeman,
L. Hartman, Leondard Haynie, Joseph Mazia, Marshall McGee, John
Montle, C. G. Munger, Dan Nemunaitis, John Perchall, W. Richter,
Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, V. J. Todd, Duane Werkman and
Rufus F. Wint.
Alcohols
1O0
Nitroparaffin
2-Nitropropane
Chlorinated Solvents
l,l,l-trichloroethane
Methylene chloride
350
50
(1991)
* * EGMEE - Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
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Group, the Commercial Development Association and Steel Structures Painting Council. He is a former president of the New York
Society for Coatings Technology and received their highest award,
the TaVaC. He was recently made an honorary member of ASTM
Committee D1 (Paint and Related Coatings and Materials) and was
elected its chairman.
During these years he has held office as President of the New
York Society for Coatings Technology, and as Chairman of Committee D-1 (Paintings and Coatings) of the American Society for Testing and Materiais (ASTM)for three consecutiveterms, the maximum
allowed.
At present, he is an honorary member of the New York Society
for Coatings Technology, as well as both ASTM and its Committee
D-1, and he is a 50-year member of the American Chemical Society, the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, and the
National Paint and Coatings Association.
BIOGRAPHY
Saul Spindel, a graduate of
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CHAPTER 4.2
ZINGRICH PRIMERS
by
Charles G.Munger
this time. By using very resistant synthetic resins, such as
chlorinated rubber, to start and incorporating high-loading
of zinc into the vehicle, the organic zinc-rich products were
born. They provided protection to steel surfaces that was
not available by other coating means except through the
galvanizing processes. Only very alkali-resistant resins
could be used effectively for zinc-rich coatings, and as the
epoxy resins entered the coatings field after World War Il,
the expansion of zinc-rich coatings was rapid and continuous.
In Australia, Victor Charles Nightingall, an engineer,
spent several years studying ways a chemical compound
could be made with high durability and long-lasting corrosion protection. His basic idea, which was unique, was
that if he could make a coating that would closely simulate
chemical characteristics of willemite or zinc silicate, he
would be able to accomplish the goal. He studied the ore
and came up with a mixture of zinc and sodium silicate
which, when applied to clean steel surfaces and heated to
250F or above, would form a hard, adherent, corrosionresistant coating. This was the state of the art up to 1950,
even though millions of square feet of the zinc silicate
coating had been applied on above-ground structures in
Australia up to that time. All of it, however, was stoved or
baked to bring about, as he states it, the rapid silication
of sil ica-zi nc iron.
The procedure used to coat steel in the late ~ O S us,
ing the zinc silicate, was to pickle steel free of all mill
scale and all other contaminants. Following pickling, the
steel surface was scrubbed with fiber brushes to remove
the black pickling deposit and washed with dilute sodium
hydroxide to remove sulfuric acid. Finally, it was rinsed
with dilute phosphoric acid to prevent rust forming on the
steel pipe before the coating could be applied. As soon as
the surface was prepared, the coating was mixed by weighing about 10 pounds of sodium silicate and a small amount
of sodium bicarbonate into a bucket.
Twenty pounds of zinc dust and about three pounds of
red lead followed. The whole mix was stirred vigorously
with a stick. There was no premanufacturing of inorganic
zinc coating at that time. It was made and used within a
few minutes, since it was rather reactive and left for any
period of time would solidify in the bucket. After mixing
the coating, painters applied it to the steel surface with
large 6 in. brushes. The coating was worked well into the
surface to eliminate holidays and, surprisingly, a relatively
even coat of zinc silicate was obtained. The aim was to apply approximately one ounce of zinc per square foot. This
was determined by the amount of zinc used in the coating
I. HISTORICAL
From earliest time, keeping steel in its usable form
was the goal of all who used it, and there have been
thousands of materials used on steel surfaces in an effort
to resist change from usable metal to its non-usable oxide.
Of all of the materials tried for steel protection, zinc has
been the most successful. The first record of its use dates
back to 1840 when a French engineer, Sorel, patented a
process for coating steel with zinc to prevent rusting. The
simplest process to provide protection using zinc was dipping a piece of steel in molten zinc and providing a complete layer of zinc over the steel surface. This procedure
gave birth to the galvanizing industry, which has been a
growing one ever since.
There are increasing references to zinc in coatings in
the early 19OOs, and the use of zinc increased until, at the
present time in the United States, 150 million tons of zinc
are used annually.
A large percentage of this is for protection of iron and
steel either as galvanizing or in zinc-rich coatings. Most of
this expansion has come since the 1920s and ~ O S and
,
it
wasnt until the 1930s that anyone gave a great deal of
scientific thought to making a long-lasting, corrosionresistant coating from zinc dust. The movement started in
two different places, and the concept of zinc-rich coating
was as different in each place as the places were far apart.
The English started with the idea of using zinc dust in
organic vehicles to provide a zinc-rich coating while a completely different concept was started in Australia, where
the inorganic zinc-rich materials were conceived. The idea
of incorporating zinc dust into an organic vehicle coincided with the time that the more sophisticated synthetic
resins became available. These more resistant materials
were needed since zinc reacted readily with most of the
oleoresinous products that were used for coatings prior t o
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2 Zn
+ 2NaCI + 3H,O
ZnOZnCI,
+ 2NaOH + 2H,
The zinc oxy chloride, or basic zinc chloride, is practically insoluble. This compound, complexed with zinc
hydroxide or zinc carbonate, which would surely be part of
the reaction products, could provide sufficient insolubility
to the silicate matrix to hold it until the zinc silicate reactions could take place. Actually, none of these procedures
worked satisfactorily, except under very limited and control led conditions.
Finally, it was determined that a solution of dibutylamine phosphate, applied after the zinc silicate coating had
dried, insolubilized the zinc silicate coating enough so the
resulting product had all of the good characteristics of the
stoved inorganic zinc as originally conceived by Victor
Nightingall. This was the post-cure inorganic zinc coating
that started the revolution in coating steel structures in
most areas of difficult corrosion, high humidity, and particularly in marine atmospheres. Hundreds of ships were
coated with this material, along with offshore platforms,
wellhead structures, onshore installations of all types including tanks, heater treaters, bridges, pipe racks,
bulkheads, refineries, and chemical plants. Once the postcured inorganic zinc demonstrated the efficiency of this
coating procedure, research was instituted by many U.S.
companies. Many materials were tried, including sodium
silicate, with many sodium oxide to silica ratios. Using
sodium silicates with higher silica ratios helped eliminate
white deposits that formed on the coating surface during
cure. Potassium silicate provided a somewhat faster cure
and eliminated much of the white deposit. Lithium silicate
produced a faster cure and harder product. Lithium silicate
was the base for one of the more successful commercial
inorganic zinc silicate coatings. Quarternary ammonium
silicate, while tried very early in the various research programs, was proven effective only in more recent formulations. Ammonium silicate systems are not as hard as
some of the zinc silicates and do not possess the glasslike properties of alkaline metal silicates. Colloidal silica,
silica colloids in solvent, and silica gels were all tried
alone and in combination with other silicates. Basic inorganic materials such as phosphates, titantates, borates,
zinc oxychlorides, and similar materials were also formed
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0 0 0 3 5 7 3 114
126
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R U 4 - 2 9 3
A b 2 7 9 4 0 0003574 050
~~
TABLE I
Typical Examples
Type*
of V a r i o u s Z i n c - R i c h P a i n t F o r m u l a t i o n s
Vehicle
Pigment
Weight
Ratio
pigmentvehicle
2.8
IA
Post-cured
A
B
IB Self-cure potassium silicate
A
Self cure-quaternary
ammonium silicate
A
B
Zinc dust
red lead
Zinc dust
3.2
Zinc dust
2.9
Zinc dust
2.0
Zinc dust
red lead
2.8
Zinc dust
2.5
iron oxide
3.3
red lead
4.1
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
Zinc dust
2.5
2.5
Zinc dust
2.2
Zinc dust
Zinc dust + iron oxide
3.4
2.4
Zinc dust
2.2
IC Self-cure
A
B
C
127
Not for Resale
111. MECHANISMS
Inorganic zinc coatings, including those formed from
sodium silicate, potassium silicate, lithium silicate, colloidal silica, the various organic silicates and even galvanizing, are reactive materials from the time they are applied. Inorganic zinc coatings, including galvanized metal,
are in a state of constant change. This change depends on
their exposure - marine, industrial or rural. It is a slow,
continuing process until the zinc is practically consumed
in protecting the steel it is applied to, or inactivated by an
accumulation of zinc salts on the coating surface.
Some of these typical zinc reactions are:
Zn (metal)
H,O
Zn"
2e-
+ 2H,O + -, Zn (OH), +
Zn
2 Zn
H,O
CO,
-,Zn
+ 2NaCI + 3H,O
CO,
H,
H,
-, ZnOZnCI,
+ 2NaOH + 2H,
128
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 5 7 b 923
silicate
inc P a r t i c l e
But
Sand Blasted
Surface
I n t e r f a c e Between
C
n a t i.
n na nnd
_
Steel
I n t e r f a c e of S t e e l a n d C o a t i n g : C h e m i c a l
Bond
FIGURE 1
Na
- Na-O-
@ 1/3.0 R a t i o
N a O/Si02
2
on
OH
JH
Na
Na
9 YH Y
h OH
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
dH
1
+ Fe++
7 TH PH
+ Pb++-)Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
++
I
I
I
+ Zn
tFe TPb ?
Zn
++
I
I
Fe++ from S t e e l S u b s t r a t e
Pb++ from Red Lead Additive
Zn
from Zinc Dust
S i l i c a t e polymer complexed
w i t h I r o n , Lead and Zinc.
Ammonium, Potassium and
Lithium S i l i c a t e r e a c t i o n s
s u b s t a n t i a l l y same a s f o r
sodium
I
I
(!I
I
I
-Si4
I
I
Na-O-Si-O-Si-O-Si-OH
OH
SC
--%
Na
OH
-di-o-
:i-o-di-
OI
Zn
I
Na-O-Si-
i-
H2C03 +OH-
c o n t i n u e s to grow a d eventual:;
zinc.
Na CO
2 3
White d e p o s i t on c o a t i n g s u r f a c e
removed by weather.
++
Excess Zn
carbonate
Zn
++
20H
kn
N
Witn e x c e s s Zn++ f.ion z i n c d c s t , s i l i c a t e polymer
From A i r
and Water
ia
H2CO3+ZnCO3
2H2Q
FIGURE 2
Chemical Reactions within a Zinc Silicate Coating
(SSPC-Paint 20, Type IA or 16).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
129
Not for Resale
- Water Base
s a t u r a t e s with
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2
FIGURE 3
Zinc reaction within a porous inorganic coating
CH
O
acid
I
HsO*-+Et-O-Si-O-Si-O-Et
CH3CH2
I
I
It
It
Tetra Ethyl S i l i c a t e
E t OH
Ethyl S i l i c a t e Polymer
H O and CO
2
from humid a i r
0"
QH
Some o t h e r organic silicates
may be added t o o r s u b s t i t u t e d
f o r ethyl s i l i c a t e with similar
end results. ( S i l i c a t e Zinc Polymer. 1
++
Zn
OH
in
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I
4PH
HO-Si-O-Si-OH
OH
, OH
Polymer.
FIGURE 4
Chemical reactions within an ethyl silicate zinc coating.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
130
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2
93
= 8b2794O
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Type 1.C Inorganic self-curing vehicles, which are solvent reducible, include titanates, organic silicates, and
polymeric modifications of these silicates. These systems
primarily are dependent on moisture in the atmosphere to
complete hydrolysis, forming the polysilicate.
This category covers many different formulations,
most of which are based on an ethyl silicate vehicle. There
are a number of other organic silicates used or combined
with ethyl silicate to provide specific coating characteristics. Because of variation in properties and application
characteristics this class of inorganic primer is used widely throughout industry as a base for high performance
coatings. There are too many variations to outline the
specific properties of each product in this chapter. Nevertheless, they all primarily follow the same chemical reactions shown previously (Figure 4) to form the final
coating. The majority work best, application wise, under
cool, reasonably humid conditions. Moisture from the air
is required for a complete cure and many formulations will
not cure well or completely under hot, dry conditions.
Since they are solvent based materials, many are more
subject t o overspray under warm, windy conditions than
water base products (1-6).
There are two specific types of solvent base inorganics (1-C) that are variations from the standard twopackage products.
V. SSPC CLASSIFICATION
The specification for SSPC-Paint 20 includes the
types of zinc-rich primers common at this time. There are
two basic types, Type 1 - Inorganic zinc-rich; and, Type 2
- Organic zinc-rich. Description of the various zinc-rich
paints available are outlined in the above specifications as
follows:
Type 1-A Inorganic post-curing vehicles, which are
water soluble, include alkali metal silicates, phosphates
and modifications thereof, which must be subsequently
cured by application of heat or a solution of a curing compound.
Type 1-A has a very broad area of application. It is a
water-based material, and wherever water will evaporate
from the coating, this product can be used. It may be applied under cool or warm and dry conditions. Because of
the post-curing agent it will form an effective coating
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
0003578 7Tb
131
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
One additional type of zinc-rich primer should be mentioned: the preconstruction primer. It may be either 1-B or
I-Ctype. It is formulated to be applied as a very thin
material, approximately one mil in thickness, and is usually applied to steel prior to fabrication. In many shipyards
the preconstruction primer is applied to all plate as it
comes into the yard. There it goes through an automatic
blast-cleaning operation followed immediately by application of inorganic preconstruction zinc-rich primer. These
materials are applied under controlled conditions and
have proven very effective in providing a corrosion-free surface during construction. They may be over-coated directly
with organic topcoats or recoated with additional zinc-rich
primers, depending on coating requirements. Steel with
preconstruction primers applied must be capable of being
cut with manual and automatic gas torches and welded by
manual and automatic welding equipment, without any
loss in cutting speed or weld strength. Recently,
preconstruction primers have been formulated with an iron
phosphide additive that improves the weldability and
resulting weld. As much as 40% iron phosphide, based on
total pigment content, has been added without apparent
changes in the corrosion-resistant characteristics of the
primer.
132
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*4.2
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VIII. CHARACTERISTICS
(TYPE I)
- INORGANIC
Cathodic protection is provided by inorganic zincrich coatings. The inorganic matrix is conductive
and allows zinc to go into solution in a controlled
manner, making it anodic to steel and able to
cathodically protect any breaks that occur in the
coating. Eventually, any minor holidays, pinholes,
scratches or scars heal by formation of zinc reaction products, such as zinc hydroxide arid zinc carbonate.
It is unaffected by weather, sunlight, ultraviolet
radiation, rain, dew, bacteria, fungus or
temperature. Since it is unaffected by weatheroriented factors, the coating does not chalk or
change with time. The inorganic zinc film remains
intact with essentially the same thickness, even
after many years of exposure.
The inorganic binder chemically reacts with the
underlying steel surface in a similar way to its reaction with the surface of the zinc particles. This reaction occurs at the interface between the steel and
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
133
Not for Resale
93
Coefficient of
Friction
Surface Conditions
0.52
0.51
0.48
0.48
0.47
0.47
0.30
0.25
0.1 1
0.06
Any coefficient of friction less than a sandblasted surface (.47) usually is not acceptable for steel construction.
Inorganic zinc coatings are unaffected by gamma
rays or neutron bombardment. These coatings have
been exposed to atomic radiation up to and beyond
1 x 10IDR,without any change in properties.
The basic surface formed by inorganic zinc
coatings is very hard, metallic and abrasion resistant. This is an important property as a base coat,
since even though the topcoat may be abraded
away, the inorganic zinc base remains and prevents
serious corrosion. This has proven extremely important on ship hulls above the water line where abrasion due to docking can cause severe coating
damage.
Compared to metallic zinc, the chemical resistance
of inorganic zinc coatings is excellent. This has
been proven in test and by use in industrial areas
where acidic fumes or fallout have caused rapid
galvanized failure. This is due to the inorganic
matrix surrounding zinc particles. Inorganic base
coats have excellent resistance to undercutting
when overcoated with chemical resistant organic
coatings and subject to very corrosive industrial
atmospheres.
IX. CHARACTERISTICS
134
X. SOME LIMITATIONS
Much has been discussed about application of zincrich products to steel surfaces. In many ways it is a controversial subject. However, much depends on the severity
of the exposure and the type of metal (corroded, new, mill
scale) to which the coating is applied. There have been
many claims about advantages of organic zinc-rich from a
surface preparation standpoint compared to inorganic
zinc-rich. Many claims have been self-serving with little
basis i n fact. As with all high-performance coatings, the
very best possible surface preparation should be used and,
irrespective of the coating, the better the surface preparation, the better the coating performance will be. There are,
however, differences in adhesion characteristics of
organic and inorganic zinc-rich materials. The primary difference is i n the ability of organic zinc-rich to be applied
over some organic material, such as old coatings, paint or
slight oil contamination. On the other hand, the inorganic
zinc-rich materials will not tolerate organic materials and
will immediately check, crack and chip off organic surfaces.
Inorganic zinc coatings should never be applied over
old paint. There are different adhesion characteristics
among various inorganic zinc-rich products. There are
some, such as lithium base materials, which require the
best surface preparation and substantial surface profile to
provide maximum adhesion. On the other hand, the
original Australian formulation was applied over pickled
surfaces, which were thoroughly clean but did not have the
advantage of the surface profile of a blast-cleaned surface. Also, some Type l - B and C materials can be applied
to pickled surfaces.
Type 1 materials cover the whole gamut of surface
preparation and each has proven to work well over surfaces they are specifically adapted to. All work well over
SSPC-SP 5 (White Metal Blast) and SSPC-SP 10 (Near
White) types of surface preparation. For preparation less
than this, that is, SSPC-SP 6 (Commercial Blast) or SSPCSP 8 (Pickled) surfaces, the manufacturers literature
should be consulted for each product and each type of surface.
Organic zinc-rich primers also have specific limitations. As previously mentioned, organic-based materials
will tolerate some organic material on the surface. Organic
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 2
SSPC CHAPTERm4.2
93
A. EARLY TESTS
E. BRIDGES
D. PRODUCTION PLATFORMS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
135
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERaY.2
93
= 8627940
F. REFINERIES
Cooling tower piping is a problem area in most
refineries because of the heat and continual wetting and
drying of the surface. It was one of the applications where
inorganic zinc coatings first proved effective. Another
refinery and chemical exposure difficult to maintain is
pipe racks. There are hundreds of miles of pipe racks in the
US., many that have been fully protected since erection
with zinc-rich primers.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0003583 O b 3
136
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 2
93
= 8627940 0003584
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
REFERENCES
Dean M. Berger, Current Technology Review - Zinc-Rich
Coatings, Modern Paint and Coatings, June 1975.
D.M. Berger - Gilbert Associates, Inc., Zinc Rich Coatings
Technology, Septem ber 1974.
Walter W. Cranmer, Modern Coatings for Tankership Compartments, Annual Tanker Conference, American Petroleum
Institute, 1957.
J.F. Delahunt and N. Nakachi, Journalof Protective Coatings
and Linings, Long-Term Economic Protection with one Coat
of Inorganic Zinc-Rich, February 89, p. 48-53.
Daniel H. Gelfer, Rapid Topcoating of Inorganic Zinc-Rich
Primers - A Case for Improved Productivity. Presented at
N.A.C.E. Corrosion 80.
D. H. Gelfer, Comparison of Self-curing and Post-Cured Inorganic Zinc Coatings as Permanent Primers for Steel.
Materials Protection, Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 54, March 1964.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TTT
137
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3
93
= 8b27940
0003585 936
September 1993 (Editorial Changes)
CHAPTER 4.3
138
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 3
8627940 0003586 8 7 2
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
139
SSPC CHAPTER84.3
73
Sand blasted
Relative
Durability
10.3 years
Pickled
Intact Mill Scale
9.6 years
8.3 years
2.3 years
IV. POLARIZATION
Polarization has been described in technical literature
for ears'^,'^,^^. In corrosion prevention its usage is becoming more common. Following is a very preliminary discussion of polarization. A more detailed discussion appears in references 16 and 17.
Moisture or water makes iron or steel corrode.
Hydrogen ions from the water or moisture corrode steel
and one product is hydrogen gas. Hydrogen, as bubbles,
collects on the cathodic areas of steel and acts as a
blanket to reduce corrosion. This is called polarization.
If it occurs on the cathode, it is called cathodic
polarization. Practically all water or moisture has some
dissolved oxygen. Oxygen combines with the covering of
hydrogen; the covering is destroyed; more water is formed
and polarization starts again. The result is that corrosion
continues unabated. In this case oxygen in the air acts as
a depolarizer. It is for this reason that water or moisture
with a high oxygen concentration is more corrosive.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
140
Not for Resale
93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003588 b 4 5 W
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
2Pb0
3Pb0
Pb0.PbCr0,+4Pb0.PbCr04
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orange
4(4Pb0.PbCr04) + 3Si02+4(Pb0.PbCr0,)
3(3Pb0. PbSiO,)
Physical Properties
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3.24-3.35
Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. BARIUM METABORATE
.30
H2
CrO-PbO'PbCrO,
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 1 0 to 18
Oil Absorption ....................
Av. Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.8 micrometres
Specific Surface Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 mz/cm3
Both active ingredients contribute to the corrosion inhibitive mechanism of basic lead silicochromate. These
active ingredients are monobasic lead chromate and gamma tribasic lead silicate. Mechanical mixtures of these
two compounds plus silica have some corrosion inhibitive
properties, but they do not have as effective inhibitive
properties as the product made by calcination. Tribasic
lead silicate has definite anticorrosive properties when formulated with drying oils or oleoresinous vehicles. When
formulated alone in an oleoresinous vehicle, the tribasic
lead silicate pigment i s very reactive and has a very brief
package stability.
It is not fully understood why the kiln-formed tribasic
lead silicate in combination with monobasic lead
chromate is a package-stable product in many paint
vehicles. It also is more effective as an anticorrosive pigment than either monobasic lead chromate or basic lead
silicate alone or a mechanical mixture of monobasic lead
chromate and tribasic lead silicate.
The kiln product, monobasic lead chromate-tribasic
lead silicate, is stable with a wide variety of coating
vehicles. This indicates the material is highly complexed.
Microscopic examination of the milled pigment reveals
that practically all of the silica core surface is covered with
a very thin coating of basic lead chromate.
This pigment has relatively low hiding power. For this
reason small amounts of red iron oxide (5 to 10% by
weight) are ideal for improving the hiding power. Low
_-
46%
141
Not for Resale
Loss on
Calcium
Dhosohosilicate
Ca0
P,O.
B,O*
sio.
Ba0
lanition
Mean Part.
Size Microns
44.9
9.0
41 .O
4.6
SrO
ZnO
2.9
67.5
5.6
5.6
5.6
7
5
7
2.6
2.6
2.6
39.8
13.2
3.8
2.96
54.5
39.7
3.9
2.86
69
11.4
46.5
4.6
2.6
55
10.2
44.9
44.9
43.5
10.1
10.1
17.4
38.9
38.9
33.0
Calcium barium
DhosDhosilicate
37.1
6.1
Calcium strontium
DhosDhosilicate
37.2
7.8
Zinc
DhOSDhOSiliCatB
46.5
8.9
E. MOLYBDATE PIGMENTS
This class of pigments is commercially available in
two types of compounds. The molybdated zinc oxide pigment is used for oleoresinous-organic solvent types of anticorrosive primers. The basic calcium zinc molybdate is
suggested for use in latex and other water-borne anticorrosive primers.
indicate that a series of
X-ray diffraction
relatively pure pigments can be produced ranging from 1:l
to 1O:l molar ratio of ZnO to MOO,. The molybdated zinc
oxide pigment has the general formula (ZnO), (Moo,),,
where y is greater than x.
The basic calcium zinc molybdate is specifically for
water-borne and latex metal protective primers3'. The
molybdates inhibit corrosion by anodic passivation. The
following is quoted from Sherwin Williams Bulletin No.
343, page 2:
D. LEAD SUBOXIDE**
Lead suboxide is a gray amorphous pigment manufactured from agitated molten pig lead in an electric furnace.
It is not a true chemical compound but a mixture of lead
and lead oxide on a core of metallic lead. A typical composition is:
Oil
Absorption
34.7
34.7
32.0
Calcium
boro.
silicates
Sp.
Gravity
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1
TYPICAL PIGMENT COMPOSITIONS
SSPC C H A P T E R J V - 3 93
8627940 0003590 2 T 3 W
shows that the corrosion inProlonged
hibitive powers of red lead are not because it is an alkaline
pigment or because it acts solely as an oxidizing agent
over anodic areas.
As early as 1951 Mayne38 showed that water was
non-corrosive after contact with linseed oil fatty acid
soaps of lead, zinc, barium, etc. After some involved
laboratory procedures Mayne39 concluded that in the
presence of water and oxygen the lead soaps of the
linseed oil fatty acids yield soluble inhibitive degradation
products. Mayne40also stated that the soaps of saturated
acids such as palmitic and stearic do not render water
non-corrosive. On the other hand, lead soaps of oleic,
linoleic and linolenic degraded to yield rust inhibitive compounds.
Mayne and Ramshaw41showed that lead salts were
more efficient inhibitors than fatty acid soaps of calcium
or sodium. Optimum efficiency occurred when both the
mono-basic and di-basic acids had a total chain length of 8
to 9 carbon atoms. They showed that azelaic acid was the
principal degradation product of linseed oil fatty acids.
More extensive work showed that oiticia oil and tung oil
metallic soaps had poor rust inhibitive properties relative
to linseed oil metallic soaps.
In conclusion, the inhibitive action of red lead is complex. In addition to its oxidizing properties, red lead forms
soaps in the dry film. These soaps undoubtedly enhance
the mechanical properties of the film and in the presence
of moisture, hydrolyze to release organic acids and soluble
lead compounds. Mayne has shown that soaps can inhibit
corrosion of steel. Mayne's studies in combination with
studies by Hawke &
indicate that inhibitive or
passivation of steel under a red lead paint film can occur
by three mechanisms, either singly or in combination, so
that one supplements the other.
1. Anodic adsorption of organic acid molecules. A
water extract of linseed fatty acids (no lead compound present) has a definite corrosion-inhibitive
effect.
Physical Properties
Basic Zn Molybdate
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . white
Sp.Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . 5.06
--
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5000
~__
~.
~
F. RED LEAD**
Red lead probably has the longest history as an anticorrosive pigment. In 77 A.D. the ancient Roman writer
pl in^^^ mentioned that a painter called Micias used red
lead as a pigment about 320 B.C. Today, red lead is
available in various33grades, such as 85%, 95% and 97%
PbJO,. Other than small amounts of trace elements, the remainder is lead oxide or PbO. Pure red lead is the lead salt
of ortho-plumbic acid (plumbus orthoplumbate).
The structural formula is:
2PB
+ 0,-
heat
2Pb0
heat
6Pb0
2Pb,0,
Physical Properties
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orange
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8.9
Pounds per solid gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .74.1
Oil absorption (gl100g) . . . . . . . . . . . . ..6 to 9
Av. particle size
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lto 3
micrometres
Type of Inhibitor
G. STRONTIUM CHROMATE*
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
Strontium ~ h r o m a t e 'is
~ readily prepared by mixing a
solution of strontium nitrate with sodium chromate. The
result is a yellow pigment.
Sr(NO,),
143
Na,CrO,+SrCrO,
+ 2NaN0,
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
93
8627940 0 0 0 3 5 7 3 L3T
I. X0,-
Typical Properties
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strontium as SrO.
.Yellow
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..41.0%
(mini mum)
....................
.0.1/0
(maximum)
Sulfate as SO, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.0.2%
(maximum)
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.3.67 to 3.77
Chloride as CI
INHIBITORS
Physical Properties
Physical Properties
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Color.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .White
Specific Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.00
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . ..50.0
.12 to 16
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mean Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.25 micron
Type of Inhibitor
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
Typical Composition
.3.87 to 3.97
.Yellow
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.46
Pounds per Solid Gallon . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.3 to 33.1
I44
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3 9 3
nent products and are mixed together just prior to use. Any
wash primer that cannot be used within a maximum of
eight hours after mixing with the acid diluent must be
discarded. The chemistry of wash primers is more fully
discussed by Rosenbloom5'.
Whiting52 published an excellent history and review
of the uses and types of wash primers. He believes they
function in three ways:
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. by providing a base that improves the adhesion and integrity of subsequent protective
coating systems.
Wash primers can be reactive or non-reactive. The
reactive type is a two-package product described in SSPCPaint 27. The non-reactive type is a one-package product.
This one-package type does not adhere to metals as well
as the two-package type. The essential components of
wash primers are phosphoric acid, chromate pigment and
a polyvinyl acetal resin - usually a vinyl butyral resin.
E i ~ k h o f studied
f~~
many variations of the reactive or
two-package wash primer. The overall performance of
these variations was considerably less than the original
two-package wash primer developed by Whiting52.
If optimum results are required, the metal surfaces
must be clean and free from dirt, grease, etc. If the metal is
steel, mill scale and rust must be removed to produce a
near-white to white metal surface. Some investigators say
a small amount of rust is not objectionable. However, any
visible rust will detract from wash primer performance especially if the painted steel object is continually
submerged in either fresh or salt water.
The thinnest coating that forms a continuous film is
recommended - e.g. 0.5 mils. Films over 1.0 mil dry film
thickness do not develop good adhesion or adequate
toughness. Wash primer is especially effective when applied to galvanized steel or aluminum, but is not effective i f
applied over another primer. It must be applied directly
over a metal substrate.
L. ZINC OXIDE
Zinc oxide was known long before C l e ~ p a t r a It
~ ~is. a
product of copper as well as zinc ore smelting. Zinc as an
element was discovered by Paracelsus in 1520. In 1850 the
New Jersey Zinc Company produced zinc oxide from the
metal, using a method which came to be known as the
American process.
Physical Properties
Sp. Gravity
.......................
.5.6
.10 to 25
Davy, in England,
Almost a century and a half
reported that metallic zinc would sacrificially plrotect steel
immersed in sea water. In 1916, GardneP promoted the
use of zinc dust in primers. From the mid-1940s the
development of zinc rich primers has progressed rapidly.
There are two general types - the organic and inorganic
binder types.
Gassing in the container can be a problem unless the
paint manufacturer is careful in formulating. Many of the
zinc rich paints are supplied in two containers and mixed
for use at the time of application. Zinc rich paints are also
supplied in one-package containers.
Zinc dusts vary in particle size. Accordingly, formulators' ideas vary as to which particle size is preferable.
Organic zinc rich paints depend on particle-to-particle
145
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
K. ZINC DUST
.Gray
SSPC CHAPTER*4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . ..29.2 Ibs.
.34
Oil absorption ....................
Type of Inhibitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..Anodic
Weight per Solid Gallon
-Physical Properties
Color..
Sp. Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.White
.30
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
.White
.4.06
N. ZINC PHOSPHATE
Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..........................
146
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 - 3
73
Physical Properties
Zinc Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.about 45%
.2.6
P a n t ~ e rstates
~~
Sicorin is an electrochemical inhibitor and suggests its use in combination with zinc
phosphate.
VIL SUMMARY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VIII. CONCLUSION
Today, most industries are experiencing numerous
and rapid changes, many of them influenced by concerns
about pollution and toxicity. The list of scientific cont r i b u t o r s has become long and varied. Maybe
Shakespearea4was peering into his crystal ball when he
wrote, O for a Muse of fire that would ascend the
brightest heaven of invention.
There is magic about research. It is planned,
calculating progress. When improperly planned it is extravagant and wasteful, but the one item more costly than
research is no research.
Barnetta5 aptly stated the problem when he wrote
Probably the weakest point in our knowledge of pigments
is that we do not know how our pigments are formed, how
many molecules combine to make initial units to precipi-
147
Not for Resale
93
8627940 0003595 B B 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
BIOGRAPHY
148
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 4 . 3
S S P C C H A P T E R * 4 * 3 93
= 8627940
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
000359b 711
149
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 - L
93
CHAPTER 5.1
PAINT APPLICATION
by
Sidney 5. Levinson and Saul Spindel
TABLE 1
SUMMARY OF SSPC-PA i - Shop, Field &
Maintenance Painting
1. Scope
2. Definition
Paint is not a finished product until it has been applied to the substrate. Therefore, proper application of the
paint is a critical part of the complete paint system. High
performance paint systems are especially sensitive to misapplication and may fail drastically, even more so than
conventional paint systems, which are much less sensitive
to application variables. Therefore, it is imperative that instructions be followed explicitly, particularly when applying expensive and sensitive high performance paint
systems. A detailed specification covering the general requirements of high performance paint application is given
in SSPC-PA 1, Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting, as
outlined in Table 1.
Surroundings may prohibit use of spray application
because of fire hazards or potential damage from overspray. Parking lots and open storage areas are common
examples. Adjacent areas or objects not to be coated must
be masked before spraying and the masking material must be removed afterwards. This takes time and, i f extensive, may offset the advantages of the rapid area coverage of spraying operations.
3. Pre-application Procedure
3.1 Materials Handling & Use
3.2 Storage of Paint & Thinner
3.3 Surface Preparation
3.4 Pretreatments
3.5 Mixing & Thinning
4. Factors Affecting Application of Paint
4.1 Temperature
4.2 Moisture
4.3 Humidity
4.4 Cover
4.5 Damage
4.6 Striping
4.7 Continuity
4.8 Thickness
4.9 Recoating
4.10 Tinting
4.1 1 Intercoat Adhesion
4.12 Contact Surfaces
5. Application Methods
5.1 General
5.2 Brush
5.3 Spray - General
5.4 Air Spray
5.5 Airless Spray
5.6 Hot Spray
5.7 Hot Airless Spray
5.8 Roller
6. Shop Painting
(Types, Coats, Contact, Welding, Damage, etc.)
7. Field Painting
(Cleaning, Touch-Up, Procedures, etc.)
a.
Maintenance Painting
(Cleaning, Compatibility, Records, etc.)
9. Special Coatings
9.1 Conventional Types
9.2-9.6 Other Generic Types
1o. Drying & Handling
11. Inspect ion
12. Safety
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
150
Not for Resale
SSPC
C H A P T E R U S O L 93
= 8627940 0003598
594
I. PAINT PREPARATION
Since paints are pigmented they can become nonuniform during storage. During long periods of storage, the
pigment, which is more dense than the vehicle, tends to
settle and sometimes cakes at the bottom of the container. The liquid component might separate and form a
thin layer at the surface, or it could form a skin, especially
in a partially full can.
Mixing is required to make the paint homogeneous
and uniform before use by stirring the vehicle, dispersing
the settled supernatant liquid, and removing all skins,
lumps and other large particles. The paint, if stored
at cold or hot temperatures, should be brought to a
moderate temperature for application. Two and three component paints must be carefully mixed just prior to use.
eFIGURE 2
Paint Shaker
Courtesy of Red Devil
- Union, Inc.
A. MIXING
A mechanical mixer is preferred because it is faster
and produces a uniform mixture. If manual mixing is
necessary, dont use cans larger than two gallons.
If there is a skin on the surface of the paint, carefully
remove before mixing to avoid the formation of lumps or
gelled particles.
Depending on the size of the container, mixers are
available, from attachments for hand drills to large portable units, which can be used to mix 55-gallon drums of
paint. Most of these attachments are propellers with the
following typical dimensions:
H EAVY-D U ~ YELECTRI CS
FIGURE 1
Al R
The paint also may be tinted with some added color, such
as for use as an intermediate coat.
Paint should be stored at a moderate temperature.
Rotate stock and use older material first. Also. reverse
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
- 1 1 to 36
- 2 to 8
- Up to h H.P.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shaft Length
Propeller diameter
Horsepower
SSPC CHAPTERxS-II 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003599 420
B. THINNING
Do not thin the paint unless recommended by the supplier or needed for spray application. If the paint is cold, do
not add thinner to make application easier. Instead, bring
the paint to 50-90 OF. When thinning the paint, first be
sure that it is well mixed before adding the thinner.
Then continue mixing until the paint is uniform in consistency. Be sure to use a thinner that is recommended for
the product. Paint heaters can be used to reduce viscosity
for spray application, thus avoiding the addition of thinners. Observe safety precautions. Do not apply warm paint
to cold steel. Results are best if both are similar in
temperature.
C. TINTING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
WALL
FIGURE 4
Typical Paint Brushes
Courtesy of E 2 Painter Corporation
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
m Ab27940
93
0003600 T72
-LENGTH
Brush application requires the least amount of preparation before use and cleanup afterwards. Only the brush
has to be cleaned. However, brushing is slower than other
methods and should be used mainly for small areas and
for cutting in corners or edges. Brushing is also useful to
improve wetting of primers on difficult-to-paint surfaces.
There are two general designs of brushes which may
be used in painting steel: conventional and flat brush.
The most common brush used on steel structures is
the conventional wall brush, varying in width from 3 to
6 and with bristling varying in length from 4 to 7. Small
areas require narrower sash brushes, 2 to 3 wide. Irregular surfaces are best painted with oval brushes up to
2 in diameter (Figure 4).
The brush is constructed by cementing the bristling
ends in a setting compound then adding a handle. The setting compound and flat end of the handle are fastened
together with a metal ferrule. Strips or fillers are inserted
inside and at the bottom of the bristling. This forms a cavity that holds more of the paint and also reduces the total
volume of bristling, making it easier to spread paint and
reducing cost (Figure 5).
Bristling is controlled in length so the longest bristles
are in the center and their length is tapered toward the
outer bristles. This makes painting easier.
The flat brush is made up of short nylon or polyester
filaments, 1
long, attached to a flat base, about 4 x 7.
This allows for wider contact with the surface being
painted. A metal grip is attached to the other side of the
base. This brush holds about twice as much paint as a con-
OUT
S T R I P O R FILLER
FERRULE
HANDLE
FIGURE 5
Paint Brush Construction.
Courtesy of American Brush Manufacturers Association
D. STRAINING
Paints should be strained after mixing i f there is any
evidence of skins, lumps, color particles or foreign
materials. Straining is especially recommended i f paint
has been previously used and allowed to stand for any
length of time or if the paint is going to be sprayed. Strain
after completing all mixing, thinning, tinting or boxing.
Strain through a fine sieve (80 mesh) or a commercial paint
strainer (Figure 3).
E. TEMPERATURE
Temperature of paint may be excessively high or low
depending on storage or shipping conditions. If so, warm
or cool the paint to a temperature of 50-90 OF before mixing and use.
FIGURE 6
Industrial Paint Roller and Tray
Courtesy of Arcco Paint Rollers, Inc.
153
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. BRUSH APPLICATION
SSPC
C H A P T E R * S - L 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 8
Pipe Paint Roller
Courtesy of E Z Painter Corp.
FIGURE 7
Use of Roller Extension Poles on Water Tank
Courtesy of the National Paint & Lacquer Association & E z
Painter Corporation
8. PAINT PADS
Paint pads hold more paint and are faster than
brushes. They are almost as versatile for covering small
areas but require a tray and are more difficult to clean.
Because of their relatively low cost, they can be discarded
154
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 5 . L
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 9
Pressure Paint Roller
Courtesy of Thomas Industries
after use. Their use on structural steel is limited. They consist of roller-type synthetic fabric attached to a foam
backed flat pad about 4 x 7 in size. The fiber length is
about 3/tsrr. A spring-loaded handle keeps the pad parallel to
the work. The handle is threaded to accept extension
poles.
FIGURE 11
Paint Mitt in Use
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc.
C. ROLLER APPLICATION
Paint rollers are excellent for large flat areas and do
not require the skill of spray application. They hold much
more paint than a brush and are two to four times faster.
They require the use of trays (or grids in large containers), are more difficult to clean and are not as effective
in applying paint evenly and with good wetting on difficultto-wet surfaces, e.g., hand cleaned, rusted or pitted steel.
Roller cleaning is not critical since they are economical
enough to be discarded. Paint rollers consist of three major units: roller cover, roller handle and paint tray or grid.
1. Roller Covers
Roller covers vary in diameter, length, type of
fabric and fiber length (Table 2).
FIGURE 10
Paint Mitts
Courtesy of Bestt Roller, Inc.
155
Not for Resale
TABLE 2
CHOICE OF ROLLER FABRIC AND NAP
Type of Surface
Smooth
Rough
Flat finish-oil or
water-based
Polyester
Polyester
Paints containing
strong solvents
Woven
-Y2n
y2-y4r
Lambskin
% 8 -Y2
1k
-y,
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A BC -
D
E
F
G
H
I
- Air V a l v e
- Pattern Control
Gun Body (or Handle)
- Fluid Packing Nut
FIGURE 13
Conventional air spraying with lh inch fluid hose and X inch air
hose.
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
NEEDLE V4LYE S r E u
0 ANNULAR
R NG AROUND THE
FLUID NOZZLE TIF
I0
(2i
@
@
CONTAINMENTHOLES
WINGS:.HORNSOR.EARS.
SIDE-PORT H O L E S
FIGURE 14
Air spraying at oil refinery, with pressure pot, provides control in
spraying small structural shapes.
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
ANGULAR CONVERGING n a E s
FIGURE 12
Construction of Air Spray Gun
156
Not for Resale
FIGURE 17
Airless Spray PumpAir Operated, Suction Hose Type
Courtesy of Graco, Inc.
MATERIAL FLOW
UNDER HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE
RAY
j
GLE
(Controls Flow-Creates
High Velocity from Pressure)
FIGURE 16
Airless Spray Action
Woven Fabrics (as opposed to knit) are available. They shed fewer lint particles, are designated
all paints or Enamel on the label and are better
than knit fabrics for gloss paints.
Core: The core of the roller may be made of plastic
impregnated fiber or wire mesh. Be sure the core is
resistant when using epoxies, vinyls, urethanes and
other materials that contain strong solvents.
FIGURE 18
Airless Spray Unit With Two Guns-Air Drive
Agitator
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
157
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R * S - L 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 20
FIGURE 19
Airless Spray Unit
Dolly Mount, Air Drive
Courtesy of Alemite Division of Stewart-Warner
2. Roller Handle
The handle is made of stiff wire (app. l/4 " in diam.),
with a comfortable handle for holding the roller at
one end and bent at the other end to form an offset right angle. The angle end has a spring wire or
metal attachment to enable slipping the roller on
and off, yet holding it firmly during use. The end of
the handle is hollow and threaded so an extension
pole may be used. Extension poles as long as 16
feet are available to avoid the use of ladders
(Figure 7).
3. Paint Tray
Paint rollers must be worked in when loaded with
paint. The roller (on the handle) is partially inserted into the paint, then rolled on the ramp until
uniformly coated. Most trays hold about '/2 gal. of
paint. Some are large enough to hold several
gallons (Figure 6).
An alternative method i s t o use a large paint
FIGURE 21
158
Not for Resale
93
PUMP UNIT
1. Pump-to meet
delivery and
pressure needs
2. Regulatorto control
pump operation
3. Fluid Outlet
fittings for
required hoak-up
1. Pump Unit
5. Agitator-for
continuous agitation
of material
2. Fluid Hose
3. Fluid Header
(removed from pump)
4. Fluid Hose to guns
5. Air Hose from
compressor
6. Liftconvenient, quick
change of drums
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
FIGURE 23
Air Driven, Drum Mount, Airless Pump With Agitator
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
5. Fence Roller
Roller covers with extra long naps (11'4' ") enable
rapid painting of wire fence from one side. The
long nap surrounds the wire and coats it on both
sides at once.
6. Pressure Roller
Pressure rollers allow continuous painting by
steadily supplying paint from a pressurized tank
directly inside the roller. The roller cover is made
of a perforated metal core that enables paint to
pass from inside the roller. A valve controls
pressure either on the roller handle or the tank
(Figure 9).
1. Pump Unit
2. Fluid Hose to guns
7. Application
Roller application requires a very different technique than that required for brushing.
8. Loading by Roller
If a tray is used, fill it half full with the premixed
paint. If a grid is used, place it into the can (usually 5 gals.) of paint, setting it at an angle from one
side of the bottom of the can to the other side of
the can at the top. Dip the roller cover into the
paint until completely wet with paint. Then roll it
up and back along the tray ramp or the grid until
the paint is completely worked in. Before starting
to paint, roll the first load out on scrap paper to
eliminate any air bubbles trapped within the roller
cover fibers.
9. Applying the Paint
Place the loaded roller against the surface to be
3. High Pressure
Fluid Hose
4. Air Supply Hose
FIGURE 22
Portable and Maintenance Painting Hook-ups
159
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*S.L
93
D. PAINT MITTS
A paint mitt is ideal for painting odd-shaped objects,
such as pipes and railings, when spray painting is not
feasible. It consists of a lambskin glove with or without a
thumb. It is dipped in paint and applied to the surface
(Figures 10 and 11).
E. SPRAY APPLICATION
The fastest way to paint large structural areas is by
spray. Table 3 gives some idea of the relative efficiency
of different methods of application:
TABLE 3
TYPICAL AVERAGE AREA COATED PER DAY
Square Feet
Method
Brush
Roller
Air Spray
Airless Spray
FIGURE 24
650
1,200-2,600
2,000-6,000
3,000-8,000
- Electric Drive
FIGURE 26
Electrostatic Airless Spray Unit
Dolly Mount, Air Drive, Heated
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
FIGURE 25
- Gasoline Operated
160
Not for Resale
SSPC
CHAPTERx5.L
93
1. Air Spray
The original method of spray application was by
air atomization. A compressor supplies air under
pressure via an air hose to a spray gun that
atomizes the paint to produce a fine spray which
is projected onto the surface. Paint is usually kept
in pressurized containers. From there compressed air forces the paint to the gun via a fluid
hose (Figure 12).
Air atomization of the paint can result in considerable overspray. Consequently, not only must
adjacent areas and objects be covered, but also
paint losses may vary from 20% to 40% on structural steel. The painter must wear some protection to avoid breathing paint mist.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 28
Effect of Temperature
2. Airless Spray
Airless spray relies on hydraulic pressure rather
than air atomization to produce the desired spray.
An air compressor, electric motor or gas engine is
used to operate a pump to produce pressures of
FIGURE 27
FIGURE 29
Air Driven, Heated, Airless Spray Unit with Compressor
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
161
SSPC C H A P T E R * S = L 9 3
6627940 0003609 L T T
ENERGY RMUIREO
9.3 H P / GP.M
Mx)
HYDR&ULIC SPRAY
COLD AIRLESS
:NERGY REQUIRED
IIHPIGPM
PARTS AIR
i.
1.1
VISCOSITY
22 @
70'
5 9 ~ ~
FIGURE 31
- Electric Drive
Courtesy of Graco, Inc.
HOT SPRAY
TABLE 4
HOT AIRLESS
'NERGY REQUIRED
.32 H.P. I G.P.M.
VISCOSITY
150 @
70'mT
* *:
25 @ 150
VISCOSITY
150 d 70"
22 @ 170'
Coverage, sq.ft/day
Overspray, YO
Portability
Direct drive units
Hoses
Masking
Penetration of corners
& voids
Thinning before spray
Film build per coat
Moisture (Compressor)
Versatility
Paint clogging problems
Safety during cleaning
'FS''
FIGURE 30
Comparison of Spray Methods
Courtesy of Nordson Corporation
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
162
Not for Resale
Conventional
Airless
4-8,000
20 to 40
Fair
No
2
Considerable
Fair
6-10,000
10 to 15
Excel lent
Yes
Usually 1
Moderate
Good
Usual
Lower
Possible
More
Slight
Excellent
Sometimes
Higher
None
Less
Possible
Poor
SSPC C H A P T E R w 5 - 1 73
= 8b279LiO
0003610 711
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 32
Wraparound Effect of Electrostatic Spray
Courtesy of Graco, Inc.
FIGURE 34
Two-Head Spray Gun
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co
3. Power Sources
Airless spray units are available in a wide variety
of power sources:
a. Air Driven Units - The hydraulic unit i s driven
by compressed air using an air compressor
4. Mounts
Airless spray units vary in mounting or the method
used to admit paint to be sprayed.
a. Suction Unit - The spray unit is mounted on
wheels, and paint is aspirated in a hose or pick-up
tube that sucks paint from any container, including drums (Figures 21, 24, 28).
b. Pail-Mounted Unit -The spray unit is mounted
directly onto the paint container, e.g., a 5-gal. can
or 55-gal. drum (Figures 18, 20).
FIGURE 33
Two-Component Spray Gun Internal Mix
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
e. Drum-Mounted Unit
163
Not for Resale
CORRECT,
I
9
\'l
RIGHT
--r
FIGURE 35
Correct Handling of Air Spray Gun
Courtesy of Binks Manufacturing Co.
INSiOE
U3!!!&1
5. Agitators
Many pail- or drum-mounted units have built-in
agitators that keep the paint uniformly mixed during the spraying (Figures 18,23).
Strainers
Since paint cleanliness is critical in order to prevent clogging of nozzles, almost all airless spray
units have built-in strainers.
'I
\ Il
FIGURE 36
Spraying Inside Corners
Courtesy of DeVilbiss Company
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Extension Guns
Airless spray extension or pole guns, up to 26 ft.
long, are available to reduce the necessity of scaffolding or staging. Some have swivel heads to
enable spray coating of inaccessible areas
(Figure 27).
Heated Spray
Heating paint before spraying reduces viscosity
(Figure 28).Thinning is reduced and paint solids
are increased, enabling application of thicker
coats. Caution must be observed because most
solvent-thinned paints are flammable. Avoid applying heated paint on cold steel. Condensation
at the interface may adversely affect adhesion.
32).
The method has not yet been adapted for use
on exteriors of large steel structures. It has a
number of advantages and disadvantages vs. conventional spray equipment. Advantages include
(a) complete coverage of odd shapes; (b) lowest
paint loss of all spray methods; (c) less overspray;
(d) very uniform finish. Its disadvantages include
(a) vulnerable to wind; (b) equipment expensive; (c)
formulation critical; (d) slower operation; (e) only
thin coats can be applied; (f) possible shock
hazard; (9) expensive servicing; and (h) as yet unsuitable for LARGE steel structures.
164
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*5-3 93
*-13
I
11-
-9
1.
Li
I
I
= 8627940 0 0 0 3 6 3 2 794
&ofnew
INSTRUMENTS LTD
MANCHESTER
ENOLAM ,
15,
r-
21,
FIGURE 37
Wet Film Thickness Gage
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc.
TH IC KN ESS
Conventional - 6 to 8 inches
Airless
- 10 to 12 inches
Holding the gun too close will cause sagging
and irregularities in the film from spray pressure.
If it is too far away, the result will be dusting.
Some solvent will evaporate before paint reaches
the surface creating virtually dry paint particles
which cannot flow to the surface. The gun must be
perpendicular to the surface at all times and
should never be tilted. Tilting will cause one side
of the pattern to be closer to the surface than the
other side, causing non-uniform coating. Use a
free-arm motion, pulling the trigger after beginning the stroke and release it just before the end
of the stroke. Move i n a straight line, parallel to
the surface. Stop 1 to 2 inches from the edge.
When spraying an outside corner, hold the gun
facing the edge of the corner, then sweep along
the corner to cover both sides. On inside corners,
spray each side separately, sweeping along the
corner. Apply the paint to all edges prior to painting the entire surface (Figures 35, 36).
When painting a large area, start at the top
corner and spray to the end of the top area, (except for the edge), then return, overlapping the
first area just enough to form a uniform coating.
With conventional spray this will be almost half of
the first pattern, but with airless spray it will be
slight.
When spraying horizontal surfaces, start at
one side of the near edge and spray to the other
FIGURE 38
Elcometer Dry Film Thickness Gage
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc.
FIGURE 39
Inspector Dry Film Thickness Gage
Courtesy of Gardner Laboratory, Inc.
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side of the near edge, then reverse direction working away from the near edge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IV. CLEANUP
All paint application tools and equipment must be
carefully cleaned. Dried paint i n the equipment will ruin it.
Remove as much paint as possible. With solvent
paints, clean thoroughly with a compatible solvent. Use a
detergent solution with latex paint. Clean two or three
times with fresh solvent (or warm mild detergent solution),
then wipe clean and dry. Well cleaned tools and equipment
will last longer and always be in prime condition.
Be sure to clean brushes down to the heel, since paint
tends to dry in this less visible area. This can make the
bristles shorter and less flexible. After washing, twirl to
remove excess water and comb to straighten the bristles.
Finally, wrap in paper or place i n a brush keeper and lay
flat until dry. Never allow a brush to rest on its bristles.
This can cause permanent damage.
If a roller is used, clean and wash the paint tray and
partially fill it with solvent (or mild detergent in water for
latex paints). Work the roller out on newspaper until most
of the paint has been removed. Then work i n the solvent (or
detergent) and roll on the tray ramp until worked in. Again
roll out on newspaper until all the solvent is removed.
Repeat twice with clean solvent or detergent. Take care to
discard the paper used to clean the roller because of
potential fire hazard. Stand roller on one end until dry.
Since some roller covers are relatively inexpensive, it may
be more economical to discard them (keep the handle).
Using a large container, wash the paint mitt used for
solvent paints in three changes of solvent or warm mild
detergent depending on the type of paint. The solventcleaned mitts should then be washed in mild detergent
solution. Rinse i n clear warm water, then hang up to dry.
Place clean solvent (or detergent solution) in pots and
pass through hoses and spray guns. Be sure to remove the
tip from airless spray guns and wash separately. Never immerse the gun in solvent because this can ruin the packing.
Clean with three changes of solvent (or detergent).
Then dry. When cleaning after spraying water-based paint,
be sure to finish rinsing with a water miscible solvent,
such as alcohol. Otherwise, some parts of the spray equipment may rust. Make sure that all hoses are flushed
thoroughly.
REFERENCES
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BIOGRAPHY
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93
CHAPTER 5.2
SCAFFOLDING
by
Sidney B. Levinson and Saul Spindel
I. TYPES OF SUPPORTS
The two major types of supports are
Ground supports: Supports or supporting systems
that rest on the ground or roadway, e.g., on a bridge.
Aerial supports: Rigging supported from above or attached to the steelwork.
A. GROUND SUPPORTS
The most common ground supports are ladders and
scaffolding. However, portable and self-propelled systems
are available. These may be much more efficient, depending on the job.
1. Ladders
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Extension Ladders
The most common type of extension ladder is
made of two or three straight ladders connected so
they can be adjusted in length from that of a single
ladder to the combined length, less about 3 feet of
each that overlap. They are available up to 48 ft in
two sections and 60 ft in three sections.
Special Ladders
Ladder modifications are available to make these
ladders more useful:
SSPC C H A P T E R r 5 . 2
73
= 86277LiO
0003636 3 3 T
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Ladder Platform
7 . Scaffolding
Built-up or portable scaffolds are much safer than
ladders. They also make work easier and faster.
There are two major types: stationary scaffolds
and portable scaffolds or lifts.
8. Stationary Scaffolds
Scaffolds were formerly constructed of wood at the
site. New types, based on use of metal tubular construction, are faster to erect, safer and more
economical since scaffold units can be used again
with no danger of splitting or waste.
Scaffolds are usually constructed of specially
designed aluminum, or high strength (electrically
welded) galvanized steel tubing, connectors and
accessories. They are easily assembled to almost
any shape and height. They can be adjusted to
create a horizontal work surface on a stairway but
can be made narrow enough to be moved through a
doorway. Ladders and stairways can also be constructed as part of the unit, eliminating the
necessity of using portable ladders.
9. Stationary Scaffold Accessories
The following accessories improve the usefulness
and safety of these scaffolds.
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73
FIGURE 3
- Self Propelled
Courtesy of JLG Industries
FIGURE 4
Scissors Lift
- Self Propelled
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II. CHOICE
OF SUPPORT OR RIGGING
FIGURE 5
Bosun Chair-Air Drive
Courtesy of Sky Climber
FIGURE 6
One Man Work Cage Under Bridge Cable
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
171
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SSPC CHAPTERx5.2 93
111. SAFETY
Because support systems are dangerous, proper
precautions are of the utmost importance, especially with
moble equipment. Follow equipment manufact urers instruction and comply with federal, state, and local safety
codes. Also see safety references 1, 4, 5,6,8, and 9 at the
end of this chapter including SSPC-PA Guide 3 Guide to
Safety in Paint Application, Volume 2, Steel Structures
Painting Manual.
FIGURE 8
Swinging Scaffold
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
A. STATIONARY SUPPORTS
The following precautions apply to scaffolds:
1. Use galvanized steel, high carbon steel or aluminum
tubing of equal strength in diameters up to 2 in.
2. Inspect all sections before use. Reject any defective or rusty parts.
3. Place supporting members on firm, rigid, smooth
B. PORTABLE SUPPORTS
The following precautions apply to boom and scissor
FIGURE 7
One Man Work Cage on Water Tank
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
lifts:
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Swinging Platform
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
C. RIGGING
The following precautions apply to cable-operated rigging:
1. Always read instructions before use. Be sure equipment is in good operating order. Stay below rated
capacity of the rig.
2. Stages, except when necessary to pass through a
manhole, should be at least 27 in. wide.
3. Check cable before use. Apply twice the rated load,
lift about 1 ft above ground. Note any slippage.
FIGURE 9
Swinging Scaffold on Bridge
Courtesy of Spider Staging Sales Co.
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93
8b27940 0003621 7 T
FIGURE 11
D. SUSPENDEDSCAFFOLDS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: AI Beitelman, Richard C. Bower, Alex Chasan, Lowell
Hartman, Cletus Junk, Paul Knobloch, Robert C. Kramer, and
Mark Patterson.
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73
= 8627740
Others contributing to this chapter are listed under the illustrations and in the Reference section.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
REFERENCES
Operation and Safety Handbook, JLG Industries Inc., McConnellsburg, PA.
Paints and Protective Coatings, Army TM5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, Air Force AFM 85-2, Government Printing Office,
Washington. D.C.
S.E. Levinson and S. Spindel, Recent Developments in Architectural and Maintenance Paintings, Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, Blue Bell, PA.
PDCA Craftsman Manual, Painting and Decorating Contractors of America, Fairfax, VA.
Safety Requirements for Suspended Power Scaffolds, Scaffolding i3 Shoring Institute, Cleveland, OH.
Scaffolding Safety Rules, Scaffolding, Shoring and Forming
Institute, Cleveland, OH.
Spider Staging, Spider Staging Sales Co., Renton, Wash.
Safety Requirementsfor Scaffolding, American NationalStandards Institute, New York, N.Y.
SSPC-PA Guide 3 A Guide to Safety in Paint Application,
SSPC Manual, Volume 2.
BIOGRAPHY
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 5 . 3
93
m 8627940 O003623
57T W
September 1993 (Revised)
CHAPTER 5.3
I. INTRODUCTION
3. Paint Removers
Paint removal compounds may contain toxic and
dermatitic solvents or highly acid or alkaline compounds. Some also are very flammable.
4. Cleaning Solvents
Cleaning solvents may be toxic if vapors are inhaled, may be dermatitic if allowed to remain on
the skin, and may be flammable.
B. PAINT APPLICATION
1. Paint Materials
Most paint solvents, many pigments and some
binders are toxic. Essentially, all solvent-thinned
paints also are flammable. However, most paint
materials are quite safe if used with proper
precautions.
2. Spray Equipment
Paint application is carried out rapidly with
pressure spray equipment. Airless spray equipment uses pressures that can be as high as
thousands of pounds per square inch. This equipment can be extremely hazardous if handled
carelessly.
3. Support Equipment
Ladders, scaffolding, staging, work platforms,
lifts, bosun chairs, and other support equipment
may be used to reach inaccessible areas. Improper use, inadequate Set-ups, and defective
parts may lead to serious accidents.
4. Environment
Painting conditions may be more hazardous than
anticipated, especially with solvent-thinned
paints. Solvents can accumulate to dangerous
levels within an enclosed area. Other hazards are
always present, such as support equipment and
mechanical equipment in the work area. Local
contaminants may also be present.
A. SURFACE PREPARATION
Equipment and materials used for surface preparation can be hazardous if used carelessly.
1. Blast Cleaning
Without proper precautions the high pressures used
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. The extremely
high pressures associated with water blasting can
cause serious injury if not treated with respect. Abrasive materials may cause harm at high or even
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
the dust may result in lung disease.
2. Steam Cleaning
The high temperatures and pressures reached
during steam cleaning can be very hazardous but
are quite safe if handled properly.
C. DEGREE OF HAZARD
Risks faced in any paint job vary considerably,
depending on the job location and the materials and equipment required. Painting a bridge railing at street level
presents a relatively minor hazard, but using an airless
spray on a scaffold suspended 100 feet in the air or prepar-
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176
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73
D. PAINTING CREW
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 1
Abrasive Blasting Helmet
A continuous and enforced safety program is mandatory to provide protection against potential hazards. All
personnel must be made aware of hazards and the precautions against them.
Disregard of any safety measure increases the potential danger and the odds that an accident will occur or
health will be impaired because of excessive exposure to
an unsafe environment or situation.
3.)
Air Fed Helmet or Respirator
This respirator is similar to but lighter than a
blasting helmet because no protection against
blast media under high pressure is needed. The
respirator covers the head and shoulders and
fresh air is pressure fed. It enables personnel to
work in confined areas, such as tanks. (See Figure
C. ENVIRONMENT
The general environment and working conditions i n
any work area should be evaluated for hazards, and safety
precautions should be taken before starting work. Before
workers enter an area, they should be protected by
whatever devices, procedures, or clothing are necessary to
enable safe work in complete confidence.
4.)
D. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
In hazardous areas workers must wear face masks or
helmet respirators approved by the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and HealthlMine Safety and Health
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93
FIGURE 2
Dust Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
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E. EYE PROTECTION
Safety goggles should always be worn to reduce the
possibility of dust, fumes, or water under pressure striking
the eyes during surface preparation or paint application.
Goggles are not necessary if a helmet is used. Safety goggles should fit well and allow adequate peripheral vision.
FIGURE 3
Safety Helmet, Chemical Cartridge Respirator
Courtesy: Mine Safety Appliances
F. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
IV. HEALTH HAZARDS
A. TOXIC MATERIALS
Typical toxic materials are solvent vapors or dust
from blast cleaning of spraying operations, which may
enter the body by breathing, swallowing or even absorption through the skin. Symptoms of excessive ingestion or
absorption include irritation of the nasal membrane,
headache, dizziness, rapid heart beat, loss of appetite,
nausea and fatigue.
i. Solvens
Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depending upon exposure. The degree of toxicity can be
measured by the Threshold Limit Value (TLV), expressed as parts per million (ppm) of solvent to
air, that an operator may be exposed to during an
8-hour working day with no ill effects. This varies
from a high of 1,000 for ethyl alcohol to a low of 50
G. BUDDY SYSTEM
Never work alone i n a hazardous area. At least two
people should work in the same area, and one should be
visible to the other at all times. This enables one to help
the other in the event of trouble.
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SSPC CHAPTER*5.3
B. DERMATITIC MATERIALS
Dermatitic materials affect the skin. The skin
becomes irritated and can become infected if left untreated.
1. Solvents
Solvents have a tendency to dissolve and remove
natural oils and fats from skin, leaving it dry,
chapped and sensitive to infection. Aliphatic
hydrocarbon solvents, such as mineral spirits, are
not as irritating as stronger aromatic hydrocarbons or oxygenated solvents such as toluene,
methyl ethyl ketone or especially methylene
chloride, which is used in nonflammable paint
removers.
2. Binders
Some epoxy r e s i n s , a m i n e hardeners,
polyurethanes, solvent-thinned acrylics (not latex)
and polyesters may also irritate the skin to some
extent.
3. Other Chemicals
The following chemicals are corrosive and must
be handled with particular care.
a. Paint removers and brush cleaners containing
phenol.
b.Acid and alkaline cleaners for surface treatment.
c.The acid or catalyst component of wash
primers.
FIGURE 4
C. PREVENTION OF
for
alcohol and as lowas for Orne glycol
ethers. (See chapter entitled Paint Materials.) If
permissible exposure limits, as determined by an industrial hygienist, are exceeded, then respiratory
protection becomes necessary.
2. Pigments
Some pigments are toxic. The most common contain lead, e.g., red lead, basic lead silico
chromate, chrome yellow and chrome green.
Precautions should be taken when applying or
removing paints containing these pigments.
MSDS.
3. Binders
A few binders are toxic to some degree i f exposure is excessive. Typical of these are epoxies,
amine hardeners, acrylics (not latex), polyurethanes and polyesters. Polyurethane paints
that contain certain isocyanate compounds are
D. FIRST AID
strong sensitizers with very low permissible exposure limits. Once a person is sensitized and has
an allergic
he should not be subject to
further exposure to these vapors.
4. Additives
%
. ?x?
Paint additives, such as the organotin Or
organomercurial comPounds used to
fungicidal properties, are toxic if inhaled, absorbed through the skin, or ingested.
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HEALTH HAZARDS
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V. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
A. SIGNS AND BARRIERS
Use signs and barriers to isolate the work area and to
warn against smoking, flames, etc.
B. MANUFACTURERS INSTRUCTIONS
Follow the manufacturers specific instructions and
precautions for the handling of his product or equipment.
C. GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
Be sure that all safety requirements, equipment and supplies conform to all applicable federal, state and local regulations. See Chapter 26.0 for more information on federal
health and safety regulations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
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93
CHAPTER 6
INSPECTION
bY
Kenneth B. Tator and Kenneth A. Trimber
S S P C CHAPTERUb.0 9 3
supplemented with any other information he deems of consequence to the quality and progress of the work.
The amount and type of inspection will vary according
to the size of the project and the type of application contract. There are a number of types of contracts, but for
simplicity two general categories, fixed price and costplus will be addressed.
Inspection under a fixed price application contract
may be oriented t o ensure that the contractor does not
cut corners in order to hurry the job. While an evaluation
of the equipment, work procedures, and sequence, etc. is
important, the equipment and methods by which the contractor accomplishes the job are essentially at his discretion, provided the requirements of the specifications are
met. When performing inspection services for a costplus application contract, a knowledgeable inspector
must be able to evaluate the contractors equipment for
adequacy and must be able to assess whether the rate of
progress is reasonable.
FIGURE 2
ELECTRIC PSYCHROMETER
utilizes a fan to draw air across
thermometer bulbs, providing the wet and dry bulb temperature
readings.
FIGURE 1
SLING PSYCHROMETER used for measuring wet and dry bulb
temperatures in order to establish relative humidity and dew
point. The instrument is spun in the air to reach temperature
stabilization.
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S S P C CHAPTER*b.O
9 3 W 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003b30 7 0 T
V. MEASUREMENT OF AMBIENT
CONDITIONS
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FIGURE 3
DIGITAL HYGRO-THERMOMETER - gives instant readout of
FIGURE 4
RECORDING HYGROMETER - relative humidity and air
183
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 5A
FIGURE 5B
U.S. WEATHER BUREAU TABLES - a book of tables for converting dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures to relative humidity and
dew point.
FIGURE 7
DIGITAL THERMOMETER
for direct readout of surface
tempera ture.
FIGURE 6
SURFACE TEMPERATURE THERMOMETER
for establishing
temperatures of substrates during blast cleaning and painting.
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C H A P T E R * b - O 93
FIGURE 9
SSPC VISUAL STANDARDS - Photographic
reference standards for
abrasive blast cleaned
steel. Color print standards
illustrate four degrees of
blast cleaning (SP7, SP6,
SP10, SP5) over four rust
grades of steel.
FIGURE 8
Nozzle Orifice Gage (right)
measures nozzle orifice
and indicates CFM of air required for the size.
Hypodermic Needle Pressure Gage (left) measures
air pressure at nozzle by inserting needle through
sandblast hose.
FIGURE 10
SURFACE PROFILE COMPARATOR - consists of a lighted
magnifier and reference disc (shown) for visually comparing the
anchor pattern of blast cleaned steel. Reference discs are available for sand, grit, or shot abrasives.
185
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SSPC
SSPC
CHAPTER*b.O
93
FIGURE 11
Keane-Tator Comparator in use to measure surface profile.
Courtesy: KTA-Tator
FIGURE 13
DIAL SURFACE PROFILE GAGE
a depth micrometer that
measures the depth o valleys on the steel surface after blast
cleaning.
Courtesy: Elcometer, Inc.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The compressed air used for blast cleaning, blowdown, and spray application should be checked for contaminants. Adequate moisture and oil traps should be
used on all lines to assure that the air is sufficiently dry
and oil-free so it does not interfere with the quality of the
work. A simple test for determining air cleanliness requires holding a clean white piece of blotter paper approximately 18 inches from the air supply downstream of
moisture and oil separators. The air is permitted to blow on
the blotter paper for a few minutes followed by an inspection for signs of detrimental amounts of moisture or oil
contamination on the blotter. Obviously, i f there is no
discoloration on the blotter, the quality of the air is excellent, while streams of moisture and oil running down
the sheet indicate unsatisfactory air.
Unfortunately, the point where good air becomes bad
is difficult to determine. However, by use of the blotter
paper (or a clean cloth, handkerchief, or paper), one can
make his own judgments as to the air quality. A thorough
inspection of the surface after blast cleaning for signs of
moisture or oil contamination should be made and these
results correlated with the results of the blotter test. In addition, the proper functioning of in-line moisture and oil
traps can be evaluated on a comparative basis from the
results of the blotter test. For work requiring that absolutely no moisture or oil be permitted in the compressed air;
FIGURE 12
TESTEX PRESS.O-FILM TAPE
used to make a precise reverse
replica of the surface profile, which is measured with a spring
micrometer.
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SSPC CHAPTER*b.O
93
FIGURE 14
ZAHN CUP
plication.
FIGURE 15
WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE
measures coating thickness
during application by progressively deeper steps marked in mils.
187
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
C. ABRASIVE
SSPC CHAPTERxb.0 93
FIGURE 16
INTERCHEMICAL WET FILM THICKNESS GAGE
FIGURE 17
MIKROTEST MAGNETIC PULL-OFF DRY FILM THICKNESS
GAGE non-destructively measures the thickness of coatings
applied to ferrous substrates.
FIGURE 18
ELCOMETER 21 1 THICKNESS GAGE
operates on the same
principle as the Mikrotest for non-destructive coating thickness
measurements.
FIGURE 19
ELEKTRO-PHYSIK PENTEST (Top) and ELCOMETER (bottom)
PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGES.
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SSPC CHAPTERWb-O 93
COUNTERWEIGHT
FIGURE 20
POSIPEN PENCIL PULL-OFF GAGE
REFERENCEMARK
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189
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SSPC
I A P T E R x b . 0 93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 3 7 Ob4 D
cor
TAM I NAT1ON
FIGURE 22
The swabbing method for obtaining samples to determine the
extent of salt Contamination.
FIGURE 23
Using a magnetically attached limpet cell to obtain a sample.
2) Figure 23 shows an extraction using a limpet cell. The cell itself is constructed of
machined plexiglas plastic plate and includes
a conductivity meter to permit immediate reading of fluid conductivity and a syringe to pump
fluid into and out of cell. The cell shown adheres magnetically to the structure.
190
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SSPC CHAPTER*h.
93
= 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003638
FIGURE 24
Bresle cells can also be used for sampling.
FIGURE 25
Inside of Mikrotest Gage with components corresponding with
those in Figure 21.
Courtesy: GilbertlCommonwealth
c. PROFILE
The profile anchor pattern or roughness is defined as
the maximum average peak to valley depth (or height)
cused by the impact of the abrasive onto the substrate. A
White Metal Blast can have a 1, 2, 3,.or 4 mil profile;
likewise, a Commercial Blast can have a 1, 2, 3, or 4 mil
profile. Specifying a certain blast cleanliness says nothing
of the profile requirement. It must be addressed separate-
, _ _
191
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TTO
SSPC CHAPTER*h.O
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 26
PLASTIC SHIMS - for calibrating dry film thickness gages.
FIGURE 27
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY CERTIFIED COATING THICKNESS CALIBRATION STANDARDS for magnetic pull-off gage calibration.
lines up with the pointer. Theoretically, when the instrument is firmly placed on the blast cleaned substrate, the
base will rest on the tops of the peaks and the pin will
project into a valley. By taking a number of readings, an
average profile can be obtained. It is important to pick the
192
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SSPC CHAPTER*bmO
93
EXTENSION
REFERENCE
COATING
FERROUS SUBSTRATE
FIGURE 28
Operating principle of Pencil Pull-Off Gage.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ADJUSTMENT
193
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SSPC C H A P T E R x b . 0
93
FIGURE 30
POSITECTOR 6000 - digital gage measures coating thickness
FIGURE 29
ELCOMETER 345
on ferrous substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates using eddy current
principle.
on ferrous substrates. Similar model uses eddy current principle to measure coating over non-ferrous metal substrates.
The predominant malfunction in spray guns is attributable to lack of cleanliness, both of the spray gun
itself and of fluid lines. Paint chips or agglomerations and
most blasting abrasive particles are of sufficient size to
clog the small diameter orifices, resulting in gun stoppage
or clogging.
Additionally, cleanliness of mixing pots, spray pots,
spray lines, spray guns or other application equipment is
important and necessary for good paint application. Dirty
equipment can cause new paint to become contaminated
with old. Dislodged particles can clog the spray gun or
even result in the deposition of incompatible traces of
previously applied material in the new paint film.
Cleanliness of all spray application equipment should be
verified prior to, or no later than, the time of mixing of the
paint. Otherwise, resulting clogged paint equipment may
cause the loss of the coating material due to expired pot
life or the presence of contamination.
B. SPRAY POT
The spray pot should be clean and in working order
prior to use. Many types of paints, particularly zinc-rich
primers, require the use of an agitated pot (one equipped
with a stirring paddle) in order to keep the paint components in suspension. Air and fluid pressure gages
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
194
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93
= 8b27940
0003b42 421
FIGURE 32
QUANIX 2300 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
FIGURE 31
QUANIX 2200 - digital gage measures coating thickness on
ferrous substrates.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
195
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SSPC C H A P T E R x b - 0 93
8 b 2 3 9 4 0 O003643 368
and other areas where atmospheric contamination is present. Often water washing between coats or application of
the topcoat within a minimum time interval is necessary.
Otherwise, contaminants often invisible to the unaided eye
may be coated over, leading to premature coating failure.
Deficient and excessive coating thicknesses in multicoat systems should be observed. In cases where a topcoat is applied over a generically similar (non-rust inhibitive) primer, deficient primer thickness can be built
up by additional thickness of the topcoat. However,
where the primer contains rust inhibitors or is a different
generic type, an additional coat of the primer or previously
applied coating must be used before the topcoat can be
applied. Another common practice is to use coatings of a
different color, or to tint each coat. This is an excellent aid
to the applicator and inspector to assure that complete
coverage is achieved. Upper thickness limits are also
specified in some cases. When paint thickness exceeds
the specified thickness, the excess should be removed by
grinding, sanding or blast cleaning as appropriate.
Removal is usually followed by reapplication of a thin coat
to seal irregularities. Excessive or unsightly runs, sags,
drips, streamers, and other film deficiencies should be
brushed out during application or removed after drying.
This again is done by grinding, sanding, or in extreme
cases, blast cleaning.
FIGURE 33
QUANIX 1500
X. COATING APPLICATION
Besides surface preparation, the actual coating application is the most visible aspect of the coating work.
After surface preparation, it is the most important aspect
as well. It has been said that the best coating specification is no better than the man behind the spray gun. Accordingly, the coating inspector should be knowledgeable
of the various application techniques. These are briefly
reviewed below, but detailed information is available in the
chapter on Paint Application of this volume and in Volume
z.
When spraying with conventional (air atomized) equipment, the spray gun should be held from six to eight inches
from the surface and maintained perpendicular to the surface throughout the stroke. For airless application, the
distance should be from 10 to 14 inches. At the end of each
pass, the gun trigger should be released. Each spray pass
should overlap the previous one by 50%, and where possible, a cross hatch technique should be used. This requires
a duplicate series of passes at 90 to the first to ensure
complete and uniform coverage.
In brush application, the brush should be dipped approximately two-thirds of its bristle length into the coating.
The bristle tips should be brushed lightly against the side
of the container to prevent dripping, maintaining as fully
loaded a brush as possible. Brushing is more effective
than spraying for working paint into depressed irregularities, pits or crevices. However, care should be
taken to ensure that the coating is not brushed out too
thin.
Other application methods include rolling, using mitts
or pads, dipping, electro-static spraying, powder coating
(using fluidized bed or electro-static spray), and, increasingly, roller coating using automated facilities for flat
sheets. Each has its own specific technique as described
elsewhere in this volume.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Besides ensuring proper application technique, additional care is necessary when inspecting coating work at
fossil fuel power stations, chemical plants, coke plants,
FIGURE 34
MINITEST 1OOF - digital gage measures coating thickness over
196
Not for Resale
Yo SOLIDS BY VOLUME
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 35
MINITEST 4000 - digital gage measures coating thickness over
ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates.
FIGURE 36
ELCOMETER 300 - digital gage measures coating thickness
over ferrous metal substrates. Similar model measures coating thickness over non-ferrous metal substrates.
197
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * b - O
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003645 130
o/
(100%
SOLIDS BY VOLUME
+ /o THINNER ADDED)
- = 10.25 mils
0.78
8
0.78
1.2
- = 12.3 mils
(0.65)
This, without thinning, 10.25 wet mils are required to obtain 8 mils dry. After thinning, however, the solids by
volume drops from 78% to 65% and the required wet film
198
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER+b.O
93
m 8627940 0003646
O77
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 38
Modified version of the TOOKE GAGE with all three cutting tips
mounted on the instrument body and three bulbs to improve
lighting.
A. MAGNETIC PULL-OFF
The magnetic pull-off type gages include the Mikrotest
(Figure 17), the Positest, the Elcometer 21 1 (Figure 18), and
the Pencil Pull-Off (Figure 19 and 20) type gage.
Basically, a Mikrotest, Positest, or Elcometer 21 1 Gage
consists of a lever running through the center of a scale dial
which houses a helical spring. The scale dial is located at
the fulcrum point of the lever. One end of the spring is attached to the lever and the other end to the scale dial. One
side of the lever contains a permanent magnet while the opposite end contains a counterbalance (Figures 21 and 25).
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 39
A hand-held spring loaded micrometer useful for measuring the
thickness of coating chips.
199
Not for Resale
FIGURE 40
Pocket-sized 30X microscope with integral light source useful for
examining coatings.
d
1I
'
), 1
A'
8'
n
FINISH C O A T
FINISH C O A T THICKNESS
PRIMER C O A T THICKNESS
PRIMER COAT
FIGURE 41
Measurement principle of the Tooke Gage.
200
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * b - 0
93
8627940 0 0 0 3 6 4 8 9 4 T 9
ing the coating and subtract the shim thickness from any
subsequent readings. In addition, i f there are any vibrations in the area of instrument use, they could cause the
magnet to be popped from the surface prematurely, giving
an erroneously high thickness reading. The instrument
should not be used any closer than 1 inch to an edge of the
surface. In addition, residual magnetism in the structure
on which the coating is measured can have an adverse effect on the readings.
The scale dial type instruments have an additional
human error problem during use. It is easy to continue to
turn the dial beyond the point that the magnet has lifted from
the surface, giving an incorrect thickness reading. It is imperative that the dial be stopped as soon as the magnet lifts
from the surface. Automatic versions of the Mikrotest have
addressed this problem by incorporating a self winding
mechanism which automatically retracts the thumb wheel.
FIGURE 42
View through Tooke Gage Microscope. The interface of the
coatinglsubstrate is one division to the left of .O6 on the scale.
Coating thickness is measured from this point to the left ending
at the black bench mark at -05.
FIGURE 43
TINKER-RASOR LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETEC.
TOR
used for finding pinholes and holidays in non-conductive
paint films up to 20 mils thick when applied to conductive
substrates.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
201
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
S S P C CHAPTERab.0 93 M B b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 4 9 B B b
C. MICROPROCESSOR-CONTROLLED GAGES
Computer chips are now commonly incorporated into
dry film thickness gages. A hand-held microprocessor with
digital thickness display is available with its physical operation similar to the magnetic flux gages above (Figure 36).
FIGURE 44
USING A LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE DETECTOR
to locate
discontinuities in non-conductive coatings applied to conductive
metal substrates.
Official U.S. Navy Photograph
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
202
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * b * O
93
= 8627940 O003650 5 T 8 =
FIGURE 45
K-D BIRD DOG LOW VOLTAGE WET SPONGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
utilizes a wetted sponge and ground wire to find pinholes
and holidays in dry paint films applied to conductive substrates.
FIGURE 46
SPY HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
for uncovering
flaws in thick film systems. Voltages are available up to 22,000
volts DC. A spark jumps from the electrode through the coating at
deficient areas.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * b = O 73
8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003b5L 434
FIGURE 47
TINKER-RASOR HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR
used
for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 48
D.E. STEARNS HIGH VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTOR - used
for non-conductive coatings applied to conductive substrates.
SSPC CHAPTER*6-0 73
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge William Corbett's update of this chapter. Both William Corbett and Steve Pinney provided photos. AI Beitelman, Robert Doyle, Arnold Eickhoff,
Lewis Gleekman, Joseph Guobis, Ronald Hamm, John D. Keane,
Jay Leanse, Charlie Lewis, Jr., M. Lichtenstadter,Marshall McGee,
Stan Mroz, Melvin Sandler, L. M. Sherman, and William Wallace
participated in the review process.
BIOGRAPHIES
FIGURE 49
TENSILE ADHESION TESTERS
Pneumatic (back left), Elcometer (back right), and Hydraulic (front). Pull stubs positioned
in front of each model.
XVI I. CONCLUSIONS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
205
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S S P C CHAPTERsb.0
73
= Bb277LiO
0 0 0 3 b 5 3 207
REFERENCES
1. William F. Gross, Applications Manual for Paint and Protecfive Coatings, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY,
1970.
2. Paul E. Weaver, Industrial Maintenance Painting, 3rd Edition,
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX,
1967.
3. Blast-Off, Clemco Industries, San Francisco, CA, 1970.
4. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber, Coating Inspection Instruments, Plant Engineering, Sept. 19 and Oct. 3,
1974.
5. K.A. Trimber, and C.A. McCartney, Importance of Coating
Application Inspection and Instruments Available for Use,
presented at NACE 14th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion
Course, Sept., 1976.
6. D.M. Berger, and S.E. Mroz, Instruments for Inspection of
Coatings, Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol. 4, No. 1,
pp. 28-39, Jan., 1976.
7. Kenneth B. Tator, and Kenneth A. Trimber: Coating (Paint)
Inspection Instruments, Types, Uses, and Calibration,
Paper Number 254, NACE Corrosion 80.
8. NACE Standard RP-01-78Recommended Practice - Design,
Fabricatiorl, and Surface Finish of Metal Tanks and Vessels
to Be Lined for Chemical Immersion Service, December,
1977.
9. NACE Standard RP-02-74 Recommended Practice - High
Voltage Electrical Inspection of Pipeline Coatings Prior to Installation, August, 1974.
10. SSPC-PA 2 - Method for Measurement of Dry Paint
Thickness With Magnetic Gages.
11. NACE - TPC Publication No. 2 - Coatings and Linings for
Immersion Service, Chapters 2 and 4, Houston, TX.
12. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Steel Structures Painting Council, Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints, Pittsburgh, PA, 1976.
13. Bernard R. Appleman. Painting Over Soluble Salts: A Perspective. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings. October 1987,
pp. 68-82.
14. KennethA. Trimber. Detection and Removal of Chemical Contaminants in Pulp and Paper Mills. Journalof Protective Coatings and Linings. November 1988, pp. 30-37.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
206
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a 7 - L 9 3
= 8b27940
0003654 I43
CHAPTER 7.1
F. Montle and
Quality control tests are elected i provide consistency in manufactured products. Therefore, test values
and ranges for satisfactory performance are not necessarily valid over the the entire shelf life of the coating
material. Many test values change with age. For example,
drifts in viscosity can occur, but are not necessarily indicative of any change in the products suitability. Tests should
be designed to maximize detection of errors in manufacturing andlor variations in raw materials. Examples of
common ones are shown in the Appendix.
Proper selection of quality control range values is as
important as selection of the proper tests. While ranges
should be as tight as necessary to guarantee reproducibility, they should be wide enough for practical purposes.
While the assigning of original test values is based on
previous experience and skill of the formulator, the test
values should be continually monitored so the ranges
are proper.
Frequently, standard quality control tests, such as
shown in the Appendix, are sufficient for many paints and
coatings that are manufactured for general use. However,
special tests are frequently designed for specialized
products and critical raw materials that have unique enduse applications. It is advisable to use standard ASTM or
Federal Test Methods whenever possible. However, standard tests that will measure those parameters critical to
proper end-use of a specific coating material are not
always available. Therefore, a significant amount of
laboratory time and effort must be spent developing
special quality control tests.
I. CONSIDERATIONS IN CONTROLLING
QUALITY
A. QUALITY OF FORMULATIONIPRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
1. Consumer Needsfperformance Characteristics
When a coating is formulated, the first step is to
define the product characteristics, which are
usually predetermined by its purpose. The purpose of a formulation can be as simple as providing a competitive product or as complex as
providing the means to answer a need that has
puzzled the market for decades. Understanding
the use and purpose of a coating is the first prob--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
207
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93 W 8b27940 0003b55 O B T W
lem of a coatings engineer, since this is the beginning of the formula design. The criteria may be
based on either the wet material (perhaps predefining application characteristics), or the dry
material (involving a coatings reaction to its environment), or both (a sprayable coating that is
highly abrasion-resistant). So, investigating and
understanding the end-use and purpose of a
coating is primary in designing it.
2. Response to Needs
ProducSystem
Effectiveness
Once the performance characteristics are understood, the next phase in formulation development
is to formulate and evaluate the coatings
generated to meet these requirements. In some
cases, the experimental phase consists only of
several candidates; in other cases, hundreds of
possibilities are tested. Optimizing the required
criteria as well as associated factors such as
ease of manufacture, cost, application properties,
gloss, etc., are all considered. The final product
must have all the required properties and satisfy
the end-use requirements of the customer.
As candidates are created, investigated and
eliminated, tests should be continuous to verify
conformance to wet and dry coating requirements. Coating materials may be subjected
to simulated use testing, involving coating integrity under many environmental conditions, or under
physical stress. Coatings may also be continuously analyzed for wet properties to meet
specifications or demands for shelf stability or
application properties. Consideration must also
be given to the coatings system in which the
coating will be used; whether it is intended as a
primer, intermediate, or finish coat and how this
affects other coatings that may be used with it.
It is essential to devise and employ methods
of simulating use and testing of coating material
under many circumstances to ensure the material
has met design purposes.
3. Design of Inspection/Conformance Criteria
Satisfying performance characteristics completely is impossible unless the proposed design ensures repeated duplication of properties under
normal circumstances. Beyond specifying instructions for combining ingredients, the formulator must specify the type and quality of raw
materials, all pertinent facts concerning combination and incorporation of these raw materials
along with intermediate and final test methods
and tolerances. Instructions for labeling, handling
and storing coating material must be determined,
and specified and detailed procedures given on
use and application.
In designing tests for new coatings, controls
must be based on predictions rather than statis-
208
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S S P C CHAPTER*7.L
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003656 TL6 W
C. QUALITY OF MANUFACTURE
1. Equipment and Processes
The ability of coating material to conform to
finished specifications can be affected. by the
method of manufacturing. Trial and error during
product development normally provides the basis
for equipment use and selection, but the formulation type usually eliminates certain methods of
manufacture. Use of pilot plant facilities for large
scale simulation tests is also helpful in selecting
appropriate equipment for production. Optimum
batch size must be determined during the first
several batches produced, since the process can
be more or less efficient depending on the
volume. Once criteria are established, each batch
must be checked to affirm that the grind, viscosity, color and other properties are within specification. As equipment technology improves, it is
necessary to re-evaluate the manufacturing
method for many standard products. Continuous
improvement in manufacture helps increase the
efficiency and may reduce the cost of a quality
product.
209
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R W . ~ 73
SSPC C H A P T E R * 7 . L
93
8b27940 0 0 0 3 b 5 7 952
quired to reduce failure, to meet final test requirements or reduce the necessity of making
batch adjustments at inconvenient points. Some
additions can be made only at certain points during the batch making; trying to achieve a fine
grind of added pigment in a portion of the batch
that has very low viscosity, for example, is impossible. Being cognizant of appropriate test
points, parameters and tolerances simplifies the
task of making successful in-process batch adj ustments.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
E. QUALITY OF SERVICE
210
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*7-L
93
Federal Standard
141
A)
Viscosity (consistency)
D 2196
Brookfield Viscosity
Stormer Viscosity
#4 Ford Cup
Zahn Cups
Gardner-Holdt Tubes
B)
4281
4282
4271
Density (weight/gallon)
4184
41 83
41 83
41 83
D 891
D 891
D 4400
4321
4331
2121
4401
D 823
D 1296
D 344, D 2805
Film Characteristics
D 1640
D 523
D 3134*
Drying Time
Gloss
Color (Pigmented Coatings)
F)
D 1475
D 891
Application Characteristics
Levelling
Brushing Properties
Spraying Properties
Dipping Properties
Reducibility & Dilution Stability
Odor
Hiding Power
E)
562
1200
1084
1545
D 1210
Weight/Gallon Cup
Pycnometer
Westphal Balance
Hydrometer
D)
D
D
D
D
Dispersion (grind)
Hegman Gage
C)
ASTM
- Mandrel
6222
6222
- Conical Mandrel
Hardness - Pencil
- Sward Rocker
- Indentation Hardness
- Durometer
Abrasion Resistance - Falling Sand
- Tabor Abrasor
Adhesion
6212
6191
6302
6303
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
21 1
Not for Resale
D 522
D
D
D
D
522
3363
2134
1474
D 2240
D 968
D 1044
D 2197
SSPC C H A P T E R 8 7 . 1 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003b59 725 W
Federal Standard
141
G)
H)
Appearance in Container
General Condition
Coarse Particles and Skins
Skinning (partially opened container)
Storage Stability (filled container)
3018
404 1
4022
4032
4052
Resistance (performance)
Immersion
Humidity
Salt Spray (Fog)
Accelerated Weathering (open arc)
(Q. U .V.)
I)
D 2090
D 185
D 154
D 1849
41 O1
Compositional
Volatile & Non-Volatile Content
Pigment Content (centrifuge)
Water Content - reflux
ASTM
D 2369
D 2698
601 1
6071
6061
6151
6152
D 2247
B 117
D 822
*ASTM test similar, but not identical, to Federal Test Method. **Prepared by Bernard M. Krarnper
53
Note: Test methods vary. All parties should agree upon the accuracy and precision required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
REFERENCES
212
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 7 - 2
93
I. ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
Obtaining unbiased samples is the most important
phase of the acceptance procedure. If samples are not an
unbiased portion of the batch, no amount of testing can
reliably indicate characteristics of paint. Extreme care
during sampling must be exercised. The sampler should be
familiar with the product, have knowledge of the manufacturing process and be aware of the importance of
sampling techniques.
Sampling containers should be at least one pint,
preferably glass or metal, with an air-tight lid. Containers
must be clean, dry and nonreactive with paint. The container, when filled, should have no more than 6 percent air
space.
Sample containers sent to the laboratory should be
packaged for shipment and fully identified. Manufacturers
name, batch number and the date of sampling should be
written on or attached to the container. Other information,
such as quality control test results, destination, color,
date of manufacture, order numbers, etc., should be with
the sample or sent separately, i f requested by the
purchaser.
213
Not for Resale
Looation
Exporure
Araooiitod Temts
P r o j m t No.
Supervised by
Suriaoe
REDUCTION
Matarialm
Protreotment
1.t
coot
2nd Coat
3rd Coat
Pmint name
Ssoond pari
Thinner uaed
Vol.
%
. of paint
Vimoooity
Dato Painted
Method Uoed
Air T e m ~ o r a t u r e
S u rfaoe Temperatura
PAINTING DETAILS
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Eumidity
Weathor
Woifht per f d .
Wmiiht Belor,
Weilht Attar
Paint Ured
7
1
I
I
Film Thioknoormeao.
Workin$ Proputiso
Paokade Condition
PROPERTIES
FIGURE 1
Steel Structures Painting Council Paint Application Record.
21 4
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Color
T E S T NO.
NO.
PROBLEM
PAINT
NO.
LOCATION
SUBSTRATE
COLOR
PURPOSE OF T E S T
REMOVE0
XPOSED
IO
EXPOSURE
VFRT.
4 so
12
i5
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
Si
54
57
60
i2
I5
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
8
6
4
2
O
IO
8
6
4
2
O
FIGURE 2
Front side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
FEDERATION OF SOCIETIES FOR COATINGS TECHNOLOGY
1315 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA 19107
215
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERm7-2 93
I Sf
COAT
= Bb279q0 0003bb3
N O COPT
3 R D COAT
156
4 T H COPT
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
________
I
REMARKS:
~~~
FIGURE 3
Back side of Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology single panel form.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
1916 RACE ST, PHILADELPHIA, PA 19103
216
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERa7.2 93
TABLE 1
PHYSICAL TESTS*
Paint Property
Preparation of Panels
Preparation of Tin Panels
Viscosity (KU)
Weight Per Gallon
Fineness of Grind
Water Content
Coarse Particles and Skins
Drying Times:
Set To Touch
Dry For Recoating
Dry Hard
Pigment Content
Vehicle Content
Non-Volatle Content
Adhesion
Brushing Properties
Spraying Properties
Exposure Tests of Paints
on Metals
Salt Spray Resistance
Accelerated Weathering
4281
4184
41O1
4041
ASTM
D 609
D 609
D 562
D 1475
D 1210
D 95
D 185
D 1640
D 1640
D
D
D
D
2371
2371
2369
3359
4321
4331
6160
D 1014
6061
B 117
D 822
6151
6152
Leafing
4451
D 480
7233
Flexibility
6222
D 522
Recoatability - The paint film shall not be lifted by a succeeding specified coating.
Compatibility - Manufacturers recommended volume of
paint and thinner shall be mixed without curdling, livering, separating, or otherwise affecting the paint except
to thin it.
Storage Stability - No gas pressure shall build up after
30 days storage at 75OF (24OC) f 5OF ( 3 O C ) .
Water Resistance - The paint shall show no visual deterioration, other than discoloration after two days immersion
in distilled water.
*Test methods vary. Ail parties should agree upon the accuracy & precision required.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Federal
Test
Method
217
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R + 7 . 2
93
8627940 0003665 T 2 9
TABLE 2
CHEMICAL TESTS
Paint Property
Test Method
Chemical Resistance
Liquid Dryers
Drying Oils
Aluminum
Aluminum Silicate
Barium Sulfate
Basic Carbonate of Lead
Basic Lead Silico-Chromate
Basic Sulfate of Lead
Calcium Carbonate
Calcium Sulfate
Chrome Green
Chrome Orange
Chrome Yellow
Chromium Oxide Green
Clay
Copper
Copper Oxide
Extenders in Colors
Iron Blue
Iron Oxide
Leaded Zinc Oxide
Lit hopone
Magnesium Carbonate
Magnesium Silicate
Mercuric Oxide
Mica
Molybdate Orange
Para Red
Red Lead
Silica
Strontium Chromate
ASTM D 1308
ASTM D 564
ASTM D 555
ASTM D 480
ASTM D 718
ASTM D 34, D 715
ASTM D 1301
ASTM D 1844
ASTM D 1301
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 36, D 718
ASTM D 283
ASTM D 283
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 1135
ASTM D 768, D 50
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 34, D 717
ASTM D 34
ASTM D 284
ASTM D 716
ASTM D 126
ASTM D 970
ASTM D 49
Titanium Oxide
Toluidine Red
UItramarine BIue
Paint Property
Test Method
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
D 34
D 521
D 34
D 444
TABLE 3
Test Method
Instrument
Dry Opacity
Gloss
Color
Vehicle
Identif ication
ASTM A 2805
ASTM D 523
ASTM D 2244
Reflectometer
Glossmeter
Colorimeter
ASTM D 3168
ASTM D 3271
Infrared Spectro
phometer
Gas Chromatograph
ASTM D 3271
Gas Chromatograph
ASTM D 2621
Infrared Spectro
phometer
Solvent
Identification
Vehicle Solids
Identification
ASTM Standards
American Society For Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103-1187
Standardization Documents Order Desk
700 Robbins Avenue
Building 4, Section D
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19111-5094
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Oxide
Powder
Sulfide
Yellow
218
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERJ7-2 93
TEST NO.
PROBLEM -.OH
LOCATION
___COLOR
EXPOSURE
INSPECTED BY
S
VERT.
DATE
45.
PROPERTIES
REYARKS
FIGURE 4
B. TEST PANELS
Panels may contain many of the same features as
structures to be painted, but not in such a way as to
obscure performance on flat or scribed surfaces. Mill
scale, sharp edges and corners, angles, crevices, welds
and rivets are commonly encountered in steel structures,
and some types of test panels contain these features.
Each panel should have an individual and permanent
coded identification mark stamped on the back. Panels
can be fabricated by the testing organization or purchased
from a number of commercial firms.
A. RACKS
Racks used to hold panels for field tests can be constructed of any sturdy material. If racks are metal, a non--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
219
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*7.2
93
= 8627940
C. PANEL PREPARATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
D. FIELD EVALUATION
BIOGRAPHY
Chalking
Checking
Cracking
Erosion
Flaking
Rusting (SSPC Vis 2)
Blistering
Pictorial reference standards can also be found in the Exposure Standards Manual, published by the Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0003bb7 8TL
220
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a 7 . 2
93
REFERENCES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
221
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SSPC CHAPTER*B.O
73
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003667 b 7 4
CHAPTER 8
A. ELEMENTS OF COSTS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Labor
Labor should be figured on a person-hour or
person-day basis for the project based upon the
operations performed. Typically, these include
cleaning, abrasive blasting, application of each
coat of paint, pot tending (for abrasive blasting),
helping rigging, removing spent abrasive and
supervising. Productive operations are calculated
on the basis of labor production rates applied to
each surface area classification involved.
Classifications might include large structural
shapes, small structural shapes, miscellaneous
steel (handrails, ladders, etc.), piping, valves,
equipment, vessels and so forth.
Following is a description of typical labor
support categories:
a. Pot Tender - Assists abrasive blasting
operators to adjust abrasive blasting pots, refill
pots and frequently assists priming operations.
The ratio of pot tenders to blasters depends on
equipment involved and labor restrictions. A
single tender should be able to handle at least two
pots. When bulk abrasive is used, pot tending is
much less time consuming; frequently, the crew
foreman doubles as pot tender.
222
Not for Resale
93
b. Abrasive Handlers
Handle spent abrasive,
when required. Most frequently abrasive handlers
are used to remove the abrasive from inside a
vessel or from the immediate work area;
sometimes, the abrasive must be hauled to a
remote dump site. Abrasive removal is normally
figured on a pounds per hour or tons per day
basis. The rate is determined by the distance the
abrasive has to be moved, the obstacles in the
way, and the equipment.
c. Helpers - Number varies with the requirements of the project. Helpers may be used to
mix paints and assist in moving rigging; spray
painters frequently take care of these operations
when working on the ground but not when working
off staging. The need and degree of use of helpers
should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
d. Riggers - Deployment, placement and removal
of equipment enabling workers to gain access to
surfaces to be cleaned and coated. This normally
includes hanging suspension scaffolding and
cages, erecting scaffolding, etc. The most efficient rigging method should be evaluated for each
case; it is frequently dependent upon the operations to be performed (Le., abrasive blasting versus hand or power tool cleaning).
e. Supervisors - Field supervision. This is normally figured based on the number of crew days
and supervisors required. A single supervisor
seldom has more than 8 to 10 workers. A working
foreman may be employed on crews of up to about
6 persons.
Once the person-hours for each labor operation are determined, the labor cost can be determined by multiplying the person-hours by the
hourly rate for each classification of worker. The
person-hour rate is the labor cost plus an overhead fee. Labor cost is the sum of wages, fringe
benefits, travel pay and subsistence. Companies
differ in how they handle fees on labor and the
other components of the total system cost. One
method is to apply only payroll taxes, insurance,
small tools and expendables to the labor cost;
labor cost is then accumulated with equipment
and material cost and profit and overhead is applied to all of it as a group. Some firms consider
payroll taxes and insurance as part of labor cost
instead of fees, but the difference in methods is
not significant for the purpose of comparison.
There is normally a difference in wages paid to
skilled and unskilled labor. Blasters and painters
receive more than helpers. Many unions require
premiums for wages on such items as abrasive
blasting and spray painting, working with epoxies
and other exotic materials, working more than
fifty feet in the air and so forth. Supervision
normally receives the highest hourly rate.
2. Equipment
Equipment required for individual jobs varies with
type of job, size and configuration of the structures, type of surface preparation, type of paint or
coating, etc. Following is a description of typical
operations and the equipment required.
a. Abrasive Blasting and Priming - Compressed
air for the abrasive blasting is determined by the
nozzle size and other factors, figuring 350-450
CFM per nozzle for aiypical job. Blast pots, hoses,
nozzles and helmets (with appropriate air lines
and filters) need also to be figured. Spray equipment for priming would be figured as indicated
below; since a large source of compressed air
Wou Id al ready be avai Iab Ie, addit ional compressed
air would not be needed for spraying primer after
abrasive blasting.
b. Conventional Spraying - Spray pots are
figured as required; the larger pots can handle two
spray guns. If compressed air is not otherwise
available, a small compressor may be needed.
c. Airless Spraying - Airless pumps are figured
as required. Production sized units can normally
handle two guns unless the material is highly
viscous or other circumstances warrant. A power
source (electrical or compressed air) needs to be
used for the pump.
d. General - All jobs need a pickup or larger
trucks to haul workers, equipment, and materials.
Additionally, the project may require rigging
cages, lifts, scaffolds, or similar items. Offices,
change rooms, storage rooms, sanitary facilities,
etc., may also be required.
The cost of equipment is figured on the
number of days each piece of equipment is used
at reasonable rental rate. Even if the firm owns all
of the equipment, it should recognize and allow
for recovering the investment in that equipment.
Items costing at least several hundred dollars are
normally considered rental equipment.
Supplies associated with rental equipment
are either allowed for in the rental rates or are
themselves rental items. Included in this category
are hoses, nozzles, guns, abrasive blasting
helmets, fuel, and so forth. Local rental firms or
published sources such as the Rental Rate Blue
Book can be used to determine rental rates.
Rental rates are normally based upon continuous
charge during the possession of the equipment
with 5-day, 40-hour weeks. The renter normally
furnishes fuel and the operator.
3. Materials
a. Abrasives - The cost is figured by applying a
consumption rate to the number of abrasive
blasting person-hours or person-days figured. For
abrasives such as sand, slag, and many mineral
223
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SSPC C H A P T E R U 8 . 0
SSPC CHAPTER*B.O
73 H 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 b 7 1 222 D
4. Cost Summary
The costs individually calculated for labor, equipment and materials are added together and a fee
for overhead and profit applied to give a total
system cost. When considering alternatives to be
undertaken by the same firm, the amount of the
fee for overhead and profit is not important to
determine relative costs. On the other hand, i f an
owner is considering alternatives involving work
by different vendors or himself and a vendor, differences in fees by the different organizations
might be significant.
B. AN EXAMPLE
Consider cleaning and painting the exterior shell of a
new 200 foot diameter x 48 foot high storage tank. The
calculated square footage is 30,159. If the first alternate is
a near white blast (SSPC-SP IO), 3 dry mils of inorganic zinc
and 5 dry mils of polyamide epoxy, the system cost could
be estimated as follows:
MIN*
$15.00/hour
$17.50/hour
$ 4.00hour
MAX
$22.50/hour
$25.00/hour
$ 7.50/hour
USE
$19.00/hour
$21.00/hour
$ 5.501hour
$180.001day
$100.00/day
$ 35.001day
$ 30.00lday
$ 30.001day
$60.00/ton
delivered
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224
Not for Resale
302 worker
101 worker
60 worker
16 worker
120 worker
TOTAL
hours
hours
hours
hours
hours
Pot tender and helper were not figured separately because with this small crew the foreman could fulfill
those functions.
The labor cost would be as follows:
Journeyman 479 @ $19
Foreman 120 @ $21
Fringes 599 @ $5.50
=
$9,101
$2,520
$3,295
$14,916
$ 6,973
$21,889
Subtotal =
Taxes & Insurance @ 60% (Wages only)
TOTAL LABOR
After blasting and priming is completed, the large compressors could be exchanged for smaller compressors, but since the finch coating will be done in such a short period of time, this is impractical.With a 5-person
crew working 8-hour days, the job will be done in 15 working days: Therefore, the equipment is:
2 units x 15 days @ $ 180
15 days @ $ 100
2 units x 15 days @ $ 35
4 units x 15 days @ $ 30
15 days @ $ 30
TOTAL EQUIPMENT
Materials cost:
Abrasive - V z ton per worker hour
302 x
(25% loss)
Practical
Coverage
225
120
Theoretical
Coverage
300
160
Thinner - 385 gallons x 20%
Coating
Zinc-rich
EPOXY
Gallons
Required
134
251
=
77
'1'2
@ $60
=
=
$10,200
$ 9,060
=
=
Price
$35
$18
$ 8
Total coatings
Abrasive from above
5,400
1,500
1,050
1,800
450
$
$
$
$
$
=
=
cost
$ 4,690
$ 4,518
$ 616
=
=
$ 9,824
$ 9,060
= $18,884
Subtotal
= $ 944
Sales tax 5%
TOTAL MATERIALS = $19,828
Price Summary
Labor
Equipment
Material
$21,889
$10,200
$19,828
Subtotal
$51,917
$18,171
$70,088
If the system were being compared t o a system of commercial blast (SSPC-SP 6) and three 2.5 mil coats of alkyd, the
calculations could result in a price of, say, $40,000. The
second alternate would be less for the following reasons:
Abrasive blasting t o a commercial blast is faster than
to a near white. Spraying alkyd is slightly easier and faster
per coat than either inorganic zinc or epoxy, plus the
millage is lower per coat. The fact that this is a three-coat
rather than a two-coat system would be substantially
washed out by the increased production rates. Less time
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225
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*B.O
93
8627940 0003673 O T 5
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226
Not for Resale
93
5. Why Blast?
Hand (SSPC-SP2) or power-tool (SSPC-SP3) cleaning does not remove mill scale. In severe environments, mili scale pops off in one to three
years and takes the coatings with it. Blast cleaning is the most practical and effective means of
cleaning the surface. It removes mill scale and
creates an anchor pattern, which is essential for
good paint adhesion. While commonly considered
more expensive than hand or power-tool cleaning,
shop blasting can cost less, since it lengthens the
service life and reduces the cost per year.
6. Field YS. Shop Blasting and Priming
On new construction, shop blasting is considered
to be about half the cost of field blasting. This
means that where a minimum of 250 tons of steel
is involved, shop blasting can be done for less
than the cost of hand andlor power-tool cleaning
in the field. See Table 5 and 6 for direct comparisons. This assumes the fabricator has centrifugal
wheel-blasting equip ment.
More important than the cost, shop blasting
and priming allows and justifies application of a
suitable protective coating system at the one time
in the life of the plant when the job can be done effectively and economically. Application is easier
on the ground, spray loss is reduced and personal
safety enhanced. Job-site conflicts, scheduling
difficulties and comprised applications common
on most construction projects are greatly reduced
or eliminated.
Selection of abrasion-resistant primers, such
as inorganic zincs, plus use of wood dunnage for
shipping, should be included to reduce in-transit
damage and job-site touch up.
7. More Than One Coat In the Shop?
Painting can be controlled better i n the
fabricator's shop than at the job-site. Theoretically, the entire system or primer and intermediate
coat can be applied in the shop. When it is impractical to apply coatings in the field, such as an expansion of an operating facility in a highly corrosive environment, total shop application is
desirable.
Before the decision is made to apply totally
or partially in the shop, it should be recognized
that many steel fabricators have limited capability to hold steel for extended periods. Some shops
are not enclosed or heated. Frequently, a maximum of only 24 hours can be tolerated by the
fabricator for blasting, painting and loading.
If applying totally or partially in the shop, be
certain the steel fabricator selected can effectively shop apply all coats. Make sure the coating
system selected will dry and cure adequately
227
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R t 8 . 0
SSPC C H A P T E R x 8 . 0 93
8 6 2 7 7 9 0 0003b75 778
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
For each system used or considered, simply list the timing, number, and cost of painting operations required to protect the structure for its projected life. This should include
such items as original painting, touch-ups, touch up and full
coats, and full repaintings. The cost of each painting operation should be calculated in three categories:
1) At current cost levels.
2) At net future value levels - current cost with inflation
included. How much will it cost, in inflated dollars in
the year scheduled?
3) At net present value levels - t h e present worth of the
inflated cost (NFV) in monies today invested at current interest rates.
For example, a current cost of $10 today inflates to
$12.76 in five years, assuming 5 percent inflation; $12.76 is
the NFV. The formula for calculating this is:
(i = inflation, n = years)
To calculate the NPV, or What the $12.76 is worth today invested at current interest rates for five years?, use
the following formula:
it need painting?
In reviewing the subject with a
number of painting contractors, the
consensus is that most users generally follow these painting sequences:
original painting,
spot touch-up and repair,
Operation
Approximate
Life
NPV = NFV x
1
or $7.92 (2)
(1 + i)
$7.92 invested today at 10 percent for five years = $12.76.
While interest and inflation rates are constantly changing, the decision on coating selection is usually based on current rates. By making these calculations for each system,
the true cost and number of painting operations can be
compared.
Cosi If Original
in Field
Cost If Orig.
in ShoplField
Painting
occurs
O year
8th year
121h year
18th year
O year
12th year
15th year
19.8th vear
228
Not for Resale
ShapiField/Flsld
Years
15
10
20
25
30
c ~ m )
,Original
Painting
Touchup
Year 8
Maintenance
Repaint Year 12
Full Repaint
Year 18
Touchup
Year 26
caro 8
+$l71
y170
$1 22
12 61
IO70
16?8
Prnmnp j
B!!s
t
897
cuimnl IS)
NFVmils )
Furure ~ a i u r ) ~ U
m
3
am
,!adurn
On new capital projects, coating costs are often capitalized, which will require considerations for depreciation, taxes, etc. These are not necessary for maintenance work.
When required, however, the same present value analysis
should be conducted to make the coating selection, and the
analyses turned over to project management for further financial treatment.
229
Not for Resale
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S S P C C H A P T E R * B = O 73
d. Step 4: Calculate the long-term cost and number of painting operations over the structures life,
by preparing a present value analysis for each candidate system as outlined above.
TABLE 2
Typical System Costs, Life, Cost Per Year, Long-Term Costs, and
Number of Paintings Over a 35 Year Structure Life
ldeal/Optimum
Life
TOTAL INSTALLED COST
LONG-TERM COST
surf.
Prep.
Initial
Installed
cost
Years
Life
2-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
$2.14
$0.27
$ 8.04
2-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.76
$0.29
9.06
2-coat HB surf.
tol. epoxylure.
SP6
2.13
0.36
10.96
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
1.60
0.32
10
10.96
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.23
0.41
16
13.23
System
cost/
Yearl
fi2
No.
Ptgs.
Total Cost
@ Current
Cost Levels
Practcal
Life
LONG-TERM COST
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cost/
Yearl
No.
ft*
Ptgs.
Total Cost
@ Current
Cost Levels
12
$0.18
$ 9.32
1.76
0.20
9.66
SP6
2.13
0.24
11.71
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP6
1.60
7.5
0.21
10.56
l-coat HB surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
1.23
4.5
0.27
14
12.76
surf.
Prep.
Initial
Installed
cost
SP6
$2.14
2-coat H8 surf.
tolerant epoxy
SP2
HB surf.
System
2-coat
Years
Life
tol. epoxylure.
230
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*8.0
73
TABLE 3
Estimated Service Life(') (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
of Protective Coatings, Zinc-Rich Coatings, Galvanizing, and Zinc-Metallizing Systems
6.0
6.0
I
P
I
4
6
6
9
7
10.5
2
3
6.0
4.0
4.0
60
6.0
4.0
I
P
I
P
I
2
3
3
4.5
2
3
3
45
4.5
4
6
3
4.5
4
6
2
3
3
4.5
3
4.5
4
6
4
6
5
7.5
7.5
7
10.5
4
6
6
4
6
6
40
P
I
P
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6,O
6.0
P
I
7.5
7.5
5.0
5.0
10.0
mo
8.0
8.0
P
I
P
I
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
12.0
12.0
12.0
7.0
7.O
10.0
10.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
35.
HBEpoxyPnmer/
HB EWXY
8.0
9
7
10.5
1
15
2
3
3
3
45
3
45
4
9
3
45
5
75
6
9
13.5
5
7.5
7
10.5
9
12
4
075
1
15
1
15
I 5
2.25
N
N
N
N
05
075
1
15
1
15
$5
2.25
3
45
4
6
3
4.5
5
7.3
3
45
5
75
6
9
8
12
2
5
N
375
N
5
N
75
N
55
N
825
N
05
N
075
N
1
N
15
N
1
N
15
N
1.5
N
2.25
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
05
N
0.75
N
1
N
15
N
1
N
15
N
i 5
N
2.25
N
2
N
3
"
4
3
N
4
5
N
3
N
45
N
5
N
75
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
6
N
5
N
7
5
N
13.5
105
5
7
7
105
8
12
N
N
6
9
8
12
4
6
6
9
7
1051
I
P
11
16.5
10
15
9
135
10
15
10
15
9
135
8
12
9
i35
P
I
P
12
18
11
165
10
15
21
T65
4
6
P
i
9
11
16.5
75
9
13.5
9
6'
9*
5
7
7
10.5
7'
1
P
12
15
10
15
9'
1
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
4
6
6
9
7
10.5
6
9
7
10.5
7
P
12.0
65
7
9
05
4.5
4.0
6.0
45
5
6.0
45
5
75
6
9
1
15
2
3
I
P
I
6.0
I
P
10.5
3
45
5
6
6
9
5
7.5
6
6
.
3
45
5
7,5
6
9
5
75
6
6
9
6
9
2
3
4
6
5
7.5
4
6
5
7.5
5
7.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
05
O75
1
1.5
1
15
t,5
225
15
1.5
225
N
N
N
N
10.5
5
7.5
7
10.5
8
12
2
3
4
6
4
6
6
9
4
6
8
12
10
15
11
16.5
4
6
7
105
7
075
1
i 5
1
1.5
1.5
225
15
1
15
15
225
3
45
4
6
3
45
5
75
3
45
4
6
5
75
6
9
3
45
3
45
5
75
2
3
4
6
5
75
7
~
105
5
75
7
105
7.5
6
9
1
1.5
2
3
225
12
10
15
7
10.5
9
13.5
11
16.5
17
255
13
19.5
10
15
135
05
3
3
4.5
2
3
3
4.5
1
15
2
3
2
3
3
45
3
4.5
4
6
4
6
6
9
3
4.5
5
7.5
6
9
8
12
4
6
6
9
8
12
105
9
N
N
N
05
075
3
4.5
135
4
6
7
105
7
105
9
135
8
12
9
135
9
135
11
155
2
3
4
6
4
6
6
9
5
7.5
6
9
6
9
8
12
5
7.5
7
10.5
8
12
10
15
11
165
14
21
11
165
13
195
N
N
9
135
12
13.5
105
16
24
12
18
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
10
11
16.5
9
135
18
27
14
21
11
16.5
5
73
10.5'
3
4.5
5
7.5
10
15
'
1
10.5'
1
16.5
2
3
4
6
5
7.5
4
3
4.5
6
9
7
105
5
7.5
6
9
6
12
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
d
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
25
3.75
45
675
5.5
8 25
05
075
1
1.5
N
N
N
N
0.5'
3
45
5
75
6
9
05
075
1
1.5
l
15
1.5
225
N
N
N
N
0.5
O75
l
15
l
15
15
225
3
3
4
6
3
45
5
75
3
45
5
75
6
9
N
12
4
6
6
9
7
i05
10.5'
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
6
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
4
75
6
N
N
"
7
5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
231
Not for Resale
4
6
6
9
6'
9.
'
12
45
4
6
5
75
10
15
15
4
10.5
7'
7
9'
3
4.5
5
75
6
9
5
6
6
9
6
9
5
7.5
5
7.5
15
18
19
13
285
195
12
30
1
16.5
2
18
1
i65
2
18
2
18
3
45
5
7.5
9
135
15
4
21
5
75
7
10.5
8
12
7
10.5
8
12
8
12
0
15
3
4.5
5
75
6
9
5
7.5
6
9
6
9
300"'
SSPC
CHAPTER*B-O 93
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life(')(in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
of Protective Coatings, Zinc-Rich Coatings, Galvanizing, and Zinc-Metallizing Systems
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
3
2
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
HB Epoxy Pmner/
H Epoxy
Epoxy Primar/
HB Epoxvl
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Primar/
li3 Epoxy/
Epoxy
HB Epoxy Pnmerl
-IC
Urethane
HB Epoxy h e r /
~ a y l t cUrethane
Epoxy PrimerlHB
EpoxyiAcrylUre
Epoxy Pnmer/HB
Epoxy/Acryl Ure
HB Epoxy Primed
Polyester Ure
HB Epoxy Primed
Polyester Ure
Epoxy Pnmeri
HB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
Epoxy Primer/
HB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
IOHB Epoxy
10
8.0
10.0
10
6
10
10.0
6.0
6.0
7
10.5
8
12
I
P
10
15
13.5
13.5
I
P
5
7.5
6
9
7
10.5
4
6
5
75
6
9
7
10.5
5
75
I
P
8.0
10
8.0
I
P
I
P
52.
53.
2
3
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
3
3
60.
61.
62.
83.
3
3
64.
6%
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
2
2
3
3
2
Ursthane
IOUHB Acryltc
UfbNiaflE
IOUHB Acryl Ure/
H0 Acrylic Ure
IOZiB Acryl Ure/
H3 Acrylic Ure
alvNB Epoxy
GalviHB Epoxy/
1.40Epoxy
Zinc Metallizing/
HB Epoxy
Zinc Melaliizingl
HB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
IOUHB Epoxy/
Poiywter ufa
IOUHB Epoxy/
Polyester Ure
GahW poxyt
Pdyestw Ure
IOUHB Epoxy/
Acrykc Ure
IOUHB Epoxy/
Aciyhc Ure
GahNB Epoxy/
Aaylk Ure
IOUWaterborne
Aeryltc
IWaterborne
Actyl=
Epoxy .TlncJ
HB Epoxy
Epoxy ZncJ
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
HB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
H Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
Epoxy Zinc/
H Acryls Ure
N
N
7
105
N
N
9
13.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
7
105
9
135
8
12
10
15
4'
6'
4'
6.
7"
1oJ"
7'
10 s
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
7
10.5
N
N
6'
9'
6'
9'
6'
6'
9'
6
'
'6
I
P
I
I
P
I
P
10
15
11
16.5
12
18
13
19.5
10
15
11
16.5
12
18
13
19.5
13.S
1oW
15#
11#
16.W
9#
11.0
IOutrB Auyltc
N
N
8
12
N
N
10
15
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
10
15
9
135
11
16.5
9
13.5
N
N
I
P
IOIRtB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
IOtliB Epoxy/
HB Epoxy
N
N
8.0
loz/HB Epoxy
50.
8
12
10
10
11.0
7.0
I
P
I
P
10
6
7.0
11.0
I
P
I
P
7.5
6
- 9
7
8#
I%
9#
13.M
10%
1M
1I #
16.M
e#
12#
9#
10
11.0
PCKL
7.4
i?
PCKL
11.4
P
I
10
9.0
P
I
16.5
13
19.5
12
18
14
21
13.H
11x
16.M
1W
15#
1%
18#
12
18
13
19.5
13
19.5
11
16.5
12
18
12
18
9
13.5
lo#
15#
Il#
16.S
1It
16.M
P
10
13.0
9.0
10
9.0
PCKL
9.4
6
10
9.0
9.0
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
I
P
PCKL
9.4
I
P
6.0
10
6.0
I
P
I
P
6
10
6
10
7.0
7.0
11.0
11.0
7.0
10
9#
13.W
101t
1%
10#
15#
7#
10,5#
Ba
12#
7
1W
P
I
P
I
P
15
9
13.5
10
15
11
15.5
I
P
12
16
io#
9
13.5
7#
10s
I
P
w1
1%
9#
13.#
1M
5
7.5
4'
6'
4'
6'
3'
4.53'
4.5'
6'
10.5'
9'
6'
7'
10.5'
3'
7.5'
3'
45'
69'
6'
94.
6*
7'
10 5'
4"
6'
6'
9.
6'
9'
9*
4'
6'
4^
6'
7'
10.5'
7'
10.5'
3'
4.5'
6'
9'
3'
4.5'
5'
7.5".
6"
6
5
7.5
4.5
4
4.5
15
11
16.5
13
6
9
12
10.5
18
13
6'
t2
9.
ta5
6+
3.
4.5*
6'
11
16.5
13
10.5'
9.
19.5
3'
4.5'
5'
t2
105
5
75
8
9
7
105
'
3
4.5'
3.
4.6*
6'
9"
6'
9'
44
4.
6"
6'
9'
7'
t0.5'
12
13.5
12'
4'
B'
N
N
N
N
6'
9.
6'
rt"
6'
9'
7'
10.5'
3"
4.5'
3'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
4"
5'
6'
3*
4.5'
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
232
Not for Resale
8
12
8'
12'
9'
6
9
4'
'
7'
t0.5
9'
6'
15
75
6
9
7.5'
5'
7.5'
8'
12'
6'
10
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
N
N
9'
'
9'
6
'
9'
7'
10.5*
7'
10.5'
__.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
8
12
8.0
9
135
8
12
49.
7
10.5
10.5
I
P
I
P
7.0
8
12
7
10.5
9
7
10.5
6.0
7.0
8
12
10.5
9
7
10.5
6.0
5
7.5
N
N
I
P
8
12
6
9
N
N
9
7
10.5
8
12
5
75
6
5
7.5
6
9
7
10.5
5
10
48.
51.
6
9
7
10.5
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
12
6
9
7
10.5
8
12
10
7
10.5
8
12
8
12
9
13.5
75'
12
18
13
9"
9*
9'
T"
6'
9'
18
14
21
10,5'
7'
18.5
12
$8
10
15
11
9.
6'
9.
3'
3'
4.5'
4.5'
3'
4.5'
4'
3'
4 5"
Y
.
7 5'
57.5-
6
'
4'
6'
7
16.5
12-
9
45'
th5
10.5'
f8
4.
6'
tS
2885
30
15
22.5
i0
15
S S P C C H A P T E R t 8 . 0 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
72.
TABLE 3 (cont.)
Estimated Service Life") (in Years, Before First Maintenance Painting)
of Protective Coatings, Zinc-Rich Coatings, Galvanizing, and Zinc-Metallizing Systems
Epoxy zw
74.
3
3
10
15
11
165
13W
12
18
I
P
11
165
Epoxy md
Hfl Acrylic Ure/
H3 A c ~ ~ lUre
lc
11.0
w w md
ww
110
10
75.
70
10
hytto Ure
73.
90
HB EwwI
3'
45'
6.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
3.
4.5"
9'
4'
6'
7"
105'
1M
15#
6'
9'
7'
10s
N
N
9#
13W
7'
105'
6"
9'
12
18
1M
1%
6'
105"
9+
10
15
11
165
6
9
8#
6'
12#
9.
9
#
V
135#
9'
5
4
75
6
6
5
9
75
8
7
12
105
8n
12#
9#
4*
fi*
6'
7"
9"
10.5'
13.5
10
15
16
4
19
285
11
16.5
13
19.5
13.#
N
N
6.
7
10.5'
11
16.5
21
31 5
15
22.5
15#
N
N
N
N
7'
10.5"
6'
11
16.5
19
28.5
13
9'
N
N
N
N
7.
10.5'
6^
12
9'
t8
20
30
14
21
N
N
N
N
N
N
5
75
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
4
6
N
N
6"
9'
6.
9.
4
6
5
7.5
7
10.5
12
18
13
19.5
9'
19.5
8#
300""
12#
911
10#
3OOm
300"
9#
13.S
300")
tO#
300q*i
Polyswer tke
76.
iroxy
aw
10
90
Ure
77
78.
Epoxy tirae/HB
EpoxyiACryfic Ure
90
90
Ure
79.
80.
81.
82'
60
H0 Vinyl
Vinyl Pnmerl
H 3 Vinyl
Vinyl Rimer/
H3 vinyl/
HB Vinyl
Vinyl &mer/
I
P
I
P
I
P
50
100
100
10
HB vinyu
105
9
135
I
P
I
P
10
15
135
il
165
12
18
12
18
W
13.SX
lo#
15#
10
Y
10s
P
1055
7.5
6
9
8
12
8
12
18
10.5'
7'
10.5'
5
7.5
6
9
8
12
13.5
to
15
N
N
N
N
N
N
27
13
19.5
105
8
12
10
15
9
13.5
N
N
14
21
11
16.5
5'
7.5'
6
'
6'
9
'
5'
7 5';
N
N
N
N
N
16
24
17
25.5
17
25.5
13
19.5
14
21
26
27
8
12
18
13
195
13
195
10
15
135
10.5
12
19
28.5
10
15
11
16.5
15#
3M1""i
12x
9#
13.W
5
75
3OOw'
140-160q~i
140-16o"o'
140-15o"i
12
140-160"
13.5
H3 Wnyl
83.
84.
85,
93.
110
IOZRt6 Vlny
H3 vinyl
IOUHB WnyU
WB Vbyt
GahrMB WnyV
w Vinyt
Coal Tar Epoxy
10
11.0
PCKL
11 4
P
160
I
P
94.
CoalTarEpoxy
10
16.0
ga
99,
1
1
InorgaokTKIc
6
10
6
30
30
30
P
P
?m. f
IrmrganieZinc
OrmnicZjnc Rich
5'
7.5'
'
'9
6'
9'
5 " s
7.5'
8
12
12
9
735
li#
t3#
4
6
75'
si 8
10
15
11
165
13
15
5
7 9
7
105
8
12
N
N
N
9
135
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
10
9
15
135
9
10
15
135
N
N
N
N
11
9
16.5 135
N
N
6 # W
N
N
7.5'
5"
7.5'
8
12
9
13.5
N
N
N
9
'
7
10.5
8
12
N
N
8
I2
9
13 5
19
20
16
11
165
16
17
4
9#
13.S
i# 140-160""'
1%
1#
1#
8
12
9
13.5
Il#
12#
3#
7#
6#
I7
4#
27
30
17
20
12#
14
34
5.0
P
P
13
16
11#
14#
N
N
N
N
N
N
20
25
200"
740.1,wO'
740-1.000
250-300"
(Vinyl B CR)
250-300"
Ep0.W
140-le@
[Vinyl & CR)
7400
740"
Definitions of Environments:
SEACOAST MARINE = Within five miles of coassalt water and no industrial plants or
fumes present.
SEACOAST HEAVY INDUSTRIAL = Within five miles of coastisall water and in presence
of heavy industrial plants with high levels of fumes and fallout.
CAUSTIC = Caustic soda up to 50 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and fumes.
ACID = Minerai acids at approximately 10 percent concentration, with splash, spills, and
fumes.
FRESH WATER = Immersion at ambient temperature.
SALT WATERIBRINE = Immersion at ambient temperature.
AMMONIA = Ammonia splash, spills, and fumes.
CHLORINE = Chlorine splash, spills, and fumes.
SOLVENTSIGASOLINE = Aromatic hydrocarbons, selected esters, gasoline. and alcohol
splash, spills. and fumes.
MILD = Rural or residential with no industrialfumesffallout.
MODERATE = Industrial plants present but no heavy contamination by industrial fumes
and fallout.
SEVERE = Heavy industrialand chemical plant area with high levels of fumes and fallout.
Notes:
Life shown is for protection only, not cosmetic appearance.
N-Not recommended.
'-Assuming topcoats are intact. and zinc is not exposed.
#-Assuming
pH is within 5.5to 10 range.
~'i"ldeal1Optimum"life is defined as the time until the first maintenance paintingttouch-up
should occur, when three to five percent breakdown of the topcoats occur, before active
rusting begins. Normal maintenance repainting cycles include: original painting ("I" iife),
spot touch-up at end of "I" Me, spot prime and full coat after an additional 50 percent of
"I" life. and a full system repaint after an additional 75 percent of '"I"system life. This can
vary f15 percent, depending on local conditions and timing of inspectionirecognition of
topcoat breakdown.
i2Colorswill darkeniyeliow, and loss of gloss will occur.
~3~Thermoplastic.
Softens at 160F. but protection remains. Will pick up dirt when softened.
l']Grades of cleaning are geared to SSPC standards:
SP-2 = hand wire-brushing; SP-3 = power tool cleaning; SP-6 = commercial blast (SA-2
or NACE-3);and SP-10 = near white blast (SA-2 112 or NACE-2).
IWFT. Minimum Dried Film Thickness in mils. 1.0 mils = 25.4 pm.
")Maintenance Schedule/Approach. I = IdealIOptimum; P = Practical.
PIA minimum SP-10 (SA4 112 or NACE-2) is required for immersion service.
N
N
200"
14p1w
PCKL
5
140-1W'i
fEP0XY)
N
h
140.160"
233
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*8.0
93
Ab27940 0 0 0 3 b 8 1 171
TABLE 4
Typical Material Costs of Paints and Protective Coatings
Approx. Cost per Sq. Ft. Q Typical DFT
Prpct.
Min.
Coatlng
Acrylic, Waterborne Primer
Acrylic, Waterborne Topcoat
Alkyd Primer'
Alkyd Gloss Topcoat'
Alkyd Silicone
Coal Tar Epoxy Standard*
Coal Tar Epoxy C200"
Chlorinated Rubber Primer
ChJorinatedRubber HB Inte&/Top
Chlorinated Rubber Topcoat
Epoxy Primer'
Epoxy HB Primer'
Epoxy HB IntermediateBopcoat*
Epoxy Topcoat'
Epoxy, Waterborne
Epoxy, HB Surface Tolerant'
Epoxy, Ester, Frimer
Epoxy, Ester, Topcoat
Latex Emulsion, Primer
Latex Emulsion, Topcoat
Universal Primer, 1-pack
Urethane, Elastomeric Solvented
Urethane, Aromatic HB Primer'
Urethane, Aliphatic Acrylic"
Urethane, Aliph. HB Acryl Inter/Top'
Urethane, Aliphatic Polyester'
Urethane, Moisture-CuredAluminum
Vinyl, Solution Primer"'
Vinyl, Solution HB IntermedBop'"
Vinyl, Solution Topcoat"
Vinyl Ester
zinc Rich, Inorganic'
Zinc Rich, Organic
Zinc Rich, Moiare-Cured Urethane
spray
BN8hf
DFT
Theor.
Ptaet,
Rgll
3.0
$0.070
0.083
$0.100
5.119
$0.078
3.0
2.0
2.0
0.036
0.040
0.051
0.040
0.044
2.0
8.O
8.0
0.076
0.104
O.lt5
0.075
0.109
0.166
0.237
0.062
0.037
0.080
0.089
2.0
4.O
1.5
2.0
0.057
0.149
0.164
0.107
0,053
0,092
0.084
0.1 16
0.128
0.083
0.184
0.0e9
0.041
0.114
0.114
0.089
0.095
5.060
i36
0.047
0.106
0.149
0.041
0.079
0.073
0.116
0.032
0.061
2.o
0.104
0.029
0.055
0.051
2.o
0.054
0.061
0.077
0.087
1 .O71
4.0
4.O
2.o
3.O
5.0
1.5
2 .o
2 .o
0.042
u.
0.755
20.0
5.0
2 .o
4.0
2
0.080
.o
2.5
2.o
4.0
1.5
20.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
0.155
0.214
0.104
0.207
0.073
0.145
0.091
0.076
0.075
0.130
0.145
0.109
0.107
0.207
0.072
0.103
0.640
0.092
0.116
0.9f4
0.131
0.1ta
0.169
0.165
0.089
0.057
0.060
0.068
NA
0.167
0.081
0.161
0.101
0.084
0.083
0.161
0.580
NA
NA
NA
NA
'Available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for the low-solids versions.
'"Becoming available in high-solids versions. Application costs and the cost per mil square foot are about the same as for low-solids versions.
Notes:
Costs are approximate based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. paint and coating suppliers. DFT = Dried film thickness in mils (I mil = 25.4 pm).
Spray Practical = 30% loss. RoWBrush Practical = 10% loss. NA = Not applicable; must be applied by spray.
TABLE 5
Shop Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Cost Included)
For
Typical mix of sizes and shapes
Large structural
Medium structural
Light structural
Light trusses
100
200
400
500
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative US. steel fabricators. Steel plate cleaning costs are about 20 percent less than prices
listed above for structural steel. Costs shown are for steel fabricators having centrifugal wheel blasting equipment. For steel fabricators without centrifugal wheel blasting
equipment or for those using conventional air blasting, costs will approximate field blasting levels shown in Table 6.
To convert to cost per ton see above.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
234
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*B-O
TABLE 6
Field Painting Costs per Sq. Ft. Including Labor, Equipment, and Related Costs
(No Material Costs Included)
U.S.A. Fkrglons
Cleaning Grade
East
en^
Gulf
West
$0.47
0.63
I .o2
0.52
0.80
0.95
1.20
$0.45
0.60
1.o2
$0.55
0.65
1.o2
$0.50
0.50
0.50
0.80
0.95
1.15
0.85
I .o0
1.20
0.22
0.25
0.25
0.20
Hi Press. Wa?er/Steam
Chan prior to Surf. Prep.
0.33
0.35
0.35
0.35
1.20
120
1.25
1.30
0.22
O 25
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.30
O 25
0.30
0.35
0.30
0.35
O 30
O 16
0.16
0.15
SP-11
SP-7
SP-6
SP-1O
SP-5
Applicatkm
One-Pack by BrusWRoHer
One-Pack by Spray
TwOPack Epoxies, by Spray
TwoPack Urethanes, by Spray
Zinc Rich Primers, by Spray
Touch Up on the Ground'
o 18
0.20
0.27
0.33
O 33
0.18
O .65
1 .o2
0.60
O .85
1.o0
1.20
0.18
0.25
o 30
*Assuming 10 percent of surface needing touch-up, calculate touch-up rate times total square footage of
exposed steel.
Notes:
Costs shown are approximate, based on 1992 data secured from representative U.S. painting contractors.
Costs shown are for calculating the base price of new steel cleaned and painted on the ground at the job
site.
,-
follow
dtrecttons on Worksheets A and 6, using
the faflowing percentage factors:
Yultlply
Field
Labor by
For
Simple structures 40-11high >
125%
>
15048
Ground tanks
>
>
>
>
90%
1%
100%
95%
90%
Multiply
*/w
Cost by
For
Uaintenance.
For
Multiply
by
100%
Adherent Millscale
>
(CSPC - VIS 1-A)
Flaking/Rusting Millscale >
(SSPC vis 1-8)
100%
-e)
shapes
250
Large structurai
1O0
Medrum stfflctural
200
Light structural
400
Light trusses
500
120%
135%
90%
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:-
235
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SSPC CHAPTER*-O
Work Sheet A
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003bA3 T 4 4
New Construction
Maintenance
Type
Primer
3
~-
Acrylic Waterborne
Intermediate
. 1O0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Topcoat
CostlSq. Ft.
,119
Total DFT
219
Acrylic Waterborne
SP
BlastlClean (Table 6)
Topcoat (Table 6 )
Installed Cost:
$1.00
(2) or (3) x *Yo2
Recap-Total
Installed Cost
(b/c)
$ -
.20
.20
1. o c
.go
219
Material Cost
$ -
90
1.119
$1.119(5) x
120
0%'
EnvironmentlLife (Table 3)
moderate
-1.34
7.5
,179
Total Installed
Maintenance Cost3
Years life
(Cost
Life)
236
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SSPC
CHAPTER*B*O 93
Work Sheet B
Michigan
Type
Primer
3
~-
Intermediate
Topcoat
Epoxy Polyamide
CostlSq. Ft.
DFT
Acrylic Polyurethane
,131
$ -~
,114
. 104
.O13
362
.33
.27
.16
.16
.25
.25
-~
9
- shop)
- field)
- shop; 6 - field)
Recap
Field Labor
.30
.30
.71
1.31
.18
1.49
36
5-
1.49
1.85
Total Installed
Installed Cost
16.5
,112
Material Cost
237
Not for Resale
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Recap-Total
SSPC CHAPTER*B-O
93
figured in. Most major construction firms are concerned about estimating construction labor costs
two and three years hence.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. TYPES OF CONTRACTS
After award, contracts generally fit into one of the
following categories:
1. Firm Fixed Price Contract
Provides for a price not subject to any adjustment by reason of cost experience of the contractor in performance of the contract.
The IFB must have definite design or performance specifications that are not expected to
change in the life of the contract.
The owner and contractor must agree on fixed
price at inception.
2. Fixed Price Contract Escalation
Provides for the upward or downward revision
of stated contract price upon occurrence of certain contingencies specifically defined in the
contract.
The IFB must have definite design or performance specifications.
Used where market or labor conditions are expected to be unstable over an extended production period. Conditions are industry-wide and
beyond contractor control. Contingencies must
be specifically defined in the contract.
This form is used extensively in the construction industry - often with some modification. The
industrial owner will often request a firm, not to
exceed, figure or bid, a price with the escalation
238
Not for Resale
A completelapprovedlcontractor accounting
process is required. This is the least desirable
type contract from the owners point of view.
There is the least responsibility for costs from the
contractors point of view. However, this contract
form is becoming common in industry.
This format can be improved, from the
owners standpoint, by fixing certain items of
cost. The ability to fix any item will depend on the
specific work to be accomplished. In some cases,
material, equipment, mobilization, and demobilization lend themselves to this approach.
239
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Steve Dobrosielskiprovided cost updates for the revised chapter. M.R. Sline contributed to an earlier version. The authors and
editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for the original version of this chapter:
M. Batchelder, D.G. Beebe, J. Brock, J. Brown, Bill Chandler, D.W.
Christofferson, D. Davis, J. Davis, Dick Drisko, Noel Duvic, P.J.
Foehl, Raye Fraser, Tom Ginsberg, R.L. Goetz, Ron Hamm, Dale
Harp, M.W. Howie, H.H. Jacobs, G.N. Kirby, C. Leavitt, M. Lichtenstadter, Jim Lisa, J. Macrae, A.W. Mallory, Marshall McGee, C.T.
Main, J. Oeschle, C. Reed, D. Reese, M.W. Repasky,Jon Rodgers,
G. Schirmer, L. Sherman, W. Stanford, T. Stein, Ken Tator, Verne
Todd, F. Trotter, R . Vansant, and W. Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Gordon H. Brevoort is a
43-year veteran in the heavy
duty paint and protective coatings industry. He is well known
for his work in creating the
Paint and Coatings Selection
and Cost Guide which has
been published biennially
through NACE since CORROSION 79 and which he has computerized into SpecMate-1 and
SM1 customizer for industrial
plants and SpecMate-2 for
bridges.
For a number of years, Mr. Brevoort has been active in the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, and the Steel Structures Painting Council (SSPC), and has conducted Coatings Economics Tutorials for SSPC at their annual meetings and at their
industry Seminars. He received SSPCs 1988 COATINGS EDUCATION AWARD at that years Annual Meeting.
Mr. Brevoort has worked for a number of major suppliers to
the Industrial Maintenance Protective Coatings and Rail Finishes
Markets.
Mr. Brevoort is president of Brevoort Consulting Associates,
Inc., which he formed in 1985 and which offers a broad range of
technical, marketing, and business management services to the
paint and coatings industry.
IV. SUMMARY
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240
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SSPC C H A P T E R * B = O 93
B b 2 7 Y O 0 0 0 3 b 52b
REFERENCES
1. Abrasive Blasting Guide for Aged or Coated Steel Surfaces.
T&R Bulletin 4-27. (New York, NY: The Society of Naval and
Marine Engineers).
2. Bernard R. Appleman, Economics of Coatings. Journal of
Protective Coatings and Linings, March 1985, pp. 26-33.
3. Wallace P. Cathcart, Warrants or Guarantees in the Rail Car
Industry for Lining and Painting. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, July 1988, pp. 52-56.
4. European Scale of Degree of Rusting for Anti-Corrosive Paints.
Photographic Material Supplied by The Corrosion Committee
of The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering, Stockholm,
1961.
5. Financial Compound Interest and Annuity Tables, Table 5, Fifth
Edition, (New York, NY: Financial Publishing Co., 1970).
6. S. Frondistou-Yannas, Coating & Corrosion Costs of Highway
Structural Steel, FWHA Report No. RD-79-121, March 1980.
7. Walter W. Kaminski and J.R. Allen, What is InspectionWorth?
Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, August 1984, pp.
30-35.
8. J.D. Keane, W. Wettach, W. Bosch, Minimum Paint Film
Thickness for Economical Protection of Hot-Rolled Steel Against
Corrosion. J. Coatings Tech., 44, No. 533, June 1960.
9. J.D. Keane, Evaluation of Coatings in Potable Water Tanks.
Materials Protection, 7, No. 4, 1968.
1O. J.D. Keane, Protective Coatings for Highway Structural Steel.
Steel Structures Painting Council/National Cooperative Highway Research Project Report 74, 1969.
11. C.G. Munger, Petroleum Industry Use of Zinc-Rich
Coatings. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich Coatings
Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 77-81, December 4, 1974.
12. R.I. Pamer, Corrosion Protection of Chemical Industry Facilities with Zinc Rich. The Zinc Institute National Zinc-Rich
Coatings Conference, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 34-37, December
4, 1974.
13. A.H. Roebuck, et al, Economics of Zinc Coating Systems for
Corrosion Protection. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, July 1984, pp. 20-25.
14. Standard Method of Evaluating Degrees of Rusting on Painted Surfaces SSPC-Vis 2-8 and ASTM D610-85 Steel Structures
Painting Council, Pittsburgh, PA and ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
15. Steel Structures Painting Council, Good Painting Practices,
Volume 1, chapter 8 (Pittsburgh, PA SSPC).
16. R.K. Swandby, How to Analyze Costs of Painting a New Plant.
Chemical Engineering, 62, May 28, 1962, p. 115.
17. J.J. Van der Veken, Cost-Effective Maintenance Via Quality
Control. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, September 1985, pp. 40-45.
18. D.E. White, P.A. Johnson, P.M. Charlton, R-O-W Vegetation
Control: The Never-Ending Process. Electrical World, August
1986, p. 41.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1O.
11.
12.
13.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
14.
241
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SSPC C H A P T E R U S - O 93
= 8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0003bBS
4b2
CHAPTER 9
W. J . Wallace. Jr.*
structure, a different system may be adopted, which involves a considerably greater initial cost, anticipating that
few if any repairs will be required until the lapse of years
makes general repainting necessary. The choice between
two such systems, or of some intermediate system, will be
made partially on the basis of estimated annual cost over
a long term, and partially, perhaps, upon other circumstances important to the owner of a particular structure.
Such estimates of total annual costs are beyond the scope
of this chapter.
Also beyond the scope of this chapter is a detailed
discussion of surface preparation or the technology of current alternative shop primers. These are covered in
separate chapters.
I. INTRODUCTION
The purposes of shop painting structural steel are
to protect it from corrosion for a limited time until it is
erected in its final location, and to provide a sound base
for the complete paint system.
Shop painting is the painting done by the fabricator at
the place of fabrication and before shipment to the site of
erection. Some fabricators go so far as to send the steel to
shops that specialize only in blast cleaning and painting.
The process includes the surface preparation, pre-treating,
and application of paints; also, the supplying of all labor,
material, and equipment, as well as the drying and protection of the painted surfaces.
The three principal aspects of shop painting are (1)
the preparation of the surfaces; (2) the choice of paint; and
(3) the procurement, storage, mixing and application of the
protective material. In recent years most of the paint
specifications generated for shop painting have specifically listed the generic type of paint material to be used. The
developments which have led to present general practice
in structural and steel fabricating shops will be discussed
in this section; specialized aspects will be covered more
fully iri later sections.
The first two of these items may vary greatly in costs;
they are, however, only the first steps in the total protective system to be given the structure; therefore, the
economic choice of one method or material as against
another can be made only when the total system is studied
and specified. It is not within the province of this chapter
to debate the economic advantage of one total system as
against others, although some factors that have a bearing
in that direction are mentioned. Such economics can be
calculated only when the life of the complete paint system
is known; this life is dependent upon the use and environment of the structure, as well as upon the cleaning and
painting in the shop.
To illustrate the foregoing: for a given structure a
painting system may be adopted that involves a rriinimum
first cost, anticipating that there will be considerable
repair of weak spots over the first few years of service life,
until a stabilized condition is reached. Or. for a similar
A. PREPARATION OF SURFACE
The existing practices described below are fairly
representative of structural steel fabricating plants. This
country contains thousands of fabricators of structural
steel, from small tovery large, and exceptions could doubtless be found to practically any statement that could be
made about shop practice. An initial expression such as
In general or For the most part should, therefore, be
assumed to precede most of the statements that will be
made.
Structural steel as it leaves the hot-bed at the rolling mill is covered with layers of oxides of iron, necessarily
formed while the hot steel is exposed to the atmosphere.
This coating of mill scale varies from steel to steel, from
product to product, and frequently over different portions
of the same rolled piece. Assuming that the steel has been
rolled on specific orders from fabricators, and not for
storage at the mill, it will be promptly loaded and shipped,
with this mill scale virtually intact; there may, however, be
exceptions, as when mill scale is shaken loose in the process of straightening a beam or bar that acquired a curvature while cooling.
Large portions of the mill scale, usually firmly attached to the steel, are difficult to dislodge, and if held intact under a reasonably good paint system in atmospheric
exposure should be a source of added protection in mild
non-corrosive environments. Other portions of the scaled
surface, however, frequently are quite susceptible to
atmospheric attack, because they are soon penetrated by
water and air. With the ensuing formation of rust they are
still further penetrated, and if this mill scale is not removed
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
242
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93
Many steel fabricators use automatic centrifugalwheel blast cleaning equipment, while others use air blast.
In each operation the blast cleaning medium (metallic
shot, grit, or a combination) is recycled. These operations
have reduced the cost of shop surface preparation
considerably.
Sand or grit blasting, like pickling, must be followed
by prompt painting before the bright surface begins to
rust. In the case of sand or grit blasting, however, in contrast to pickling, it is practical to perform the operation
after the fabrication is complete.
SSPC CHAPTER*S-O
243
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 9 . 0
II. GENERAL
Paint is generally appliei in such a manner as to obtain a dry film thickness recommended by the paint manufacturer. Dry film thicknesses are measured using pull-off
or fixed probe magnetic gages such as a Mikrotest or
Elcometer. It is vital to remember that the magnetic gage
should be calibrated on a piece of steel blast cleaned in
exactly the same way as the steel to be painted.
Continuous inspection is important. Every piece of
painted steel should be inspected before it is moved from
the painting skids. A final inspection should be made
after loading to remove all marks and handling damage.
Records of these inspections should be maintained for at
least the guarantee period of the job contract.
The most important factor in obtaining long paint life,
with attendant protection of the steel, is proper preparation of the surface. Despite advertising to the contrary,
there is no magic paint that will eliminate the necessity for
a clean surface. Experience has proved that when steel is
completely descaled and free of rust, oil, grease, and other
contaminants, great variations in the composition of the
paint are possible without seriously changing the degree
of protection in atmospheric exposures. Paint life on such
completely cleaned steel may vary from two to five times
the paint life on poorly cleaned and rusted steel, depending of course, upon the paint system and the exposure. On
the other hand, many recorded cases show that paint
applied over clean, dry, tight mill scale has lasted as long
as paint over sand blasted or pickled steel. Such sound
mill scale is conceded to be a good base for painting if the
exposure is not very severe.
Lately, it has become a basic tenet of economic survival that the fabricator must have some recognized
method of shop surface preparation, or lose the work to a
competitor who can do shop surface preparation. There
are a few instances in which the cost of full field work is
justified, but even these instances require considerable
deliberation before electing to do all cleaning and painting
in the field.
Unfortunately, there is no guarantee that paint applied over mill scale will give satisfactory performance.
There is no method presently known that can determine
the suitability of the remaining mill scale for painting.
However, the mill scale that shows visible cracks after rolling or fabricating is almost sure to cause trouble later.
Despite careful cleaning, a certain amount of the mill scale
remaining will later loosen and carry away the applied
paint. In mild atmospheric exposure, the amount of mill
scale that loosens after proper cleaning and painting is
slight. In severe exposures, such as chemical environments or water immersion, mill scale should be completely
removed to guarantee against large scale lifting of the
paint.
As stated earlier, this problem is really one of eco.
nomics; the owner of the structure must decide how far he
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
244
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 73 W 8627740 0 0 0 3 b 9 2 T 5 7
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
245
Not for Resale
93
Bb279LiO 0 0 0 3 b 9 3 993
to which hangers are bolted, will remedy most of the difficulty. Corrosion that does occur attacks the hanger or the
lug and does not weaken the pipe itself.
Riveted or bolted joints should be placed so that they
can be cleaned and painted. Too often, a line of rivets is
placed so close to a corner that it is almost impossible t o
clean or properly paint one side of the rivets or joints.
Sometimes the design does not permit sealing of joints by
rivets and rusting spreads the joint apart. More recently,
inorganic zinc primers are permitted on splice areas that
will be connected by bolts or rivets in the shop and field.
Pockets in fabricated members that can collect dirt
should be eliminated; roller shapes should be positioned
so that dirt and water are not retained. If it is necessary to
have the open side of a channel facing upwards, weep
holes should be cut into the web.
Many times angles or channels are placed back to
back, but are separated by a thin gusset plate or washers.
This leaves a space that is extremely difficult to clean and
paint. Furthermore, it traps soil and has a tendency to
remain wet, accelerating corrosion. Channels or angles
used for stiffeners should not be placed with the open
angle against the steel and left open at the top and sealed
at the bottom, since such a design permits water to accumulate. Such stiffeners should have a flat surface
against the wall t o be stiffened so that the crack may be
sealed with paint, as is done in placing stiffeners on webs
of plate girders.
When the structure is exposed to salt spray or contamination, or acid, or alkali, in fact any strong electrolyte,
it is particularly important that the designer eliminate
pockets or corners that may trap contamination and water.
Electrolytic action in such spots often causes sufficient
loss in section to cause failure of the member. When the
structure is exposed to periodic stresses, stress fatigue
coupled with corrosion can cause early failure at stress
values far below the design limitations. Corrosion at
localized spots may set up stress raisers which can cause
stress fatigue at the spot.
FIGURE 1
Example of a clean cut design of grating to eliminate crevices
that trap contaminants and accelerate corrosion.
246
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O
93
8627940 O003694 8 2 T
247
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O
Continuous production lines should be set up whenever possible; i f the fabricated objects are more or less
uniform, and not too large, a mechanized conveyor (overhead, track, etc.) should be used to expedite handling of
the work. In general, mechanical equipment should be
used to the maximum degree possible and manual labor
kept to a minimum.
There is a trend, especially in shops that fabricate
small parts, to employ the automatic spray line in conjunction with electrostatic paint application. This innovation has been used to coat large diameter line pipe.
When continuous production lines are impractical,
semicontinuous lines might be feasible; such work can
sometimes be handled efficiently on carts or trucks running on small track. Extremely large beams and girders
can be set up on flat freight cars and run through a cleaning and painting shop that is built up on either side of the
track. This process is not to be confused with the poor
practice of loading fabricated steel on cars for shipment,
then cleaning and painting just prior to the shipment.
Whether the cleaning and painting shop is best
housed in the same building with the fabricating opera
tions is decided by the individual fabricator. Handling
costs are generally lower if they are in the same building.
However, the effect of the cleaning and painting operations on the remainder of the plant must be considered. If
blast cleaning is done in the shop, separate rooms or
cabinets are a must for efficient, safe operations. Even if
only hand or power tool cleaning is done, the effect of the
painting operations may warrant a separate building. Spray
painting has been eliminated in some plants because of
the complaints of other workers who object to the fumes,
even when no overspray carries to their portion of the
plant. To forestall such a contingency a spray booth, downdraft ventilation, or other positive measures are necessary.
All fabricating shops should have adequate facilities
for cleaning and painting under cover. In warm climates,
where the temperature does not drop below 40F (4"C), an
SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 93
C. QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOR
In many shops, cleaning and painting are considered
jobs that require no skill, but a good job at minimum cost
can be done only by trained men who are qualified for the
work. The practice of random assignment, on a day-to-day
basis, of manual labor for cleaning and painting should be
eliminated. One reason for poor paint jobs is that some
FIGURE 2
Plate sand blasting in fabricating plant.
Courtesy: Chicago Bridge and Iron
248
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SSPC C H A P T E R * S * O 9 3
8627940 0003b7b b T 2
FIGURE 3
Side view of centrifugal blast cleaning unit showing driving motor
and wheel housing. Work is cleaned as it passes the wheel only. A
fortyeight foot long cleaning chamber is provided, but most of
this space is a tunnel which serves only to trap abrasives and act
as a shelter.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
249
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x 7 . 0
73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Illustration of a centrifugal wheel used for blast cleaning. Note
the extensive repair work which has been necessary on the
housing due to the wear from the abrasive.
FIGURE 5
Exterior o a nozzle blast cleaning room showing two continuous
type feed tanks in the foreground along with control equipment,
and oil and water seDarators: abrasive recoverv eauioment is in
the background.
I
250
Not for Resale
..
SSPC CHAPTERa9.O
93
m 8627940 O003698
475
FIGURE 6
Interior view of blast cleaning room shown in Figure 5. Note air
feed connection to operators mask for fresh air supply when actually blast cleaning. Solenoid control of blast stream by operator
is available but is not shown. Material passing through this room
is carried on a continuous conveyor.
FIGURE 7
Pickling Set-up with three pickling tanks in the foreground. The
furthest tank is a sulfuric acid pickling tank, the second is a water
rinse, and the closest tank in the foreground is a phosphoric acid
treatment tank. Concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acid are
stored in the iron tanks beneath the crane runway. Solvent cleaning of the steel takes place in the background prior to immersion
in the sulfuric acid tank. Drying and painting racks and skids are
shown in the foreground.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
251
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SSPC CHAPTER*S*O
93
252
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SSPC CHAPTER*S*O
93
TABLE 1
TYPICAL PRIMER PAINTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL
PRIMER
PIGMENT
VEHICLE
MINIMUM
SURFACE PREPARATION
SSPC Paint 9
100% Titanium
Dioxide
Vinyl
Blast Cleaning
SSPC Paint 11
40% Oxide
40% Zinc Yellow
20% Extenders
Hand Cleaning
SSPC Paint 13
Hand Cleaning
Hand Cleaning
Epoxy Polyamide
SSPC-SP 6, "Commercial
Blast Cleaning"
Chlorinated Rubber,
suitably plasticized
and stabilized.
'
SSPC Paint 15
SSPC Paint 16
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC Paint 17
Pigment
12% Tinting Pigments
55% Extender Pigments
SSPC Paint 20
Type I
Type II
SSPC Paint 22
Inhibitive Pigment
Epoxy Polyamide
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC Paint 23
Inhibitive Pigment
Latex
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC Paint 25
Zinc Oxide
Red Iron Oxide
Magnesium
Silicate
Mica
Linseed oil/
Alkyd
Hand Cleaning
SSPC Paint 28
Not specified
Water Borne
EPOXY
Blast Cleaning
Preferred
SSPC Paint 29
Minimum 50%
zinc dust in dry
film
Inorganic or
Organic
Blast Cleaning
Inorganic
Organic
TT-P-641
Type I
Hand Cleaning
TT-P-641
Type II
Alkyd Varnish
Blast Cleaning or
Pickling
TT-P-645
Alkyd Varnish
Blast Cleaning or
Pickling
TT-P-636
50%
10%
10%
30%
Alkyd Varnish
Hand Cleaning
TT-P-31
Linseed Oil
(5 parts)
Spar Varnish
(1 part)
Hand Cleaning
Iron Oxide
Zinc Yellow
Zinc Oxide
Extender
253
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SSPC C H A P T E R t S - O 73
m 8627740 0003701
89T
TABLE 2
SOURCES OF INFORMATION PERTAINING TO CLEANING AND
PAINTING HAZARDS
National Safety Council
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, IL 60143-3201
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2. Storage of Paint
254
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SSPC C H A P T E R r S . 0 73
4. Thinning
The thinning of paint must be done by qualified
personnel under careful supervision. There is a
feeling among some paint users that paint should
be purchased and applied at the greatest coverage
per gallon possible. This belief is encouraged by
some paint salesmen who claim amazing square
feet per gallon coverage for their paints. The
reasoning is false and poor economy. Paint
should be applied at a coverage or spreading rate
that will ensure a dried film thickness capable of
protecting the steel. When too much thinner is
used, it may be impossible to obtain adequate
thickness of dried paint. Paints will run and sag if
the painter attempts to build up thick films with
overly-thinned paints; in such a case the only
remedy is to apply extra coats of paint.
The thinner used must be compatible with
the paint being used. If the wrong thinner is used,
it may throw resin out of solution and ruin the
paint. Most oil-base paints are thinned with
mineral spirits or V.M. & P. naphtha. The directions of the paint manufacturer or the specification should be followed regarding thinning of the
paint. Some of the newer paints with synthetic
resins require thinners composed of aliphatics,
aromatics, and ketones. These thinners should
never be used to thin oil-base paints. It is possible
to use aromatic thinners in oil-base paints;
however, extreme caution should be exercised i f
this course of action is planned.
Before paint is thinned for spraying, it should
FIGURE 8
Section of paint storage room showing power driven mixers connected to built-in stirrers in drums of paint which are in use.
Paints are drawn from spigots at the bottom of the drums when
required. In the center of the photograph note pressure regulating
equipment which is used to maintain an inert atmosphere of
nitrogen above paints when they are being circulated throughout
plant circulating system (which was not being used). Note electrical ground to paint drum shown on right. Mechanical equipment, on the left is available, for lifting heavy containers of paint.
FIGURE 9
Air driven motor connected to built-in mixer in drum of paint.
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86279VO 0003703 b b 2
FIGURE 10
Typical drum handling equipment; drum holder is handled easily
by shop crane and drum may be tipped when desired to draw
paint. Tongs in foreground are used for handling drums of paint
by shop crane.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 11
Paint dipping setup. The tank of paint is raised by hydraulic jacks
and then lowered, rather than dipping the work into the paint.
Excess paint drips on the collecting trough on the left.
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Ab27940 0003704 5 T
FIGURE 12
New developments that have been introduced into the fabricating plants include automatic spraying of paint - used when the work is
not varied; electrostatic spraying - in which the
paint particles are charged with electricity and are
attracted to the work, even around corners; electrostatic de-tearing - in which the tear drops that
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I.
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003705 435
1
.
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FIGURE 13
Schematic diagram of a down draft spray booth.
Courtesy: Binks Manufacturing Co.
FIGURE 14
Oven for force drying painted steel.
SSPC CHAPTER*S.O
93
m 8627740
000370b 371
FIGURE 15
Painting and drying racks for fabricated plate. Notice contact sur.
faces for field joints are left unpainted.
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A. SUPERVISION
The top level supervisor must have a working
knowledge of paints, cleaning, painting, and corrosion in
general. If his knowledge on these points is limited, he
must know where to turn for sound advice and guidance.
Most of all, he must have an open mind and must be willing
to accept new methods that are technically sound. Unfortunately, a great number of the engineers, architects, and
fabricators have little knowledge of painting; they rely on
specifications that are outmoded, basically unsound, and
even impossible to achieve. The writer has run across
specifications in use today that were issued long before
the first edition of this work was first published. In those
days there was a general lack of technical expertise in all
phases of steel painting. More amazing is that despite the
advances made, architect-engineers still produce unworkable, incompetent and contradictory painting specifications. This lack of expertise may be due to an unwillingness to become current in the state of the art. Some of
these specifications are filled with such outmoded clauses
as all rust and millscale shall be removed by hand wirebrushing. Accepting a contract with unenforceable
clauses is likely to cause expensive litigation over a costly
paint failure. For his own protection, the fabricator should
have competent supervision over the cleaning and painting, from original estimates for bids until the steel is
shipped and erected.
Supervision of actual operations in the shop should,
of course, be in charge of qualified personnel. Here, the
lack of knowledge concerning the causes and prevention
B. INSPECTION
Even when the customer inspects and passes on all
painting of his steel, the fabricator should provide his
own inspection system. Acceptance by the customers inspector does not relieve the fabricator of responsibility.
The fabricator who knows his painting system is good
must in turn educate the customer and his inspector. Many
times customers are arbitrary in insisting on procedures
that might be detrimental to performance of the paint.
Details of inspection are reviewed in a separate chapter.
The minimum inspection should cover the steel after
cleaning and prior to painting and after painting. Inspection of the actual cleaning and painting operations is
advantageous. No steel should be painted before it is
inspected; the inspector may be the immediate supervisor
on the job. The cleaned steel should be checked for:
FIGURE 16
Machined surfaces are usually coated with a rust-proofing
compound of grease consistency. This type of coating is being
applied to machined surfaces on the right, while in the center the
unmachined areas are being painted with the specified shop
primer.
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The fabricator should comply with the safety regulations promulgated by the various government agencies.
Information about protective devices, as well as flammability and toxicity data on paints and solvents can be
obtained from the U S . Bureau of Mines, and are reviewed
in a separate chapter.
The danger from toxic or fire hazards should be
always in the minds of the supervisors as well as the
workers. They are usually aware of the hazards from
mechanical equipment, cranes, ladders, staging, etc.; but
they do not realize the tremendous damage that may result
from a small quantity of vaporized volatile solvent as an
explosion hazard, nor do they appreciate the dangers to
health inherent in fume and dust exposure.
Lists of respiratory protective devices officially approved for most types of industrial exposures are available
from the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Burning and riveting operations may create toxic
hazards if paint is decomposed; in addition to volatilized
toxic compounds such as lead, zinc, cadmium and
chromates, acrolein may be formed from decomposition of
the oils in the paint.
The hazards in using chemical compounds such as
acids and alkalies are generally known and precautions
should be taken to protect personnel from all contact, including spray, mist, spillage or vapor. The Chemical
Manufacturers Association has published adequate
methods for safe handling these.
(hl
Identification
marks:
adequate?
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 17
Painting and drying shop with tracks and carts for handling
painted steel. The shop is heated in cold weather. When carts
reach the far end of the shop, they are placed on the incline on the
left and returned to the area in the foreground.
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8b279LlO 0003709 0 8 0
A. SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Safety considerations are discussed in a separate
chapter. The protective clothing and equipment necessary
for the various operations is listed in publications of the
National Safety Council, the American National Standards
Institute, the National Fire Protection Association and
others. Insurance companies should be contacted for
technical advice on safety measures i f there is any
question.
The safety precautions necessary in cleaning operations are numerous; a highly recommended code for safe
practice is Code of Recommended Good Practices for
Metal Cleaning Sanitation issued by the American
Foundrymens Association.
Authoritative and detailed references for safety precautions for the many hazards encountered in the cleaning
and painting of steel are available from the sources listed
in Table 2.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: T. Dowd, R.L. Doyle, James Flaherty, Raye Fraser, Lewis
Gleekman, R.W. Hamm, Fred Lichtenstadter, A.W. Mallory, Robert
McClelland, Marshall McGee, Joe Mazia, William Pearson, Verne
J. Todd.
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Ab27940 0 0 0 3 7 1 0 B T 2 W
CHAPTER 10
Raye A. Fraser
where salts are present, in designs where water can collect or in chemical atmospheres unless it is painted in the
same manner as conventional steel.' Galvanized steel is
becoming more common and is the preferred treatment for
new gratings, handrails and other small incidental items.
Improvements in surface preparation, in treating
cleaned steel, in applying paint and paints themselves are
made periodically. Sometimes, a less expensive method
with a shorter life is more economical than an expensive
I. GENERAL DISCUSSION
The cost of painting a structure can be estimated, but
the cost of deferring painting is much more difficult to
assess, particularly for railroad structures, though it is
clear that a good painting program is less costly than frequent steel replacement. In every location there is slow
rusting of unprotected ferrous metals representing loss of
sound metal. Since a single railroad may have several
thousand steel bridges, the situation cannot be allowed to
get out of hand. But painting programs of many railroads
have been restricted by a lack of funds in recent years, and
70% of those responding to the questionnaire indicated
maintenance painting was not sufficient to protect the
steel. Funds have been concentrated on a small number of
structures in particularly corrosive environments. The frequency of repainting ranged from 5 to 40 years, with an
average of 16.5 years. It is common to see railroad bridges
entirely covered by rust.
Most of these structures are in an environment where
the corrosion rate is slow. The menace of dripping salt
brine from bunker refrigerator cars has passed into
history. However, deep corrosion pits formed by dripping
brine are still present and are sites for active corrosion.
The main problems for most railroads are marine environments.
One line of attack is to attempt to use a construction
material that needs little or no corrosion protection. In new
construction many structures are built from concrete, and
others are a combination of steel and concrete with a
weathering steel. ASTM Type A-242 is also being used
alone in larger structures. Weathering steel is not suitable
T v p c s of creoirrs
Even
PROBLEM
SOLUTION
FIGURE 1
A few design features to be a v ~ i d e d ' ~
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Thin coating
ond Iiablc to
damogc
cooti
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CHAPTER+LO.O
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00037LL 739
- ZONE
1B
TABLE 1
Survey of Environmental Zones for Railroad Bridges
Location
- Interior
Zone 1A
Normally Dry
Zone 1 6
Zone 2A
* 92.1 /o'
Zone 26
Zone 3
Chemical Exposure
5.6%
2.3%
II. ZONES
The first consideration in any paint job is to determine
the environment in which the structure is exposed, keeping
in mind that different parts of a single structure may be
subject to different environments. Standardized environmental zones (defined by the SSPC) are widely
recognized as outlined in Chapter 1 of Volume 2 of the
Steel Structures Painting Manual and in Table 1 below:
The percentages in Table 1 are based upon the foregoing
survey and show that the vast majority of railroad bridges
are in Zone 1B. Figure 2 illustrates some of the many SSPC
tests conducted on railroad bridges in a wide range of environments.
Table 2 illustrates typical paint systems used in these
environments. These are discussed in Section VII-D.
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8627940 0 0 0 3 7 3 2 675
FIGURE 2a
FIGURE 2d
FIGURE 2b
FIGURE 2e
FIGURE 2c
FIGURE 2f
FIGURE 2
The SSPC has conducted a number of extensive paint tests on railroad bridges in the past. Examples of these shown above, include:
(Figure 2a) test on Protecting Load-Bearing Surface of Steel Bridges on the Chicago-Great Western; (Figure 2b) Painting of Steel Bridges
for Mild Exposures on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad System; (Figure 2c) Bridge Paints with Resistance to Salt Brine on the
Missouri-Pacific Railroad; (Figure 2d) Paints over Hand-Cleaned Steel on the Seaboard Cost Line Railroad; (Figure 2e) a series of tests of
Oil-Base and Urethane Paints on the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad from 1965 to the present time; (Figure 2f) Paint Systems over HandCleaned Steel. Other empirical paint evaluation tests were carried out with the cooperation of the Association of American Railroads on
the bridges of the Southern, Great Northern and Penn Central Railways.
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8b27940 0003713 5 0 1
TABLE 2
TYPICAL RAILWAY BRIDGE PAINTING SYSTEMS'
ZONE ENVIRONMENT
TYPICAL SYSTEMS"
1A
1B
Primers:
Intermediate
Coats:
ToDcoats:
2A
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"
SSPC-Paint 15 (Type I), Steel Joist Shop Paint
Topcoats:
Surface Prep:
Primers:
Pretreatment:
Topcoats:
Primers:
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Topcoats:
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93
TABLE 2 (Continued)
ZONE ENVIRONMENT
28
Frequently wet by
salt water. Includes
condensation, splash,
spray or frequent
immersion
Chemical Exposure
TYPICAL SYSTEMS"
Paint Systems: See SSPC Paint Systems and Guides 12.00
(Zinc-Rich), 4.00 (Vinyl), 15.00 (Chlorinated
Rubber), 13.00(Epoxy), PS 11.01 (Coal Tar
Epoxy) or proven proprietary system.
Also see recommendations for Zone 2A.
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEMS"
Paint Systems: See Alternatives to Zone 2A.
'The following specifications have been removed from the revised table to reflect current practice SSPC-Paint 1 , SSPC-PS-1 04 - 1 08,SSPC-PS 4 01, SSPC-PS 7 01, TT-P-66,
TT-P-615, TT-P-636, MIL-P-15929, DOD-P-23236, AASHTO M-72, 1-GP-14, 1-GP-140, 1-GP-166, 1-GP-167, CISCICPMA 1-73a
"Ail coats of a paint system should be provided by the same supplier
The protection of steel structures in marine atmospheres and those exposed to de-icing salts presents
severe conditions for railroad structures.
High humidity and salt are the culprits. Sea water consists of about 3 percent sodium chloride in water, along
with a number of other salts present in small quantities.
Common sodium chloride, salt, is one of the worst inciters
of corrosion when wet or in solution. Its electrolytic action
causes rapid corrosion in localized sites of steel and protects other areas. The result is pitting of the steel, weakening the structure more than if the corrosion occurred
uniformly over the entire structure.
This electrolytic corrosion can easily perforate a steel
member. Corrosion products create an alkaline condition
under the paint, which chemically attacks oil- and alkydbased paints, and they soon disintegrate and wash away.
The result is exposure of more steel, an increase in electrolytic action and more intensified paint deterioration.
This is a cycle that, once started, is very difficult and expensive to stop. The electrolytic action cannot take place
without moisture. High humidity drives water into the paint
film and keeps it wet, permitting the flow of localized electric current to corrode the steel. No organic protective
coating is impermeable to water.
There is no protective coating that adequately protects steel i f salt remains on the steel before it is painted.
The problem is solved i f no salt is allowed to come in direct
contact with steel.
Not all portions of a steel structure exposed to marine
atmospheres are uniformly attacked. Exposure varies from
complete immersion of steel piling, footings and groins in
sea water, to the much less severe exposure of high structures to salt-laden wind, rain and mists.
The severest attack is not on steel immersed in the
salt water but on steel in the splash zone just above high
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m 8627940
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0003735 3 8 4
E. BURIED STRUCTURES
Buried structures are in the soil or are in contact with
soil under conditions in which oxygen can be replaced.
This exposure is very severe. Protection must be adequate
for many years because of the expense in excavating to
make structures available for repainting. This environment
is discussed in the chapter on pipelines.
All soils are not equally corrosive. Some soils are
neutral, dry and well packed, and little corrosion occurs.
Unfortunately, much of the steel along the railroads is subject to corrosive conditions when buried. Possibly the
worst condition is encountered when the steel is buried in
cinders. Cinders are acidic and, when wet, are very
destructive to any coating. Even galvanized iron fails rapidly in this environment.
Brine drippings and de-icing salts also soak into the
soil and have the same corrosive effect. Other contributing
factors are ladings and drippings from cars carrying high
sulfur coal.
Stray electric currents are encountered along railroad
tracks, particularly along electrified systems. Direct current can cause great damage where it leaves the steel and
enters the ground. To protect against stray currents (where
the amount of steel corroded is directly proportional to the
flow of direct current) steel must be insulated by a protective coating. Concrete permits flow of current, and disruption of the concrete is caused by the tremendous force exerted by the corrosion products on the surface of reinforcing steeL5 Even without stray current, spalling of concrete is caused by the rusting underneath the concrete
when the concrete is too thin, improperly made or applied,
or when water creeps in around the edge of the concrete
and rusts the steel.
Buried steel can be protected by application of thick
coatings such as coal tar enamels or asphalts, but under
very severe conditions steel is best protected by coating in
conjunction with cathodic protection. If possible, steel
should not be buried. Pipelines, conduits and other
steelwork should be supported above the ground where
it can be protected by conventional means.
When steel is buried, as in culverts, the nature of the
fill must be taken into account. Basic conditions should be
maintained. Cinders should not be used as a backfill, but
limestone may be used as a fill around the buried steel or
to support steel. Because fills are porous and act as a
sponge to maintain wet conditions around the pipe,
drainage provisions should be made.
For a further discussion of the effect of burial on steel
surfaces, see the chapter on protection of underground
structures and pipelines.
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1. Girders:
Tops of outstanding legs of inside bottom flange
angles; the vertical legs of the same angles; inside of web plates and stiffner angles, particularly
around the bottom of the outstanding angle where
it bears on the flange angle.
2. Floor Beams:
Tops, edges and undersides of top flange angles
and cover plates; top sides of outstanding legs
and vertical legs of bottom flange angles; webs
and gusset plates outside the rails.
3. Stringers:
Both sides of the outstanding legs of top and bottom flange angles and webs, particularly on the
side nearest the rail.
4. Laterals:
Outside of the rails along stringer connections
and lateral plates to girders.
5. Decks:
To facilitate maintenance and repair of the track,
bridges are often of the solid floor, ballasted track
type. Steel floor plates corrode and require protection or periodic expensive replacement. Dirty
ballast remains wet and accelerates corrosion of
floor plates. Waterproofing deck plates with
asphalt membranes is successful. Unless stringent precautions are taken, deck coverings are
not waterproof and the plates still corrode. Some
railroads have had success by asphalt coating
deck-plates and laying a slab of concrete over the
asphalt before the ballast is applied. Drainage of
accumulated water to keep ballast dry is of great
benefit when the drains can be kept open.
Maintenance men should see that drains provided
for the purpose of keeping structures dry are kept
open.
6. Superstructure:
It is practical to specify a different method of protection for the portion of a bridge above the track
line, where exposure is less severe.
A. BRIDGES
The greatest tonnage of steel that requires protection
is found in bridges of all sizes and types, including
trestles, viaducts and highway overpasses. There are more
than 94,000 steel bridges with an aggregate length of 1,800
miles that are being protected by railroads. Each bridge
must be considered in relation to exposure, service, difficulty of repainting, traffic and the cost of protection.
An idea of the magnitude and cost of painting bridges
can be obtained from the experience of the Southern
Railway.8 When painting a new bridge over the
Cumberland River near Burnside, Kentucky in 1950, it required 19,000 gallons of paint, which, at ten pounds of
solids per gallon, represents a load of 190,000 pounds. It
took 30 men six months to paint the bridge, and a normal
maintenance crew requires two years to repaint it.
Bridges usually get the best protection of any railway
structures because they are expensive and the investment
must be protected. Cleaning and painting costs on bridges
are so high that there is no point in using low-cost paints.
If structural failure of a bridge occurs, the damage done
and liabilities incurred are often greater than for other
structures. Bridges, therefore, should receive good corrosion protection and should be inspected at frequent intervals for possible damage because of corrosion.
A committee report of the American Railway Bridge
and Building Association (ARBBA) recommends that when
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
7. Steel piling:
Steel piling for bridges or trestles must be given
adequate protection which cannot be as thin as
ordinary paint films unless the surfaces will be
available for repainting.
8. Tonnage and Area:
Costs of bridges are almost always calculated on
a per ton basis; therefore, most records of the railroads usually contain accurate figures of the tonnage. However, cleaning and painting costs are
best based upon the square feet of surface area to
be treated, and those figures are not available in
most instances. Therefore, railroad personnel
usually calculate painting costs on a per ton
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Type of Bridge
C. OTHER STRUCTURES
TABLE 3
Average Sq. Foot of Surface
Exposed Per Ton
Rolled Beam
90-150
Plate Girder
80-110
Pony Truss
105-120
Deck Truss
115-125
Thru Warren Truss
105-120
(a) Riveted Joint
110-125
(b) Pin connected
160-190
Thru Curved Chord Truss
105-125
For accurate work the actual surface should be calculated
from the surface of the component plates and shapes,
making allowance for the surfaces in contact.
~
B. BUILDINGS
Painting buildings made of masonry, plaster or wood
are outside the scope of this chapter, but many steel
buildings or component parts of buildings do require painting. Most require little special precaution because exposure is mild in the interior of most buildings. Interior
paints do not require the durable qualities of those used
on exterior surfaces; primers are less expensive than
heavy-duty primers used on bridges and exteriors; surface
preparation is less demanding; and repainting is done at
longer intervals. When appearance is a factor, enamels
give good results and long life.
2. Steel pipe
Steel pipe or other steel to be buried requires
special treatment such as hot-applied coal tar or
asphalt coatings. For severe conditions galvanized culverts should be coated with an asphalt
coating or coal tar enamel. Interiors of culverts
should have a bituminous pavement to prevent
wearing away of the protective coating when the
flow of sand or gravel is severe.
3. Turntables
SSPC C H A P T E R * L O - O 73
B. SHOP-FINISHED
This type of surface receives all its coats of paint in
the shop. If damage in handling is slight, then field touchup of the coating system can be kept to a minimum.
YS.
4
6
Nominal Thickness. Mils
New steel that has not been shop-painted requires extensive cleaning. It is necessary that loose mill scale, rust
and the foreign matter be removed. The amount of loose
mill scale and rust depends upon the length and severity of
the weathering. Since the steel was not shop-coated, it is
assumed that the weathering is deliberate. Unless the
period of weathering is very long or conditions very severe,
there may always be some mill scale on the surface. This
adherent mill scale is tenacious and difficult to remove,
and it is not to be confused with the mill scale that has
been under-cut and is easily removed.
Unless this weathered steel is blast cleaned, the surface is poor for painting. Any cleaning method less effective than blast cleaning dooms the paint to a greatly
shortened life. If steel is not blast cleaned, it is much better to paint over tight mill scale before it gets a chance to
weather. A comprehensive analysis of the results of all
paint tests available to the Steel Structures Painting Council indicates that painting over rust, even though the rust is
thin and tight, results in shortened paint life. Rusting of
bare steel, even before blast cleaning, has also been
shown to reduce paint life in severe environments.
Therefore, steel should be blast cleaned and painted
before it has undergone any appreciable outdoor exposure.
According to the questionnaire, 50% of the railroads
responding specify shop priming with topcoating in the
field; 25% specify the entire coating system to be shop-applied; and the remainder specify the entire coating system
be applied in the field, presumably after erection.
1
lo
FIGURE 3
thickness (oil and alkyd paints). From an
Regardless of the type of structure, paint or other protective coating should be chosen with regard to the type of
exposure and the use of the structure.
Specific recommendations are given later, but one
point should be kept in mind. It is often better to sacrifice
some protection by standardizing on a few paints.
A. SHOP-PRIMED
In shop-primed steel for field painting, spot cleaning
and touch-up priming are required. If shop painting is done
well and the paint is of good quality, little touch-up is
necessary. Rust that forms on scarred places is loose and
easily removed. If extensive rusting and mill scale lifting
has occurred, the shop coat has failed and the responsibility for the failure should be determined. The buyer cannot specify that only loose mill scale and loose rust be
removed and then expect to get a perfect paint job. It is inevitable that some remaining mill scale loosens, depending upon the period of exposure of the prime coat. Even
after application of the field coats, additional mill scale
loosens in spots and lifts coats of paint. This is becoming
less of a problem because most fabricators use a standard
practice of rotary wheel blasting all steel.
Soil may be found on steel resulting from dragging it
through mud, storing it on the ground and subjecting it to
other abuse. Oil drippings, grease, cement spatter, chalk
marks and other foreign matter found on steel must be
removed. Solvent and detergent cleaning are usually
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
D. MAINTENANCE SURFACES
Maintenance painting encounters all possible surface
conditions. Large amounts of rust (beyond Rustgrade 7 of
SSPC-Vis 2), indicate that painting has been deferred too
long. The cost of cleaning, when there are large areas of
rusty steel, may be as great as the total cost of painting
with one coat of paint applied in time. When paint is well
adhered and no rust has developed, a light brushing or solvent cleaning, followed by application of a single coat of
paint, livens the old paint and provides additional protection. Rusted areas require thorough scraping, wire
brushing or power tool cleaning followed by spot-priming
with an inhibitive primer. If the areas are large, blast cleaning and prime painting on the same day are recommended.
When the cost of scaffolding is high, it may be
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C. FIELD-PAINTED
TABLE 4
Typical Effect of Surface Preparation on Paint Life*
Millscale
Rusty
Blast Clean
Wire Brush
Wire Brush
Semi-Rural
9.6
7.6
8.0
Marine
6.7
3.7
3.0
Exposure
___
V. LABOR CONSIDERATIONS
Increasing labor costs make higher productivity imperative. On railroads, where paint gangs have been
eliminated, painting is being done by regular bridge and
building crews that also do other maintenance work. This
practice reduces painting skill.
Field painting is being contracted in many instances.
In this case, workers are usually experienced, but it is not
unusual for contractors to recruit labor locally. Too often,
both the contractor and his men are interested only in getting the painting completed as soon as possible and collecting fees. Consideration should be given to the integrity
and reputation of the painting contractor rather than
awarding contracts solely on the basis of the low bid.
According to the questionnaire, 40% of painting is
done by special paint crews, 25% by regular bridge crews,
and 35% is contracted. There is great variance, and the
percentages in each case ranged from O to 1OOoh for different railroads. There is a slight trend back to using
special paint crews.
Mechanized equipment, such as rotary power tools,
abrasive pads, brushes, pneumatic chippers, and airless
spray paint outfits, has increased labor productivity. By
reducing scaffolding costs large amounts of money may
be saved. Increased production may be achieved by more
effective work.
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3. Blasf cleaning
sand blasting, using compressed air and sand
(SSPC-SP 5, 10,6 or 7). (Field blast cleaning using
crushed iron, grit or shot is uneconomical unless
practically all of the grit can be recovered for
reuse.) These methods of cleaning, which are considered mechanical, are, in some cases, preceded
by chemical cleaning methods utilizing solvent
cleaners or other chemical methods such as
steam cleaning.
Cleaning in maintenance painting or cieaning of weathered steel structures prior to priming
may often be the most expensive of all the operations, and in turn, the major cost of cleaning is the
labor required. The work is usually tiring and
unpleasant; therefore, cleaning must be carefully
supervised and inspected.
Bridge ends usually are in the poorest condition. Accumulations of dirt, leaves, and other
debris collect on cover plates, flanges, angles of
braces and similar places, and must be removed.
Particular attention should be paid t o bridge
seats, bridge pedestals, shoes, base and sole
plates and expansion joints. Steel should be
washed off with water, preferably under pressure.
This wets the steel and delays painting, but in
most cases the debris or soil is wet anyway and
water has soaked into the paint. No painting
should be done until the surface is dry. Often
debris is blown off with compressed air aided by
light scraping, but this usually does not leave a
clean surface.
When there is heavy rust scale, it should be
knocked off with hammers, using chisels on the
difficult spots. This scale is porous and acts like a
sponge in holding water, resulting in faster corrosion. It cannot be protected by any type of
coat ing.
6. Choice
Hard and fast rules do not apply in choosing a
method of surface preparation. All methods give
satisfactory results under certain conditions. The
more severe the surface, the higher the quality of
cleaning necessary. There are some restrictions
placed on blast cleaning, but it is the preferred
method of surface preparation. The experience
and judgment of the engineer responsible for the
condition of the structure are necessary for a
satisfactory decision. The engineers decision
should be based on costs, practicality and the
demands of the paint to be used as primer. Cleaning should comply with the provisions of the Steel
Structures Painting Councils Surface Preparation Specifications; the particular specification
used should be modified if necessary to meet
local conditions.
Regardless of the method used to prepare
steel for repainting, it must be cleaned of residues
of salt, leachings, alkali, acid or other chemical
contaminants. Any protective coating applied
over such corrosive agents is doomed to an early
failure. It is not sufficient to remove such corrosive agents completely; strict precautions must
be taken to prevent recontamination of the surface before the primer is applied. Contamination
between coats of paint or before the paint is dry is
less detrimental, but should be avoided if possible.
4. Solvent Cleaning
When grease or oil are present, they should be
removed by solvents rather than by spreading the
contaminants over a large area by the cleaning
tools (SSPC-SP1). Power wire brushing, for example, spreads oil and grease over large areas causing poor adhesion of the paint.
When the surface is contaminated with deicing salts, salt from the sea, bird excrement, or
other corrosive agents, thorough washing with
fresh water or steam cleaning is necessary.
5. Spot Cleaning
In maintenance painting, the structure should be
repainted or spot painted as the first breaks in the
paint occur and rust is just starting to form. At
this stage, cleaning costs are minimized since
spot cleaning using hand tools is usually adequate. If extensive areas of the bridge are rusty,
hand cleaning is burdensome, tiring, and expenCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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SSPC C H A P T E R k L O - O 9 3
FIGURE 4
Single spider cages in use in the painting of bridge. (Northern
Pacific RR photo)
2. Painting:
Paint failures occur primarily through improper
cleaning; secondly, through improper application;
and finally, through poorly chosen paint.
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SSPC CHAPTER*LO.O
93 M 8627740 0003722 5 1 4 M
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SSPC CHAPTERaLO-O 93
stated previously, depends first on a well prepared surface, and secondly on proper application of the paint. A
very common failing is too thin an application; many times
the life of the coating would be prolonged several fold if
one more coat had been applied at a small additional cost.
The life of the coating also can be prolonged by the choice
of coating, particularly in the more corrosive environments.
Reducing the costs of application can be achieved
mainly by applying fewer coats. High-build coatings are
becoming more common, and i f the same dry film build
can be obtained with two coats rather than three coats of a
similar material, the savings are obvious. In some situations there may be savings in having faster drying paint,
Almost certainly less expensive surface preparation
means shorter coating life and results in no savings,
The cleaning of new steel at the fabrication plant can
be done at a much lower unit cost than in the field.
However, i f a particular specification for cleaning is used
that differs from the shop practice, an extra cost per ton is
charged.
The perfect coating does not exist and probably never
will. Be suspicious of materials for which the following
claims are made: (1) requires minimum or no surface
preparation, or (2) dries instantly, or (3) can be applied in
most or all weather conditions, or (4) tolerates damp surfaces, or (5) will double or triple your coating life. Advances
in coatings are being made, but great break-throughs are
rare. When presented with a new coating material that has
not been used before, you should, after careful consideration, field test if it appears promising. Do not be rushed into a quick evaluation. At least several years of study are required. The results of accelerated tests, such as salt fog or
condensation cabinet exposures, are of interest but are
sometimes misleading and cannot be relied on.
The use of scaffolding and rigging is a specialized
subject covered in another chapter. The cost of these
items can be considerable, but devices that reduce labor
costs generally prove economical.
The use of small, air operated winches along with
light timber frames fastened together with eye bolts permits easy hanging of scaffolding. Various types of
aluminum staging are also available which combine light
weight with strength (Figure 4).
Special trucks are now available with hydraulically
powered, aerial booms that are used to reach overhead
structures from roads or under structures from track. They
can be purchased with maintenance bodies to store supplies and equipment. Heights as high as 30 to 40 feet may
easily be reached without use of scaffolding. Such equipment is shown in Figures 5 and 6.
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F. OTHER RESPONSES
Questionnaire respondents indicated they were mainly interested in (1)longer paint life, (2) reducing costs of application, (3) reducing number of coats, and (4) better surface preparation. These are ahead of five other possible
answers to the question. All these factors obviously
reduce costs. To discuss these in turn, longer paint life, as
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93
It is desirable to have a separate temperature controlled building to store and mix paint materials. Paints
stored for a long time should have the position of the containers inverted often enough to prevent hard settling of
the pigment. The shelf life or storage life of paints may
vary with different products and should always be considered. Too long a storage period makes some paints unfit
and makes proper mixing difficult. It could use up any savings from large volume purchases. To mix paints, a
mechanical rotating machine equipped with paddles
which can be inserted into the containers to agitate the
contents thoroughly is very desirable. A broad paddle with
a lifting motion up through the vehicle should be used.
Paint should be thoroughly agitated. It is always advisable
to pour the paint from one container to another near the
end of the agitation process. When aluminum paste pigment is used, the pigment should be placed in a container,
and the vehicle added slowly as the mixing progresses.
Paint generally should be mixed without the addition of
thinners. In cold weather, a small amount of thinner may
be permitted for spraying.
Whether paint is furnished by the owner or by the contractor, it is desirable that paint for each day's use be
mixed on the job at the beginning of the day. If the work is
being done by contract, the owner's inspector should be
present to observe the mixing technique, and to see that
thinners are used only to the extent allowed by the
specif cat ions.
Paints should be stored in the original metal shipping
containers. The containers should be clearly marked to
show the type and color, specification number, quantity,
name of manufacturer, batch number, date of manufacture
and any other information desired, such as special application instructions.
FIGURES 5 AND 6
Special trucks with aerial booms can reach overhead structures
from roads or under structures from track.
B. SURFACE PREPARATION
It is essential that a clean, dry surface be obtained for
the paint. Blast cleaning is highly recommended for all surfaces. The three commonly accepted degrees of blast
cleaning are defined and described in SSPC-SP 5, White
Metal Blast Cleaning; SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast
Cleaning; and SSPC-SP 10, Near-White Blast Cleaning. In
most situations commercial blast cleaning will be sufficient, but there will be situations or coatings which will require near-white or white metal blast cleaning, normally
Zones 2A, 28 and 3. Because of the construction operations involved in building of a new structure, especially
bridges, there are special cleaning problems. Cement or
mortar may have dripped or spattered on the steel; oil from
hydraulic jacks, reamers, or drills may have dripped on the
steel or painted surface; steel shavings and other construction debris may be present. All of these must be
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
E. INSPECTION
Questionnaire responses indicated that many
railroads do not specify coating thickness. The common
procedure is to apply, for example, two coats of paint and
assume all is well. This may be a relatively safe procedure
i f well-known paints are used for many years. But even different batches of the same paint from the same supplier
can vary considerably in film build properties. It is
not at all difficult for an expectedly thin application to be
applied and cut the protective life of the coating system in
half. Film thickness gauges are not expensive and can be
easily used by the supervisor or foreman on the job after a
minimum of instruction. It is a very small price to pay to
help ensure a satisfactory paint application.
Equally important and more difficult to control is the
quality of surface preparation. The life of the coating
depends largely on the thoroughness of surface preparation.
Interestingly, most railroads seem to control application by contractors more closely than when their own
crews are involved.
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VIII. SAFETY
All application should be carried out in accordance
with federal, state and local requirements. They should
also be in accord with the instructions of the paint
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manufacturer and requirements of the insurance underwriters. Safety considerations should include, but n o t be
limited to, t h o s e presented in SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide
to Safety in Paint Application.
Proper handling and storage of paint materials on t h e
j o b should include safety considerations to avoid loss or
damage, a s well a s to avoid hazards to workers. H o o k s for
scaffolds, as well as all blocks and falls, including ropes,
should b e examined every day or before use and replaced
before they are in a n unsafe condition. Cleaning materials
should be properly used t o prevent fires, a n d t o x i c fumes
f r o m t h e m should be avoided. While wire brushing, chipping, or scraping, workers should be required to wear goggles to protect their eyes. W i t h sandblast cleaning, proper
helmets w i t h a source of clean air m u s t b e provided for
operators of blast guns. Scaffold ropes should be wrapped
to prevent damage from blast cleaning. Gloves and protective clothing should be worn.
It is always necessary to conduct painting operations
in a manner that does n o t cause danger to railroad train
movements over t h e bridge structures, or to river t r a f f i c or
highway traffic under the bridge.
Detailed safety precautions included w i t h each surface preparation specification of t h e Steel Structures
Painting Council, shown in Volume 2 of t h i s Manual,
should be observed. Safety recommendations of t h e National Safety Council for Bridge Painting should be
followed t o avoid s u c h accidents as falls; injuries due to
excessive heat or cold; poisoning; injuries due to oncomi n g traffic; eye injuries while chipping, scraping, brushing,
and riveting; drowning; and electric shock f r o m power
cables.
People w h o work on elevated structures should be
experienced and not be subject to dizzy spells or heart
ailments. Physical examination before hiring is recommended. When working o n bridges over water, workers
should wear l i f e belts, or a m a n in a boat should patrol t h e
water under t h e work area. In hot weather, shade is
beneficial to t h e workers and increases worker output.
Approved respirators are worn i f spraying or removing
lead paints; protective creams or o i n t m e n t s are used o n
t h e face, neck and hands; workers w a s h thoroughly before
eating and after work. Attention is also drawn to the
hazards o f chromate in paints and to the hazards of leadbase paints.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The first edition chapter on this subject was authored by
Manley A. Roose, who was very helpful in the preparation of the
present chapter.
Data on current practices were obtained by means of two
questionnaires circulated to Committee 15 of the American
Railway Engineering Association - D.S. Bechley, then Chairman.
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Carl Bye, Thomas A. Cross, Robert Doyle, Jim Hutson,
Raymond C. McMaster, Gatewood Norman, William Pearson, and
William J. Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
1. Weathering Steel Committee Report. American Railway
Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, p. 73, 1972.
2 F.L. La Que, Corrosion and Protection of Off-Shore Drilling
Rigs. Corrosion, Vol. 6, No. 5, p. 152, 1950.
3. H.A. Humble, Cathodic Protection of Steel Piling in Sea
Water. Corrosion, Vol. 5, No. 9, p. 292, 1949.
4. E. Escalante, and W.P. Iverson, The Protection of Steel by
Non-Metallic Coatings in Sea Water, Materiais Prformance,
October 1978.
5. Investigation of Electrolytic Corrosion of Steel in Concrete.
AAR Committee Report to Electrical Section of Engineering
Division, Corrosion, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 37, 1947.
6. John D. Keane, Protecting Load-Bearing Surfaces of Steel
Bridges. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
7. L.S. Crave, Corrosion Problems of the Railroads. Digest of
Discussions, Second Railroad Corrosion Conference, International Nickel Company, 1951.
8. L.S. Crave, Corrosion Problems of the Railroads. Corrosion,
Vol. 8, No. 4, p. 149, 1952.
9. John D. Keane, Surface Preparation Versus Durability,
Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1966.
1o. John D. Keane, William Wettach, and Waouter Bosch,
Minimum Paint Film Thickness for Economical Protection of
Hot-Rolled Steel Against Corrosion. Journal of Coatings
Technology, Vol. 31, No. 533, pp. 372-382, June 1969.
11. C.E. Webb, Better Bridges Require Less Maintenance,
Railway Engineering and Maintenance, Vol. 32, p. 37, 1936.
12. John D. Keane, Railroad Bridge Paints With Resistance to
Salt Brine, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
13. John D. Keane, Painting Railroad Bridges for Mild Exposures. Steel Structures Painting Council Report, 1968.
14. John D. Keane, Golden Gate Bridge Paint Test, Steel Structures Painting Gouncil Report, December 2, 1976.
15. John D. Keane, Protector of Structural Steel Work - U.S.
Practice. Corrosion in Civil Engineering, Institution of Civil
Engineering, London, 1979.
BIOGRAPHY
Raye A. Fraser has a B.Sc. in
Chemistry from Mount Allison
University and has held a number of positions at the Technical
Research Centre of Canadian
National Railways. During this
time, he has been involved in
laboratory and field evaluations
of coatings, and the writing of
coatings specifications as well
as the CNR Corrosion Protection
Manual for Steel Bridges and
Structures.
He is a past-President of the
Montreal Society for Coatings Technology and a past-Chairman of
the Protective Coatings Division of the Chemical Institute of Canada. For the past 20 years he has been active on a number of Steel
Structures Painting Council Committees.
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SSPC C H A P T E R s L O - O 93
SSPC C H A P T E R x L L - O 9 3
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003727 O T b
CHAPTER 11
I. INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers present practice in the painting of
highway bridges and related highway structures. It emphasizes painting done in the field. Shop painting is
covered in a separate chapter.
This chapter brings together both general and special
considerations for the painting of highway bridges. While
some of the material here overlaps with material in other
chapters, the emphasis is given to the conditions and factors that are unique to or especially important for highway
bridges. The discussion is brief in topics that are covered
elsewhere. In the text the reader is referred to the most
relevant chapters, although this chapter is meant to stand
by itself.
Highway bridges are painted for long-lasting corrosion protection of the structure and improvement of its appearance at the minimum cost.
Paint should function as an inhibitor and barrier to
prevent, as much as possible, the corrosive attack of the
steel substrate by moisture, air and oxidizing chemicals.
Primer coats therefore usually contain rust inhibitive
pigments or pigments such as zinc dust that reduces corrosion through cathodic protection. The topcoats or finish
coats, on the other hand, provide barrier protection
through the use of polymers and pigments that protect
against moisture permeation and the constant attack of
weather.
The second purpose of painting highway structures is
for appearance. Quite often the color of the top coat is
chosen to harmonize with the adjacent topographic
features. In some localities a leaf green top coat blends
well with the surroundings, while in others a gray or
aluminum coat may serve better. An important consideration for top coat selection is the ability to retain the
original color and gloss. Certain pigments (e.g. yellows,
blues) are prone to fading. Urethane top coats usually provide excellent color and gloss retention.
Some bridges are being painted in two colors t o further improve their appearance. For through structures,
where night visibility is of prime importance, the blending
of colors to comply with the surroundings might be a detriment. On the other hand, the painting of bridge end posts
and steel members of overpass piers with obstruction
markings is an unsightly e3pedient but often necessary for
safety reasons.
A. TYPES OF STRUCTURES
Highway structures requiring painting for protection
against corrosion are chiefly bridges. But, there are also
corrugated culverts which are usually galvanized, guardrails and posts, light poles, truck scales, buildings, roadsigns and miscellaneous structures. The same principles
apply to all structures, but only bridges will be discussed
in detail.
Steel highway bridges vary in span length from 20 feet
to the present Golden Gate suspension span of 4200 feet.
The types of steel highway bridges include the following:
Beam spans - simple, cantilever, continuous or composite; always decked structures, span lengths to 120 feet
(Figure 1).
Girder spans - riveted or welded; simple, cantilever
or continuous; usually decked structures, sometimes composite with deck; sometimes designed as box girders; span
lengths to 375 feet (Figures 2 and 3).
Rigid frames - riveted or welded, single or multiple
spans; decked structures; span lengths to 130 feet.
Truss spans - usually riveted; simple, cantilever or
continuous; through (Figure 4) or decked (the latter
whenever practicable); span lengths t o 1800 feet.
Arches - usually riveted; single or multiple spans;
through or decked; span lengths to 1675 feet. Arches may
be trusses or girders.
Suspension bridges - spans up to 4200 feet (Figure
5).
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8 b 2 7 9 4 O 0003728 T32
FIGURE 1
Beam spans can be simple, cantilever, continuous, or composite, but are always
decked structures. Oak Hill Road Bridge illustrates rolled beam simple span.
Courtesy of Cal Trans
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B. EXPOSURE ENVIRONMENTS
The local environment of the metal on a structure
substantially influences the rate of corrosion of the exposed steel and the deterioration of the protective coating.
Volume 2 of the SSPC Manual(15) lists and classifies exposure environments. For highway bridges the following
types of environments are considered most relevant.
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uniformity of failure from beam to beam, the ASTM standards are difficult to apply.
Frequently, the condition is expressed as the overall
percentage of the area exhibiting deterioration. Alternatively, a rating system of 1 to 10 or excellent-good-fairpoor may be used. For bridges having less than 1 or 2%
rust, the usual choice is to spot clean and spot prime,
followed by one or two full topcoats. It is important to
ascertain whether the intact paint is still tightly adhering
and "alive", (e.g. not too thick or brittle).
For structures showing greater than 20-25% surface
deterioration, it is usually more cost-effective to clean the
entire structure (particularly i f abrasive blast cleaning is
available). In the intermediate range, the decision is more
difficult and usually depends on local preference. SSPCPA Guide 4 presents a set of guidelines16.
It should be pointed out that the above visual percentage rating assigned a structure by an inspector or
engineer is not equivalent to the ASTM visual rust ratings
per SSPC-Vis 2 or ASTM-D 610". The former is normally
based on a percentage of the area requiring repainting
while the latter is a numerical identification of the fractional area covered by rust or failed paint.
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FIGURE 2
Continuous girder spans, Elkhorn Bridge, Sacramento River.
Courtesy of Cai Trans
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D. BRIDGE STATISTICS
The following data are presented to demonstrate the
magnitude of the problem of Qrotecting highway bridges.
According to the most recent
by the
Highway Administration, there are approximately 112,000
steel bridges in the United States. Over 4000 of these are
structurally deficient; a large part of the deficiency arises
TABLE 1
Distribution of Steel Highway Bridges
Exposure Environment
Bridge Type
and Size
Girder, d 60 feet
Girder, < 60 feet
Truss, Q 60 feet
Truss, < 60 feet accessible
Truss, < 60 feet inaccessible
Total
Rural
Industrial
Marine
Total
30,000
14,000
5,000
3,000
3,000
20,000
10,000
3,000
1,000
1,000
11,000
6,000
2,000
1,500
1,500
61,000
30,000
10,000
5,500
5,500
55,000
35,000
22,000
112,000
*Includes bridges on Federal Aid highway system; most county-maintained structures are not included.
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A. SURFACE PREPARATION
Surface contaminants such as rust, rust scale,
chemicals, salts, dirt, loose paint, dust, oil, grease and
moisture will cause poor bonding of a coating to the
substrate. Good surface adhesion of the primer coat is
essential to long service life. If inorganic zinc primers
are used, good surface adhesion requires an anchor pattern
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
~~
SSPC CHAPTER*LL.O
73
= 8627740
0003731 527
or vacuum blasting and containment of abrasives are currently being evaluated and are discussed in a separate
chapter. Abrasive blast cleaning removes most contaminants from the surface and provides a surface profile (pattern of peaks and valleys). The surface profile provides increased surface area for improved adhesion of the primer
coat. Usually, excellent adhesion will be obtained if the
average depth of the blast profile is approximately onethird the thickness of the primer. For example, self-curing
inorganic zinc primers applied at three to five mils dry film
thickness require a surface profile between one and two
mils. The dry film thickness of the primer coat must provide adequate coverage above the surface profile peaks.
Profile height is determined primarily by the mesh size of
the abrasive, typically ranging from about 0.5 mils for
60-120 mesh sand up to 3-4 mils for 12-30 mesh. Additional
information on surface profile is available from SSPCz.
Daily abrasive blasting operations should allow sufficient time for a thorough inspection of the work after all of
the loose debris is air-blown free of the steel surface.
Areas found deficient in surface preparation should be
marked with chalk and then re-blasted or touched up by
power tool cleaning. The entire area should then be airblown down again with high pressure dry air just prior to
application of the primer coat. Inspection of the daily work
should commence by 3 p.m. or earlier, depending on the
weather and the time of year.
Mirror devices and lights should be used to check inside box girders. Bearing shoe assemblies, gussett plates,
angle braces, cross braces, lattice work, bolted connections, rivet heads, faying surfaces, and flange edges are all
troublesome areas to blast clean (Figure 7).
To obtain a good painting job the contractor must fully
understand the requirements of the surface preparation
specifications. Demonstrations of surface cleaning by
abrasive blasting at the bridge site prior to job bidding have
proved quite successful in showing the contractor what
degree of cleaning is acfually expected. Color photographs
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
The fundamentals and equipment for paint application, discussed in a separate chapter, are entirely applicable to bridge painting. (See SSPC-PA 1.) However,
bridge painting also presents certain unique problems and
considerat ions.
The choice between roller, brush, conventional spray,
or airless spray depends on the type of paint, the size of
the job, the conditions at the site, and the capabilities of
the contractor. Brushing and rolling are suitable primarily
on spans over residential areas and for small touchup jobs,
to reduce overspray, or in some instances, to comply with
union restrictions. Many of the newer, high-technology
coatings, such as zinc-rich primers, vinyls, high-build
coatings, epoxies, and high-build coatings require spray
techniques.
Airless spray technique allows the use of more
viscous materials than conventional spray. For trusses,
lattice-work, structures with excessive bolts, and for paining in confined spaces, airless spray may deliver too much
material per unit of time. It becomes impossible to avoid
excessive paint build-up on these areas. For such applications, conventional air spray, which allows greater control
of the rate of paint application, is preferred.
Whichever type of spraying equipment is used, it is
important to keep the paint in the spray pot continuously
agitated in order to prevent pigment settling. The air supply
lines of the spray painting equipment should be equipped
with water separators to insure a moisture-free air supply
at the spray gun. Tip size and fan selection are especially
important for efficient operation.
FIGURE 4
Skyway Bridge illustrating through truss and deck truss.
Courtesy of Florida DOT
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B. PAINT APPLICATION
FIGURE 3
Box girder type bridge. Bryte Bend Bridge.
SSPC CHAPTER*LL.O
73
FIGURE 5
Golden Gate Suspension Bridge, San Francisco, California. The
SSPC has cooperated with the Golden Gate Bridge Highway &
Transportation District in conducting tests of alternate paint
systems on this bridge over a period of many years. These include
evaluation of more than 20 alternate zinc-rich systems as well as
other generic types. Similar cooperative SSPC tests have been
conducted on bridges throughout the country.
Courtesy Golden Gate BH&T District
close enough to the surface. The dry spray can cause adhesion problems, and should be removed prior to application
of the intermediate coats or finish coat. Constant agitation
and short hoses help application and maintain zinc
suspension.
When practical, painting should be done during warm
dry weather. The lower range of temperature at which paint
may be applied depends on the generic type of paint used.
It is, however, frequently limited by specification to 40F
(4C). Most catalyzed epoxies will not cure below 50F
(lOC), whereas inorganic zincs and vinyls can often be applied at 32F (OOC).
Most types of paint thicken in cold weather, and the
painters use thinners to facilitate application, resulting in a
thin coat of paint, adhesion problems, and poor film integrity. As a general rule, the specifications and the
manufacturer's recommendations should be followed exactly.
When the relative humidity of the air is greater than
85%, there is a danger of condensation of moisture on the
steel with consequent bad effects upon the paint, parto surface adhesion and water entrapticularly in regard
ment. Painting is usually not recommended until the
relative humidity drops below 85% and the wind velocity is
less than 15 mph. Surface temperature of the steel should
be at least 5F (3C) above the dew point.
It is important to be aware of the cooling and heating
characteristics of the steel being painted. The surface
temperature of the shady side of a structural steel beam
may be several degrees cooler than the sunny side. Small
members cool and heat more rapidly than the large structural elements. Exteriors of sealed boxes may reach
temperatures of 130F (54C).
FIGURE 6
Modern mobile sandblasting unit.
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FIGURE 7
FIGURE 8
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TABLE 2
Typical Coating Systems for Repainting Bridges
Environment
Humid, Marine,
Industrial
Extensive deterioration
paint, corrosion
Extensive deterioration;
mostly flat, accessible
Extensive deterioration;
many details, lattice work,
etc.
Mild
Humid, Marine,
Industrial
Humid, Industrial
to damage by deicing salts. Through bridges in dry locations or deck bridges in damp locations may be expected
to have a somewhat shorter life. Certain sections of the
bridge (e.g. expansion bays, pier caps, beam ends) might
require added protection in situations in which oil-alkyd
maintenance systems are considered suitable for most of
the steel.
All
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Bridge Condition
Inspection is particularly important when using zincrich, water borne, and other high-technology coatings.
These coatings are much less forgiving of poor or improper surface preparation and paint application techniques compared to the oil and alkyd paints they are
replacing.
checked for tightness and replaced when necessary. Railings should be checked for alignment and strength of connections. Drains, floor expansion devices, shoes and bearings should be cleaned and repaired.
An important duty of the inspector is to see that the
steel surfaces to be painted are clean and dry. The inspector must obtain samples of the paint. The paint should then
be tested in the laboratory to make certain it meets the
specification. The inspector should retain certified copies
of test reports. Inspectors must see that the paint is properly mixed and applied; of uniform thickness and appearance; without sags, runs, or pools of excess paint; and
that rivet and bolt heads, edges and corners are thoroughly
covered with each coat of paint.
The inspector has a continuous responsibility during
the cleaning and painting processes. The cleaning must be
closely and promptly checked to ascertain the quality of
the work. This will prevent the expense and delay entailed
in the replacement of scaffolding and equipment. The
equipment and materials used for abrasive blasting, handand power-tool cleaning, and cleaning fluids should be
checked against the specifications. The paint should
always be checked to make sure it has been received from
the proper source approved for the job.
The inspector must witness all facets of the job. His
failure to discard poor materials or stop faulty work is
almost equivalent to giving the engineers approval of such
practices. The inspector must see that all debris is removed from the site at the conclusion of the work, that
concrete is not spattered with paint, or surroundings
defaced. Much helpful information on inspection is included in Volume 1. Last, but not least in importance, adequate
information for permanent records of the painting job must
be kept.
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C. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The best workmanship can be expected only when
proper attention is given to the safety measures provided
for the work force involved in the painting of steel. Safety
precautions issued by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the National Safety Council (NSC)
should be practiced. Additional sources of information are
available from SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide to Safety in
Paint Application and the pamphlet Play It Safe and
Healt hyO.
1. Pathological
The cleaning and painting of structural steel involves
certain health hazards of which the owner and applicator must be aware. Chipping, grinding, and wire
brushing of steel give rise to flying particles of steel,
scale, and dirt, which could cause eye trouble unless
goggles are worn. Dust particles, particularly those
arising from sandblasting, may, after prolonged exposure, result in silicosis, or other lung diseases.
Workers who are habitually exposed should be required to wear cartridge respirators or forced air
helmets. Similarly, fumes arising from certain paint
removers containing carbon tetrachloride or methyl
ethyl ketone, and from the paint solvents, may constitute a health hazard. In such cases, and when paint
FIGURE 9
Checking dry paint film thickness.
Courtesy of Florida DOT
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7. Fire
Most bridge paints and volatile liquids used in conjunction with them are flammable and should be kept
in closed containers away from fires. Paints and thinners should not be stored on bridge decks, even in
trailers. Smoking should not be permitted inside of
paint storage rooms or near these flammable
materials. Rags used to wipe paint and oils should be
kept in a metal container in the open air away from
stored paint materials. Great care should be exercised
when painting in closed spaces since explosions may
occur i f the vaporized flammable solvent reaches the
explosive concentration range.
3. Ladders
Ladders used for access t o scaffolds or other parts of
the bridge should be securely lashed in place or provided with hooks at the top end. Lattice work on
beams should not be used for climbing; a permanent
metal ladder or a securely lashed ladder should be
used. Ladders should never be permitted to stand in
the roadway unless protected by red warning flags
with an attendant on the traffic side of the ladder.
D. REGULATIONS IN EFFECT
Environmental, health, and safety regulations are
becoming an important factor in the choice of coating
systems for bridges. Replacements for lead and chromate
pigments have shown reduced ability to protect against
corrosioni1. In addition, the performance of these coatings is very sensitive to the specific paint formulation,
unlike the conventional lead and chromate pigments,
which have been effective in a wide variety of binders and
compositions. Thus, for the lead and chromate-free paints,
the quality assurance of the coatings will be more critical.
All of the states are required to submit State Implementation Plans (SIP) to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA)12, describing how they plan to meet the
clean air standardsi3. The published EPA guidelines did
not specifically require any State action to control bridge
coatings. It is expected, therefore, that until EPA issues
more definitive guidelines, control of organic solvents in
paints will be regulated at the local level.
The anticipated restriction of solvents from the
California Air Resources Board (CARE) has led the States
highway laboratory (Caltrans) t o develop and evaluate
water-borne coatingsi4. Although there have been advances, there are still some severe problems in field usage
of water-borne coatings. The requirements for surface
preparation and application are more critical than for oilbased solvent-borne paints. In addition, water-borne
coatings have not yet demonstrated the ability t o provide
4. Boatswains Chairs
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Particular recognition is due to Tom Shelley of CALTRANS
for his advice and contribution to this chapter.
The authors and editors also gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process: Duane
Bloemke, Carl Bye, John Conomos, Raye Fraser, S.C. Frye, Clive
Hare, Preston Hollister, Robert J. Martell, Doug Nash, Charles Ray,
Gary Tinklenberg and William Wallace.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard R. Ramsey received a B.S. in Chemistry from
Otterbein College in 1959. For
the past 15 years he has been a
Materials Research Chemist
for the Florida Department of
Transportation. His primary research interest is in coating
systems for structural steel.
He has been a member of
NACE for 10 years.
A biographical sketch and portrait of Dr. Bernard R. Appleman appear at the end of Chapter 2.8.
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REFERENCES
1. S. Frondistou-Yannas, Coating and Corrosion Costs of
Highway Structural Steel. Report No. FHWA/RD-79/121,
March 1980.
2. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, Surface Profile
for Anti-Corrosion Paints. Report No. FHWA-PA-71/14,1976.
3. J.D. Keane, Protective Coatings for Highway Structural
Steel. National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP). Reports 74 and 74B, 1969.
4. C.J. Ray, F.A. Rideout, and L.E. Henton, Coating Systems
for Painting Old New Structural Steel. NCHRP Report on
Study 4-14, 1982. Published by Transportation Research
Board, Washington, DC 20415.
5. Florida Department of Transportation: Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Construction, 1977, Sections
560-562 and 971.
6. R. Warness, Water-Based Coatings for Protection of Steel
Structures. Report No. FHWA-CAITL-79/24,November 1979;
Low Solvent Primer and Finish Coats for Use on Steel and
Other Structures. California Department of Transportation
Research Study D-3-69 (604186), 1980-1982.
7. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Standard Specifications for Transportation
Materials and Methods for Sampling and Testing. Part I Specifications. July 1978, Washington, DC 20001.
8. California Department of Transportation: Standard Specifications (Paint, Primer, Zinc-Rich Organic Vehicle Type); and
Standard Special Provisions (Water Based Paints), 1981.
9. J.A. Bruno, and J.D. Keane, Evaluation of Low-Solvent
Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel. Report
No. FHWAIRD-811019, December, 1981; Annotated
Bibliography, Report No. FHWA/RD-81/091,December, 1981.
10. Play It Safe and Healthy. (1967-72, 79), International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, United Unions Building,
1750 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
11. B.A. Appleman, J.A. Bruno, and R.E.F. Weaver, Performance
of Alternate Coatings in the Environment (PACE) Volume I.
Steel Structures Painting Council, i989.
12. Policy Statement on Use of the Concept of Photochemical
Reactivity of Organic Compounds in State Implementation
Plans for Oxidant Control. Office of Air and Waste Management and Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, December 5, 1975.
13. Air Quality. Federal Register 42, No. 131, pp. 353146, 1977.
Most States Ready to Enforce Air Pollution Regulations.
Products Finishing, 44, No. 12, pp. 546, September, 1980.
14. State of California Air Resources Board. Model Rule for Architectural Coatings. July 7, 1977. See also American Paint
Journal; December 8, 1980, ((pp. 7-8); August 17, 1981, (pp.
45-46): November 2, 1981 (pp. 7-8, 12).
15. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2 - Systems and
SDecifications. John D. Keane, ed. Steel Structures Paintina
Council, 1982.
16. SSPC-PA 4, Shop, Field and Maintenance Painting. Steel
Structures Paintina Council, 1982.
17. SSPC-VIS 2, Standard Method of Evaluating Degree of Rusting on Painted Steel Surfaces, Steel Structures Painting Council. 1976.
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CHAPTER 12
I. INTRODUCTION
A. THE PROBLEM
When a vessel is built, consideration is given to how
to protect metal surfaces against the environment.
Coatings are the primary method to protect surfaces. The
type of coating applied, surface preparation and film
thicknesses will, to a degree, depend on expected service
conditions, such as salt water immersion, fouling, atmospheric exposure, etc. Often, cargo tanks should be
coated to protect the steel from corrosion and the cargo
from contamination.
Destruction of a coating film and subsequent protection breakdown is caused by steel rusting beneath the
coating. Rusting occurs because of a reaction of the steel
substrate with water and oxygen that diffuse through the
film.
In a rural environment, good protection can be obtained by minimizing diffusion with a highly impervious
film that functions as a barrier coating. In more aggressive
marine environments the rate of corrosion is greater, partly
due to the presence of soluble gases and salts. Those
gases and salts ionize and diffuse through the film. Corrosion is accelerated by chemical attack on steel and elec-
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B. ECONOMICS
The economics of painting ships in service is complicated by the uniqueness of the services they perform
and their size. A ship is only serving its function when moving cargo from one point to another. Each day a vessel
spends tied at a shipyard represents a financial loss to the
owners. Depending on prevailing cargo rates and the ship
size, this loss can total thousands of dollars a day.
When calculating the cost of repairing corrosion
damage, it is first necessary to multiply the extra days in
dock by daily charges and losses. Losses due to corrosion
are usually represented by work, such as renewing welds,
replacing steel, renewing piping, repairing equipment, installing new gear, etc.
Large sums of money involved in ship repairs make it
apparent that controlling corrosion, can reduce costs. Any
effective corrosion preventive measures that can be applied when the vessel is built, or installed at regular visits
to a shipyard necessitated by regulatory bodies (such as
American Bureau of Shippings Survey Requirements),
should prove economical. Section 45 Surveys after Construction of the Rules for Building and Classing Steel
of the American Bureau of Shipping shows
there are definite intervals during the life of a ship when it
must undergo inspection for corrosion damage. Some
special surveys normally take a ship out of service for
several days. This is an opportune time to consider corrosion prevention.
High dollar value for a ships availability requires a
ship owner to study the total economics of corrosion protection with performance requirements and cost of installation compared with dollar returns. For high grade
coatings there is usually a higher grade surface preparation required, which normally translates into time.
The optimum time for coatings and other corrosion
preventive measures is during construction. All areas of
the vessel are more accessible at that time (Figures 1 and
2). During construction, conditions are more suitable for
surface preparation and coating than at any other time
during a ships service life. Maintenance planning should
begin during design and be incorporated into construction.
At this time a vessel owner should establish a tentative
hull preservation and maintenance program.
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FIGURE 1
C. SURFACE PREPARATION
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FIGURE 2
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FIGURE 3
A Typical Pre-Fabrication Structural Steel Cleaning Machine.
most common and widely used method of cleaning in shipyards. Because of the large surfaces to
be cleaned, it is the fastest and most economical
method for field cleaning. In new construction
yards, initial coatings are applied in the modular
stage. Except for yards that have large facilities
for centrifugally blasting modular units, nozzle
blast cleaning is used. Most of this is done in an
enclosed area where conditions can be controlled
(Figure 8). Buildings in a number of yards have installed recycling systems, using steel grit, which
falls through grated floors and is reclaimed just
as in the closed cycle blasting machines.
Other yards use mineral abrasives for
blasting in blast and paint facilities. There is normally no recycling of these abrasives; therefore,
vacuum systems andlor manual disposal is required.
What is a viable and cost effective method
for one yard may not be for another because of
capital outlay, space allocation, climatic conditions, etc.
Nozzle blasting is used to meet surface
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FIGURE 4
Por.table Ship Deck Cleaning System.
Official U.S. Navy Photograph
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D. SURFACE TREATMENT
There are times when surface treatments are used on
steel and other metals. When steel is cleaned using water,
such as in hydroblasting, wet abrasive blasting or
chemical cleaning, it must be inhibited to prevent flash
rusting. Inhibitors are introduced at the time of cleaning or
are an integral step in a sequence, such as in a chemical
cleaning. Inhibitors must be compatible with the coating.
Volume 1 of the Steel Structures Painting Manual provides
much information on chemical surface treatments. A
washcoat primer (Navy Formula 117, Military Specifica-
FIGURE 5
Portable Ship Hull-Bottom Cleaning System.
Official U.S. Navy Photograph
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A. UNDERWATER HULL
Underwater coatings, in addition to having antifouling capability, should have good corrosion resistance,
provide adequate abrasion resistance and good service
life.
Ship bottom coating consists of an anti-corrosive
coating and anti-fouling paint. When an underwater
system fails prematurely, it is because of corrosion and
the breakdown of the anti-corrosive barrier.
FIGURE 7
Abrasive Blasting Under Controlled Conditions.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
1. Coating Systems
The most widely used underwater systems are
conventional bottom systems, consisting of an
aluminum barrier coat with a copper oxide toxic in
a bituminous resin-rosin anti-fouling matrix.
These systems are easy to apply and do not require stringent surface preparation. They are easily repaired and maintained. They are also the
least expensive but provide acceptable quality.
Life expectancies on initial application under
good conditions should be about 18 to 24 months.
Repairs and renewals should give 12 to 18 months
between drydockings. Conventional systems are
a softer film material than the high performance
systems and erode faster. Therefore, service conditions and drydocking periods may dictate high
performance systems, which have higher initial
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FIGURE 8
Unit In Building Being Prepared for Blasting and Coating.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
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2. Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection supplements the protection
against corrosion provided by underwater
coatings. Where coatings are damaged and bare
steel is exposed, cathodic protection will alleviate
corrosion and avoid renewals due to corrosion.
Properly designed and installed anode systems
reduce steel waste to 30 percent or less of that experienced in unprotected structures in salt
waterC5).Service histories also show that pitting is
effectively arrested.
The need for cathodic protection should be
established through careful study of corrosion experience. For existing vessels, corrosion effects
may be assessed by inspectors or repair
superintendents. Newly built vessels, or those in
design, may have an anode scheme as part of the
corrosion-control program. For exterior hull protection, impressed current protection systems are
frequently used on new construction. These
systems, which require an external source of
direct current and some means of regulating the
current, can, with a minimum number of anodes,
provide full underwater hull protection. Sacrificial
anodes, such as zinc, magnesium or aluminum,
can be used to give stern protection. There are a
number of good publications on cathodic protect ions(5.
FIGURE 9
Ship Construction in Building Basin.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
FIGURE 10
Underwater Cleaning of Ships Hulls.
Courtesy: Jotun-Baltimore Copper
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hull
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TABLE I
TYPICAL SHIPBOTTOM PAINTING SYSTEMS
~
~~~~~
Repainting Procedure
Application
Equipment
Abrasive Blast to
Aluminum Barrier
SSPC-SP 10, Near- coal - 2 coats
White
a 1 7 5 Microns
MDFT
Spray recommended,
may be rolled.
Vinyl
Abrasive Blast to
Vinyl Barrier
SSPC-SP 10, Near- High Build 3
White
coats a200
Microns M D F l
Vinyl-Rosin Base
2 coats @IO0
Microns. Toxic
usually Cuprous
Oxide
Spray recommended,
small areas can be
rolled or brushed
EPOXY
Polyamide
Epoxy Barrier
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP 10, Near- 2 coats a 2 0 0
White
Microns MDFT
Vinyl Anti-fouling
2 coats a 1 0 0
Microns
Epoxy-Airless Spray
recommended-antifouling spray - small
areas can be rolled.
Chlorinated
Rubber
Abrasive Blast to
Chlorinated
SSPC-SP 10, Near- Rubber Barrier
3 coats @225
White
Microns MDFT
Coal Tar
EPOXY
Abrasive Blast to
Coat Tar Epoxy
SSPC-SP 10, Near- 2 coats @400
White
Microns MDFT
Vinyl Anti-fouling
2 coats
a 1 0 0 Microns
Flakeglass
Epoxy or
Polyester
Abrasive Blast to
Flakeglass
SSPC-SP 10, Near- Barrier 1 or
2 coats Q
White
625 Microns
MDFT
Vinyl or
Chlorinated
Rubber AF 2 coats a 1 0 0
Microns
Bituminous.
Aluminum
Pigmented
Prior to recoating, remove oil, grease, salts and other surface contaminants.
*Twenty-five microns = 1 mil.
with the structural integrity of the hull and the proper functioning of valves, propellers and rudders than the application of bottom paints. However, the increasing cost of fuel
has made owners aware that modern coatings can make a
significant contribution to fuel savings. Nevertheless, the
coatings specialist sometimes encounters opposition or
indifference at the shipyard. To combat this the following
procedures are suggested.
cies, and a qualified field representative is assigned t o the job. The representative should be
aware of the ships recent painting history and
what can be expected on inspection of the bottom. He should be fully advised of the shipowners
wishes and given alternate procedures if inspection reveals a different situation than originally
contemplated. The owner should, in the meantime, negotiate with the shipyard and advise them
of the work he wants done as well as broad painting plans. It is usually advisable to wait until the
ship has been inspected before writing detailed
painting specifications.
1. General Agreement
Upon receipt of notice from a shipowner that a
vessel is due to drydock, the ships painting
history should be reviewed and a general
understanding reached with the owner as to
whether the boottop and topsides, as well as the
bottom, are to be painted. It is advisable to come
to an agreement about the type of paint to be used
and surface preparation required for successful
paint performance. This is contingent on the
ships availability and the condition of the bottom.
Arrangements are made for delivery of
enough paint to cover all reasonable contingen-
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FIGURE 11
Condition of Underwater Hull After Service.
Courtesy: Bethlehem Steel Corp.
~
~~
~~
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TABLE 2
TYPICAL BOOTTOP & TOPSIDE PAINTING SYSTEMS
Type of Paint
Chlorinated
Rubber
Abrasive Blast to
"Inorganic Zinc
SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One
White Metal"
Coat Q 62.5
Microns MDFT
EPOXY
Polyamide
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP10. "NearWhite Metal"
"Inorganic Zinc
Silicate - One
Coat Q 50
Microns MDFT
Epoxy Primer wl
Inhibitive Primer
One coat 50
Microns MDFT
Vinyl
(Including
Vinyl
Acrylic)
Repainting Procedure
"Inorganic Zinc
Abrasive Blast to
SSPC-SP 10, "Near- Silicate - One
White Metal"
Coat Q62.5
Micron MDFT'
Vinyl Primer wl
Inhibitive Pigment - One Coat
Q 50 Microns
MDFT"
EPOXY- TWO
Coats @ 125
Microns MDFT
Application
Equipment
Airless spray preferred - air spray
can be used also
roller and brush
for small areas.
Airless or air
spray preferred roller or brush
can be used for
small areas.
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D. STEEL DECKS
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Bb279LiO 0 0 0 3 7 5 1 31.5
will evolve into a large area of rust bleed. Even with a zinc
silicate primer, these conditions will prevail, although the
amount is dim in ished.
Materials most used as topcoats in new construction
are high grade alkyds, silicone alkyds, chlorinated rubbers,
epoxies, vinyls and vinyl acrylics. If inorganic zinc is the
base coat, compatibility must be considered, and proper
barrier coats and tie coats should be specified. For example, alkyds cannot be applied directly over zinc-rich
coatings; therefore, a tie coat should be used.
Many smaller craft built today and older ships constructed without inorganic zinc as the base coat require inhibitive primers to prevent or reduce corrosion. The standards in the past for the marine industry, for the areas
under discussion, were red lead and zinc chromate. These
are still used to a great extent, but safety, health and air
pollution requirements are forcing a search for other inhibitive pigments. Studies are being conducted by coating
manufacturers and pigment companies to find suitable
replacements.
Coating systems for all exterior areas may be found in
the SNAME Technical and Research Bulletin 4-1518).
F. INTERIORS
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1. Living Areas
Painting of living areas in modern vessels is
generally minimal. The steel is primed for corrosion protection and cleanliness, but steel surfaces normally are covered with insulation and
fireproof board faced with decorative veneers.
Where painted steel surfaces are used, gloss
materials are recommended for washability.
2. Machinery Spaces
Machinery spaces above the bilge areas are
primed with an inhibitive pigmented material such
as an alkyd. This primer is topcoated with an
alkyd gloss or semi-gloss enamel. Topcoats
should have good oil and moderate heat
resistance, and if white, they should be nonyellowing.
Machinery is factory finished; or, if required
for special color, a machinery enamel, usually an
alkyd type, is applied over factory applied
coatings. Surfaces above 125F (52C) normally
are coated with a heat-resistant aluminum.
Bilge areas and below deck plates, are subject to standing water, oil, steam, etc. Corrosion
in these areas can be severe; therefore, a high performance coating system, such as an epoxy or inorganic zinc silicate, should be applied.
Ships built prior to the era of high performance coatings have been coated with red lead
primers and phenolic type topcoats. These paints
will have to be maintained, normally with hand
cleaning and touch-up with primers plus top coats
to damaged and failed areas. Surface preparation
in bilges is very difficult because abrasive
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
304
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Epoxy
Amine cured
Ketimine cured
Amine Adduct cured
Polyamide
Inorganic Zinc Silicates
Water Base
Solvent Base
Urethanes
Urethane Modified Epoxies
Phenolic Modified Epoxies
Selection of a proper coating system is very
important, and its resistance to cargoes should
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SSPC
REFERENCES
1965.
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CHAPTER 13
Inland waterways of the United States have been important to the countrys rapid social, industrial and
technological growth. They were the first exploration
routes and determined paths used by settlers, who chose
sites for communities. They became the transportation
and communication links of communities, so most of the
present great centers of population, production and
distribution owe their origins to these arteries. Today 38
states, with about 95% of the nations population, have
commercial transportation services provided by vessels
operating on rivers, canals, bays, sounds or lakes; and 131
of the 158 cities with populations of 100,000 or more are
located on commercial navigation channels.
The earliest commercial use made of the river system
was hauling coal from Pennsylvania to the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers in the late 1700s. The vessels were flatboats constructed of logs, borne by the current and guided
by long tillers. Since they were without power to travel
against the current, trips were one way only and boats
were usually dismantled at their destinations and sold for
lumber.
Steam power made its appearance on the rivers in the
early 19th century, and soon increased steel production
prompted the use of boats and barges made from steel.
Commercial channels now make up more than 25,000
miles of navigable inland waterways plus 1,800 miles on
the Great Lakes.
I. TYPES OF VESSELS
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FIGURE 1
Covered hopper barge. Covers roll awav to exoose carao cornDanment.
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FIGURE 3
Typical tugboat at work in harbor. Generally smaller, with hull
lines different from a towboat.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
automated blast cleaning and application of preconstruction primers to flat sheets and formed members
prior to f a b r i ~ a t i o n ~The
, ~ .use of airless spray equipment is
now common, and experiments are in progress with electrostatic spray methods'.
FIGURE 2
Doubleskin tank barge.
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FIGURE 4
Typical towboat operating in inland waterways.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
FIGURE 5
Side of barge hull, showing accelerated metal loss between water
lines.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
310
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 3 * 0
93
8627740 0003758 7 7 T
B. PAINTING
i. Hull Exteriors. Because these areas are constantly
immersed in waters of varying aggressiveness and quality,
it is important to devote careful attention to their protection. The necessity of integrity of hull surface is very important. During industrial expansion following World War
II, there was a marked degradation of water quality in
many inland waterways because of discharges of industrial wastes and run-off from coal stripping operations.
These pollutants caused severe acid condition in rivers,
which was deleterious to steel hulls in them. It became important for operators to provide special protection i f
vessels were to remain in service for a reasonable time.
With the adoption of measures to improve water quality by
reduction of discharges to navigable streams, a noticeable
attenuation of corrosive conditions has occurred. This has
led to some reduction in the quality of hull coatings for
some barges.
Some barge owners apply no coatings below the light
load line. For years it has been apparent from inspection of
barge side and bottom plates that painting at regular intervals can significantly extend the life of side plates. The
same tests indicate no great benefit in coating horizontal
bottom surfaces since the coating is quickly removed by
abrasion on sand bars. Many owners feel the cost of protecting the sides by coatings is no longer justified by the
increased life. Many barges are launched today with
minimal coating protection on exterior hull.^!.^.^
Towboat hulls are still considered worthy of ultimate
protection. Modern painting finds inorganic zinc-rich
primers employed with a catalyzed epoxy or coal tar epoxy
topcoat to be rated highest in service life. Straight epoxy
systems show good results and multiple-coat vinyl
systems over a wash primer perform quite well. The labor
saved from a reduction in the number of coats makes the
epoxy systems, and they are preferable when low ambient
high-build vinyl coatings has reduced the advantage of
epoxy systems and they are preferable when low ambient
temperatures prevent satisfactory application of epoxies.
2. Stern and Propellor Areas. Because of abrasion of
these areas by sand and debris stirred up by the propellors, particularly in shallow water, the stern and nozzle
surfaces require special attention. Vinyl and epoxy
coatings are adequate except on interior surfaces and
leading edges of Kort nozzles. Many materials have been
tried unsuccessfully, including rubber lining. Coatings
given the best chance for reasonable service life include
urethanes and glass-flake reinforced polyesters. One company has met this problem by lining nozzles with stainless
steel. It worked well enough to lead to similar plating of the
entire hull of two towboats.
_-
FIGURE 6
Stern area of a typical towboat, showing Kort nozzles.
Courtesy of Dravo Corporation
FIGURE 7
Example of a weld not properly prepared for painting. The spatter
arid ridges will lead to early paint failure.
Courtesy of Dravo Corp.
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31 1
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93
FIGURE 8
Good surface preparation of welded area shows elimination of
ridges, crevices and spatter.
Courtesy of Dravo Corp.
FIGURE 9
Sideof cargo box, showing satisfactory performanceof alkyd t o p
Coat overzinc.rich primer after five years service.
Courtesy: Dravo Corporation
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SSPC CHAPTERm13.0
93
Typical Systems
I, II, v, VI
I, 111, IV, v, VI
IX
IX, x
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Surface to be Painted
Surface
Systems
Preparation
Primer
Finish
Coating
SSPGSP 10
Inorganic zinc-rich
EPOXY
II
SSPGSP 10
Inorganic zinc-rich
Coal tarepoxy
111
SSPGSP 10
Epoxy ester
IV
SSPGSP 10
Alkyd
SSPGPaint 14*
SSPGSP 10
Wash Primer
Vinyl
SSPGPaint 8*
VI
SSPGSP 10
Chlorinated Rubber
Chlorinated Rubber
SSPGPS 15
VI1
SSPGSP 10
Wash Primer
Vinyl
SSPGPaint 8*
VIII
SSPGSP 6
EPOXY
EPOXY
SSPGPS 13
IX
SSPGSP 2
Alkyd
Alkyd
SSPGPaint 104' *
SWEEP
Rust Preventive
52-MA602
* *Topcoat
SSPC CHAPTER*l3.0
73
Bb27740 00037bl 2 b 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
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31 4
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93
m 8627940 0003762
LTO
CHAPTER 14.1
This chapter presents information about painting interiors and exteriors of steel tanks. The discussion deals
with selection of materials, inspection, and maintenance.
The scope is limited to steel tanks for storage of water, oil,
gasoline, and other commercial liquids; it does not consider the very specialized area of tank lining, which is taken
up in another chapter. Surface preparation, safety and application techniques are also covered in separate chapters.
I. SELECTION OF MATERIALS
A. TANK INTERIORS
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards list ten paint systems for tank interiors. They are 1) a
three-coat system consisting of two aluminum phenolic
paint coats over red-lead primed surfaces; 2) a four- or fivecoat vinyl paint system; 3) a zinc dust-zinc oxide, phenolicvehicle paint system; 4) a four-coat, singlesolution, highsolids vinyl paint system; 5) a cold-applied petroleum wax
coating; 6) a hot-applied petroleum wax coating; 7) a
metallic sprayed zinc coating; 8) a X,-inch, hot-appliedcoal
tar enamel coating; 9) a cold-applied coal tar coating above
the high water level only, and 10) a cold-applied tasteless
and odorless tar-base paint. In addition, coal tar epoxies,
catalyzed epoxies, alkyd-phenolics, three-coat high-build
vinyl paints, epoxylester paints, and chlorinated rubber
paints are also covered.
While these paint systems can yield satisfactory
results, problems may develop. For instance, coal tar epoxies have limited flexibility. When used as shop primers
they cannot be topcoated later without additional surface
preparation. If zinc-rich primers are not topcoated quickly
after applications, negative effects can result.
Phenolic vehicle paints, including zinc-oxide, zinc-dust
phenolic, alkyd phenolic, and epoxy-phenolic materials
will not accept a topcoat after they are exposed to the atmosphere for periods of 6-9 months. The paint surface
becomes very hard, and hardness increases with time. Exposure to direct sunlight accelerates the hardening of the
phenolic radical. Zinc-filled chlorinated rubber paints and
zinc-filled epoxy paints can also degrade rapidly when exposed to sunlight, especially if condensation or high
humidity becomes a factor. The non-filled chlorinated rubber paints can fail quickly if they are not topcoated and
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315
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FIGURE 1
Spray painting the exterior of a water storage tank.
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
B. TANK EXTERIORS
There are several paint systems for the exterior surfaces of tanks. The systems range from the simple threecoat alkyd to the sophisticated epoxy-urethane and all
sorts of combinations in between. In general, most
petroleum and solvent storage tanks are painted white
(decals excluded) or very light pastel colors to provide heat
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 2
Tank depicting earth as seen from fllghts in space.
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
316
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SSPC C H A P T E R U L 4 - L 9 3
SSPC
CHAPTER*L4.L
93
b279q 00037b4 T i 3
FIGURE 3
Roller application of paint to tank exterior.
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
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II. INSPECTION
Regardless of the type of tank built, the type of service or the type of paint system, the as-painted interior surface that is in contact with the product and the surfaces
that suffer exposure to condensate waters and vapors
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
FIGURE 4
Water tank designed creatively to suggest its function.
Courtesy Chicago Bridge and Iron
317
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 - L
93 W 8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00037b-5 9 0 T M
111. MAINTENANCE
A maintenance painting program begins with a burning desire to preserve an already expensive installation,
an absolute willingness to accomplish the task and the
necessary funds to do the work. Water tanks in particular
get painted many times during their service lives, and
maintenance painting often represents more expenditure
than the original paint work. Therefore, it behooves the
owner or his representative to think seriously about some
of the dos and donts associated with maintenance
painting.
The most obvious do is to obtain the painting
history on the subject tank. An accurate history reveals the
tank age, the original paint system (generic), subsequent
repairs and repaint work, and generic changes in the paint
system. In short, the history contains most of the information required to make an informed judgment about the proposed paint work. In the absence of a written history, the
owner, his representative, or a competent inspection firm
should remove cuts of paint from the tank in several
locations. These cuts should remove the paint down to the
FIGURE 5
Interior water tank paints were evaluated in a series of tests initiated in 1931 and carried out jointly in 1950 and again in 1958-59
by the SSPC, the Ambridge Water Authority and the Pittsburgh
Des Moines Steel Company. The latter tests included 196 test
areas (each 21 feet tall) involving chiefly phenolics, which failed
and vinyls (per SSPC-PS 4.00) which, with touch-up, were still effective as described in Reference 4.
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318
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CHAPTER*L4.L
73
IV. SUMMARY
Tank painting can be relatively simple, environmentally acceptable and still comply with government regulations and AWWA requirements. The interior surfaces of
potable water tanks should be painted with two coats of
catalyzed epoxy (polyamide or amine-adduct cured) to a
dry film thickness in the range 10-16 mils or a three-coat or
four-coat (VR-3) vinyl paint system. The three-coat vinyl
system affords the option of a thicker coating (7-8 mils dry
film) than does the VR-3 (four-coat) system. In both cases
the final coat should be an SSPC-Paint 8 Aluminum Vinyl
Paint to achieve an effective seal over the preceeding
coats.
The exterior surfaces are still painted as elected by
the owner. However, the specifiers should be painfully
aware that new OSHA regulations have virtually banned
the use of the lead-bearing primers. The OSHA regulations
have also placed the chromate pigments in jeopardy.
Therefore, it is a wise specifier who determines, in writing
of course, that a particular manufacturers primer is leadfree and will NOTdisbond under severe condensation conditions. The same line of reasoning holds true for the topcoats. There are some totally lead-free primers that are
proving satisfactory for the exterior surfaces of water
tanks, and eventually, the applicators will catch-up with
the technology. In any case, the major considerations in
choosing exterior surface paints are location, (proximity to
houses, etc.), time of year painting will be accomplished,
and application characteristics of the paint (can it be
rolled as well as sprayed). If, for instance, one is contemplating the purchase of a new tank, and it will be
placed in an open area that will eventually be surrounded
by buildings, then it is time to consider the long-lasting
systems, such as epoxies, epoxy-urethanes or the highbuild vinyl enamels. If the tank is or will be placed in
crowded conditions, pick a system that will afford the
fewest problems in applications.
Petroleum tankage should always be painted. White is
an excellent choice for the exterior surfaces. The interior
surfaces should be coated with epoxy or epoxy-phenolic
materials or lined with a baking phenolic material.
It is good to remember the following: steel is relatively
inexpensive. In fact, the steel is the least expensive item
on the job. If, then, the cost of design, fabrication, labor,
and erection are the most expensive factors, why do we
pay so little attention to protecting the basic item of the
structure? The replacement costs are enormous. Again, i f
all of these beautiful steel structures are designed and
built as a monument to mans ability to overcome nature,
why do we become so penurious regarding the one thing,
painting, that will protect our genius from the ravages of
nature?
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The previous chapter on this subject was written by the late
J.O. Jackson.
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: AI Beitelman, Duane Bloemke, Wallace Cathcart, William
Chandler, R. Burt Chase, T.A. Cross, Ted Dowd, Richard Drisko,
Ronald W. Hamm, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline, Iggy Metil, John
Montle, C. Munger, Joe Richard, Harry A. Skilton, T. Wilhelm,
Louis Zadra.
REFERENCES
1. J.O. Jackson, Painting of Steel Tanks Steel Structures Painting Council, Volume 1, pp. 298-308, 1952.
2. Final Report of Ambridge Test of Paints for Water Tank Interiors, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company Technical
Bulletin No. 3304, 1933.
3. Second Report of Inspection of Test of Steel Priming Paints
and Methods of Surface Preparation After 584 Days Exposure, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Steel Company, May 4, 1941.
4. J.D. Keane, A 25-Year Evaluation of Coatings for Water Tank
Interiors, Steel Structures Painting Council Report, December
1, 1975.
5. Painting and Repainting Steel Tanks, Standpipes, Reservoirs,
and Elevated Tanks for Water Storage, American Water
Works Association, Inc. February 11, 1964.
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319
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 . 2
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 7 b 7 782
93
CHAPTER 14.2
I. INTRODUCTION
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This chapter describes accepted practices for selecting and applying protective coatings to the interior surfaces of steel tanks. These coatings used as linings protect tank interiors from corrosive andlor erosive products
and often prevent contamination of the product by the
steel substrate. The tank may be used for processing,
transporting or storing chemical or food products.
The requirements necessary to obtain economical
service life with a coating as a lining include safety,
designlfabrication, selection of coating materials, surface
preparation, application techniques, curing, inspection
and maintenance. For purposes of this chapter the discussion of a protective coating used as a lining is limited to
materials applied in one or more coats by conventional air
spray or airless spray methods to a total dry film thickness
of no greater than 50 mils. This chapter does not include
other application techniques such as flame spraying,
sheet-applied linings, metallizing or hand lay-ups.
The success of a coating system depends upon the
design of the tank, intended use, coating selection, total
dry film thickness of coating and application technique.
These factors make it essential to seek advice from a competent supplier of coating materials and a knowledgeable,
experienced applicator.
II. SAFETY
Assuring the safety of workers in tank lining is of utmost importance. Working in confined areas with dust and
toxic andlor flammable materials can create hazardous
conditions. Individuals working in these areas should be
familiar with precautions necessary to prevent accidents.
Regulatory bodies, such as OSHA, have guidelines that
must be followed. In addition, training program should be
established to educate all individuals who apply coatings
to steel tanks.
Use of a check list such as the following, prior to starting work, helps to establish conditions necessary for safety:
Barricades
Elect rical Hazards
Explosion Proof Electrical Equipment
Eye Protection
Falling Objects
Fire Alarm Station
Fire Extinguisher - Fire Blankets
320
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SSPC CHAPTER+14-2 93
FIGURE 1
Safely equipped man spraying the inside of small food processing tank.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
FIGURE 2
Lining of baked phenolic over carbon and stainless steel for high
pressure and temperature chemical separator.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
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321
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SSPC C H A P T E R U L 4 - 2 73
8 6 2 7 7 4 0 00037b9 555
* A
FIGURE 3
Failure of water tank lining from poor design, fabrication,
material selection and application.
Courtesy: D.M. Berger
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* h a ! *-
322
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R t 1 4 . 2 93
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A. PHENOLIC
A high-bake pure phenolic, unplasticized, based on a
phenol formaldehyde resin, often referred to as a straight
phenolic. Polymerization is accomplished by heat curing
at metal temperatures ranging between 350" to 450F.
(177" to 242C.). They are spray applied in a number of
coats to a total dry film thickness ranging between 4-8
mils. The pigmentation used in formulations affects the
e n d c o l o r , adhesion, p e r m e a b i l i t y and spray
characteristics. The chemical and physical properties of
bake phenolic systems are excellent. They are unaffected
by most solvents, including hydrocarbons, alcohols,
ketones and chlorinated solvents. They are resistant to
concentrated sulphuric acid but due to the limitation on
total dry film thickness cannot be used in dilute acids
where the corrosion rate on the underlying steel would be
excessive. They exhibit poor resistance to alkalies, alkali
salts and strong oxidants. This system normally meets all
the requirements of the FDA and USDA for protecting
substrates exposed to products intended for human consumption. Because of the limitation on film thickness, this
system normally is not specified as a pin-hole free lining.
FIGURE 4
Test cell indicates failure as a result of adhesion loss.
Courtesy: Gilbert Associates
C. EPOXY
Formulations based on Bisphenol A Epichlorohydrin
resin utilizing either amines, amine adducts or polyamide
curing agents for polymerization. Heat, while not always
necessary to cure, does optimize resistance. This type of
system can also be modified with phenol formaldehyde
resins, coal tar or other resinous materials. It is possible to
formulate systems with no volatile solvent, various solvent
combinations or with water. Pigment is added to the formulation to obtain color, workability, adhesion or abrasion
resistance. The resistance of this category varies substantially based on the formulation, but, generally, it will have
excellent resistance to various chemicals that range in a
pH from 4 to 12. The solvent resistance will be fair. Its exposure to severely corrosive environments will be limited
due to normal film thicknesses ranging from 8 to 30 mils
when applied by spray. Heavier films (not in the scope of
this chapter) can be formulated containing flaking or
fibrous fillers and applied by spray, trowel, or hand lay-up.
D. POLYESTER-VINYL ESTER
B. PH ENOLIC/EPOXY BAKING TYPE
3283
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*34-2 93
H. PRECAUTIONS
E. NEOPRENE
Synthetic elastomers that may be dissolved in
solvents or as a latex dispersed in water. Common curing
agents are zinc or magnesium oxide. The solvent materials
are spray applied in thicknesses of 20 or more mils and
have excellent resistance to both alkalies and acids. The
latex materials (like the styrene butadiene latex) are
sprayed in thicknesses of 10-25 mils and are widely successful in strong alkali immersion (50 and 73% caustic
soda) but not in acids. All neoprene are considered to be
relatively poor in solvent environments.
V. SURFACE PREPARATION
Surface preparation is important in obtaining successful linings for tanks. It should provide a substrate that
is free of contaminants, uniformly roughened and cleaned
to a white metal, such as outlined in SSPC-SP 5. This type
of surface can be created only by abrasive blasting. The industry has not established a guide for degree of profile,
although certain manufacturers do specify depth of profile
required for their systems. Observation indicates that with
some coating systems in certain environments the depth
of surface profile can significantly alter the results. Determination of the depth of profile in the field has been made
by using visual comparators, by making microscopic
measurements and by measuring depths imposed on a
tape. However, the accuracy of this type of equipment has
not been established.
As environmental and health standards often prevent
preparation of substrates by blasting with sand, evidence
shows that a clean angular iron or steel grit of proper hardness can provide an excellent surface. Steel surfaces
blasted with metallic grit do not have the classic white
metal appearance, nor do they have the same light reflectant properties as steel blasted with sand because of the
absence of sand residues. In selecting any abrasive, care
must be taken to insure that it is clean and noncontaminating. After abrasive blasting, dust must be
removed from surfaces and from the air. Once the dust has
settled, the surface should be carefully brushed andlor
blown down with moistureioil-free air, andlor vacuum
cleaned. This is a critical step in surface preparation for
coatings to be used as linings.
Surface preparation of tanks that have previously
been exposed to liquids requires special treatment. Prior
to blasting, it may be necessary to clean residues of
previous contents with solvent, caustic, acid, detergent or
F. INORGANIC ZINC
Formulations are based on either alkali or alkyl
silicates with a varying percentage of zinc pigment. The
alkali formulations are water based and the alkyl, solvent
based. The amount of zinc loading will determine the
degree of galvanic protection offered. This kind of system
may be self-curing, or it may rely on moisture in the air, or it
may be post-cured by application of an acid solution. Its
chemical resistance is excellent in solvents and petroleum
products that are relatively free of water and with a near
neutral pH. It prevents corrosion of steel substrates by
sacrificial or preferential action. Topcoating is therefore
advantageous to prevent rapid deterioration of the zinc.
Possible contamination of the stored product may result
when zinc coatings alone are used for immersion service.
G. VINYL
Solutions consisting of vinyl chloridelvinyl acetate
copolymers in ketonelaromatic solvents. Low volume
solids normally necessitate the application of several
coats to achieve recommended film thickness of 5-12 mils.
Special high build formulations are available, but selection
should be made with extreme caution since the pigmentation can provide a very porous film unsuitable for immersion service. Vinyls formerly were widely used in a
multitude of chemical and food services, but now are
somewhat limited to water, fatty acids and salt solutions.
They exhibit poor resistance to solvents.
324
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ess. The type of solvent, method of application, and the environmental conditions during the application are all factors which determine the readings. Good air circulation is
required to remove the solvents.
Extreme cleanliness is required throughout the
coating application. Clean, lint-free clothing should be
worn. For safety reasons shoes should provide good traction but should have smooth soles to prevent tracking. If
the conditions of traction allow, a wrapping of the shoes
with polyethylene or other plastic film not affected by
solvents in the coating can be advantageous. To prevent
contaminating the surface, lint-free gloves should be worn
during all phases of coating application.
Application equipment must also be kept extremely
clean. New hoses for each type coating are desired, but i f
not available, previously used hoses must be meticulously
cleaned as residues of other products may have a severely
detrimental effect, particularly on a catalyzed coating. A
thorough cleaning should be done immediately after use
of application equipment.
Coating materials used as linings, as discussed in
this chapter, are spray applied by either conventional air or
airless spray (Figures 5 and 6). Air spray indicates that the
coating comes in direct contact with air for atomization
while airless spray utilizes high pressure through a small
orifice with no direct air contact. Air spray allows the
sprayer better control for thickness, particularly in confined areas andlor around intricate shapes in corners, etc.
The major disadvantage of air spray is that in spite of all
warnings, the air supply used for spraying may contain
detrimental amounts of oil or water. Small amounts interjected in certain coating systems could result in a change
of physical properties such as the development of pinholes, blistering, fish eyeing, blushing or poor adhesion.
The.airless spray eliminates potential problems with
contaminated air. In addition, overspray is appreciably
reduced. But the high volume of output makes it difficult to
handle in confined areas and around intricate shapes. Improper buildup of some materials can result in a porous or
cheesy film due to entrapped solvents.
Multiple-coat lining systems require thorough visual
inspection of all surfaces between coats, sanding or
scraping out rough areas or entrapped foreign materials
and then repairing by brushing or additional spray applications. Additionally, inspection after the first coat is the
time to pick up previhsly undetected fabrication or plate
shortcomings. In most cases, these can be corrected by
chipping or grinding and the first coat reapplied as a
touchup. If additional welding is required or i f the coating
material is one in which the depth of anchor pattern is of
real significance, then it becomes necessary to reblast
those areas and reapply that first coat.
Proper mixing of a coating system is important and
the suppliers instructions should be carefully followed.
His restrictions on material temperature, relative humidity,
cleanliness of equipment, and proportion of activator are
important and in some cases are critical . Add only ingredients supplied or specified by the supplier and adjust
325
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8627940 0003772 0 4 T
SSPC C H A P T E R + L 4 . 2 93
FIGURE 5
Two-hundred-foot diameter, open top tank being lined via rolling
scaffolding.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 = 2 93
FIGURE 6
Lining being spray applied in railroad tank car for shipment of
clean chemical or food product.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
326
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERxL4-2 9 3
VI II. INSPECTION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The common view of inspecting painting does not apply to the inspection of coating that are applied as linings.
Adherence to this view can be detrimental to the performance of the lining and can greatly increase cost. For example, commonly the word inspection means inspecting by
purchaser for acceptance of the workmanship. But while
this is a perfectly acceptable technique when inspecting
workmanship which can be defined by go or no-go
testing, it is not acceptable testing for the application of
coatings as linings.
Ongoing inspection of linings provides assurances
that every phase of surface preparation, application and
curing are properly performed. Variations in any phase
must be immediately recognized and corrective action
taken or performance of the lining can be adversely affected, even though the lining may not fail any acceptance
inspection test. The shortcoming of the lining industry is
due partially to the limited number of instruments
available for measuring the quality of coating work and the
resultant over-attention to the few facets that can be
measured. Instruments that are available must be
calibrated and used properly to be of significant value.
Any inspection requires a broad knowledge of the
functions of coating work in order to evaluate the quality
of work accomplished. Over-inspecting, like overspecifying, can add extra costs, which do not always provide added life to the coating system. Nevertheless, every
single phase of the entire work must be inspected to be
certain that all is as it was engineered to be, including
design, fabrication, material, mixing, application and cure.
The design and fabrication of a tank should be inspected to insure that the welds are continuous, the splatter removed, and the heavy ripple ground. Internals having
sharp edges should be radiused as needed to allow for
coating buildup on edges. Nozzles leading into the tank
should be of a large enough diameter to allow surface
preparation and coating application.
Following surface preparation, the surface should be
inspected for contaminants such as grease, oil, dust or
blasting abrasive. Visual laminates and defects on the
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
327
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 4 * 2 7 3
X. CONCLUSIONS
Coatings are used as linings for various types of applications such as food containers, hot water tanks, tank
trucks, tank cars, storage silos, water treatment systems,
large chemical storage tanks, and stacks. The success of
a coating system depends greatly on proper design,
material selection, and proper application. The versatility
of carbon steel plus a coating as a lining gives it advantages over other steel alloys which are extremely costly.
Time will advance the know-how, bring better quality
assurance techniques, and improve coating formulations.
Possibly, supersonic cleaning to replace abrasive blasting,
electrostatic deposition to replace spraying and induction
heating to replace hot air heating will reduce the time involved in lining a tank to a few hours and eliminate possible errors involved with application.
FIGURE 7
Metal temperature at many different areas during curing and baking of linings can be reviewed and recorded simultaneously.
Courtesy: Tank Lining Corp.
For high bake coatings the degree of cure is well determined by the change in color as compared to control
panels.
IX. MAINTENANCE
Maintenance is just as important for coating systems
used in tanks as it is for exterior paint systems. But unfortunately, because the economics differ substantially, so
do the maintenance programs. To obtain accessibility to
the interior of a process tank, the process must be shut
down, and the commodity must be transferred to another
lined tank. For exterior paint systems it is practical and
economical to inspect on some engineered schedule, such
as each quarter or each year, and touch up as needed. Contrarily, lining systems, to be economical, must be designed
to give maintenanyfree extended service life. A common
rule of thumb is-aminimum of three years, but in most environments a minimum of five years is required and readily
obtainable. The coating materials regularly used successfully as linings have long maintenance-free service
lives. A typical, good grade, proprietary, high bake, thermosetting phenolic performs for five years in the most severe
instances and ten years in many more.
When designing a lining system, consideration must
be given to its ability to be touched up or repaired because
of physical damage, design change in the tank, industrial
accidents or shortcomings in application. Repair materials
should be selected for their compatibility and adhesion
with the original material, their adhesion to steel and their
resistance to the environment. Because there is seldom
any appearance requirement, there is little reason to use
the same material as the original.
The procedure for repairing a coating is normally identical to the procedure used in initial application. Where the
repaired coating intersects the existing coating, it is normally recommended that the existing coating be feathered
to accept the repaired coating. Feathering requires sand--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
328
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REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: T.A. Cross, Richard Drisko, Noel Duvic, Dan Gelfer, Tom
Ginsberg, Lewis Gleekman, Leonard Haynie, Harlan Kline,
Howard Lasser, D.W. Metzger, John Montle, C. Munger, Bill Pearson, W.A. Severance, William Wallace.
1. Chapter 1 of TPC publication No. 2 of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers Coatings and Linings for Immer2.
3.
4.
5.
BIOGRAPHY
Albert L. Hendricks is President of Wisconsin Protective
Coating Corporation, Green
Bay, Wisconsin, where he has
been employed since 1958.
His activities while employed at Wisconsin Protective
Coatings have been directly
related to coating work at various levels including manufacturing, testing, research, quality
control,
application
and
soecifvina.
-r-- ,
He hs been accredited as a Corrosion Specialist by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and is actively
involved on various technical committees within NACE, the Steel
Structures Painting Council, the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Concrete Institute, and the American Water
Works Association. He has been an officer at Section, Region and
National levels within NACE.
6.
7.
BIOGRAPHY
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93
CHAPTER 15
I. SELECTION OF COATINGS
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Related Factors
Design for painting
Coordination with
construction activities
Method of specifying
cost
Safety requirements
Coating Requirements
Surface preparation
Specialist services
Ambient conditions (temperature, moisture, ventilation,
etc.)
Latitude (tolerance to adverse
conditions
Objectives
Item or Structure
Location of application (shoplfield)
Size
Surface configuration
Accessi bility
Possible handling and
traffic damage
Some or all of the above may present problems in a
given case, and problems easily resolved in new construction may become acute in maintenance painting.
Coatings will be categorized in terms of the exposures for steel found in and around hydraulic structures,
and recognition of the major deteriorative elements in
these exposures becomes pertinent. A few of the more
common ones are:
Protection
Appearance
Durabi Iity
Maintainability
Water
Chemical attack (acids,
bases, organics)
330
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Cavitation
Soil stresses and
punctures
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 5 - 0
Abrasion (debris in
water, windblown sand,
ice)
Erosion (waterborne
sand or gravel)
Impacts
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003778 5 6 8
Biodegradation
Weathering
Corrosion currents
Temperature variations
Freeze-thaw
Vandalism
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FIGURE 1
plant, switchyards, and a visitors center.
Shasta Dam, part of the Central Valley Project, California, il.
lustrates the many protective and decorative painting re.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
quirements of hydraulic structures. Visible are penstocks, power
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
331
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8627940 0003779 4 T 4
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1. Cernent mortar
Cement mortar is among the oldest and best pipe
linings. Mortar reliably protects for over 50 years in
water distribution systems by creating a corrosioninhibitive alkaline environment (pH-12) at the surface of the steel. The preponderance of linings,
ranging from
to 3h inch (4.8 to 19.0 mm) in
thickness, are plant-applied by the centrifugal
casting* (spinning) process to piping ranging from
12 to about 60 inches (0.3 to 1.5 m) in diameter.
Bends and other special shapes unsuitable for
spinning are lined by handtroweling. An external
coating can be applied concurrently as discussed
in section B.
An option to apply mortar linings to piping
already in place assumes great importance when
large-size pipe must be lined or an old line has
corroded and requires replacement or abandonment. Piping as large as 21 feet (6.4 m) in diameter
has been lined, although the lining of sizes over 14
feet (4.3 m) in diameter is uncommon. Of course,
the lining thickness must be increased in proportion to the increasing pipe size. Further, an in-place
lining plugs up and seals most small holes up to as
much as 3/4 inch (19.0 mm), restoring the integrity
of an old corroded line and restoring it to approximately its original carrying capacity. A major advantage of in-place motor lining lies in its tolerance
to only superficial preparation. Old lines can be
A. UNDERWATER EXPOSURES
x6
FIGURE 2
Soon after painting, rust (by knife) began draining from under a
radial gate member secured by intermittent welds. For best
design, the inaccesible space should be sealed by a continuous
weld or equivalent.
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation
SSPC CHAPTER*LS=O 93
8627740 O003780 L L b
(spinning), which can be readily controlled to provide a uniformly thick, 3/32 inch (2.4 mm), lining of
glass-like smoothness. This characteristic is advantageous in achieving low friction losses with
resultant economies in design and operation. The
lining is most frequently applied in the pipe
fabricators plant, but a few independent applicators are organized to apply the lining by hand at the
jobsite. Pipe lined by the plant process has ranged
from 4 inches to more than 10 ft. (0.1 to 3.0 m) in
diameter, and the cost of mechanically applied
enamel, including blast cleaning, is moderate. By
using mechanical couplings, individual sections
may be lined for the full length, and no hand work is
required. Coal-tar enamel with wraps can be applied to exterior pipe surfaces in the same plant
operations, as discussed in section B.
For larger diameter, mechanically lined pipe in
which sections are joined by field welding, joint
areas are lined after installation by hand daubing.
Hand daubing must be used for irregular shapes
not adaptable to spinning. For pipe under 27 inches
2. Coal-tar coatings
Coat-tar pitch as a principal constituent in
coatings has long been prized by the coatings industry, primarily because of economics and its
hydrophobic property. Suitably processed coal-tar
products absorb little water and are virtually unaffected by long periods of water immersion. In this
respect, they are generally considered to be
superior to asphaltic compositions. They also are
toxic to most organisms and discourage biological
degradation. Thick, hot-applied versions of coal-tar
coatings afford the longest service. OSHA, EPA
and other regulatory agencies are currently
evaluating the carcinogenic effects of coal-tar as it
is applied and exposed in coatings. Obviously, this
could lead to specific or effective proscription of
one of the best coating constituents. It is hoped
the evaluation is unhurried and realistic.
3. Coal-tar pitch
Hot-applied coal-tar pitch, applied by dipping, has
preserved submerged trashracks for nearly half a
century on Bureau of Reclamation projects. The extensive equipment required for dipping justifies
this excellent coating only for very large jobs, and it
has been seldom used in recent years.
4.
Coal-tar enamel
Coal-tar enamel is especially appropriate for lining
and coating steel pipe. Service records project a
life of 50 years or more. It is commonly applied to
straight individual sections by centrifugal casting
FIGURE 3
Rigorous sandblasting removed hard, tight, rust scale (right of
rivets) in 30-year old pipe. It also removed corrosion products from
the bottom of pits preparatory to painting.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
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FIGURE 4
Glassy smooth surface of shop spun coal-tar enamel provides low hydraulic friction in water piping.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
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93
FIGURE 5
Coal-tar enamel applied by hand daubing in Shasta Dam
penstock presents a distinctive pattern. The slightly greater
roughness of daubed enamel is not considered significant in
large piping.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
B. UNDERGROUND EXPOSURE
Buried steel in hydraulic structures usually comprises
portions of penstocks and piping used in water irrigation
and domestic water distribution systems. The importance
of most buried structures and the difficulty of inspecting
and maintaining them underline the value of quality and
durability in the initial coating selections and of performing the applications correctly. The exposure demands
maximum coating permanence. Requirements for the ex-
8. Solvent paints
Solvent-release paints formulated with some of the
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FIGURE6
Three experimental lining areas can be seen in siphon piping
used for the Collbran test of pipe lining materials.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
336
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= 8627940
EXPOSURE
Low-head gates, trashracks and other fabrications of
steel used for controlling waterflow in spillways, checks,
canal turnouts, etc., are subjected to combinations of immersion and atmospheric exposures. Portions of these
items may be completely submerged, others exposed to
continuous weathering and middle parts to a fluctuating
water level. In some cases, structures may operate only
during the irrigation season and be dry during the winter.
Sand and gravel suspended in water erode coatings.
Ice and floating timbers abrade them. In addition to
protecting metal, coatings now are expected to clothe visible structures in attractive colors that harmonize with surroundings. In short, alternating exposure may be viewed as
the most severe of all exposures, this being slightly
mitigated by the accessibility of the metalwork for
maintenance.
Coatings for this alternating exposure must resist
deteriorative effects of both immersion and weathering.
Thus, the bituminous coatings that quickly embrittle,
check, and degrade, and urethane, phenolic and epoxy
paints that fade and chalk in direct sunlight do not perform well without weather-resistant topcoats. Tough,
resilient paints best minimize damage from scrapes and
impacts by floating debris.
Obviously, blast cleaning is recommended for
coatings in this exposure because they require the
same high level of surface preparation as immersion coatings, if long service is to be realized. Also,
many items in this exposure include edges, rivets,
bolts, welds and junctions of metal parts. All of
these are points of weakness in a paint coating,
which should be reinforced by one or more edge
coats.
1. Vinyl resin paints
Paints based on formulations of vinyl resins have
established solid records of service for more than
20 years on radial gates. (See Figures 1 through 4.)
The several vinyl resins differ somewhat in properties so they can be compounded to exhibit
varying degrees of hardness, toughness and impermeability to water. Some vinyl resins adhere to
steel; others do not and may be used only in topcoats over adherent vinyl primers. Some vinyl
systems include a special vinyl pretreatment called
a wash primer, intended to improve adhesion and
introduce a rust-inhibiting layer next to the steel.
The solids content of most vinyl paints is low,
usually necessitating application of at least four
coats. Five to ten mil (0.13 to 0.25 mm) thick
coatings are usually specified to ensure protection, the thicker coatings providing enhanced abrasion resistance. Pigmentation allows a wide range
of color selection, including aluminum.
2. Galvanizing
If small equipment items may easily be removed for
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4. Tapes
Several tape coatings have performed well on
buried piping. Hot-applied, double-wrapped, glassor fabric-reinforced coal-tar enamel tapes provide
about the equivalent of a coal-tar enamel and wrap
coating. Cold-applied polyethylene and polyvinyl
chloride tapes 10 to 30 mils thick with pressuresensitive adhesives have been spirally wrapped on
small diameter piping. Priming the surfaces
enhances adhesion. A shield against scarring and
puncturing the tape during backfilling often is
essential. The industry appears to be developing
heavier duty tape-coating systems with both high
durability and resistance to soil and handling.
5. Fusion coatings
Certain plant-applied fusion coatings exhibit
tenacious adhesion and extraordinary toughness
as well as the durable corrosion-preventive
characteristics essential to soil burial conditions.
Thorough surface preparation by blast cleaning is
mandatory. Piping must be heated to a high
temperature, perhaps 350F (177C) for coating.
The powdered coating melts, fuses and reacts
chemically as it contacts the surface. Smaller
items, such as fittings for line piping, may be
coated (internally and externally) in a fluidized bed
of the powder. Powders can also be spray applied to preheated metal by hand and plant processes.
6. Unbonded sheet plastic
Ductile and cast iron piping is now being protected
solely by an unbonded sheet polyethylene wrap. It
will not be surprising i f some variation is developed for long-term protection of steel in the
ground.
7. Joint Protection
Joints present possibly the most difficult problem
in providing external coating protection. The principle is that the joint coating must equal that on the
rest of the piping, but irregular shapes and field
conditions often frustrate this standard. For example, plastic tapes are suitable for field-welded
joints and perhaps pipe couplings in small piping,
but conform poorly over elbows, unions, tees, etc.
Hot-applied, coal-tar enamel tape conforms well,
but requires more time and care. Joints in mortarcoated pipe require field-placed mortar encasement complete with reinforcing wire mesh. Similarly, mechanical couplings in coal-tar enameled
piping may actually be encased by wrapping a
diaper around the joint and pouring it full of
enamel. The coating may even have to accommodate slight joint movement without rupturing. The
variations are many, but full protection must result.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
0003784 861
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= 8627940 0003785 7 T 8
D. ATMOSPHERIC EXPOSURE
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FIGURE 7
Sleevetype coupling in a coal-tar enamel coated pipeline has
been completely coated with enamel. Workman is electrically inspecting the coating for pinholes, thus assuring coating continuity and joint protection equal to that on the shopapplied pipe
coating.
Courtesy U.S.Bureau of Reclamation
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O
93
(c.) Water borne paints - Recognizing that the expected severe limitations on organic solvent emissions may virtually eliminate solvent-base paints,
the industry has developed a few waterborne paint
systems for metal. BPA formulated a stainless
steel pigmented acrylic resin-based paint that outperformed all other paints tested at the severest
seacoast BPA test site at Cape Blanco, Oregon.
This material can act as the sole coating or as the
primer for color-pigmented topcoats, either solvent
or waterborne. Interestingly, this commercially
available paint can be applied directly to some
galvanized metal without pretreatments to insure
adhesion.
(d.) Zinc coatings - Galvanizing items of suitable
size and shape affords long-term protection in
most rural atmospheric exposures. The zinc
coating is especially well adapted to steel, which
receives extremely rough handling during
assembly and is costly to paint after erection. The
color and reflectivity of newly galvanized items are
objectionable in some settings. In an effort to
blend these items into surroundings, some users
recently have treated galvanized steel with
phosphoric acid-base dulling solutions, which may
enhance protection and paintability of the zinc.
Painting galvanized items permits a full range of
color selection. Caution must be exercised, since
obtaining coating adhesion to zinc presents
special problems.
Zinc-pigmented paints have undergone extensive development in recent years and now may
be obtained in a wide variety of inorganic or
organic vehicles. Those based on inorganic vehicles have demonstrated especially good resistance
to atmospheric exposure when properly applied to
blast-cleaned surfaces. Others serve as corrosionresistance primers. Where structural steel must be
exposed outdoors for long periods after fabrication
and before erection and final painting, mill-applied,
weld-through, zinc-pigmented primers minimize the
surface preparation necessary before field painting. Intercoat adhesion failure experienced with
some zinc-pigmented primers prompts special care
in selecting compatible topcoats.
2. Indoor Coatings
Paints that need not resist severe weathering are
selected primarily for aesthetic purposes. Gloss or
semigloss finishes facilitate cleaning grease and
dirt from machinery and promote good housekeeping. Suitable paints exist in a wide range of colors
to produce any desired decor.
Field painting of indoor metalwork can be performed with the same enamels as outdoor exoosures or any of many synthetic-resin, single or multicomponent paints. Panelboards, enclosures and
other equipment for control rooms are commonly
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003786 634
E. SPECIAL CONDITIONS
While coatings for previously mentioned exposures
afford protection to most surfaces of hydraulic works with
only infrequent attention, similar exposures may include
additional elements that may lead to rapid coating failure.
Cavitation, erosion, abrasion and impacts are grouped
together because all are forms of mechanical attack on
the coating, even though the causes and mechanisms may
be quite different.
1. Cavitation
High water velocities, usually well over 45 ft./s (14
mls), occur frequently in localized areas of
hydraulic equipment, often without adverse effects
on coatings. When combined with surface irregularities (coating roughness, offsets in the surface, rapid changes in the direction of flow),
negative pressures create vapor pockets. The collapse of minute vapor bubbles downstream from
the surface irregularity rapidly destroys most
coatings and often the substrate metal; this is
called cavitation or cavitation erosion.
No coating withstands severe cavitation. In
this case, only weld repair with tough stainless
steels or other special metals can extend the life of
FIGURE 8
Dry film thickness of a coating on the stay vanes of a turbine
spiral case is measured using a magnetic gage.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
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93
2. Erosion
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93
A. INSPECTION
Inspection records are kept to assure that standards
have been established for all phases of painting. Compliance will enhance the expected coating performance.
Instruments can quantify many coating properties. A
trained, experienced and somewhat hardnosed inspector,
supported by solid specifications, can contribute immeasurably to the level of workmanship and the success
of the application.
Inspection focuses on a few key aspects of application:
O Surface preparation - Inspection confirms that
grease and weld spatter removal precedes the
mechanical cleaning. When blast cleaning is
specified, NACE Standard TM-01-70 provides a set
of comparison panels that have been carefully
blast cleaned to reflect both the broad recognized NACE and SSPC surface preparation stan--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 9
Near-white blast cleaning removes all contaminants prior to
painting. Here a weld is properly cleaned, and blasting reveals
significant pits not evident before removal of an old coating.
Courtesy U S . Bureau of Reclamation
34 1
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003789 343
B. SURFACE PREPARATION
It is well known that some types of paint tolerate
foreign matter on a steel surface better than others, and
the degree of cleaning varies.
The method that provides the most nearly perfect
base for painting is not always practical. In addition to
paint type, the size and shape of the object to be painted,
its exposure, whether it is in a fixed position and whether
it is to be painted in the shops or in the field are considerations.
Other chapters in this volume deal in detail with sur:e
fac preparation, and Volume 2 contains widely used surfac:e preparation specifications.
1. Surface repair
A first step in preparation of any surface for painting is correction of any metal deficiencies. It is
desirable, though not always feasible, to round
sharp edges and corners. Scabs and other metal
defects incident to the steel rolling and fabrication
operation should always be removed and the surface smoothed. Field welds usually require the
most attention. The sharp projections on a weld
should be ground down and weld spatter removed.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Grease removal
It is best to remove any deposits of grease or oil
before beginning mechanical cleaning. Blast cleaning is often thought to remove these contaminants,
but this is not necessarily so. Prior removal is
recommended. Oil can be removed by washing with
a solvent. Mineral spirits, xylene and others are
excellent for this purpose; however, benzene,
gasoline and certain other solvents are unsafe.
Cleaning solvent and rags must be replaced frequently; otherwise, solvent cleaning can actually
spread the grease contamination over a wider area
than it originally covered. If the abrasive in blast
cleaning is to be reused, it must be oil free; steel
grit and shot require cleaning at intervals. Shaking
the abrasive a few seconds in a small vial of water
will determine the presence of oil.
FIGURE 10
Electrostatic spray painting permits rapidly coating the complex
shapes of a transformer, the paint even penetrating to coat interior rows of the cooling pipes at right in the picture.
Courtesy U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
5. Dust removal
Regardless of the cleaning method, dust or grit
should be removed from the surface just before
painting and painting should proceed before rust
forms on the cleaned surface. If the atmosphere is
dry, rusting of blast cleaned surfaces may not occur for days; but under humid conditions, rust can
be evident within an hour or so. A freshly painted
surface should be protected from dust, and any dirt
that collects between coats should be removed.
3 . Blast cleaning
In addition to complete removal of all surface impurities, blast cleaning roughens the surface to
provide keying for good bond. With some types of
paint, blast cleaning is considered essential to proper adhesion, and their use becomes contingent on
whether blast cleaning can be employed. Blast
cleaning should be specified for coal-tar coatings,
vinyls, phenolics, neoprene coatings, and in
general, for all coatings (except cement mortar) to
be in buried or immersion exposures. This method
C. APPLICATION OF COATINGS
Before field coating proceeds, favorable conditions
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4. Application methods - Most paints for field application are applied by conventional brush, roller
or spray methods. Contractors favor the high application rates and greater film build attainable by
spraying for prime coats as well as succeeding
coats. This point is debatable. It can be argued that
brushing or rolling stirs any residual dust away
from the surface and works the paint into better
contact, thus promoting better coating bond, particularly if the paint has poor wetting properties.
Some paints, such as vinyls, are difficult to brush.
Observing that dust removal is erratic at best,
however, the Bureau of Reclamation has long
favored brushing of primers., Spraying is recommended for topcoats. In special cases, electrostatic spraying produces more complete, uniform
and rapid coating of complex and poorly accessible shapes, such as closely packed piping
systems, than does conventional spraying.
The term good painting practice covers,
among other things, accepted techniques for the
various application methods, and proper time
between coats and for full curing; other chapters
examine these matters in detail. Field painting
should result in the specified coverages, thicknesses and conformity to the special requirements
of each type of paint. Attaining the correct
minimum total dry film thickness is especially important for coatings to be in immersion exposures,
and extra edge coats are highly recommended
where the paint film thins out and fails early at high
points of welds, over corners, and around rivets.
FIGURE 11
Roller gate in Rock Island navigational dam is in near-perfect condition after 12 years service. Threecoat vinyl system per CW
09940 specifications was used.
Courtesy U.C. Corps of Engineers and Gilbertlcommonwealth
for the application must be guaranteed. Planning promotes satisfactory final results as well as minimizing
delays and various misfortunes during the work. It may
become important to establish positive control over ambient conditions. Application personnel should be acquainted with coating characteristics and specifications
andlor manufacturers instructions pertaining to them.
They should also be provided with essential rigging and
clean, operable equipment. Such precautions set the stage
for smooth field applications. Factors in paint application
are covered in SSPC-PA 1 and SSPC-PA Guide 4.
1. Ambient application conditions - Specified
minimum painting temperatures are often around
45OF (7C)for conventional paints. Most chemically set paints require at least 5OoF (10%).
While maximum temperatures sometimes do
not appear in specifications, problems may be
encountered above 95OF (35OC).The best paint
working qualities and results are usually realized in
the middle of this temperature range. High humidity not only threatens freshly prepared surfaces but
may affect some paints adversely. Good ventilation
protects the painters and hastens drying of most
paints. Positive control of these ambient conditions presents difficult problems in cool, damp
locations with adverse weather conditions.
2. Paint preparation - Prior to application,
settled and stratified paints must be restored to
their original uniformity. If pigments do not
disperse on thorough mixing, as often happens
with red lead primers, the material should be
discarded. It is usually desirable to premix
separately the liquid parts of multi-component
paints before adding them together. Obviously,
thorough mixing of the combined components is
necessary to produce a uniform coating material,
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343
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B b 2 7 9 4 0 0003793 T T L
FIGURE 12
Debris pounds the roller dam gate. Vinyl coating system contains
garnet to help withstand the abrasion.
Courtesy U.S.Corps of Engineers GilberUCommonwealth
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344
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(25"C)I.
Inspection procedures for enamel are somewhat special and assume critical importance in
field work. The bond test described in the AWWA
specifications establishes in one step whether the
surface preparation, primer and enamel application have all been accomplished properly. Inspection for enamel bond, thickness, penetration and
continuity are more fully described in Reference 1,
which is recommended reading if such work is in
prospect.
3. Applying vinyl resin paints
Paints composed primarily of vinyl resins are
characterized by low-solids content, high solvent
volatility and setting or curing solely by solvent
volatilization. Their relatively low surface wetting
properties dictate a high level of surface preparation, not less than a near white blast, which ideally
should not exceed a 2 mil (0.005mm) profile. For
the same reason, brushing or rolling the first coat
promotes vinyl coating bond. The rapid solvent
loss during- application
requires some adjustment
. .
of the ordinary brushing technique and also
unusual care to ensure that, in the following coats,
the spray gun is held close enough and normal to
the surface so a wet coat always is deposited.
Vinyl resin paint systems, both proprietary
and those conforming to standard specifications,
exhibit considerable differences. Some are composed entirely of vinyl resins that are adherent to
steel. In others, only the primer is adherent, and
therefore must precede the nonadherent topcoats
that can easily be stripped off if applied directly to
metal. Other variations include hardness, pigment
loadings and dry times.
In general, the minimum thickness for immersion exposures of vinyls should be about 5 mils
(0.13 mm), and one system for abrasive exposures
calls for 10-mil (0.25 mm) thickness. For effective
protection from such thin films, the specified
SSPC C H A P T E R * L S - O
93
m 8627940 0003792
FIGURE 13
Cleaning and touching up a lock-gate in upper Mississippi River.
Vinyl system is in excellent condition after 17 years service.
Courtesy U.S. Corps of Engineers and GilbertlCommonwealth
5. Other coatings
Many metal primer and topcoat paints have been
successfully field applied for so long by conventional means that they require little comment. The
water-borne coatings increasingly replacing some
atmospheric coatings present no new problems except that they should not be exposed to freezing
before they dry.
6. Applying temporary coatings
Temporary protection may be required for machined surfaces during transport and storage. For
this purpose a number of rust preventives are
available to be applied by brushing, dipping or
spraying. When the equipment is to go into service,
they are removed with solvents. Since temporary
rust preventives may contain greases and tars,
they should not be used on surfaces eventually to
be painted. Some rust preventives are available
that will accept paint.
Cast iron pipe, valves, fittings and some
machinery may be received with a soft varnish or
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938
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E. MAINTENANCE OF COATINGS
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Maintainability is a factor in the initial coating selection because all coatings require attention. The questions
are: how much, how often, by what methods and at what
direct and indirect costs? Occasionally, the total cost of
maintenance in locations such as turbine units may include the loss of revenue during outages, making actua
painting costs become negligible. Thus, indirect costs
may loom large, justifying coating that reduce maintenance to a minimum, even though at greater initial cost.
cost.
Knowing the condition of a coating obviously is the
first step in maintaining it. Its history provides some idea
as to how rapidly it is deteriorating. Adding to this, the type
of paint, age and application data such as surface
preparation enables more discriminating choices between
total replacement and maintenance procedures. Inspection of a coating after a years service is recommended. At
this time gross deficiencies iii application usually become
apparent and can be corrected. Thereafter, inspections
should be scheduled at 2- to 5-year intervals for coatings
exhibiting normal behavior, with more frequent inspections being given to problem areas.
It is important to know what to look for and what interpretation to attach to what is seen, because the evaluation
dictates the timing and types of maintenance painting.
Chapter 23 on causes and prevention of paint failure explores this subject in detail. It suffices here to note that
the condition of the steel is the primary concern. Corrosion, such as rapid pitting affecting the integrity of the
metal, should prompt early attention to remedial action.
Corrosion uniformly distributed over the surface, which
actually consumes the same quantity of metal, may be
tolerated somewhat longer.
Coating repairs should be made before deterioration
has progressed so far that costly, thorough surface
preparation and complete repainting become necessary.
Since deterioration in localized areas of a coating aged
several years usually indicates weakening of the entire
coating, it may be worthwhile to follow spot repairs with at
least one overall coat. For example, touch up repair and
application of one or two topcoats are recommended after
10 years service for Bureau of Reclamation vinyl resin
paint VR-3 in immersion exposures.
If there is poor service, and reason to believe another
type of paint andlor a better application could produce better results, it is often best to let repairs go and get all the
benefit possible before the affected surfaces are completely repainted.
IV. SPECIFICATIONS
A. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
Standard specifications are grouped according to the
exposures commonly found in hydraulic structures.
Generally, this listing does not repeat the applicable SSPC
painting systems in Volume 2 of the manual. Before selecting any specification, the user should always obtain and
read the full specifications to ensure correct use of the
material and to select the proper type, class and grade, if
any.
UNDERGROUND EXPOSURES
Cement mortar shop
applied (lining and coating)
Coal-tar enamel
Primer (Type 6)
Enamel
Fibrous glass mat
Coal-tar saturated asbestos flat,
K:aft paper
Whitewash
AWWA C 210
346
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93
UNDERWATER EXPOSURE
Cement mortar linings
Shop applied
In place
AWWA C205
AWWA C602
Coal-tar enamel
Pretreatment primer
(wash primer)
Vinyl resin
US Bureau of Reclamation
VR-3 (4 coats to 6 mils)
VR-6 (6 coats to 10 mils)
Corps of Engineers, V766 and
others
FIGURE 14
Painting gate during winter. Vinyl coatings must be applied.
Courtesy U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and
GilbertlCommonwealth
Aluminum paint
Mixing varnish (phenolic)
Aluminum paste for the above
As above
Epoxies, Urethanes,
& Polyesters
TT-V-119
A-A-341
AIR EXPOSURE
TT-P-664
TT-P-I 046
TT-P-641, Type II
Aluminum paint
Mixing varnish (regular)
Mixing varnish (phenolic)
Aluminum paste for the above
Ready mixed
TT-V-81
TT-V-119
A-A-341
TT-P-38
Machinery enamels
Alkyd (gloss)
Alkyd (semigloss)
Silicone alkyd (gloss)
Silicone alkyd (semigloss)
TT-E-489
TT-E-529
TT-R-I 593
TT-E-490
TT-P-19
Acrylic emulsion
coatings for steel
Galvanizing
ASTM Al23
B. SPECIFYING COLOR
Color serves purposes other than aesthetics, such as
pipe coding; organizations (e.g., telephone, gas, oil and
auto companies) often standardize distinctive combina
tions of colors to represent themselves. Although they may
select proprietary paints and colors at a particular time,
these later may be discontinued, or the organizations may
wish to enable several suppliers to bid on furnishing the
paints. Whatever the reason, it is often desired to specify
color with reasonable exactness according to a widely
recognized system. Several systems exist, but none has attained universal acceptance.
Federal Standard 595A offers a moderate choice of arbitrarily selected colors displayed by small chips in a
loose-leaf book, and available as 3- by 5411. coupons. The
colors are identified by 5-digit numbers, the first digit of
which denotes flat, semigloss, or gloss luster. This standard is fairly well known in the paint industry, but usually
is not used in product lines. The Munsell color system
covers the full color range and precisely describes any
desired color in terms of a numerical system representing
hue, value and chroma. The smallest possible color differences distinguished by the Munsell system are so slight
as to be almost undetectable to the naked eye. This
enables specifying color precisely and establishing limits
on the acceptability of color matches. Paint manufacturers are aware of the Munsell system, but find its cost
and complexity to be limiting factors.
34 7
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93
862791rO 0003795 b 4 7
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter:
AI Beitelman, James Foster, John Perchall and William
Wal lace.
BIOGRAPHY
Mr Jack Kiewit, who is retired,
was the Head, Materials Science
Section of the Applied Sciences
Branch in the Division of
Research, U S Bureau of Reclamation Engineering and Research
Center in Denver, Colorado He
graduated with a 6 S in Chemical
Engineering from the University of
Nebraska, after which he joined
the U.S Bureau of Reclamation in
February 1950 as a chemical engineer in the Cement Unit He
transferred in 1953 to the Paint
Investigations Unit as a materials engineer, and a coatings specialist
In 1975 he was selected as Head, Materials Science Section, responsible for Section research, quality, control, and technical assistance for
a wide variety of engineering materials for water-works structures
He is a registered professional engineer and corrosion
specialist (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) and co-author
with P S Lewis of the Third Edition Revision of U S Bureau of Reclamation Paint Manual
REFERENCES
1. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Paint Manual. US. Government
348
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SSPC CHAPTERtL6.L
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003776 583
CHAPTER 16.1
B. EASE OF APPLICATION
The coating material must be suitable and properly
applied to be effective. Many excellent pipe coatings require exacting application procedures that are difficult to
maintain. Consistent quality may be obtained with a
coating system that is least affected by variables. Coating
application specifications and good construction practices combined with proper inspection contribute to the
quality of the finished coating system.
This characteristic correlates with ease of application. No coating is perfect, and that is why cathodic protection is required. Do not buy a pipe coating that has too
many holidays (voids in coating) even before it leaves the
mill.
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= 8627740
H. RESISTANT TO DISBONDING
I. EASE OF REPAIR
Recognizing that some damage may occur and that
the weld area must be field coated, compatible field
materials are required to make repairs and complete the
coating after welding. Manufacturers recommendations
should be followed. Variables in conditions influence
selection of materials.
All nine of these characteristics (A-I) are important
when evaluating the selection of a pipe coating.
The following factors should also be considered when
selecting a pipe coating?
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Since most pipelines are eventually cathodically protected, it is necessary for the coating t o withstand
cathodic disbondment. The amount of cathodic protection
is directly proportional to the quality and integrity of the
coating. Considering interference and stray current problems, this becomes a most important requirement. Cathodic protection does two things. First, it drives water
through a coating that would ordinarily resist penetration.
It also may produce hydrogen at the metal surface where
current reaches it, and the hydrogen breaks the bond between the coating and metal surface. No coating is completely resistant to damage by cathodic protection, but it
is very important to choose a coating that minimizes these
effects. The ASTM G8 test for Cathodic Disbonding of
Pipeline Coatings, commonly known as the salt crock test,
measure a coatings resistance to damage by cathodic
protection. An intentional holiday is placed in the coating
and the sample is immersed in a 3% salt solution (1%
Sodium Carbonate, 1% Sodium Sulfate, and 1% Sodium
Chloride). Then, when a negative electrical potential is applied through the aqueous salt solution by an anode or rectifier, an electrical current flows through the solution to
the bare metal surface.
This test is run at ambient temperatures; the sample
is maintained at a constant potential; and the current drain
required to protect the sample is measured periodically.
After 30 to 90 days the sample is removed and examined
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
0003797 4 L T
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93
FIGURE 1
A good cleaning job coming out of the shot blast machine.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
2. Accessibility of Pipeline
When a pipeline is inaccessible or in a marine environment, the best system should be selected
with less emphasis on initial cost. Experience
under similar conditions for at least five years or
well-designed laboratory tests on new products
are the best criteria for coating selection.
3. Operating Temperature of Piping
Surface temperature and environmental conditions must be considered, because, once buried, a
coating experiences a wet heat condition, which
is more detrimental than dry heat and harms
coating effectiveness. A modified disbondment
test, ASTM G 8 Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline
Coatings, determines resistance to elevated
temperatures.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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93
8b27940 0003799 2 9 2
FIGURE 2
A 30-inch pipe, shot blast-cleaned, with the primer being sprayed
on.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
FIGURE 3
Pipe going through the coating machine with a rabbit to keep
the enamel off the bevels. The rabbit travels through the
machine at the same speed as the pipe.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
A pipe being holiday-detected.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
B. ASPHALT MASTIC
Asphalt-Mastic pipe coating is a dense mixture of
sand, crushed limestone, and fiber bound with a select, air-
352
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93
m 8627940 0003800
834
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 5
Thermal oxidizer for air pollution.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
FIGURE 7
Pipe exiting from extrusion process, forming a seamless coating.
Whitewash is applied to reflect sun and facilitate stockpiling.
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
C. EXTRUDED PLASTICS
AND POLYPROPYLENE
FIGURE 6
Pipe in storage at plant.
Courtesy: Irish Pipe Coating Co., Inc.
- POLYETHYLENE
353
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73
8627740 000380L 7 7 0
D. FUSION-BONDED THERMOSETTING
POWDER RESINS
FIGURE 8
Dual side extrusion, butyl adhesive followed by polyethylene.
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
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354
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FIGURE 9
Powdered epoxy resins, post-heating pipe following electrostatic
deposition.
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
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355
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93
G. WAX COATINGS
Wax coatings, in use for 48 years, are still used on a
limited basis. Microcrystalline wax coatings are usually
used with a plastic overwrap. Wax waterproofs the pipe
and the wrapper protects the wax coating from contact
with the soil and affords some mechanical protection. The
most popular use of wax coating is the over-the-ditch application with a combination machine that cleans, coats,
wraps, and lowers into the ditch in one operation. Because
there are no objectionable or toxic fumes or smoke present, this system is more acceptable than some others.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I. CONCRETE
Mortar lining and coating has the longest history of
protecting steel or wrought iron from corrosion23.When
steel is encased in concrete, a protective iron oxide film
forms. As long as the alkalinity is maintained and the concrete is impermeable to chlorides and oxygen, corrosion
protection is obtained. See AWWA C205 for a detailed
FIGURE 10
Application of continuous reinforced concrete pipe coating for
negative bouyancy and armor protection.
Courtesy: Bredero Price Co.
356
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = L 93
B. INSPECTION PROCEDURES
A. SELECTION OF APPLICATOR
C. COATINGS EVALUATION
i. Experience
Research and trial and error have gone into the
development of every coating, with close cooperation between applicator, coating manufacturer,
equipment manufacturer and customer. The transition from laboratory to production line is usually
a costly experience, which should not be ignored.
2. Reputation
This is an asset earned by consistent performance. Not only good quality work but also solving
problems and correcting mistakes help to develop
a reputation.
3. Reliability
There are many variables in the application of
coatings. A reliable work force, well maintained
equipment and consistent quality performance
are prerequisites for an applicator.
4. Conformance t o Coating Manufacturers
Specifications
The manu fact urers establis hed min i mum
specifications for application of materials should
be met.
5. Modern Automated Equipment
Capital expenditure on automated application
equipment is an important part of the success of
plastic coatings. Elimination of human errors
through automation and controls continues to be
an important factor in improved pipe coatings.
6. Quality Control
Conformance to specifications has to be checked
regularly. Knowledge of applicators quality control procedures on materials, application, and
finished product is essential in the selection of an
applicator.
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93
= 8b27940
D. SUMMARY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0003805 3 L b
APPENDIX A:
NACE RP-02-75 Application of Organic Coatings to the
External Surface of Steel Pipe for Underground Service
(Reprinted with permission)
Section 1: General
1.1 The scope and purpose of this Recommended Practice are t o set minimum acceptable requirements
for the application of organic coating materials to
pipelines for underground service.
1.2 The purpose of the coating is to prevent corrosion
of steel pipe by isolation from the surrounding environment.
1.3 This Standard describes the practices common to
the application of pipe coatings, care and handling
of materials, surface preparation, field joints, inspection for defects, repair of coating defects, and
the handling of coated pipe prior t o and during installation.
1.4 Plant application and field application are considered separately, when necessary, to account for
the capabilities of available plant and field equipment.
1.5 The selection of specific coating materials is left to
the users discretion and is therefore not considered.
1.6 Detailed instructions for applying a specific coating
are not included since these are furnished by
material suppliers.
1.7 Good technical judgment should determine the
degree to which the minimum requirements should
be exceeded in compensating for unusually severe
environments, such as river crossings, rocky or exceptionally corrosive soils, and pipe inside casings.
Section 2: Cafe and Handling of Materials
2.1 All pipe coating materials must be kept free from
contamination or damage prior to and during application. Material with limited storage life should
be examined for deterioration prior to use and
discarded or exchanged for fresh material if the
specified life is exceeded.
358
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SSPC
C H A P T E R * L b * L 93
2.2 All cartons or containers should be plainly and permanently marked with the name of the manufacturer, product identification, and batch or lot
numbers.
2.3 Primers
2.3.1
Primers are to be stored in tightly sealed
containers and only that portion required
for immediate use shall be drawn from containers.
2.3.2
Storage must be at temperatures within
manufacturers recommended range, and
exposure to extreme temperatures should
be avoided.
2.3.3
Primers are likely to be volatile and flammable and must be kept away from open
flame or other sources of ignition.
Primers must be mixed thoroughly prior to
2.3.4
use and agitated during use, if required, to
prevent settling.
2.4 Hot Applied Enamels, Mastics and Waxes
2.4.1
Materials must be stored unopened in the
original containers within temperature
ranges specified by the manufacturer.
2.4.2
Hot-applied materials must be heated
within the manufacturers recommended
temperature range to assure proper application. When required, the heating and
agitation of hot-applied materials must be
properly controlled to prevent settling of
fillers, decomposition, excessive loss of
light ends, and foaming.
2.4.3
Melting pots that have been used for other
materials must be drained and cleaned
before use.
2.4.4
Melt and transport hot-applied materials in
a manner to prevent contamination by
foreign materials.
2.5 Cold-Applied Mastics, Waxes, and Greases.
2.5.1
Materials must be stored in the original
containers. Those containing volatile
solvents must be stored in sealed containers at a temperature within the range
recommended by the manufacturer.
2.5.2
Materials containing volatile and flammable solvents must be kept away from
open flame or other sources or ignition.
2.6 Tapes and Wrappers
2.6.1
In this category are pre-formed tapes including heat applied, cold-primer applied,
pressure sensitive tapes, and overwrapping
or supporting materials, such as felt,
fiberglass, and paper.
2.6.2
Tapes and wrappers should be stored as
directed on the cartons, in a dry place, and
should remain under cover until ready for
use.
2.6.3
Tapes and wrappers should not be handled
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Section 3:
Surface Preparation
359
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4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
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360
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Leonard Choate, S.C. Frye, W. Kemp, Donald King, Dr.
Howard Lasser, Henry R. Stoner, Rupe Strobel and William J.
Wallace, Jr.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard N. Sloan, a graduate of Drexel University Evening College with a B.S. degree
in Industrial Administration, is
Vice President - Marketing ot
Ameron Price, Fontana, California. He is an active member
of NACE and AWWA Societies.
Sloan has been employed by
H.C. Price Company for twentyeight years after starting as a
Clerk in 1952. He has held positions as Office Manager, Sales;
Sales Manager; Assistant Regional Manager; and Regional Manager at their Pennsylvania pipe
coating plant prior to transfer t o Bartlesville, Oklahoma, as
Marketing Manager.
361
BIOGRAPHY
A W Peabody worked as a
Consulting Engineer in Corrosion
Control Until 1980, he was the
Director of Corrosion Engineering
for EBASCO Services, Inc in New
York and Houston, where he was
involved with assignments related
to electric utilities, underground
pipelines, industrial plants, and
marine facilities For EBASCO he
also served as Supervising Corrosion Engineer and Principal Corrosion Engineer He was a ;
!
member of the State DeDartment
Cultural Exchange Delegation on Corrosion to the Soviet Union in 1962
and recipient of the Frank Newman Speller Award in Corrosion Engineering by the National Association of Corrosion Engineers in 1979. He was
recipient of the Col. G. C. Cox Outstanding Award in 1979. He has published numerous articles on corrosion, and a book on pipeline corrosion
control.
Mr. Peabody graduated from the University of Maine in Electrical
Engineering, and did graduate study at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute. He is a registered professional engineer, and a Life Member of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), and of
the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. He was elected a
fellow of NACE in 1993.
REFERENCES
1. Norman Peifer and Frank Costanzo, Protection of Pipelines
and Other Underground Structures. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Vol. 1, Chapter 3, pps. 323-349, 1954.
2. Industrial Writing, Inc., Coal Tar Enamel Leads in Pipeline
Coatings. Pipeline Digest, p. 9, March 16, 1981.
3. A.W. Peabody, Coatings. Control of Pipeline Corrosion,
Chapter 3, pps. 9-18, 1954.
4. National Association of Corrosion Engineers Standard,
NACB RP-01-69, Recommended practice - Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic
Piping Systems. Sections 5.1.2.1 and 5.1.2.2, p. 5, 1969.
5. S. Boysen, Jr., Coating Fundamentals. NACE 19th Annual
Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May 1974.
6. NACE RP-01, p. 5, 1969.
7. Jack T. Kiuchi, Plastics for the Protection of Underground
Pipe. Purdue University 6th Annual Underground Corrosion
Course, March 1, 1967.
8. O.W. Wade, and J.F. Gosse, A Study of Test Methods for External Coatings for Underground Pipelines. American Gas
Association Distribution Conference, 1966.
9. Dean M. Berger, Selecting Coatings for Underground Steel
Pipe. Plant Engineering, p. 105, September 30, 1976.
10. R.W. Horner, Extruded Plastics. NACE 18th Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, May, 1973.
11. Kiuchi, Plastics for the Protection of Underground Pipe.
12. K. Channing Verbech, Protective Coatings. New England
Gas Association, June 19, 1969.
13. R.N. Sloan, Present Trends in Coatings to Protect Pipe Type
Cable in the Utilities Industry. Materiais Performance, 18,
NO. 7. PPS. 27-30, July, 1979.
14. R.N. Sloan, Asphalt Mastic Coatings. NACE 15th Annual
Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, 1970.
15. N. Schmitz-Pranghe, Mannesmanns Approach to Extruded
PE Mill Coating. Pipe Line Industry, p. 40, March, 1976.
16. R.N. Sloan, Extruded Plastic Pipeline Coatings. NACE
Southeast Regional Engineering Conference, October 21-24,
1979.
17. John D. Keane, Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., and Raymond E.F.
Weaver, Surface Profile for Anti-Corrosion Paints. Steel
Structures Painting Council Report, 165 pps., October 25,
1976.
18. Richard W. Drisko, Introduction to Protective Coatings.
Western States Corrosion Seminar, California State
Polytechnic University, Session No. 6, Paper No. 7, May 6-7-8,
1980.
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S S P C CHAPTERtL6.L
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= 8627940 0003809
19. Linden Stuart, Modern Pipe Coating Techniques and Equipment in the Mill and Field. NACE Corrosionl78, Paper No. 65,
1978.
20. Emil Senkowski, Materials Specifications and Evaluation.
NACE 15th Annual Liberty Bell Corrosion Course, 1977.
21. Peifer and Costanzo, pp. 323-349.
22. Prilo-K Bredero, Polyurethane Foam Insulation Bulletin.
Mfg. Literature, Bredero-Price, Inc.
23. John G. Hendrickson, Internal and External Concrete
Coatings for Corrosion Control. NACE 15th Annual Appalachian Underground Corrosion Short Course, p. 358, 1970.
24. Anonymous, Steel Fibers Toughen Coating for Offshore
Pipelines. Pipeline and Gas Journal, Staff Report, May 1975.
25. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specification TS-15057, Coal Tar Coating Systems for Steel
Surfaces, April, 1974.
26. Naval Facilities Engineering Command, NAVFAC Specification TS-09809, Protection of Buried Steel Piping and Steel
Bulkhead Tie Rods, September, 1975.
27. Verbech, Protective Coatings.
28. Wade and Gosse, A Study of Test Methods for External
Coatings for Underground Pipelines.
29. Emil Senkowski, Standard Laboratory Tests for Pipeline
Coatings. Materials Performance, Vol. 18, No. 8, pps. 23-28,
August, 1979.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
362
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TbL
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b = 2 93
CHAPTER 16.2
CATHODIC PROTECTION
by
A.W. Peabody
I. INTRODUCTION
Since Volume 1 of the SSPC Manual was first published, general knowledge of cathodic protection and
its practical application have increased greatly. Its importance can be seen in the federal regulation that all new
construction for hazardous pipelines must include the use
of effective coatings and cathodic protection.
Because a comprehensive discussion of cathodic protection would be voluminous, this chapter presents only a
general introductory account. Other sources provide more
specific treatment',*.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
363
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SSPC CHAPTER*16.2
93
8627740 0 0 0 3 8 1 1 bLT
3) Coating stability.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Anodic Areas
(Pipe
Corrosion Current
(Represented by Arrows)
FIGURE 1
Typical Components of Pipeline Corrosion Cell.
364
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SSPC CHAPTER*Lb-2 73
( U eCurrent
t u r n - Through
Flow
~~
Pipeline t o Source
of Direct Current
Anodic
Previously
Are as
Source of
Dirac t
Current
Connection
7e r mGround
c d Ground B e d )
LAuxiliar
(8Udy
FIGURE 2
Basic Concept of Cathodic Protection.
Arrows Designate
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3
Current Flow Pattern at Cathodically Protected Pipe.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
365
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b - 2 93
___)
D i r e c t Current V o h n e t e r W i t h
/W9h
internal Resistance
FIGURE 4
Measurement of Pipeline Protective Potential.
tends to be a neutral zone where there is the least net concentration of cathodic protection current flow between the
electrode and the pipe surface. When working with submerged pipelines, suitable submersion electrodes may be
lowered to a position just above the pipeline.
Potentials on steel pipe which are less negative than
- 0.85 volt to copper-copper sulphate electrode indicate
less than full cathodic protection. On the other hand, potentials more negative than -0.85 volt to copper-copper
sulphate electrode indicate wasted energy - since once
corrosion is stopped at -0.85 volt, there is no real need to
carry more negative potentials at a given point as far as corrosion control at that point is concerned. In actual practice,
however, it is usually necessary to maintain more negative
potentials at drainage points of cathodic protection current along a pipeline in order to maintain the minimum of
- 0.85 volt at locations remote from the drainage points.
This is primarily a result of attenuation - voltage drops
caused by cathodic protection current on the pipeline flowing through the longitudinal resistance of the pipeline
steel in order to return to the drainage point. In this
respect, large diameter coated lines are much easier to
protect cathodically than are small diameter coated pipes
because the larger cross sectional steel area in a large
pipe means lower longitudinal electrical resistance with
resulting lower attenuation.
Where there are more negative than necessary
cathodic protection potentials on coated pipelines,
gaseous hydrogen is generated at coating defects in the
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Electrical
Test Station
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003833 492
366
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8627940 0003814 3 2 9 W
4)
367
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERr16.2 93
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.2
8 rade 1
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 00038L5 2 6 5
--
Porous Container
(Pa kage) Contoi n ing
Chemical B a c k f i l l
FIGURE 5
Cathodic Protection Using Galvanic Anodes.
1. Engine generators
Internal combustion engines or turbines (usually
fueled from the protected pipeline) powering a d-c
generator of appropriate size or an a-c alternate
feeding a conventional a-c to d-c rectifier.
TABLE 1
GALVANIC ANODE MATERIAL ALLOWANCE
PER AMP-YEAR
Anode
Material
Zinc
Magnesium
Aluminum (in
sea water)
2. Thermal-electric generators
Generators directly converting heat (from
DiDeline-fueled flame) to d-c electricitv.
30.8
20.6
8.5
4. Wind-powered generators
Windmills drive d-c generators. Storage batteries
are required to provide steady output current
through periods of little or no wind.
Using figures such as these (which are based on typical efficiencies and replacement of anodes after they are 85%
consumed), the designer can, by straight proportion, determine the minimum amount of anode material for any given
amount of average current discharge and for any given
planned installation life.
5. Fuel cells
Devices which depend on the combining of
gaseous fuel materials to produce d-c electricity.
Flame is not involved.
3. Solar-powered generators
Using sunlight in a direct conversion process for
generation of d-c electricity. Requires storage batteries to provide steady current output through
dim and dark periods.
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8b279'iO
- Fe,O,)
d) Platinized metals
e) Steel
Of these, the first three are consumed at rates ranging
from a fraction of a pound to around two pounds per
ampere per year depending on material used, current
discharge density, and the nature of the environment.
Platinized metals are used in special applications
where the cost is justified. Platinum corrodes at an extremely low rate. For ground bed use, it is normally plated
in a thin layer on a substrate such as titanium or columbium. Because these materials resist the discharge of current once the platinum plating is consumed, the substrate
material is not severed by local corrosion.
Steel corrodes at a rate of about 20 pounds per
ampere per year but can be useful in some applications
because it generates less gas at the anode surface than
the other materials.
Where a backfill can be used around the impressed
current anodes, carbonaceous materials (coal coke,
calcined petroleum coke, crushed man-made graphite, or
natural graphite flakes) can extend anode life even further.
Much of the anode current is carried to the backfill through
direct contact. Actual material consumption, then, tends
to be concentrated in the outer layers of the carbonaceous
backfill where the discharge to surrounding earth occurs.
00038Lb L T L B
(Coated
Pipeline
Current
Source o f Direct
Current Power
Such as:
A-C t o D-C Rectifiers
Eorth From
Ground Bed
t o Pipeline
Engine - Generators
Thermul- Electric
G encra tors
Solar Powered
Generators
Current is forced
Wind - Powered
Generators
.Fuel Cells
FIGURE 6
Basic Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System.
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9) Availability of commercial electric power for impressed current cathodic protection installations.
10) Evaluation of suitability of other impressed current power sources i f commercial power is not
available.
11) General data on soil resistivity distribution along
the pipeline section - high, low and average
figures.
15) Pipeline route features which may affect the construction of a cathodic protection system - difficult terrain, weather problems, access restricted
by land owners, possible crop damage, etc.
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a protected potential of -0.90 volt to coppercopper sulphate electrode and the usual galvanic
anode materials would be approximately:
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb=Z 73
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 00038L8 T 7 4
these, item (1) is not controllable but can be determined by electrical measurements in the field.
Items (2) and (3) are controllable and subject to
design.
Knowing the soil resistivity at the galvanic
anode site and the physical dimensions of the
anodes being used, the resistance to earth of
various numbers of anodes connected in parallel
can be determined using design curves or procedures set forth in other source material. The
designer can select the appropriate number and
size of anodes to create the desired circuit.
There are definite limits to the amount of current that can be obtained from a galvanic anode
location. If, for example, the resistance to earth of
a coated pipe or structure was found to be 5 ohms
at a given installation site, the maximum current
which could be obtained using galvanic anodes
(assuming a driving potential of 0.9 volt) would be
less than 180 milliamps no matter how low the
soil resistivity or how many anodes are used. It is
quite probable, however, that this much current
would not be needed to gain an adequate level of
protect ion.
5. Anode Shape
A long, slender anode permits a lower resistance
to earth in a given environment resistivity than
does a short thick anode shape. This fact can
be used to advantage when designing anode installations for placement in high soil resistivity
locations.
6. Stray Current Effects
Stray current effects (see Section J) on a pipe or
structure must be evaluated to determine if pipeto-earth potentials vary so much (as a result of the
stray current effects) that adequate protective
potentials cannot be maintained using galvanic
anodes. This is normally done with recording instruments which permit a permanent record of all
variations occurring during the observation
period.
7. Meteorological Data
The effect of weather can be significant. For example, if galvanic anodes are installed in soils
subject to extreme dryness during parts of the
year, the circuit resistance will go up as the soil
dries, and anode current output may drop below
the minimum necessary to maintain cathodic protection on the pipe or other structure. Or another
example: if anodes are installed in an area where
the earth surrounding the anodes will freeze during the winter season, the high resistivity of the
frozen earth can likewise cause anode current
output to drop to ineffective levels.
8. Hot Spot Protection
Galvanic anodes are widely used for protecting
small actively corroding areas, particularly on
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S S P C CHAPTER*Lb=2 93
SSPC CHAPTER*Lb.Z
93
designing the ground bed to be used with the impressed current system. More anode and backfill
materials are usually needed for the longer-lived
installations.
5. Soil Resistivity
Having detailed data on soil resistivity makes it
possible to design a ground bed with the proper
resistance. When considered with the remainder
of the circuit resistance external to the current
source, the ground bed resistance should form a
reasonable match with the rating of the impressed current source to be used.
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6. Power Requirement
Where a-c to d-c rectifiers fed by commercial
power lines are used, the power requirement is
not necessarily a controlling factor. For the larger
installations, however, it becomes increasingly
important to use rectifiers with the highest practicable efficiency can reduce power costs. This
may involve using three-phase rectifiers rather
than single-phase units, preparing the overall
design so that the rectifier used will be operating
at the peak of its efficiency curve, and using
filters in the rectifier output circuit.
On the other hand, small rectifier installations may not require enough a-c power to come
up to the minimum monthly bill at certain locations. In this event, highly efficient equipment will
not reduce costs.
Where commercial power lines are not
available to supply rectifiers, the selection of an
alternate current source can be affected by the
amount of output power required. For the larger
power needs, engine-alternator-rectifier units may
be the best choice, while the use of thermal, solar
and wind generators or fuel cells will usually be
restricted to smaller direct current output requirements. The actual selection should be based
on a study of economics, maintenance needs,
reliability, and other factors.
7. Maintenance
Maintenance requirements for impressed current
systems can be costly. Impressed current installations must be inspected at prescribed maximum
intervals on federally regulated pipelines. Does
this create a physical hardship at some locations? How about the operating reliability of the
direct current power source selected; is it apt to
require frequent visits by a repair team or to involve expensive component replacement?
Depending on the specific application, such questions may have a direct bearing on the type of impressed current selected or may result in the
use of a galvanic anode system that can be more
expensive to install but more economical over the
life of the installation.
8. Life
The desired life of an impressed current installation will be a prime factor considered when
9. Stray Current
Variations caused by stray current in pipe- or
structure-to-earthpotentials may result in the loss
of full cathodic protection from an impressed current system. Where higher variations are involved,
creating problems, automatic potential-controlled
or automatic constant-current rectifiers may be
used. These are more expensive than the conventional, manually controlled units but have much
greater compensating capabilities. In more severe
instances of stray current effect, specific stray
current compensating measures (such as reverse
current switches in drainage bonds, for example)
may be needed in addition to the cathodic protection system.
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S S P C CHAPTER*Lb-2 93 W 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 8 2 0 622 W
The most prevalent sources of this type of stray current are cathodic protection systems on structures other
than the one which the corrosion engineer is trying to protect. This can be a particular problem, for example, on
pipelines in areas where they are closely paralleled by
other systems or where cathodic protection impressed current power sources on lines of other ownership (foreign
lines) are close to the pipeline at points of crossing. The
problem (normally termed interference) is usually confined to relatively small areas which are fixed as to location and can be readily identified by field test.
CY.
X. STRAY CURRENTS
The term stray current is an all-inclusive expression
used to cover a variety of situations that result in the
presence of direct current flowing in the earth. Where,
such current is free to enter an underground steel structure (particularly pipelines), follow it for a distance, and
then discharge to earth in order to continue its journey,
corrosion can occur at the point of current discharge. In
severe cases, the corrosion rate can be catastrophic.
Knowledge of any stray current conditions affecting a
pipeline or other steel structure is essential for the
designer of a cathodic protection system, especially
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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A. STEADY-STATE MAN-MADE
STRAY CURRENT
SSPC
C H A P T E R x L b - 2 93
D. CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Steady-state, man-made stray current can normally be
handled by (1) placing cable bonds between the structures
involved so that the stray current will harmlessly discharge
through the metallic path rather than discharge to earth
with resulting corrosion, by (2) installing galvanic anodes
at established points of discharge, or by (3) coating bare
pipe (or upgrading the coating on older poorly coated pipe)
to reduce the amount of interference current interchange
to the point that normal cathodic protection will handle it.
If, however, there are situations where one operators
pipeline passes close to an impressed current cathodic
protection ground bed on another operators system, the
interfering stray current may be of such magnitude that
none of the corrective measures cited above can be applied economically. Adequate correction may then require
deactivating or moving the installation causing the stray
current.
Where interference stray current conditions exist between adjacent structures (primarily pipelines), they are
best solved by cooperative tests made by corrosion
engineering representatives of the two operators so that
mutually acceptable corrective procedures can be worked
out. In the underground pipelining industry, there is a network of electrolysis committees which are industrysponsored groups of people dealing with corrosion that
help to recognize and solve problems of stray current interference in their designated area. A list of electrolysis
committees currently active can be obtained by writing to
NACE, P.O. Box 21830, Houston, Texas 77218.
In areas where continuously variable, man-made stray
current is a problem, developing corrective measures can
be difficult and involved. Where intense and damaging current discharge exists, sophisticated field tests are required to locate points of maximum current discharge and
to determine the source of the stray current where it is not
obvious.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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~-
SSPC C H A P T E R U L b - 2 9 3
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A b 2 7 9 4 0 0003822 4T5
SSPC C H A P T E R * L b * 2 93
3. Inspection at nominal monthly intervals where impressed current equipment is used for stray current control of a critical nature.
If the potential measurements of item 2 reveal that full
protection has been lost, the reason(s) for such loss
should be determined at once. Typical reasons include the
following:
1. Contacts with other structures as listed under
galvanic anodes.
2. Breakage of underground wiring (at test points,
crossbonds, etc.) as a result of construction activity or other reasons. Underground wiring
associated with impressed current ground beds is
subject t o corrosion damage as described in Section t. Such damage, when it results in cable
failure prior t o the end of ground bed life, will normally be apparent from data logged during
periodic power source inspections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
A portrait and biographical sketch of A.W. Peabody appears
REFERENCES
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Reduction in current output of the impressed current power source. This can be either problems in
the power source itself or increased ground bed
resistance as the ground bed anodes approach
the end of their design life (apart from ground bed
cable breaks which are repairable).
The principles of good maintenance practice as
described for galvanic anode installations apply to impressed current installations as well.
376
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CHAPTER 17
William
F. Chandler
A. CHOICE OF MATERIALS
The objective in choosing materials is simply to find
for each type of substrate and exposure the paint coatings
system that is most efficient in terms of dollars per square
foot per year. While the objective is simple, accomplishing
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and solving problems. Often, the client on a new construction project instructs his design engineer to work with a
preselected coating material supplier. Most engineers appreciate that such instruction expedites and smooths out
the work.
C. GOOD SPECIFICATIONS
The bid package for contract painting on new construction or maintenance is a vital communications link.
Information shall include the following:
a
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
D. PRE-JOB CONFERENCE
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E. JOB STANDARD
In addition to the pre-job conference, the following or
a similar statement regarding job standards is excellent insurance against misunderstandings, controversy or requests for extras: before starting any work, the painting
contractor, at the direction of the project manager and
under supervision of a technical representative of the
material supplier, will apply the specified materials on
sample test surfaces to establish the minimum acceptable
standard of quality for the project.
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SSPC CHAPTER*27-2 9 3
CHAPTER 17.1
I. SPECIFICATION
Putting together a good protective coating job in large
and complex water treatment and water pollution control
plants is not easy. It certainly is not a one-man operation.
A good protective coating requires teamwork. The
engineer, applicator, coatings manufacturer and inspector
must cooperate. Working together, they can produce maximum benefits, long term protection, pleasing appearance
379
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FIGURE 1
Bio-disc filter. Primed with high-build epoxy, topcoated with tan
epoxy gloss finish. Steel surface preparation SSPC-SP 10, Near
White Blast.
380
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SSPC CHAPTER*17=1 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003828 913
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IV. NON-SUBMERGED
- SEVERE EXPOSURE
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S S P C C H A P T E R * L 7 * L 73
86279qO 0003827 8 5 T
coatings can, however, present weather-related application problems. If applied below 50F they do not coalesce
properly and film integrity is weakened. This can be a
serious shortcoming in new construction because painting
cannot always be carried out under ideal conditions.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . L
73
8627740 0003830 5 7 1
FIGURE 4
In the foreground coated steel shows typical coal tar epoxy blush. Concrete channels coated with two coats of coal tar epoxy. Handrails
and bridges have epoxy gloss finish.
Courtesy: Ervin Industries, Inc.
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7.L
Water
Dissolved Oxygen
Hydrogen Sulfide present
Carbon Dioxide present
Oils, greases & soaps
f. Floating matter
g. Chlorine
h. Alum present
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
Yes
Yes
No
Not generally
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Occasionally (at water level)
Small amount in raw sewage
Usually
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
STEEL
CONCRETE
Oils, greases and soaps in wastewater coat the surface below the waterline, preventing easy passage of oxygen and acids, and offer some protection toconcrete. Most
destruction of concrete and damage to coating systems in
process tanks is at the waterline. It is here that the coating
system is subject to damaging cyclic effects: hotlcold,
weffdry, freezelthaw and sunlight, in addition to the
abrasive effects of floating matter, all of which contribute
to the destruction of the concrete and the coating system.
Thus, some engineers specify a protective coating
Yes
No
Not Often
Not Often
Not Often
Not Often
Yes
Yes
Yes
Not Often
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
STEEL
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SSPC
CHAPTER*L7-L 93
3. Outside Sunlight 81
Weather Exposure
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
Yes
No
Sometimes enough
to discolor.
Small amount
Occasionally
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, sufficient to discolor
certain coatings.
Sometimes enough to discolor
certain coatings.
Yes
Occasionally
Yes
Yes
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast, SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean
Coating Systems i
3 Dry Film Thickness
Steel: Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3 coat
systems
Polyurethanes for maximum gloss & color retention, 5-6 mils,
3-coat systems
Concrete: Vinyls, latex emulsions, chlorinated rubber, 5-6 mils, 3-coat
systems
cient to affect coating integrity.
Areas to be coated in this service condition are exterior plant structures, piping, valves, motors, pumps,
doors, sash, handrails, ramps and fences.
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Water Plant
Wastewater Plant
a Moisture
b. Oxygen
c. Hydrogen Sulfide present
Very little
Yes
No
Very little
Very little
Yes
Often enough to discolor
certain coatings.
Very little
STEEL
Surface Preparation: SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast; SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 2
Hand Tool Clean, SSPC-SP 1 Solvent Clean.
Coating System & Dry Film Thickness
Alkyds, acrylic emulsions, dry film thickness 4-5 mils, 3-coat system
CONCRETE FLOORS
CONCRETE, MASONRY
WOOD
Oil, alkyds, latex emulsions, two finish coats over wood primer.
FIGURE 5
Floating digester roof cover coated with Vinyl System for gloss
and color retention. Underside coated with two coat, high build
epoxy.
SSPC C H A P T E R W L L
93
B. GALVANIZED SURFACES
A. CONCRETE
Concrete should be permitted to age at least 28 days
under good conditions prior to applying a coating system.
Paintable curing compounds may be used to permit
coating in seven days. To prepare masonry and concrete
for painting, the same caution should be exercised for the
complete removal of all surface contaminants. Sweep
abrasive blasting is the most effective method of surface
preparation. There should be no evidence of laitance on
the concrete surfaces before coating, and all soft or loosely bound surfaces should be cleaned down to a hard
substrate, preferably by abrasive blasting.
Catalyzed epoxy and coal tar epoxy coatings provide
excellent adhesion t o concrete surfaces; vinyl and
chlorinated rubber coatings are also used. In construction
of water and wastewater treatment plants, it is not uncommon to apply a high build epoxy or coal tar epoxy system
C. ALUMINUM
All surfaces must be free of all oil, dirt, grease
and other foreign matter. After cleaning, painting may
be carried out with the coating system that is appropriate
for the service condition to which the aluminum will be
exposed. Vinyl wash primers and acrylic latex metal
primers make excellent primers for aluminum surfaces.
D. WOOD SURFACES
Wood surfaces are not very common in water and
wastewater treatment plants, but they should be
thoroughly cleaned and free of all oil, grease, dirt and
other foreign matter. All cracks, nail holes and other surface defects should be properly filled and sanded to a
smooth finish. All sanding dust must be wiped away
before painting.
Canvas insulation covering should be cleaned free of
dirt, dust and other foreign matter, then primed with two
coats of a high solids latex primer-sealer.
VIII. APPLICATION
Coatings must be applied in accordance with the
engineers detailed specifications and the approved con-
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SSPC CHAPTERmL7.L
93
coats within a maximum time interval to develop proper intercoat adhesion, for example, the coal tar epoxy discussed earlier. Temperature and humidity limitations must
be followed. Many catalyzed coatings do not cure properly
below 50F (10C) or above 85% relative humidity. Water
reducible coatings also have temperature limitations;
usually a minimum of 50F (10C) is specified. Coatings
should not be applied when temperature is below the dew
point. With the exception of very fast dry coatings, such as
vinyls, coatings should not be applied i f a 20 F (11 Co)
drop in temperature is anticipated within four to six hours
after painting.
Painting in confined spaces having inadequate ventilation such as a tank interior or below ground chambers can
have an adverse effect on both safety of the workers and
film formation and integrity of the coating. Solvent fumes
are heavier than air and collect at the bottom of a tank. A
solvent vapor layer retards curing of the coating. Solvents
trapped in the coating can seriously affect the usefulness
of the coating by causing pinholing and blisters which
create avenues for water and other corrosives to reach the
substrate. Fumes must be removed, either by blowing
through bottom openings or exhausting through the top by
means of air ducts extending to the bottom. The safety
aspect is a most important consideration of the applica
tion procedures. Appropriate measures should be taken to
prevent the confinement of explosive solvent vapor-air mixtures. Explosion-proof lights and nonsparking tools and
equipment should be used to provide added safety. OSHA
Material Safety Data Sheets are available from coating
suppliers. The information should be kept on file at the job
site first aid section or in the paint superintendents
office.6 Tank painting is discussed in greater detail in
another chapter of this volume.
IX. INSPECTION
Inspection is the means by which the corrosion or
project engineer reinforces instructions detailed in the
specif cations.
Thorough and adequate inspection of a treatment
plant should be an ongoing process - and the inspector
should be representing the design engineer and the owner.
The owner or engineer should have a competent inspector
on the job. Some engineering firms have their own inspection crews or specialists.
The engineer should require the general contractor to
arrange a pre-job conference involving the engineer, painting contractor, coating supplier and general contractor. At
this meeting, the involved parties can go over the
specifications and definitions to make certain everyone
understands what is expected. Inspection is discussed in
greater detail in another section of this volume.
X. CONCLUSION
For the modern treatment plant to be adequately and
properly protected and decorated with a protective coating
system, provisions must be made for a well written paint--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7-L 93
8627940 O003836 T 7 T
plied expertly over a thoroughly cleaned and prepared surface that receives regular and careful inspection. This requires the cooperative efforts o f all parties: owner,
engineer, general contractor, coatings supplier and equipment manufacturer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Wally Cathcart, Bill Chandler, S. Frye, Dan Gelfer,
Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, I. Metil, Chuck Munger, J.
OConnor, W.S. Rosenthal, Henry Stoner, Bill Wallace, Tom
Wilhelm.
BIOGRAPHY
Thomas Delany retired from
the Valspar Corporation in 1993
after twenty years of service,
most recently as Industry
Manager for both the water and
waste industry and the power industry. Mr. Delany had been active in the coatings industry for
46 years in sales, technical service, sales training and sales
management. Mr. Delany is a
graduate of the Wharton School
of the Universitv of Pennsvlvania. He is a m6mber of the Steel Structures Painting Council, the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers, American Water Works
Association, and the Water Environment Federation.
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REFERENCES
1. Steel Structures Painting Manual, Volume 2, Systems and
Specifications, John D. Keane ed. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
2. Surface Preparation Specifications. Steel Structures Painting
Council, 4516 Henry Street, Suite 301, Pittsburgh, PA
15213-3728, 1991.
3. M.A. Vivona, and T.P. Delany, A Simplified Guide for Selecting and Using Protective Coatings in Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, Presente% at the New England Water Pollution
Control Association Meeting, October 24, 1979 (Portland, ME).
4. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, Selection and Use of Protective
Coatings in Water and Wastewater Treatment Facilities,
Wafer and Sewage Works, June, 1980.
5. M.A. Vivona and T.P. Delany, The Role of Protective Coatings
in Water Treatmbnt Plants and Storage Tanks, Presented at
the New York Section of the American Water Works Association Meeting, April 23, 1980 (Binghamton, NY).
6. D.M. Berger, Liquid Applied Linings for Steel Tanks,
Chemical Engineering, Dec. 22, 1975 and Jan. 19, 1976.
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CHAPTER 17.2
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I. SURFACE PREPARATION
For steel subject to severe corrosion where maximum
paint life is desired, abrasive blasting, according to SSPCSP 10, Near White Blast Cleaning, is the minimum cleaning
required.
In mildly corrosive areas, steel surfaces can be
prepared according to SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool Cleaning.
Better paint system service life results if abrasive blast
cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Cleaning, is specified.
In noncorrosive or dry interior areas, steel surfaces
can be prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 3, Power Tool
Cleaning.
II. PAINTS
and the vehicleare the two main
tuents of most paint compositions.
A. PRIMER PAINTS
The pigment should be rust inhibitive and can be zincrich, basic lead silico chromate, zinc chromate, iron oxide,
zinc dust, borates, phosphides or phosphates or aluminum
complexes. Such pigments have a sacrificial, inhibiting or
passivating effect on steel surfaces so rusting is retarded.
For power-tool-cleanedsurfaces, SSPC-SP3, the paint
vehicle should be able to wet the steel surface for maximum penetration. After drying, the vehicle should be
relatively impermeable to moisture and compatible with
the finish paint. Long oil alkyd, certain vinyl copolymers
and certain catalyzed epoxy vehicles provide good results
over power-tool-cleaned surfaces. Primers specified in
Volume 2, Systems & Specifications of the SSPC Painting Manual, have been used successfully. They are the
result of extensive testing; however, many proprietary formulations have also been evaluated and may provide equal
or superior performance. Careful choice must be made to
select the appropriate primer. SSPC-Paint 11 (zinc
chromate primer) has been used for both initial and
maintenance priming with good results. Be aware of limitations of the vehicle in the plant surroundings when selecting a primer. Relative resistance of some vehicles is shown
in Table 1.
Priming galvanized steel can be difficult. One system
is to reprime degreased zinc-coated steel with a vinyl
butyral wash primer conforming to DOD-P-15328and then
apply an appropriate coating. This eliminates premature
peeling and failure of paints on galvanized surfaces. Other
systems are described in the section on roofs.
In non-acid corrosive areas, where a corrosionresistant topcoat is required, inorganic zinc-rich coatings
conforming to SSPC-PS Guide 12.00 are recommended.
Abrasive blast cleaning to minimum SSPC-SP 10 is
required.
B. FINISH PAINTS
Finish paints should provide good appearance, impermeability to moisture, primer protection, and
recoatabiIity.
Federal Specification TT-E-489 and SSPC specifications for alkyd finish paints, including aluminum paint,
should be the minimum quality for alkyd, general weathering finish paints. They can be used only in mildly corrosive
areas. In severely corrosive areas, epoxy polyamide, epoxy
390
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 2
93
Table 1
Resistance To Environment
Vehicle
Weathering
Salt
Water
Acid
Caustic
Solvent
Excellent
Fair
Good
Poor
Fair
Fair
Epoxy Ester
Very Good
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Good
Vinyl Copolymer
Very Good
Excellent
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Inorganic Silicate
Excellent
Very Good
(Use topcoat)
Very Good
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Fair
inch and heavier films can be built. Coal tar mastics are
usually applled at dry film thicknesses of 0.04 inch to 0.1
inch, and usually are not effectlve In heavier films.
Heavier coal tar mastics have a tendency to crack or
alligator when exposed to direct sunlight. In such cases,
the coal tar mastic should be coated with a coal tar emulsion.
Blast cleaning should be the method of surface
preparation for application of mastics. If blasting is not
feasible, another method of surface preparation can be
used, but the coating performance may be inferior.
It is common to apply primer before application of
asphalt mastics. A fast-dry primer can be used if the surface is blasted. The primer should be dry before applying
asphalt mastic. Coal tar mastics soften and destroy the
bond of conventional primers to the steel surface, so
primers are not used under coal tar mastics. There are,
however, coal tar primers available if a primer is
necessary.
C. MASTICS
Bituminous coatings such as coal tar and asphalt
mastics have traditionally proved effective in protecting
steel against severe corrosion. Protection is afforded by
thickness and inertness to corrosive attack. Asphalt
mastics are applied at a minimum dry film thickness of 118
A. BLAST FURNACES
Repainting before the coating fails is difficult for
blast furnaces, since they cannot be painted while in
operation. Painting can be done only when the blast furnace ls down for relining, whlch may occur between four
and six years after the previous reline (Figure 1). After such
a service period, complete abrasive blast cleaning is usually necessary. The blast furnace stack, top, uptake, stove
bodies, gas mains, skip hoist and dust catcher are coated
with two coats of silicone acrylic. Temperatures of the
stove tops and downcomer can exceed 400F (204C).
They should have the surfaces prepared to SSPC-SP 6,
Commercial Blast Cleaning, be primed with an inorganic
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391
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 2
Hot stacks require high temperature coatings carefully applied in
accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
FIGURE 3
Precoated corrugated siding shown on a coke battery pre-heat
tower.
392
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L ? . 2
C. HOTSTACKS
Hot stacks present an interesting painting problem.
Stacks can be divided into two classes: those with stack
temperatures from 450F (232C) to 900F (482C) and
those with stack temperatures below 450F (232C).
Temperatures refer to exterior steel surfaces and not to
gases inside the stacks (Figure 2).
Stacks should be cleaned and painted when out of
service. Surface preparation should be abrasive blast
cleaning, in accordance with the coating manufacturers
recommendations. Two coats of heat resistant paint are
usually applied. One coat can be applied to low
temperature stacks, i f recommended by the manufacturer.
If a top coat is desired with inorganic zinc-rich coatings, it
can generally be applied the day following application of
the primer.
Stacks with temperatures below 450F (232C) may
be painted with heat resistant oleo-resinous or silicone
paints, or with inorganic zinc-rich coatings.
Two coats of aluminum-pigmented silicone resin give
excellent protection at stack temperatures between 450F
(232 OC) and 900 OF (482 OC).
Premature coating failure of hot stacks should be investigated before repainting. Vibration and stress in
stacks are major causes of premature coating failures.
Poor surface preparation and failure to follow manufacturers application directions also cause failures.
andlor asphalt-modified polyurethane elastomeric coatings have been used for recoating weathered, built-up
roofing.
Stainless steel and 12% chromium steel sheets have
also been used for roofing and siding on mill buildings.
Practically no maintenance Is required, and generally they
are not painted if used in mildly corrosive areas. However,
if stainless steel sheets are installed in highly corrosive
areas, such as those involving hlgh chloride or sulphate
concentrations, painting extends service life.
D. ROOFS
E. SIDING
FIGURE 4
The attractive appearance of this major mill motor is evidence of
the meticulous maintenance that it receives.
F. OUTSIDE EQUIPMENT
The coating and surface preparation for painting outside equipment, such as tanks, towers, condensers,
coolers, piping, etc., may depend on the time allowed for
outside service and the environment. Alkyd resin paints
with hand tool cleaning are often used in non-corrosive
areas. In corrosive areas, the type of coating systems used
in coke oven plants should be specified.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*37=2 9 3
A. INTERIOR OF BUILDINGS
V. TANKS
A. SAFETY COLORS
The use of safety color paints is a requirement in
maintenance painting and is a part of plant safety programs. Where hazards exist, the American National Standards Institute safety colors must be applied.
Pipelines must be at least circumferentially striped to
denote the material being carried. Care must be taken to
prevent abuse of the use of safety colors. It is advisable
that the plant Safety Department be involved in the selection and the application of safety colors.
VI. RECORDS
Written records are the best way to collect information on paint system performance. Records should include:
what was painted
date of painting
surface preparation
quantity, type of paint and manufacturer
application equipment
FIGURE 5
Visibility is the most important function of the coating system on
this yellow coil carrier.
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394
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SSPC C H A P T E R + L 7 . 2 9 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCE
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
395
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 3 93
8627940 0003843 1 2 T
CHAPTER 17.3
W. E. Stanford
sibilities for maintenance coating to people already overburdened or unqualified, emphasis on coatings and corrosion protection is reduced. Low priority given to coating
work can result in a series of rushed projects, poor
specifications, poor vendor selection, improper surface
preparation, hasty choice of materials, and, of course,
eventual higher costs.
I. INTRODUCTION
Protective coatings are one of the primary means of
controlling corrosion in refinery exposures. For this
reason, costs for maintenance painting can account for as
much as 15-25 percent of the maintenance budget. Adequate interest return is expected for every dollar invested
in painting. Production outages should also be reduced
and life expectancy of key process equipment extended.
Important by-products include improved appearance and
better morale and community relations.
Refinery painting, which includes process equipment,
storage tanks, piping, etc., presents a broad spectrum of
exposures that involves a variety of physical and chemical
conditions. Because of this, coating procedures and
materials selection change from area t o area. Although all
areas cannot be covered in this chapter, some of the most
common ones will be discussed to aid the refinery
engineers in creating an effective maintenance program.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
111. PERSONNEL
Individuals in charge of maintenance coating must
work effectively with the entire organization. The coating
engineer is called upon to be organizer, manager, corrosion engineer, record keeper, performance analyst, and
budget salesman, with a knowledge of materials composition, selection, application methods, and equipment.
Administration of good maintenance programs is
paramount to success and overall performance of
coatings. However, when management delegates respon-
V. TECHNOLOGY
Careful consideration must be given to normal and
upset operating conditions before coating materials are
selected for a specific refinery painting job. The data
should reflect temperatures (high and low), cycling,
chemical exposures and mechanical conditions the
coating will be subjected to. Also consider whether the
equipment is indoors or outdoors and its geographical
location. The coating engineer must also know how the
equipment will be used in the refining process. For example, tanks are used to store finished volatile products. In
order to decrease product loss from vaporization, storage
tanks are often painted white to reflect solar heat and
decrease vapor pressures.
Coating requirements often encountered in refineries
(from a technical and operational point of view) are resistance to chemicals (including crude oils), permeability,
tolerance of temperature extremes, abrasion and impact,
resistance, flexibility, and weather resistance. Other properties, such as heat emissivity and solar heat reflectance,
ahould be considered where insulating qualities or heat
transfer is important. With this background as a guide,
desired coating properties can be established.
396
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B. PERMEABILITY
C. TEMPERATURE
High and low temperature resistance is often required in refinery coating. Temperature may be ambient
or steel skin temperatures of process equipment. In atmospheric temperatures the range can be from -40C
(-40F) in northern climates to 54C (130F) in southern
climates. The process temperatures will range from
- 4O"ClF to a high of 648C (1200F).Temperatures as low
as -40C will be found in refrigeration systems and on
boiler breaching as high as (648C) in the typical limits of
the refinery. Coating materials selected for this broad
temperature range include epoxy, modified epoxy,
phenolics, modified phenolics, acrylics, silicone acrylics,
urethanes, inorganic zincs, silicones, and heat inducting,
glass-fil led inorganics.
To obtain accurate steel surface temperatures, the
skin temperature of equipment surfaces should be
measured, since it can be higher or lower than operating
temperatures. Significant energy savings can result if the
proper coatings are selected.
E. FLEXIBILITY
Wind, temperature or process pressures can cause
materials to flex. For example, in large floating roof storage tanks, roof sections can flex as much as 10 inches under high wind velocity. In process operation, the heating
and cooling of thin shell vessels produces flexing as well
as contraction and expansion. Materials that will meet flex
requirements are, generically, epoxies (flexible), vinyls,
urethanes, neoprene, and other similar materials. Each parameter should be investigated before a coating system is
selected.
F. W EATHERABILITY
Weather resistance of coating materials varies widely. Close to the Equator, coatings must withstand intense
solar radiation. Close to the Arctic Circle, coatings must
withstand intense cold. In hot, humid and cold climates,
vinyls, epoxies, acrylics, alkyds, urethanes, chlorinated
rubber, and similar generic types are good candidate
materials.
G. HEAT EMISSIVITY
As the need to conserve energy increases, emissivity
becomes important. Coating materials can be used to
decrease or increase heat transfer to save energy. Consider compression areas where gases are passed through
piping to storage under pressure. In this case, compression requirements can be decreased i f process equipment
temperatures are decreased using solar-reflective
materials. In other applications, heat can be absorbed to
assist in raising the temperature of a tank's contents for
pumping, such as with some crude oils. Where reflectance
of solar energy is required to conserve volatile finished
products, white coatings can be used advantageously.
Heatllight reflection of black is near O, aluminum and
medium gray 40-50, and white above 80.
H. COMPOSITION
To select coating materials that will provide the performance expected, the material's generic composition
must be known. The binder, pigments, fillers, emulsifiers,
and other additives contribute to film properties and subsequently to film performance.
When referring to materials on coating specifications,
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
397
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L . 3
93
8b27940 0003845 T T Z
the exact name of the generic materials coating formulation should be given. It is not good practice to specify by
broad generic names alone, such as epoxy, because of
the considerable difference among epoxy coatings. The
performance of epoxy polyamide and epoxy amine can vary
widely. There are areas where they should or should not be
used. For example, when the application of an uncured
coating is subject to condensation or high relative humidity, an epoxy amine may not cure properly. The amine catalyst can be leached out of the coating by moisture and
thus not be available to react with epoxy resins. Epoxy
polyamide should be used in such cases because cure will
continue even though moisture is present, although cure
may be at a slower rate. Other materials, such as self-cure
inorganic zincs and moisture-cured urethanes, can be
used under moist conditions.
VI. SPECIFICATIONS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
To assure satisfactory coating performance, clear, accurate specifications for coating application should be
written. A coating manual prepared by the combined efforts of research engineering and inspection departments
would make the job of writing specifications easier. The
manual will include information on surface preparation,
coating materials, areas to be painted, exposures, and
special applications. In Appendix A is a typical form used
by refinery management to initiate bids on work and pro.
vide a definitive coating specification. Other similar forms
are used for coating stationary and on-stream process
equipment. Whatever system is used, all specifications
should clearly establish the following items as they relate
to scope and objectives:
I. REGULATIONS
Federal, state and local regulations control abrasive
and solvent materials used to clean or coat equipment surfaces. The regulations that apply include those written by
the National Fire Prevention Agency (NFPA), Occupational
Safety Health Administration (OSHA), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Department of Defense Fuel Containers List (DOD), California Air Resources Board (CARB),
Texas Air Control Board (TACB) Regulation 1, Philadelphia
Regulation V, and similar local controls.
In coating internal storage tanks for military fuels, the
coating material should be approved and included on the
DOD list. If zinc or other extraneous liner material is found
in jet fuels, the product will not be purchased by the
government or by some domestic customers.
Other regdations are directed to controlling solvent,
dust and emissions of other materials into the environment where they are hazardous. The limits and federal regulations can be obtained from the Federal Register. State
and local regulations can be obtained from respective government offices. These documents reference regulation
398
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SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 * 3 93
pected in service environments. Test parameters for physical and chemical exposure must be accurately established
before testing can proceed. These parameters should include skin temperatures of equipment, surface irregularities, chemical concentrations, adjacent process effluent,
contamination drift, weather conditions, thermal shock or
cyclic conditions and other pertinent history available
from engineering and operations. With this background,
screening tests can proceed. Tests most often used are
FIGURE 1
Panel Scriber
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Once initial screen tests are complete, field evaluation will substantiate laboratory results. This phase will
generate in-service data to assist management when making investment decisions on coating systems. Personnel
making the field tests also have an opportunity to evaluate
film forming, handling, and drying characteristics. Field
test applications on exterior and interior tank surfaces
yield beneficial data that can be effectively used to determine expected performance of a coating system.
To evaluate coating materials for internal use on process vessels, test racks are used. Racks are designed t o
hold about 10 to 12 (size 3 x 5 x IL) coated panels and
two mild steel Corrosion coupons. Metal frames and support rods used to construct racks are made of Monel or 316
stainless steel. When racks are assembled, support rods
are insulated from the frame with Teflon tubing; each
panel is separated from the other by one-half inch Teflon
spacers. Metal corrosion coupons are accurately tarred to
measure corrosion loss in the vessel. From field test data
suitable materials and necessity for coating can be
established (Figure 2).
At the refinery, test records are usually developed by
the Inspection Department. At regular intervals a report of
test items is compiled. This background and data is then
filed for future reference.
399
Not for Resale
Copper
FIGURE 2
Typical Test Rack Assembly For Internal Vessel Testing
Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specifications and Photographic Standards (SSPCVis 1) are used to establish conditions and degree of
coating deterioration. With these procedures, we can identify specific surface preparation requirements. Other
conditions that should be observed for surface preparation
are
General Cleaning
All surfaces must be free of condensation or moisture
prior to surface preparation or coating.
Steel
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Coordina tion
Operations of sandblasting and painting should be
coordinated to avoid embedding sand or other debris
in tacky or wet paint films. Lack of coordination can
cause coating problems, particularly when internally
coating tanks where dust from blasting can accumulate on surfaces to be coated.
Copper and its alloys are not coated since they form
their own protective oxide film. However, should
coating be necessary, copper should be allowed to
weather until dark oxides appear or roughening of the
surface develops. The primer used should be conventional alkyd or oleoresinous materials. Where coating
is not possible and discoloration of copper is objectionable, the use of lead coated copper should be cons idered.
Aluminum
Aluminum can be cleaned and etched by using a solution of water containing about lo/dwt. caustic or by
brush blasting (SSPC-SP 7). Effective proprietary solutions are also available for preparing aluminum to
receive coatings. Surfaces should be coated with zinc
chromate-base primer or other lead-free materials. If
lead is present, it will promote pitting of an aluminum
surface.
Wood
Before painting, wood surfaces should be tested with
a moisture meter to be certain the wood is dry. Where
new wood is finish coated with water dispersed latex
systems, the test should also be made, since primers
are usually oil base. Previously painted wood can
often be painted, even though some moisture is present, if water soluble latex coatings are used and priming is not required.
Masonry
New plaster, concrete, and brick should be allowed to
cure before coatings containing solvent are applied.
When new water soluble coatings are used, complete
cure is not essential. It is advisable to acid etch concrete with a muriatic acid solution 10 to 20% by
Hand Cleaning
When hand or mechanical cleaning (SSPC-SP 2) is
used to remove weathered miliscale and other contamination, the proper primer should be selected. The
primer should have good wetting and slow drying
properties and should be followed by compatible topcoats.
G alvan k i n g
New galvanized surfaces should be cleaned by oil
dissolving solvents, detergents, brush blasting or
chemicals before coating to avert disbonding and
FIGURE 3
Typical Refinery Tank Farm
400
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SSPC CHAPTER*L7.3
8627940 0003848 7 0 1
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
=6
FIGURE 4
The Storage Tanks in Background are Large Floater Roof Type. In
the Foreground are Typical Roof Birdbaths That Fill With Water.
FIGURE 6
Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank in Figure 5 After Seams Were
Sealed With Flexible Epoxy.
X. COATING APPLICATION
Coating materials are often applied in refinery operations by qualified contractors in the area. Contractors handle all provisions related to materials, personnel and
equipment. Large jobs, such as exterior storage tank
coating, are usually let out for bids. At the refinery,
maintenance painting crews are also employed for special
coating applications on process equipment and smaller
projects.
Application equipment commonly used at the refinery
are paint spray guns (airless and conventional), rollers
(with proper roller composition), brushes, and specialized
guns. The type of equipment to be used for application is
given in coating manufacturers instructions. Specialized
spray equipment with intermix spray caps and fiberglass
choppers are sometimes used to apply fiberglass reinforced coatings on storage tank bottoms and shells. They
are also used to apply some type of fireproofing using
FIGURE 5
Naphtha Feedstock Storage Tank of Riveted Construction. Note
Seepage at Seams.
401
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x L 7 - 3 93
FIGURE 8
Spheres and Storage Tanks Painted White to Reduce Recompression Required and Vapor Loss.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 7
View of Refinery Stocks and Areas Where High Temperature
Coatings are Required.
FIGURE 9
Color Coding Used to Identify Refinery Chemical Storage Tanks.
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the entire area. When internal linings are involved, conditions that exist for specific equipment must be determined. When corrosion rates are low, repair intervals may
be extended. When corrosion rates are high and equipment failure is imminent and critical, repairs should be
made as soon as possible to avoid pitting damage and production loss.
To maintain the coating, regular inspections should
be performed and the entire coated surface tested with a
holiday detector, properly adjusted. Defects should be
marked with chalk and repaired by established repair procedures.
Coating process equipment on-stream has been increasingly used in refinery operations. To accomplish this,
detailed procedures relating t o safety and protection of
sensitive equipment components have been developed
(See Appendix B). In this approach, production interruptions are avoided and better corrosion protection is obtained.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize surface preparations and
coating systems suggested for refinery application.
XI. INSPECTION
In refinery coating operations, competent inspections
can yield big dividends. Adequate inspection averts production losses and improves materials performance and
operational efficiency. The three most critical periods for
inspection on coating application work are:
1. When quality of surface preparation is critical,
particularly when immersion conditions require a
white metal blast (SSPC-SP5).
2. When coating materials are sprayed, particularly when work starts, so that standards of work
expected from the spray gun operator are clearly
establ ished.
3. When final tests on coating films are conducted, and when repair of holidays is made.
As work progresses, the inspector should record application data and comment daily. These records can serve
as valuable future references.
The inspector should have test instruments available
and in good working order. Instruments should include a
pocket knife, wet film paint thickness gauge, dry film
thickness gauge, high and low voltage holiday detectors
(portable), magnifying glass with light source and a portable vapor-proof spotlight. With these it is possible to perform nearly all the initially required tests.
The inspection must determine proper cure time on a
coating material. Following are some tests used to determine cures.
a) A coin is used to strike the surface of inorganic zinc-rich primers. If no zinc metal is removed
from the surface, cure is adequate to topcoat.
b) Most coating systems attain a definite hardness when cure is complete. To determine cure,
prepare a standard with the coating system on a 6 x
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
XII. SAFETY
To avoid accidents, all safety regulations must be
strictly observed and should be included in coating
specifications. Before coating materials are mixed and
sprayed, cleaner and solvent composition should be
established. From this data proper safety equipment
selection (air masks, etc.) can be made. When coating
the inside of tanks and other confined spaces, atmosphere should be tested with gas and explosive meters
to determine if toxic or explosive concentrations from
process vapors exist. As work progresses, intermittent
gas tests should be performed to ensure that ventilation is adequate to keep solvent vapor at concentrations
below explosive or hazardous limits. The reference entitled Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of Airborne Contaminants for 1982 (revised annually) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment can be used to determine hazardous limits. This
document can be obtained from the American Conference
of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
During application of coatings reinforced with
polyester fiber that require peroxide catalysts, fires may
occur, unless materials are handled carefully. It is important to dispose of old containers properly in specified
areas. To avoid fires from catalyst oxidation or spontaneous combustion, used containers with residual
aluminums and other pigment should not be emptied in
the vicinity of the storage tank farm. A checklist of some
safety concerns is given in SSPC-PA Guide 3, A Guide to
Safety in Paint Application, and in a separate chapter in
this volume.
XIII. ECONOMICS
In refinery coating operations, economics and investment returns should be considered for costs involved in a
project. This is a complex task for some operations, but
fortunately, for refinery coating cost comparisons, it is a
straightforward procedure. The one often used by the
Refinery Engineering Economics Section for coating
systems is Discounted Cash Flow. This can be effectively applied when making performance cost comparison
between extended service life and nominal life protective
coating systems. However, when determining investment
SSPC CHAPTER*37-3 93
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FLOATING ROOF T A N K S
COATING
SURFACE PREP
SURFACE PREP
Sandblast t o
Near White,
SSPC SP-10
INSIDE BOTTOM
( A N D UP 15'
ON SHELL)
INSIDE SHELL
(UPPER RINGS)
1
I
INSIDE SHELL
(MIDDLE AND
LOWER RINGS)
INSIDE ROOF
OUTSIDE ROOF
I
I
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils;
Plus 4 mils
CatalystCured Epoxy
- _ - - - _ - - or
-Sandblast t o
Near White,
SSPC SP-1o
I
1
--
No Coating
No Coating
I
1
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
Same as Exterior
Tank Shell
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
No Coatinq
No Coating
Sandblast t o
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
Epoxy 16s
mils rnin.
~~
Sandblast t o
White Metal
SSPC SP-5
I
I
No Coating
No Coating
No Coating
No Coating
Sandblast t o
White Metal,
SSPC SP-5
'I
1 Coat of
Zinc-Rich
Inorganic
@ 3-5 mils
This recommendation i s for new tanks. For repairing old bottoms, glass-reinforced polyester and epoxy coatings are recommended.
T o be applied in number of coats t o achieve this dry f i l m thickness, but in n o case should this be less than t w o coats.
Coating t o then be checked with a Holiday Detector, normally at 1000 t o 2000 volts depending o n coating manufacturer's
recommendation.
C - For corrosion protection, it is advisable t o apply same coating system as on upper rings. F r o m a practical standpoint, however,
it is often not economically possible t o coat the underside of the roof because of structural supports, etc.
CONE ROOF T A N K S
COATING
404
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Same as Exterior
Tank Shell
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 3 93
I
SURFACE
PR EPAR AT ION
SURFACE
PRIMER
COMMENTS
FINISH
Buried Piping
Sandblast
(NearWhite)
Buried Structures,
other than piping
Sandblast
(Near-White)
Sand blast
(Near-White)
( Near-Whitel
--
_ _ --
To 200F
In relatively noncorrosive areas
-----
In seacoast or
corrosive areas
1 or 2 Coats
Inorganic Zinc-Rich
(2-1/2 mils min.)
Sandblast
(Commercial)
___-_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
1 or 2 Coats Epoxy
(2-112 mils min.)
- -- _ _
1 Coat Zinc-Rich
inorganic (3-5mils)
----- --
- ----_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
1 Coat Heat-Resistant
Primer
1 or 2 Coats Heat
Resistant Topcoats
(normally modified
silicone)
Sandblast
(White Metal)
Sandblast
(Commercial1
__
----_-
---
_
~_ _ _ _ - - -
~~
None n o r m a l l y required
-- - -- - -- -
- --- --
Sandblast
(Commercial)
or mill pickle plus
brush-off blast in
field
- - ----- - In seacoast or
corrosive areas
- - - - - -- - --- - - - -
---
_----_---------
If galvanized or shop-coated
with zinc-rich inorganic, clean
and blast welds and touch-up
with compatible zinc-rich
coating after erection in field.
Galvanize
405
SSPC CHAPTERxL7.3
Table 2 (Cont'dI
SURFACE
COMMENTS
FINISH
PRIMER
It is recommended that
micarta blocks (or similarly
effective materials) be cemented and sealed under pipeline
where they rest on supports.
Walkways, Handrails,
Ladders, Line Supports,
Nuts, Bolts, and
Miscellaneous Hardware
~
Tanks, Interior
Clean Petroleum
Products
(Finished Products)
- -_
Sandblast
(White Metal)
_ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ ---
- -- - -
Sandblast
( Near-Whit e 1
Clean Water, or
Condensate
Sandblast
(White Metall
Sandblast
(Near-White)
Sandblast
commerciai or
Mill Pickle
__-_--
Sandblast
(White Metal)
-_
In relatively
non-corrosive areas
- - -- -- - - .
In seacoast or
corrosive areas
------
Sandblast
(Commercial1
- - - - -- Sandblast
(White Metal)
--
-----Sandblast
(Near-White)
-------- - - - - - -
--- - - - - -- -
----
- -_ - - - - -- -
1 or 2 Coats Rust
Inhibiting Alkyd Primer
(2-1/2 mils min.)
1 Coat Zinc-Rich
inorganic (3-5mils)
1 or 2 Coats: Hi-Build
Vinyl or Catalyst-Cured
Epoxy Amine (4 mils min.
-------
- -
- - - - -- -- -
-- -
_ _ -_--
- ----- - -
_______
Sandblast
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-__-___-___----
------
If for any reason slight discoloration of brine i s objectionable, follow recommendations for clean water tanks.
If potable water, coating
---
Sandblast
(Near-White)
----_--
------
- --- - --.
Tanks, Exterior
Above Grade, Shell
& Cone Roof
__________
- _- -- - - -
-_-----
406
Not for Resale
______----
In addition to coating,
cathodic protection should
also be considered for maxmum protection.
Set tanks on sand, pulverized
limestone, or concrete pad
slightly above grade where
possible.
Table 2 (Contd)
SURFACE
PREPARATION
SURFACE
COMMENTS
FINISH
PRIMER
None Normally
Required
Aluminum
1 or 2 Coats White
Latex Block Filler
(Until Voids are
f i Iled)
Clean
1 or 2 Coats 2-Package
Polyester, or Catalystcured Epoxy (an alkyd,
vinyl latex, or acrylic
latex may be substituted where washability is
not important)
- -- - - - - -.
1 or 2 Coats White
Latex Block Filler
(Until Voids are filled)
Clean
1 or 2 Coats 2-Package
Polyester (an alkyd, Ext.
Vinyl Latex, or Ext.
Acrylic Latex may be
substituted.
--_
2 Coats Catalyst-Cured
Urethane
allow t o dry
Sandblasting or acid-etching
may be required.
Copper
~
Galvanized
Plastered Walls,
Offices, Halls, etc.
Clean
Clean
1 Coat Emulsion-Type
Prime-Sealer
______-
- - -- ---Washrooms, etc.
Wood, General
Outside Walls
-----
--
-__-_
F iretard
- - - -- - -
Clean
_-
- -- -
Oleoresinous
-- -
Clean 81 Dry
Sanded, Clean & Dry
Insulation Coverings,
Canvas
2 Coats AI kyd or
(1 With Catalyst-cured
Epoxy, wall sealer may or may
not be required, depending on
manufacturer.
(2) Topcoat should be mildewresistant for humid areas.
2 Coats, 2-Package
Polyester or Catalystcured epoxy
-_ - -
-----
---
Bit u men
Mastics
Urethane Foam
-- -- -- - - - -
407
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Concrete, Interior
Walls
SSPC C H A P T E R * L i . 3
93
tween laboratory and field exposures, with a good exchange of data between personnel.
d) Preparing coating specifications that clearly
specify proper surface preparation grade, materials
selection, and application procedures.
e) Inspecting and testing coating application,
safety provisions and regulation conformance.
f) Evaluating economics to establish viability of
coating invest ment.
g) Planning a maintenance coating program that
assures quality coating application on every project.
When these provisions are followed, corrosion protection is increased and overall annual costs for maintenance
can be reduced. In addition, longer equipment service life
and fewer production interruptions will be achieved. The
trend in refinery coatings is to use the higher performance
systems on long term projects (15 years and up) due to better return on investments and reduced maintenance costs.
The need for the old standard coating systems and
materials will continue for projects where service life up to
10-12 years is expected.
XIV. SUMMARY
Topics discussed in this chapter are believed to be
primary elements that are part of all successful refinery
coating programs. When proper coating materials and
systems are selected and properly applied, corrosion in
refineries is controlled. The guide t o effective refinery
maintenance programs should include the following items:
a) Selecting qualified personnel to supervise
work.
b) Establishing coating schedules based on an
accurate refinery coating audit.
c) Initiating cooperative programs for testing be'Another way to look at it; any combination of paint system, surface condition, and environmental condition creates a repaint cycle that yields a minimum average annual painting cost. Determining and using this cycle will result in minimizing painting
costs versus protection.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 3 * 3 93
APPENDIX A
SURFACE PREPARATION AND PAINTING RECOMMENDATIONS
Zone
To
Tank
Dia.
Ht.
Area
WO Date
WO No.
Area: Roof-
Grounded
Shell-
CODE DESIGNATION
Surface Preparation
1 Completely sandblast to white metal
2 Spot sandblast to commercial grade
3 Completely sandblast to commercial grade
4 Completely scatter sandblast (brush blast)
5 Tool clean
Coatings
Coat
Material
Application
Method Sq. Ft.
/Gal.
Cat.
No.
Name
Thinner
Wet
Mils
Name
Cleaner
Cat.
No.
Pt./
Gal.
Name
Cat.
No.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Surf ace
Preparation
Coating
First Coat
Second Coat
Fourth Coat
Ex terior
Entire Tank
Roof
Roof Accessories
Roof Stairway
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shell
Stairway
Stair Runners
Stair Tread (Btm)
Stair Tread (Top)
Stair Railings
Platform
Platform (Top)
Platform (Btm)
Shell MW Covers
Foam Lines
Service Lines
Interior
Roof & Rafters
Shell
Bottom
1. Paint Tank No. and date on shell with
L.
3.
BY
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Third
Coat
~-
409
APPENDIX B
GENERAL
A. This procedure covers the preparation for painting
and the painting of the exterior of refinery storage
tanks while they contain products.
B. The following items apply to all tanks which are to
be prepared or painted while they contain products. In addition to these, further specific items for
different categories of tanks appear later.
1. The Inspection Engineering Department shall inspect all tanks prior to any preparing or painting
operations. It will be their responsibility to
decide when tanks containing products may be
safely prepared for painting from the standpoint
of tank condition. This would include conditions
such as leaks, weak spots in the metal, holes in
the roof, etc. Results of the inspection shall be
reported t o the department in charge of the
tank.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A. For the purpose of this procedure, tanks containing vapors which test between zero and 50 per cent
of the lower explosive limit shall be considered
below the explosive limit.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this chapter:
Emil Bereczky, William Chandler, T.A. Cross, D. Koenecke,
Marshall McGee, R.L. Merritt, William Milek, John Montle, C.
Munger, David Neill, J. Peters, L.M. Sherman, Rick Sline,
William Wallace. In addition special thanks goes to the Communications Processes Department of Carnegie-Mellon University.
BIOGRAPHY
W.E. Stanford, who has retired, served as a representative
of the American Petroleum Institute lo the Steel Structures
Painting Council Prior to his
retirement he was a Sr Project
Chemist in the Technology and
Materials Department of Gulf
Science and Technology Company, Pittsburgh, PA. He graduated from Kansas State College
with a B.S in chemistry and
attended the same school for
graduate work. He has also
attended other universities for SDecialized trainina in other materialsoriented fields. He provided technical assictake and counsel to
strategy centers throughout Gulf Oil Corporation on corrosion control and protective coating materials. He was active in several professional societies and in corrosion control activities.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
41 1
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERa17.4
93
I. INTRODUCTION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
41 2
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERxL7.4
-3 - *.
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003860 209
A-SSPC,SP2,ALKD,6
A 16.5 c/sq.ft./yr,
MILS
IB
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1 - 04
- -I
14.5 c/sq.ft./yr.
-................
J--
C UMULAT 1VE
COST
2
$/sQ.FT.
I c 10.5$/sq.ft./yr.
10.5 $/sq.ft./yr.
........................
L
I -
0
0
d--
d
d
-0
413
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R x L 7 - 4 73
FIGURE 2
Maintenance is being executed before coating failure on these
tanks reaches the point which would require cleaning and priming
of more than 20% of the total painted surface.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
414
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R s L 7 - 4 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 O003862 081
TABLE I
RESISTANCE CHART
Cure
Mechanism
Acid
Chlorinated Rubber
solvent evap.
VG
Epoxy (polyamide)
chem. crosslinking
chem. crosslinking
Generic TvDe
Polyurethane
(aIipathic)
Silicone (Alum.)
Vinyl
Zinc Rich
Inorganic
Organic
Oxidizing
Acid
Alkali
Salt
VG
VG
150F
VG
250F
VG
VG
VG
250F
solventlheat
solvent evap.
P
E
F
VG
F
P
G
VG
1000F
15OOF
hydrolysis
chem. crosslinking
E'
VG*
E*
VG *
E
VG
E
VG
E
VG
E*
VG *
Solvent
Max.
Temp.
Weather (dry heat)
75OOF"
3OO0F'*
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Rating Scale:
(E) Excellent - no effect, best selection where performance and appearance retention are desired.
(VG) Very Good - no effect on performance, very little appearance degradation.
(G) Good - little effect on performance, some appearance degradation.
(F) Fair - performance and appearance affected by exposure.
(P) Poor - not suitable, coating attacked.
'Results indicate zinc rich coating performance when topcoated. Use of these coatings untopcoated in chemical environments is not recommended.
**Limited by topcoat in the system.
FIGURE 3
The coating on the hand-cleaned and painted portion of this pipe
(above weld) totally failed after two years of service in a chemical
Diant. The coatina on the lower oortion which was sandblasted
prior to being painted did not fa.
415
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 . 4 9 3
8627940 0003863 T L B
FIGURE 4
The upper portions of the two panels were abrasive blast cleaned
to white metal prior to 24 hours of outdoor exposure. Panel on the
right was steel corroded in a chemical plant. Rusting was rapid
and extensive on the corroded panel due to the presence of
residual chemicals after blasting. Little rusting occurred on the
new steel (on left).
V. APPLICATION
The method of application affects the quality and
FIGURE 5
(right) was sandblasted and finished with an alkyd paint system.
New steel sandblasted, primed with inorganic zinc and finished
Failure noted after six years chemical plant exposure.
with a polyamide epoxy topcoat. No failure at scribe (rusting)
after six years chemical plant exposure (left). The new steel panel
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
416
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 = 4 73
8627740 0 0 0 3 8 6 4 954
order.
Higher production rates are possible with airless
spray when compared to conventional air atomization
spray. Spray application normally provides better film
build on round edges than brushing. Regardless of which
method is selected, film build on sharp edges requires
great care and often additional coats.
For proper spray application, the spray equipment
must have adequate controls, be large enough for the job
and capable of spraying the coating material. Information
is available from reputable manufacturers of coating materials and spray equipment and from the chapter on paint
application in this volume. Spraying should be done by
qualified people who will execute proper spray technique
to meet the specifications. When it is not possible to
spray, a roller should be the second choice, especially for
large surface areas. While application by spray or roller is
preferred, brushing is often necessary as a complementary
method. It serves well for cut-in, trim, and touch-up
(Figure 6).
Specifications for protective painting in chemical
plants should clearly define the required film thickness
and accepted methods of measurement. Adequate film
thickness is necessary for hiding and protection. The application must provide desired film thickness, uniformity,
and continuity. To this end, each coat in a paint system
should be a different color than the preceding coat thickness less than the critical minimum, which varies depending on the type of coating and exposure, results in a
drastic reduction in the protective life of a coating system.
SSPC-PA 2 is a specification for measurement of dry film
thickness. Careful inspection must be exercised throughout the application toensure that all specifications are met.
FIGURE 6
Roller application to this storage tank is the method of choice
when circumstances dictate against overspray.
FIGURE 7
Surface preparation (abrasive blasting) and painting of subcosts, improves quality of application and results in improved
system performance.
assemblies on-site prior to installation reduces initial painting
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
41 7
Not for Resale
Environmental conditions, such as atmospheric temperature, substrate temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, and chemical contamination, can have a significant
effect on performance of a coating system. The desirable
atmospheric temperature range for coating application is
60 to 90F. Unless specifically formulated, coatings should
not be applied when the atmospheric temperature is below
40F (50F for epoxy) or above 100F. Temperatures below
45OF may retard curing or drying. High temperatures will
accelerate both. Substrate temperatures above 100F may
also cause rapid solvent release from some coatings and
result in bubbling and pinholing. Substrate temperature
does not have much of an effect on spray application of
slow drying materials.
Relative humidity, substrate characteristics, and ambient temperatures all affect the application. To avoid condensation, most protective coatings should not be applied
to steel unless the surface temperature is, and remains, at
least 5 OF above the dew point.
When materials containing solvents with high evaporation rates are sprayed, the material and surface
temperatures may be reduced considerably. For example,
i f the temperature drops below the dew point, moisture
condensation will occur on the surface and in the coating,
affecting adhesion and subsequent film integrity.
Relative humidity also affects drying and curing times
of coatings. High humidity generally slows drying time for
coatings that cure by air oxidation. High humidity accelerates, and a certain level may be required, curing
certain types of polyurethanes and inorganic zinc coatings. Information on the effects of temperature and
humidity and combinations thereof on drying and curing
should be obtained from the coatings manufacturer.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors when high
winds can (a) carry dust, dirt, etc., which become embedded in the coating causing pinholes and poor appearance;
(b) interefere with spray painting; (c) carry overspray to
areas where it is not tolerable; or (d) cause dry overspray.
Coatings should not be applied outdoors during precipitation or when it is imminent.
In chemical atmospheres, the coating system should
be completed within the shortest possible time, consistent
with proper drying and curing of each coat, t o avoid
chemical contamination between coats. If contamination
occurs, it should be removed, usually by washing with
detergent and water followed by thorough rinsing.
One means of specifying paint application in accordance with good practice is to cite SCPC-PA 1, Shop,
Field and Maintenance Painting.
1
PROTECT ION
U
FIGURE 8
Unlike the chicken and the egg, proper protection provided by
painting has a definite beginning and end. All elements must
work together to achieve this fragile balance. Failure of any one
of these four elements results in a loss of corrosion protection.
VII. SUMMARY
The easiest and best time for painting steel is at construction. Efforts to minimize capitalized costs and project
budgets frequently compromise the quality of original
coating systems. The quality of original painting has a
lasting influence on performance and cost of subsequent
maintenance painting, as well as on the life of the facility.
418
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R a L 7 - 4 93
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 4
93
the coating system, clearly detailed specifications are required to communicate and execute that decision. Painting
-~system sDecifications. such as those of the SSPC.
should indicate all of the following:
Coating description, including product numbers or
specificat ions;
Surface preparation description;
Special mixing andlor application instructions, application conditions;
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness per coat;
Minimum (maximum) dry film thickness of total
system.
To be effective, detailed specifications should be supported by thorough inspection to ensure that ali elements
of the coating system specification are followed. Many
coating systems, properly selected and painstakingly
specified, have prematurely failed because inadequate inspection permitted improper application (Figure 8).
Specification and inspection should take safety into
account. Worker protection during rigging, surface
preparation, paint application and clean-up are paramount
Any special precautions to be observed in
operating or processing areas should be included in the
specifications or should be a topic of discussion before
placement of the painting contract. Painting a chernical
plant should always be considered from a Systems standpoint. Attention to all elements of the system provides the
best opportunity for economical and effective long-term
protection of steel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Darre1 Campbell, T. ArCross, Randy Fuikerson, Marshall
McGee, John Montle, C. Munger, William Pearson and William
Wallace.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BIOGRAPHIES
J. R. Allen has retired from
E.I. du Pont de Nemours and
Co., Inc. He served as a member of the Research Committee
of the Steel Structure Painting
Council. He graduated from the
Georgia Institute of Technology
in 1943 with a B.S. in Ceramic
Engineering. After service in the
U S . Army, he joined the staff
at the Engineering Research
Laboratory of du Pont and Co.,
Inc., where he was engaged in
research and development of
nonmetallic materials of construc:tion for chemical plants and eauiDment. From 1975 until his retirement, he worked with the Engineering Service Division as an engineering materials consultant,
specializing in protective coatings and thermal insulation.
David w. Metzger is a member of the SSPC Research Committee, He received his B.S.
degree in Business Managet-f~entfrom Lehigh University in
1968. He joined DuPont that
same year in the company,s Finishes Division of the Automotive
Products Department. Since that
time, he has held various technical sales and marketing positions, including Senior Product
Specialist with Maintenance Finishes Sales.
REFERENCES
C. Calabreseand J. R. Allen, Surface Characterization of Atmospherically Corroded and Blast Cleaned Steel. Corrosion Vol. 34,
No. 10, October, 1978.
419
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R r L 7 . 5
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003867 663
CHAPTER 17.5
This chapter provides the engineering and maintenance departments of pulp and paper mills with coating
systems effective for construction and maintenance.
Substantial monetary and productivity rewards are
derived from a good coatings program. The coatings
material and technology are available. The problem is how
to combine available materials and technology into working protective coatings programs that provide corrosion
protection, safety and appearance at the lowest cost. The
results of ineffective programs are lower productivity and
morale together with higher maintenance and replacement
costs.
I. SCOPE
This chapter deals primarily with protection of mild
steel, galvanized steel and other metallic and non-metallic
substrates exposed to the corrosive environment of pulp
and paper mills. For mills exposed to additional corrosive
elements produced by neighboring plants, good protection
can usually be attained by minor upward adjustments in
system film thickness or by wider use of bleach area
systems.
Special attention is directed to the concept and implementation of the protective coatings program as it
relates to construction and to maintenance. New facilities
and additions are covered under New Construction. Work
by plant painting crews and by outside painting contractors is covered under Maintenance.
1.
3. Color Selection
Here again, close cooperation with the coatings
supplier is recommended for selection of colors.
When selecting colors full consideration should
be given to OSHAIANSI safety requirements and
corporate color standards.
Corrosion Survey
The purpose of the survey is to identify the surfaces to be coated, taking into consideration the
following:
Location
Chemical nature of the environment
Operating temperatures
Practical surface preparation methods and
materials
Condition of existing coatings and their generic
composition (for maintenance painting)
Safety requirements
Physical factors involved such as abrasion
resistance.
2. Selection of Coatings Systems
Choice of exact coatings systems, including surface preparation, number of coats, film thickness,
etc. for each substrate and exposure should be
worked out through cooperation of the Committee
with one or two selected coatings manufacturers
or with the help of an independent coatings consultant. Also consider:
Length of service
Ease of maintenance
Compatibility of selected coatings with any existing coatings (for maintenance painting)
Conformance with applicable environmental
regulations
Special appearance requirements, e.g., color
stability, chalk resistance.
4.
Specifications
A vital connecting link between concept and
finished work is the coatings specification. There
are four basic types of specifications: new construction shop painting (see Appendix A), new
construction field painting, contract maintenance
420
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - 5 9 3
8627940 0 0 0 3 8 b 8 5 T T
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
421
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bleach plants. Gloss epoxy seal coats can be applied in the fabricator shop. Vinyl seal coats are
normally applied at the job site because of sensitivity to abrasion damage.
FIGURE 1
2. Steel Gratings
Steel gratings are difficult to blast clean and costly to paint. Most new construction utilizes
galvanized steel gratings, which can be degreased and acid etched prior to applying the
selected coatings system. Gratings are best
painted prior to erection. FRP grating is also finding use in the industry. No painting is required.
3. Handrails
Aluminum or galvanized handrails are often used
in new construction. Aluminum handrails are
usually not painted. Galvanized handrails should
be degreased and then acid etched or sweep
blasted prior to coating. Some mills defer painting
on new galvanized.
C. NEW EQUIPMENT
422
Not for Resale
TABLE I
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
SURFACE TO BE COATED
Wood Preparation
Handling &
Chipping
Digester Area
Washing IL
Screening
Liquor
Preparation &
Storage
Evaporators 81
Recovery
Boilers
Process Water
Plant
Steel or Iron
Waste
Treatment
Plant
Submit Details
1.1
3.2 or
3.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
36
34
Structural Steel
3.1 (1)
1.2
Convevor Steel
3.1 II1
1.2
3.1 (1)
1.2
1.1
3.2 or
3.3
1.2
1 1 or
3 5 (3)
1 1 (Hot)
1 4 (Cold)
- Inorganic Zinc
11
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
3.1 (I)
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
3.3
1.2 (A)
1.1
1.2
Wood Surfaces
2.2
Masonry Surfaces
Exterior Concrete Block
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.2 I A
4.2 I A )
4.2
5.3
5.2
5.3
5.3
3.4
3.4
5.3
5.3
5.3
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.4
Shops, Warehouse
PAPER MACHINE BUILDING
& Maintenance
Finish Goods
Areas
Stock Preparation Roll Finishing
Stores
3.4
Control Rooms
Change Houses
Administration
Office Areas
1.1 (2)
2.1 or
2.3
3.4
Power Plant
Steel or Iron
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1 .I
1.1
1.1
1.1 (2)
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
Structural Steel
1.2
Conveyor Steel
1.1
3.6
1.4
6.1.1
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
Handrails B Gratinas
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1or
2.3
1.3
423
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=5
8 b 2 Y O 0003871
ow m
TABLE 1 (Continued)
TYPICAL PAINTING SYSTEMS FOR PULP & PAPER MILLS
GENERAL PLANT AREA
Shops, Warehouse
PAPER MACHINE BUILDING
8 Maintenance
Finish Goods
Stores
Areas
Stock Preparation Roll Finishing
Control Rooms
Change Houses
Administration
Ollice Areas
Power Plant
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
2.1 or
2.3
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
6.2.2
2.2
2.2
2.2
- Large Process
Wood Surfaces
Masonrv Surfaces
6.4.1
~
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
42
42
41
42
Specify
Specify
~~
641
5.2
5.3
5.3 (6)
3.4
5.3
5.1
STEEL
System 1.1
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
when detail is
when detail is
42
available from
available from
4.2
architect.
architect.
5.2
Concrete (Wet)
5.3
5.1
CONCRETE
1 CI.
Vinyl Primer
1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat
1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat
System 3.4
S y r t m 1.2
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer
2 cts. Epoxy-Polyamide Finish
System 1.2 (A)
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide Primer
System 1.4
1 ct. Epoxy.Polyamide Primer
1 ct. EpoxyPolyamide Semi-Gloss
1 cl. Aliphatic Urethane Gloss
System 3.1
1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Zinc Rich
I.
High Build
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
I.
Finish
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 3.1 (A)
1 CInorganic
I.
Zinc Rich
1 cl. Epoxy-Polyamide High Build
I.
Finish
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 3.2
1 ci. Inorganic Zinc Rich
1 ct. Wash Primer or Tie Coat
1 ct. High Build Vinyl
System 3.3
1 CUniversal
I.
Primer
1 ct. High Build Vinyl Coat
1 ct. Vinyl Seal Coat
System 5.1
2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating
System 5.2
1 CI.
Epoxy-Polyamide Clear
I.
Clear
1 CEpoxy-Polyamide
System 5.3 (A)
WOOD
System 7.1
System 6.2.1
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
2 cts. Alkyd Enamel
System 2.2
1 ct. Alkyd Undercoat
2 CIS.
Epoxy Ester Enamel
System 6.2.3
1 ct. Alkyd Primer
FOOTNOTES
(I) Epoxy-Polyamide Finish for easy
repair of damage.
(2) Structural steel may be separated by
job lot for mild areas - Interior only.
MASONRY
System 4.1
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler
2 cts. Acrylic Latex Masonry Coating
System 4.2
1 ct. Acrylic Latex Concrete Filler
Epoxy Ester Enamel
2 CIS.
with your system. If this cost is too high, as it may w.ell be,
the only alternative is to have the equipment delivered and
then finished according to your own system.
A. VARIANCES
1. Surface Preparation
It is often difficult to isolate selected areas so
sandblasting can be done without danger to personnel or equipment. Yet there is no adequate
substitute for sandblasting. Even so, blasting is
seldom used inside machine buildings. In some
cases, areas andlor equipment can be sectioned
off with polyethylene so steel can be blasted. In
others, the compromise of hand-tool cleaning
with power wire brush, disk sander, needle gun or
other similar equipment can suffice. Careful use
of power wire brushes and needle guns may be
the most effective surface preparation short of
sand blasting.
3. Specifications
Should be well defined, measureable and enforced.
4. Personnel
Capable and motivated planners, supervisors,
and inspectors should be designated by and
report to the Maintenance Coatings Committee.
They should spend substantial time where the
work is being done and require that the work
meets specifications.
5. Records
An effective system should be created for recording the work done and detailing the area, workerhours, materials, equipment and the application
conditions.
6. Inspection
A systematic program of inspection and spot
repair should be instituted and maintained by the
Protective Coatings Committee.
V. MAINTENANCE BY OUTSIDE
CONTRACTOR
The Protective Coatings Committee is responsible for
coordinating work with outside contractors. Many mills rely on outside contractors for jobs requiring critical rigging
and for tight schedule work during shutdowns. The following areas should be considered:
i.Planning
Carefully implement the work with good specifica-
425
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 1 7 * 5 93
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003873 967
FIGURE 2
Coatings for structural and miscellaneous steel. Usually struccan be blasted and coated more successfully after erection.
Courtesy of Linc York
tural steel can be coated successfully and at lower cost (all coats)
in the fabricators shop. Tanks
insulated and non-insulated
tions, time and safety requirements and a description of possible conflicts with plant operating requirements.
2. Screening
Screen and invite no more than three or four
qualified contractors to bid based on their record
for integrity, professional competence, reliability
and financial stability.
3. Bids
Arrange for pre-bid meetings (preferably with one
bidder at a time) so all bidders can ask questions.
Arrange to have necessary drawings available. A
representative of the Committee, the coatings
supplier and contractor should inspect areas to
be coated. Bidders should be made aware of the
owners concern for the work and the owners inspection plans.
4. Testing
If blasting is a major requirement, encourage bidders to test blast a representative area to
establish the rate of production possible and
understand owners interpretation of specifications.
5. Quality
At start-up of work, a job standard for quality acceptance should be set, with a representative of
the owner and of the materials supplier present.
(See chapter on Job Standards.)
VI. SUMMARY
Rewards for conceiving, implementing and administering an effective and professional protective
coatings program are substantial in terms of yearly costs
and production continuity. Collateral benefits include improved working conditions, employee safety, morale and
enhanced public image. The stakes are high. Affirmative
management action is recommended.
APPENDIX:
TYPICAL COATING REQUIREMENTS FOR
STRUCTURAL AND MISCELLANEOUS STEEL
COATED AT FABRICATOR SHOP*
Scope
These requirements detail the surface preparation,
coating, and handling of structural and miscellaneous
steel in the fabricator shop. These specifications cover
service at operating temperatures up to 200F. Also included are details on inspection, transfer of coated steel and
touch-up and repair in the field.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. Selection
Some owners select and supply coatings on the
premise that by doing so they are more likely to
get the specified coatings thicknesses.
7. Cooperation
The Protective Coatings Committee, representing
8. Conclusion
At the conclusion of all major jobs by plant or
contract personnel a program of inspection and
spot repair will serve as a strong preventive
maintenance measure.
426
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.5
8 b 2 7 7 4 0 0003874 8 T 3
73
Surface Preparation
All surfaces shall be blasted so as to meet the SSPC-SP 6
Commercial standard or better.
All blasted steel shall be coated within 10 hours of
blasting and before there is visible rusting.
FIGURE 3
Transfer and handling of coated steel. The proper use of dunnage
helps minimize damage to coatings in transit.
Intent
It is the intent of this specification to prescribe first-class
workmanship in all phases of coatings work. The following
important details shall be considered as a part of the
spec if cat ions:
The use of cutting oils shall be such that a minimum
of oil is deposited on the steel so as to minimize solvent
cleaning.
All contact surfaces connected by bolts shall be
blasted and primed before being shop-bolted. Faying surfaces should be primed but not topcoated. Most inorganic
zinc rich coatings are suitable for use on faying surfaces.
Where mild steel bolting (not cadium-plated or galvanized)
is used in the shop, the boltheads and nuts shall be
blasted and coated.
The cleaning of abrasive before reuse shall be such
that the blasted steel is free of smudge.
All back-to-back angles shall be blasted and primed
before assembly or designed out if possible.
Weld spatter shall be removed before priming.
Slivers and laminations shall be ground smooth
before priming.
All sharp, rough, or burred edges shall be ground
round.
All abrasive shall be removed before priming.
No bleed through materials shall be used for ID markings.
Bucks shall be cleaned of foreign paintslcoatings so
as to avoid contamination of the coating system.
Paint hoses shall be cleaned of dried paint to avoid
loose paint falling into wet coatings.
Special care shall be used by painters to assure proper thickness on flanges - inside and out.
If identification tags are welded to the steel, the weld
shall be continuous to avoid corrosion underneath the
tags.
Dunnage shall be used carefully to minimize damage
to coatings in loadinglshippinglunloading. Use of nylon
slings will minimize coatings damage.
At the jobsite the steel shall be unloaded so as to
minimize coating damage. In stacking the steel at the jobsite, ample dunnage shall be used. Again, nylon slings will
minimize coatings damage.
Coatings
Observe minimum and maximum limits for Dry Film
Thickness (DFT). Five readings out of 50, at least 6 inches
apart, on one piece of steel will be the basis of requiring an
additional coat (if below minimum) or reblasting and
recoating (if above maximum).* All areas where the primer
thickness is below 2.0 mils or above 5 mils shall be corrected. All areas where the two-coat system is below 5 mils
or above 12 mils shall be corrected.
Surface temperature of steel to be coated shall be
50F minimum and at least 5F above wet bulb air
temperature reading.
Coatings can be applied by airless or conventional
spray equipment.
System No. 1
Primer - Epoxy Zinc Rich
Topcoat - High Build Epoxy
2.5
5.0
7.5
System No. 2
Primer - Inorganic Zinc Rich
Topcoat - High Build Epoxy
2.5
5.0
7.5
System No. 3
Primer - Inhibitive Epoxy
Po Iyam ide
Topcoat - High Build Epoxy
2.5
5.0
__
7.5
Primer:
Minimum DFT
Maximum DFT
Full System
DFT Mils
2.0
5.0
- 2 Coats:
Minimum DFT
Maximum DFT
6.5
12.0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
427
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 . 5
93
= 8627940 0003875
Inspection
Adequate inspection of surface preparation and coatings
application should be provided during the job. Full-time inspection isdesirable, but with intermittent work schedules,
this is not always possible. Full-time inspection is needed
at the job start and until work is progressing smoothly,
then as required to assure specifications are being met.
Transfer of Coated Steel (Figure 3 )
Handling, shipping and unloading procedures, if not properly executed, can seriously reduce the effectiveness of
even the best high performance coating systems. Coated
members must be handled with care t o avoid damaging
the coating system - particularly the edges.
Field Touch-Up of Coatings Damaged in Loadinglirection
All areas damaged to bare metal shall be prepared in accordance with SSPC-SP 3.
Spot prime all cleaned areas with Epoxy Zinc-Rich
Primer to 2% mils DFT. Dry to thumb-shear hardness.
Apply High Build Epoxy intermediate coat to primed
areas: 7 mils DFT (primer + intermediate coat). Dry to
thumb-shear hardness.
Apply Gloss Epoxy Topcoat if specified, to total DFT
of 9 mils, (2 mils DFT of topcoat).
BIOGRAPHY
C. Edwin Wilkins has a B.S. in
Chemistry from the University of
North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Until his retirement, his entire business career (42 years) was
concerned with high-performance coatings, the first 14 years
as a laboratory chemist. He has
performed technical service in
most of the United States, also
in South America, Europe, and
Near and Far East. For 27 years
he was involved in protective
coatings salesservice with
Mobil Chemical. After 1972 he served as Technical Sales Representative with Porter Coatings, Division of Porter Paint Co. He was a
long-time member of the Technical Association of the Pulp & Paper
Industry, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers, the American Chemical Society and active on many committees.
DFT Mils
System
Minimum
Maximum
8.5
12.0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
73T
428
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERkL7.b
93
CHAPTER 17.6
I. NEW CONSTRUCTION
A. DESIGN
PLANTS
NEW
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CONSIDERATIONS FOR
429
Not for Resale
1. Shop Painting
Specifications for shop painting must detail surface preparation, coating and handling of the
steel. Inspection, transfer and field touch-up
should also be explained in detail. The following
430
Not for Resale
2. Field Topcoating
A separate specification is required for field topcoating work that takes place after erection of the
steel. Careful inspection of the steel is necessary
to determine surfaces requiring touch-up painting. Washing may be required to remove dirt and
contamination. Power tool cleaning (SSPC-SP 3)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC
C H A P T E R * L - b 9 3 m 8627940 0003878 4 4 9 m
two-coat shop systems because not all coatings
manufacturers can supply them. Often two coats
do not provide adequate protection.
b. Top Coats - In addition to the polyamide and
polyamine epoxy finish coats, several other
generic types work well in food processing plants.
Aliphatic urethane, like polyamine epoxy, provides extra toughness and chemical resistance
for aggressive areas and is usually of very high
gloss. It does not yellow like the epoxy coatings
and has better caustic resistance than epoxy
polyester.
Acrylic-epoxy is recommended in place of the
solvent-based polyamide epoxy where a waterreducible, low-odor coating is needed. It performs
in a manner equivalent t o solvent-based
polyamide epoxy once fully cured. This topcoat is
not suited for humid areas.
FIGURE 2
The walls in this cold meat storage room are held at 45-48OFyear
round. Resurfacing with a water-based epoxy system is now a
routine matter every four years or more, whereas previously the
room was repainted every two years.
Courtesy of Carboline Company
Gloss epoxy polyester coatings (catalyzed, twocomponent and not to be confused with epoxy
ester) may be selected if a white finish is needed.
Unlike epoxies, it does not yellow with age. Do not
use in areas where caustic is present because it
has poor caustic resistance.
All of the above finish coats require a
minimum of 50F (10C) to achieve cure except
the aliphatic urethane which may be applied at
temperatures down to 35F (2C).
followed by touch-up with polyamide epoxy rustinhibitive primer and finish coat works well. The
polyamide epoxy primer is compatible with epoxy,
urethane and acrylic finish coats.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
431
Not for Resale
FIGURE 3
New structural steel in cool, damp storage area to be enclosed;
epoxy zinc-rich primer over SSPC-SP 6, Commercial Blast Cleaning; coated at the fabrication shop and touched up in the field;
no topcoat to be applied.
Courtesy of Porter Coatings
Concrete Ceilings
432
Not for Resale
6.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.
tile is often specified, but the mortar joints eventually erode from washing and chemical attack
and support growth of mold and mildew. Glazed
ceramic tile walls cost 4-6 times more per square
foot than walls using the best coatings available.
a. Concrete Block Walls must have expansion
joints to prevent cracking where the block meets
structural steel, lintels and corners. Without block
fillers, coatings flow into pores and a rough finish
with pinholes results.
The only surface preparation requirements
for concrete block is that it be clean and dry. Concrete block is steam cured during manufacture
and has no laitance. The block may be slightly
dampened prior to application of water-based
cementitious block filler, but should not be
dampened for any solvent-based material.
The preferred system of 8.0 mils D.F.T.
polyamine epoxy over the flush-fill block filing
system combines maximum chemical resistance
and washability with maximum epoxy attractiveness. Polyester should be avoided because of
its poor resistance to caustics.
b. Poured and Precast Concrete Walls - They
should be treated like concrete ceiling panels.
Surface preparation should be wet or dry sandblasting. Under no circumstances is acid washing
an acceptable method of surface preparation.
For heavy process areas, the dry film
thickness of the system should be at least 8.0
mils. Any damaged areas must be repaired following evaluation. The proper use of a wet film
thickness gauge during application can be helpful
to ensure proper dry film thickness.
7. Equipment
Structural steel, ceilings, floors and walls of a
food plant are often well protected, while
machinery and equipment are not.
Protective coatings applied on original equipment may not be suitable for service in aggressive
environments. When ordering equipment for
critical or severely exposed areas, request a
detailed description of coatings the manufacturer
supplies. If this system is not adequate, request a
cost estimate for special finishing to conform
with your selected system. If this cost is exorbitant, the alternative is to have the equipment
delivered and finished at the job site, according to
your own selected system.
If field welding is to be done during installation, it is best to specify that it be primed at the
manufacturer's shop and field topcoated after
welding. Damaged areas have to be cleaned,
prepared and coated. The rust-inhibitive
polyamide epoxy primer works well as a touch-up
primer.
If the equipment manufacturer cannot blast,
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 - b 93
9. Tank Exteriors
Exteriors of carbon steel tanks should be blasted
and primed at the shop and finish-coated at the
job site. If the tank is inside the plant, blast the exterior to SSPC-SP 6 and apply a zinc-rich primer at
2.0-3.0 mils D.F.T., followed by 3.0-5.0 mils of
polyamide epoxy or vinyl. Finish the job with a
suitable gloss finish coat of either polyamide
epoxy, vinyl, polyamine epoxy or aliphatic
urethane depending upon conditions (Appendix B,
#A).
If the tank is outside and exposed to sunlight,
use the system above with the aliphatic urethane
finish coat. If there is no strong chemical environment, a system of SSPC-SP 6 Commercial Blast,
433
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*37.6
93
= 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883
33
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4
Structural steel in wet processing areas. Epoxy zinc-rich primer
and high-build epoxy intermediate coat applied in the fabricator
shop. Gloss epoxy finish applied after erection.
Courtesy of Porter Coatings
434
Not for Resale
Use coatings recommended in the New Construction section of this chapter. Tie-coats of alkyd
SSPC CHAPTERbL7.b
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Application
Film thickness of the coating system is a key factor in the success of maintenance (See SSPC-PA
2). All prominent points, such as bolt heads, sharp
edges and welds should receive an extra coat of
primer or topcoat with either brush or spray. When
a roller is used, two coats are usually required to
achieve the specified edge film thickness.
435
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*L7-6 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003883 806
FIGURE 5
Piping and Equipment. Rust inhibitive polyamide epoxy primer
with aliphatic urethane finish coat.
Courtesy of Porter Coatings
necessary items should be verified. During application, wet film thickness measurements
should be made and visual checks done for sags,
runs, curtains and other application problems.
After application full inspection should be performed on all coated surfaces. This should include dry film thickness measurements and
checks for adhesion and final appearance.
A conscientious and well structured
maintenance painting program saves dollars. It
also results in a cleaner, safer, more pleasant and
efficient processing plant.
3. Simplified Interpretation
a. Meat and Poultry Plants - must have USDA approval on all coatings in process areas. Any direct
food contact requires the second level of USDA
approval. Coating manufacturers must provide
copies of letters to the user upon request.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mulation, product name, or product label, all approvals are lost and the coating must be resubmitted for evaluation and approval.
2. FDA
The FDA is responsible for maintaining safe and
sanitary conditions in all food processing plants,
other than those covered by the Meat and Poultry
Inspection Program.
The FDA does not approve coatings, but has
guidelines for acceptability of protective coatings
on food and drug contact surfaces. It is the
responsibility of the coatings manufacturer to certify that the coating product is acceptable under
FDA guidelines for this service.
The manufacturer must do two things: formulate the coating entirely of materials listed as
acceptable under FDA Title 21, Paragraph
175.300; and run specific extractability tests as
detailed in Paragraph 175.300. If a coating passes
the extractability tests, the manufacturer may certify its acceptability for application to direct food
contact surfaces. This certification letter is the
equivalent of a USDA approval letter for the same
service.
436
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.6
93
APPENDIX A
EXPOSURE
PREFERRED
SYSTEM*
SURFACE
PREP
ALTERNATE
SYSTEM
SURFACE
PREP
COMMENTS
Structural &
Misc. Steel
Interior
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
Structural &
Misc. Steel
Exterior
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
Piping
Interiori
Exterior
(UP to
225F) (107C)
SSPC-SP 6
SSPC-SP 6
Piping
Interiori
Exterior
225 "-300"F
(107 "-149 OC)
SSPC-SP 6
Piping
Interior/
Exterior
300 "-700 "F
(149"-371"C)
SSPC-SP 10
None
CeilingsGalvanized &
Phosphatized
Steel
Interior
Detergent
Wash
Ceilings-Steel
Pre-coated not
Galvanized
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 10
and
SSPC-SP 3
Ceilings-Poured
or Precast
Concrete
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 7
WallsConcrete Block
Interior
I
or
J
Paint only
clean, dry
surfaces
Paint
only clean,
dry
surfaces
Walls-Poured
or Precast
Concrete
Interior
SSPC-SP 7
SSPC-SP 7
Floors-Poured
Concrete
InteriorVery aggressive
Areas
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Shot Blast
None
Floors-Poured
Concrete
InteriorNormal to
semi-severe
areas
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Shot Blast
SSPC-SP 7
or
Scarify
or
Acid Etch
or
J
SSPC C H A P T E R * L 7 * 6 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003885 b 8 9
APPENDIX A (Continued)
SUR FACE
TO BE COATED
EXPOSURE
PREFERRED
SYSTEM
(from Appendix 6)
SURFACE
PREP
ALTERNATE
SYSTEM
(from Appendix B)
SURFACE
PREP
COMMENTS
Pre-primed &
Pre-coated
Surfaces
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
SSPC-SP 3
None
Tank LiningsSteel
Interior-Dry
Foodstuffs or
Potable water
SSPC-SP 5
None
Tank LiningsConcrete
Interior-Dry
foodstuffs or
potable and
process water
SSPC-SP 7
None
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Copper
Interior
<225"F
(107C)
Sand to
remove
oxides
Sand to
remove
oxides
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Copper
Exterior
<225"F
(107 "C)
Sand to
remove
oxides
Sand to
remove
oxides
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Aluminum
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Aluminum
Exterior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
or
brush blast
Non-Ferrous
Metais
Galvanized Steel
Interior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
Non-Ferrous
Metals
Galvanized Steel
Exterior
SSPC-SP 1
and
acid etch
SSPC-SP 1
and
wash prime or
acid etch
Plaster, Stucco
and Brick
Interior
Acid etch
Acid etch
Plaster, Stucco
and Brick
Exterior
Acid etch
None
High Temp.
Steel Surfaces
Interior &
Exterior
300 "-800"F
SSPC-SP 5
SSPC-SP 5
New Equipment
(Carbon Steel
Surfaces)
interior &
Exterior
SSPC-SP 6
~~
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
438
Not for Resale
SSPC-SP 1
and
SSPC-SP 3
S S P C CHAPTER*17.b
93
A b 2 7 9 4 0 O 0 0 3 8 8 6 515
APPENDIX B
A.
2.5- 3.0
3.0- 5.0
1.5- 2.5
7.0- 10.5
C.
E.
3.0
6.0
6.5-
9.0
2.5- 3.0
1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
D.
2.54.0-
5.5-
8.0
4.0-
6.0
4.0-
6.0
2.0- 2.5
4.0- 6.0
6.0-
F.
2.0- 3.0
2.0- 3.0
4.0-
G.
8.5
6.0
to f i l l
3.0- 4.0
6.0- 7.0
9.0- 11.0
H.
4.06.0-
5.0
8.0
10.0- 13.0
I.
to fill
8.0- 9.0
8.0- 9.0
J.
K.
Floor System
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine (Optional color coat)
to fill
4.0- 6.0
2.0- 2.5
6.0-
8.5
6.0-
8.0
125.0-250.0
6.0- 8.0
137.0-266.0
L.
M.
4.0- 6.0
6.0- 7.0
10.0- 13.0
2.0-
2.5
2.5
3.5-
5.0
1.5-
439
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B.
SSPC
CHAPTERmL7.b
APPENDIX
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0003887 451
B (Continued)
Dry Film Thickness (Mils)
SYSTEM
N.
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.0
1.5- 2.0
5.0-
O.
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.0
P.
Q.
3.5-
5.0
2.0-
3.0
2.0-
3.0
5.0- 7.0
5.0- 7.0
7.0
10.0- 14.0
4.0- 6.0
4.0- 6.0
4.0-
6.0
12.0- 18.0
S.
4.0- 6.0
2.0- 2.5
6.0-
T.
1.5- 2.5
1.5- 2.5
3.0U.
v.
8.5
5.0
2.0- 2.5
2.0- 2.5
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamide
1 ct. Epoxy-Polyamine
4.0-
5.0
2.05.0-
3.0
6.0
7.0- 9.0
W.
1.5- 2.5
X.
1.5- 2.5
2.0- 3.0
1.5- 2.5
3.5-
Y.
Z.
5.0- 6.0
5.0-
6.0
0.3-
0.7
3.0-
5.0
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5.5
440
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERUL7.b 9 3
BIOGRAPHY
Steve L. Schmidt is Vice
President Marketing for Courtaulds Heavy Duty Coatings,
Louisville, KY. His eighteen-year
career has included experience
in all facets of protective coatings. He founded Porter International in 1989 and is the author
of numerous articles on protective coatings technology. He is
an active member of the National Association of Corrosion Enqineers and has served on
the Executive Committee of the Board of Governors of the Steel
Structures Painting Council.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: A.R. House, John Montle, Dan Nemunaitis, Dave R o h son, Bill Wallace, Tom Wilhelm.
44 1
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7.7
93
CHAPTER 17.7
FIGURE 1
Installing the nuclear reactor at Hanford Station. The interior of
the containment vessel is coated with a special nuclear grade
coating.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
442
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*L7=7 93
Courtesy GilbertlCommonwealth
FIGURE 2
Three Mile Island Nuclear Power Plan!, Middletown, PA. Uni! 1 is on right. Uni! 2 in operation (prior to accident).
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
443
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
444
Not for Resale
S S P C CHAPTER*L7.7
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003892 819
TABLE 1
FOSSIL FUEL PLANTS
Coal Handling:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); inorganic zinc primer with epoxy topcoat, or a
total epoxy system (primer and topcoat).
Structural Steel:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); inorganic zinc primer with topcoats of either
epoxy, polyurethane, chlorinated rubber, or
acrylic latex for exteriors; silicone alkyd on
interior, but usually with alkyd primer.
Hydraulic
Structures:
High Temperature
Surfaces:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6) or better; use an all-silicone system or an inorganic zinc alone or topcoated with a
silicone.
Mechanical
Equipment:
Commercial blast clean (SSPC-SP 6); alkyd primer and topcoat with alkyd enamel.
FGD Systems
(Exterior):
FGD Systems
(Interior) (Stacks,
Duct Work, Venturi
Area):
White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP 5); conditions and designs vary greatly; reinforced
polyesters, fluoroelastomers, reinforced
epoxies, rubber, foam glass block, and
cementitious materials have all experienced varied success.
Water Treatment
(Exterior exposure):
Potable Water:
Courtesy: GilbertiCommonwealth
FIGURE 5
Corrosion failure inside 1000 ft. flue gas stack of desulfurization
unit after 1% years service. Over 1700 holes were found in the
polyester lining and the stack itself due to acid attack. After reapplication of a fluoroelastorner, the unit is still in operation after
four years.
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A. PRIMERS
Economics are an important factor in daily operations. Time is money. This also applies to painting, particularly in fabrication shops. With large quantities of steel
being shop primed, shop production must not be
obstructed by long delays waiting for primers to dry. There
is a need for fast-dry primers.
Care must be taken when specifying primers if the majority of priming work is done in the shop. Fast dry primers
are available in most generic types including alkyds
(modified), epoxies, vinyls and inorganic zincs. Because of
their fast dry properties, these products usually require a
cleaner surface than slow drying penetrating primers.
Another consideration created by construction practices is the result of extensive on-site storage of shopprimed equipment and structural steel. Construction time
for most power plants, particularly nuclear, is 8 to 10 years,
with frequent delays being common. Most construction
primers were not intended to withstand long-term outdoor
storage without a top-coat. Frequently, shop-primed structures require total re-prime by the time they are ready for
top-coating because of their exposure to the elements. A
partial answer to this problem is found in zinc-rich primers,
particularly inorganic zincs.
As discussed in the chapter on zinc-rich paints, inorganic zincs have excellent resistance to most outdoor
weathering environments, but are not problem-free. Since
zinc is a very reactive metal and is amphoteric (corroded by
both acid and alkaline environments), it can be attacked if
the construction site storage area is subjected to acid or
alkaline fall-out from any up-wind facilities. Coal dust, a
fact of life around fossil plants, can be detrimental to inorganic zincs, either by their galvanic relationship (carbon
versus zinc) or the acidic conditions of some high sulfur
coals. There have been problems with storage of inorganic
zinc primed structures due to inadvertent contact with uncoated steel (again a galvanic corrosion problem). Corrosion occurs by the formation of zinc salts from puddling
water on the primed surfaces.
TABLE 2
NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
Criteria for selecting these systems include
identification of specific surface and
substrate condition. Coatings criteria include temperature, humidity, radiation
level, decontaminability and chemical
resistance. Level 1 coatings tests involve
resistance to fire, radiation, design basis
accident and unusual environmental conditions.
Suppression
Chambers:
White metal blast clean (SSPC-SP5); use inorganic zinc primers (without topcoats),
epoxy or modified phenolic primers and
topcoats, or metallized aluminum, with
epoxy or epoxy-phenolic topcoats.
Steel
Containment:
Concrete Walls
and Floors
Structural Steel:
(Outside of
Containment)
Building Siding:
Hydraulic
Structures:
Mechanical
Equipment:
B. FINISH COATS
Water Treatment
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General:
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= 8b27940
0003894 691 W
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Duane Bloemke, J. Byers, Harlan Kline, M. Masciale, Marshall McGee, John Montle, Bill Pearson. T. Rudaitis, M. Shook, Bill
Wallace, Frank Windler.
worked in the petroleum industry, heavy chemical production, engineeringkonstruction, and consulting engineering. He is a
registered professional engineer in several states, and a National
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) certified Corrosion
Specialist. He holds memberships in the Steel Structures Painting
Council, NACE, the American Society for Testing & Materials, the
American Water Works Association and serves on several technical committees in each organization.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
REFERENCES
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Manual of Coating Work for Light-Water Nuclear Power Plant Primary Containment and Other Safety-Related Facilities. ASTM, 1916 Race
St., Philadelphia, PA 19103-1187, 1979.
2. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N512, Protective
Coatings (Paints) for the Nuclear Industry. ANSI, 11 West 42nd
St., 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002, 1974.
3. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.2, Protective Coatings (Paints) for Light-Water Nuclear Reactor Containment Facilities. ANSI, 11 West 42nd St., 13th Floor, New York,
NY 10036-8002, 1972.
4. American National Standard Institute, ANSI N101.4, Quality
Assurance for Protective Coatings Applied to Nuclear Facilities. ANSI, 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018, 1972.
5 . National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Publications
6D170, Causes and Prevention of Coatings Failures. National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, P.O. Box 218340, Houston,
TX.
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CHAPTER 18
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003896 464
Many agencies prepare general guides for the selection and use of paints and coatings. One of the best known
is the Tri-Service Manual, Paints and Protective
Coatings(I*). Another is the National Bureau of Standards, Organic Coatings - Properties, Selection and
Use[131,available from the U.S. Government Printing Office. More specific instructions are also available. Of
special interest because of excellent technical contents
are Naval Ships Technical Manual, Chapter 631 (formerly
9190), Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
Cathodic Protection)[14,General Specifications Section
631, Guide for Painting Ships Under C ~ n s t r ~ ~ t i o n ~ ~ ~ ~
and U.S. Coast Guard Manual, Coatings and Color
Manua1(I6).The previously mentioned specifications also
provide much detailed information on painting specific
structures and provide guidance useful in preparing contracts.
Federal Specification No. 595 Colors presents a collection of standard colors used by the federal government
for a variety of materials, including coatings. These standard colors, identified by 5-digit numbers and defined by
colormetric data, can be used to select and procure a
coating with the desired color. The standard also includes
449
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93
m 8627940
0003897 3T0
TABLE 1
ADDRESSES OF REFERENCED ORGANIZATIONS
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application, required wet andlor dry film thickness, complete curing, acceptable appearance of applied paint, and
absence of holidays and other defects. They also check t o
determine that a l l health, safety, a n d environmental
restrictions are met in full.
The federal government has a unique system for the
procurement of painting materials and services. It w a s
designed to obtain such materials and services t h a t meet
satisfactory standards at minimum costs. It is only f r o m a
thorough understanding of t h i s system b y government a n d
private industry t h a t a satisfactory relationship between
t h e m c a n be reached.
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REFERENCES
1. Selling to the Military, Sup. Doc. Stock No. 008-000-00226-6,
Superintendent of Documents.
2. An Introduction to the Defense Supply Agency, Public A f fairs Office, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA 22314.
3. A Guide for Private Industry, Department of Defense Single
Stock Point for Standards and Specifications. 4NDNPFC-412013 (Ref. 1-75), Plate No. 17023, Navy Publications
and Form Center.
4. How to Obtain Consideration for Architect-Engineer Contracts with Department of Defense, Office of Assistant
Secretary of Defense (I&L). Sup. Doc. No. 008-007-02778-6,
Superintendent of Documents, June 1976.
5. Selling to Navy Prime Contractors NAVMAT P-1030. Chief
of Naval Material, Navy Publications and Forms Center, July
1976.
6. F-M, Standardization Policies, Procedures, and Instruction, Defense Standardization Manual 4120.
Superintendent of Documents, Jan. 1972.
7. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and
Budget letter to the Heads of Executive Departments and
Establishments, Nov. 30, 1976.
8. Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation of
Specimens and Associated Documents, MIL-STD-961.Navy
Publications and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
9. Outline of Forms and Instructions for the Preparation Standards and Military Handbooks, MIL-STO-962. Navy Publications and Forms Center, Sep. 22, 1975.
10. Standardization Directory 1 July 1977, SD-1, Navy Publications and Forms Center (updated quarterly).
11. Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, and Related Materials; Methods for
Testing of, Federal Test Method Standard No. 141, Feb. 1,
1979 with later change notices, Navy Publications and Forms
Center.
12. Paints and Protective Coatings; Army TM 5-618, NAVFAC
MO-110, and Air Force AFM 85-3; Superintendent of Documents.
13. A.G. Roberts, Organic Coatings Properties, Selection and
Use. National Bureau of Standards Building Science Series
7, Feb 1978, Superintendent of Documents.
14. Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and Cathodic Protection), Chapter 631 (Formerly 9190). Naval Ship Systems
Command (1979). US. Government Printing Office.
15. General Specifications for Ships of the United States Navy,
Section 631, Department of Navy, 1978, Superintendent of
Documents.
16. Coatings and Color Manual CG 263, Department of
Transportation, U.S.Coast Guard, with Amendments 1 and 2,
July 1973, Superintendent of Documents.
17. K.L. Kelly and D.B. Judd, Color - Universal Language and
Dictionary of Names. National Bureau of Standards, (Dec
1976). Superintendent of Documents.
18. John D. Keane, Systems & Specifications. Steel Structures
Painting Manual, Volume 2, 1982.
19. Paint Manual, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 1976.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: AI Beitelman, Leon Birnbaum, Dave Bloodgood, R. Brady,
Paul Campbell, A. Chasan, T. Corboy, T.A. Cross, Hing Dear, Ted
Dowd, J. Foster, Harlan Kline, Melvin Sandler, and Bill Wallace.
The chapter was also presented to the following for advance
review: B. Appleman, Duane Bloemke, R. Brown, Jack Kiewit, and
Bill Pearson.
BIOGRAPHY
Richard W. Drisko has BS,
MS, and PhD degrees from
Stanford University. He has
been employed at the Navys
Civil Engineering Laboratory
since 1950 and is currently the
Director of the Materials Science Division. His special area
of expertise is protective coatings. He is a member of various committees of the SSPC. He
is also involved in the development of their inspection manual. He has belonged to several
technical societies such as the
American Chemical Society, the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, and the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology, serving in organizational offices and on technical committees,
chairing symposia and presenting papers, and authoring articles
in scientific journals. He has also served in offices of civic, health,
and professional organizations and is a registered professional engineer (corrosion) in the State of California.
BIOGRAPHY
Howard G. Lasser has BS,
ChE, and D.Eng. degrees from
Lehigh University, Columbia
University, and Darmstadt Polytechnic Institute, respectively.
He has worked for different organizations in the federal
government for about 30 years
and industry for 12 years
specializing in application and
uses of coatings. Currently he
is a chemical engineer with
Materials Research Consultants. He has authored about 500 technical articles and specifications and has received six patents. He is a member of numerous
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CHAPTER 19
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I. INTRODUCTION
93
B. WHOM TO TRAIN
Once objectives are determined, a training program
can be designed and trainees selected. A program could
be designed for the entire paint department, with special
emphasis for different job categories. For example, firstline supervisors can be trained for management duties
while painters receive training in airless spray equipment,
application of inorganic zinc or in safety and health procedures. Who is trained depends on the previously determined needs. There is a great difference in training for
skills development and management responsibilities.
Training related to painting procedures can also be
designed for employees in other departments. If an objective is to design clearer specifications, then spec writers
should receive training, perhaps in conjunction with the
foremen in the paint shop. Other personnel who may be
trained in the paint shop are QA and QC managers, field inspectors or supervisors and program managers.
An effective level for training is with new employees.
At this point basic skills instruction can be taught,
especially if the employees are new to the field and unfamiliar with elementary painting procedures. This is also
a good time to introduce company policy to employees, no
matter what their status.
Employees already with the company can also be
trained. If an objective is to introduce new and better
equipment and techniques to painters, employees must be
brought up-to-date on changes. Training can be used as a
motivational tool, especially when an employee has potential and desire to move up.
Up and down the career ladder, all employees can
benefit from training, but only if the program is designed to
meet specific needs. It cannot be over-emphasized that
problem areas must be carefully determined and analyzed
to set objectives and decide which employees will benefit
most from a training program.
C. TRAINING METHODS
Once a company decides whom to train and what to
teach, several training methods can be chosen. It is important to remember that training adults is different from formal schooling. Training should be compatible with the way
adults learn. Trainers have identified certain patterns of
adult learning that are important when preparing training
programs. The following rules suggested by John Randall
apply to every type of learning, whether it is acquiring
skills, facts or changing attitudes.()
Adults must want to learn; they must have some
sort of an incentive, such as job advancement or a
raise in salary.
Adults learn only if they feel a need and can see the
immediate benefits, such as learning a technique
that makes a job easier.
Learning and retention rates are highest among
adults if they have active involvement in the learning process, such as immediate practice and continued use. This is especially true when learning
new and unfamiliar skills.
Adults build new learning on their previously acquired knowledge and experience. This is both an
asset and liability in terms of training. If knowledge
interpreted in terms of past experience does not fit
well with previous experience, it is likely to be rejected.
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D. WHO TRAINS
The use of staff members is a cost savings to a company implementing a training course. For example, a paint
shop foreman may be chosen to develop training materials
for painters because of experience in the field. The
foreman is familiar with the company policies, procedures
and objectives, as well as methods used. Trainees may
know the foreman and there is no need to establish
credibility.
There are some drawbacks. First, he may have no
experience in developing training materials and courses.
An excellent foreman may be a terrible instructor. Second, his responsibilities as a trainer are an addition to
his regular work. The training program is therefore not a
top priority and the extra work may cause resentment.
if the paint foreman is unfamiliar with designing and
implementing training courses, the company can send him
E. EVALUATION OF TRAINING
After implementing a training program a company will
want to know if it was worth the time and expense.
Trainers are continually trying different techniques of
measuring changes in human behavior.(4) One way to
evaluate a training program is to measure it in terms of onthe-job results. A successful program will meet the objectives set out in the beginning. Does the program address
specific areas of need determined by the company? If
workers are applying knowledge and skills, are on-the-job
improvements visible? Have the costs been reduced or production increased? In addition to observing workers,
trainees can be asked if they felt it was effective. Trainees
reactions and evaluations may provide valuable insights
for future programs.
Unexpected benefits can also arise, for instance, improved morale, a greater sense of identification with a
company and a decrease in organizational tensions. One
study indicated that from the supervisors viewpoint, what
they learned was a secondary benefit of training.(3) Researchers found the primary benefit was that trainees had
an opportunity to share and discuss problems with others
in similar fields. The fact that the company had involved
them in a training program showed their problems were a
concern of management. Being included in the program
also instilled a sense of importance among a group of
workers who found themselves easily frustrated by their
jobs. All of these factors contributed to a decrease in personnel tensions.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Robert F. Brady, Jr., Alexander S. Chasan, Dr. Richard
Drisko, Robert Klepser, R. McClelland, Marshall McGee, E.
Praschan, L.M. Sherman, and William J. Wallace, Jr.
BIOGRAPHY
Jay I. Leanse is Chairman of
the Procos Group of Companies,
manufacturers and distributors
of paints, coatings and color. In
addition, he is President of the
Institute of Applied Technology,
a technical and training organization concerned with painting
and coating practices and
productivity.
REFERENCES
1. John D. Keane and Joseph A. Bruno, Jr., Evaluation of LowSolvent Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel,
Steel Structures Painting Council, October 1981.
2. Anonymous, Working on the Railroad, Modern Painfs and
Coatings, October 1978.
3. James A. Belasco, and Harrison Trice, Unanticipated
Returns of Training, Training-and Development Journal, July
1969.
4. Ronald J. Burke, A Plea for Systematic Evaluation of Train.
ing, Training and Development Journal, August 1969.
5. Robert Katz, Human Relations Skills Can Be Sharpened,
Harvard Business Review, July-August 1956.
6. Donald L. Kirkpatrick, Determining Training Needs: Four
Simple and Effective Approaches, reprint from Training and
Development Journal, 1975.
7. John Randall, You and Effective Training: Part 2 - The Learning Process, Training and Development Journal, June 1978.
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CHAPTER 20
I. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
The thermal spraying process consists of melting the
metal or ceramic and then spraying it onto a prepared surface by means of compressed gas, which aids in the division of the molten particles and the projection from the
vicinity of the melting onto the surface. One tool commonly used is a hand-held gun with an air motor that draws the
metal in wire form through knurled feed rolls into an
oxygen-fuel gas flame where the wire is melted. The
molten metal is then projected onto the prepared surface
by the products of combustion augmented by an air blast.
The metal wire, (usually zinc or aluminum) is ordinarily
or Jlis" (3.2mm or 4.8 mm) diameter. Such a gun is capable
under ideal conditions of spraying zinc at a rate of 60
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l. CHARACTERISTCS
OF SPRAYED METAL
Certain characteristics are common to all sprayed
metal deposits, and a knowledge of the manner in which
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93
TABLE 1
PROPERTIES OF SPRAYED METAL DEPOSITS
Sprayed Metal
Aluminum
Tensile Strength*
(PSI) kgkm2
19,500 (1371)
Shrink
(infin.)
0.007
13,000 ( 914)
0.01o
Zinc
Spec. Gravity
(Yo of
Orig. Wire)
(Rockwell)
94.1
H 72
89.0
H 46
Hardness
*These figures will vary with the method of measurement and are intended as a guide only.
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seriously, but the presence of rust indicates a strong probability that some adsorbed moisture will seriously affect
the bond.
Oil or moisture originating in the air used for the blast
operation can cause trouble. Thus, additional oil or
moisture separators are often required or specified in the
compressed air lines. Occasionally, even the humidity of
the air in contact with the area to be sprayed must be controlled. Dehumidifiers with large volumes, for instance,
can be used inside closed vessels and ships.
Thick sprayed metal coatings require a rougher surface than thin coatings, and aluminum requires a rougher
surface than zinc of equal thickness. With any given
abrasive, roughness may be increased somewhat by increasing the air pressure. As a rule, however, the required
roughness is obtained by selection of the proper abrasive.
Several types of abrasive, so long as they are angular
and sharp, may be used for the blast cleaning operation.
On inside work where the abrasive can be reclaimed,
angular chilled iron grit or aluminum oxide is generally
used. This material may be reused from ten to one hundred
times if kept free from contamination and excessive fines.
The most commonly used material for inside work is
angular chilled iron grit, size numbers SAE G-18and G-40.
The size depends on degree of roughness and bond
strength required. Suction feed, force feed, and centrifugal
blast machines are used. Adequate ventilation or respiratory protection and eye and ear protection must be provided for the operator.
A. ADVANTAGES OF SEALERS
Among the advantages of combination coatings are:
Providing both barrier and cathodic protection
against corrosion;
Providing superior adhesion for painting as
compared to most metal surfaces;
Permitting the wide variety of color finishes
that are available in paints;
Reducing tendencies of the sprayed metals to
retain dirt and dust; and
Offsetting the relatively high cost of sprayed
metal by using a thinner sprayed coating and a
proper sealer.
B. DISADVANTAGES OF SEALERS
Disadvantages of sprayed metal as a paint base are:
It usually requires more paint to cover a given
area because of the rough and porous nature of
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A. ZINC
Zinc wire with a minimum purity of 99.9% is used. A
coating 0.003 inches (0.08 mm) thick provides one and onehalf ounces per square foot of surface (460 glsq. m.)
and compares in weight with the average galvanized
coating. However, the user is not limited to this thickness,
but may apply coatings up to 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) thick.
Zinc applied by hot-dipped galvanizing has a life roughly in
proportion to its thickness. The same is generally true of
heavy coatings of sprayed zinc and of light coatings i f
properly sealed. Unless sealed, thin coats of sprayed zinc
0.001 inches to 0.003 inches (0.025 mm to 0.076 mm) may
corrode quickly because of electrolysis which occurs at
the voids. Under conditions that result in the formation of
dense, relatively insoluble salts in the pores of the zinc,
sealing may not be necessary. Such a condition would exist in well aerated fresh water having a pH value of 8 to 9.
Zinc is at its best in the pH range of 7 to 10, but under some
conditions it may show good resistance in slightly acidic
environments.
On outside structures having areas not readily accessible, zinc probably has an advantage over aluminum
because of the greater electrolytic protection it affords. In
a sense, sprayed zinc coatings can often be considered as
a form of cathodic protection. Sprayed zinc used on
underground or immersed surfaces will confer a measure
of protection to other parts of the structure that are bare.
While there may be some superficial rusting at adjacent
areas, heavy attack and pitting is often prevented in the
same way that zinc slabs on a ship hull prevent serious pitting at breaks in the paint. The coating will, of course,
sacrifice to the extent that it protects bare steel areas, and
if the ratio of bare area to coated area is large, the coating
cannot be expected to last very long.
Highly reactive wash prime treatments containing
over 4% by weight of acids, which may be suitable for hotdipped zinc, should not be used prior to applying sealers or
top-coats. Straight oil bases, alkyd-oil bases, and short oil
of 100% phenolic bases are not generally satisfactory.
Recommendations of recognized contract shops should
be taken with regard to the proper sealers, usually special
vinyls. Chlorinated rubbers are not recommended.
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A program sponsored by the American Welding Society subcommittee on Thermal Spraying studied the actual
results of more than four thousand test panels exposed to
various environments at eight different test sites for nineteen years. The results of this program have been published in Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel
19-Year Report, AWS-C2-14-74,Miami, Florida. Exposures
include total and half tide immersion in sea water, as well
as rural, seacoast and industrial atmospheres. (See Appendix A.)The report lists the results in eight general areas
as follows: (See Appendix A of this chapter for the conclusions as they appear in the 19-Year Report.)
1. Aluminum-sprayed coatings
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TABLE 2
TYPICAL THERMAL SPRAYED SYSTEMS
EXPOSURE
SPRAYED METAL
Rural Atmospheres
Aluminum
0.004
THICKNESS
0.1
Rural Atmospheres
Zinc
0.003
0.076 mm
Industrial Atmospheres
Mild (light)
Aluminum
0.004
0.1
Aluminum
0.006
0.15 mm
SEALING OR PAINTING
Severe (heavy)
Marine Atmospheres
Mild (light, no salt spray)
Zinc
Zinc
0.15 mm
Zinc
0.010 0.25 mm
Zinc
0.012
Aluminum
Aluminum
0.006
High Temperature
0.006
No subsequent treatment.
0.3
B. ALUMINUM
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TABLE 3
TYPICAL METAL SPRAYING DATA*
The following numbers are from tables contained in a typical equipment handbook and
represent the theoretical performance of new equipment under optimum conditions. Use with
discretion.
Wire Size
Inches
mrn
Aluminum
7
16
4.76
Aluminum
'is
%6
Zinc
'i,
Zinc
Weight
Pounds
kg
Acetylene
cu.lt.
CU.
rn.
Coverage
Per Hour"
sq.lt.
sq. rn.
17.6
8.0
80
2.27
39
1.12
250
23
3.17
10.7
4.86
78
2.21
38
1.1
157
15
4.76
61.0
27.7
84
2.38
41
1.16
247
23
40.7
18.5
81
2.29
40
1.13
160
15
3.17
applied zinc coating 0.005" thick (5 mils or 0.127 mm) requires the spraying of approximately 0.25 Ibs. (4.0 oz.) of
INORGANIC
'h" AL.
ZN
Xe"
ZN
ZINC
100 sq.ft./hr.
150 sq.ft./hr.
100 sq.ft./hr.
150 sq.ft./hr.
350 sq.ft./hr.
(9.359 sq.m./hr.)
(13.9 sq.m./hr
(9.31 sq.m./hr
(32.5 sq.m./hr
(32.5 sq.m./hr)
space, no scaffolding,
5 mils thick
(.127 mm)
7# AL.
5 mils thick
5 mils thick
5 mils thick
4 mils thick
(.127 mm)
(.127 mm)
(.127 mm)
(.1 mm)
10.W AL.
(3.2 kg)
(4.8 kg)
25# ZN
(11.4 kg)
38# ZN
(17.3 kg)
ZINC RICH
350 sq.ft./hr.
(32.5 sq.m./hr.)
2% mils thick
(.O64 mm)
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Field Performance:
D. COSTS
Blasting costs, subject to a great deal of variation, are
discussed elsewhere in this manual. It should be noted
that the blasting requirements for thermal spraying work
are high, and fall in the category classified as "White
462
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 0 * 0 93
REFERENCES
E. HAZARDS
Appendix A
- Eight Conclusions as
They Appear
in 79-Year Report
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SSPC CHAPTERlc20.0
93
8b27940 0 0 0 3 9 1 1 5 T 0
BIOGRAPHY
S. John Oechsle, Jr. has been
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
BIOGRAPHY
Prior to his retirement, John
N. Childs, Jr. served as Chairman of the Board of Metalweld,
Inc. He had also held the positions of Vice President - Engineering, Treasurer, and of
Manager, Industrial Maintenance Division. Before his employment with Metalweld, Mr.
Childs was employed as an engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he
received his B.S. in Electrical
Engineering, and served as Engineer and Project Engineer at the
Naval Research Laboratory in Boston.
Mr. Childs professional activities have included membership
in the American Welding Society, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a Registered
Professional Engineer in the states of Pennsylvania and California.
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CHAPTER 21
II. INTRODUCTION
Many methods have been employed to fight the expensive corrosion of steel. These include painting, cladding with a relatively thick layer of metal less susceptible
to rust and developing special steel alloys to withstand
highly corrosive conditions. One of the most widely used
methods for protecting steel is to coat it with a relatively
thin layer of some other metal.
Among the common metals used for this purpose are
zinc, lead, tin, copper, nickel, chromium and aluminum.
Because of its special advantages, zinc is used for protective coatings far more than any other metal. The principal
reasons for its use are that it has inherent corrosion
resistance; it is easy to apply (relatively low melting point,
787F); it is relatively inexpensive and readily available;
it has a hard, smooth surface which is comparatively resistant to abrasion; and it is highly amenable to continuous
processing.
Zinc is one of the most versatile materials available
for coating other metals. It can be applied as a metal by
hot dip galvanizing, flake galvanizing, electrodeposition,
thermal spraying or metallizing, mechanical or peen
plating, sherardizing or cementation, brush scratching or
rubbing, plasma arc spraying, shot blasting, vacuum
metallizing and non-vacuum vapor condensation deposition. Zinc dust can also be used as a pigment in protective
paints. Each of these methods of applying zinc coatings
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I. ABSTRACT
SSPC CHAPTERUZ3.O
93
= 8627940 0003933
has its specific reason for being and in certain applications is to be preferred. While there is always at least one
process applicable to any particular set of circumstances,
the processes are complementary rather than competitive,
so that rarely are more than two to be seriously considered
as the best choice for a particular job. Economic aspects
are important factors in making the decision. Where there
is little difference in cost, consideration should be given to
the serviceability required.
Factors such as size, shape and complexity have to
be taken into account in choosing the most suitable process for a particular application.
In hot dip galvanizing, thoroughly cleaned steel or iron
is immersed in molten zinc and withdrawn to provide a
smooth, even coating that frequently has a crystalline,
spangled appearance. The galvanized coating is applied
by various means: hand-dipping of fabricated items of irregular shapes, either singly, e.g. for items such as structural beams, or in baskets for coating nails, bolts and
similar products; intermittent or semi-continuous
mechanical dipping of pipe; and a highly automated dipping that enables steel strip and wire to be galvanized by
passing continuously through molten zinc. Coatings produced by the third method are quite uniform in thickness
and are very ductile.
In the hot dip galvanizing operation the steel is first
cleaned of all foreign material before immersion in thezinc
bath. This is generally accomplished by removing grease,
oil and other foreign contaminants either by alkaline or
solvent degreasing and thorough rinsing, then by acid
pickling or blast cleaning and fluxing which further cleans
and activates the surface. One type of continuous
galvanizing surface preparation is effected by gas pickling
in an atmosphere which reduces and eliminates the oxide
film generally found on exposed steel. The steel is then immersed in the molten zinc which readily wets the clean
surface of the base metal and fuses with it to form the
coating. The thickness of the coating is largely determined
by the temperature of the bath, time of immersion, fluidity
of the bath, the rate of withdrawal from the bath, and the
thickness and weight of the article. On withdrawal from
the bath, coating thickness of strip sheet, wire and pipe is
further controlled by mechanical means. This text,
however, will concen?rate on hot dip galvanizing after
fabrication.
The process is very versatile and has been used to
protect articles ranging in size from very srnail to very
large. This size range, together with the ability to bolt (friction grip or conventional using galvanized bolts) or weld
prefabricated sections after galvanizing, enables almost
any structure to be galvanized. Of particular interest to the
process industries is the fact that tubes, open vessels and
complicated shapes can be galvanized inside and out in
one operation. All types of plain carbon and some low alloy
steels can be galvanized, as well as iron and steel
castings.
A. PICKLING
Since pickling is considered fully in another chapter
of this Manual, only those aspects pertinent to hot dip
galvanizing will be mentioned here. While the previous surface preparation procedures aim toward complete removal
of dirt, grime, grease and other contact contaminants,
scale has to be removed by pickling or blasting.
For pickling, suitably diluted sulfuric or hydrochloric
acid is used. The time required for pickling will depend
upon the surface condition and nature of the steel and the
thickness of the scale. Usually 10 to 15 minutes of immersion is sufficient.
Immersion time should be as short as possible to
minimize hydrogen absorption and undesirable attack on
the work surface. Inhibitors are recommended to minimize
attack on the metal. They lower acid consumption, reduce
hydrogen absorption, decrease acid fuming and help prevent burned work. In addition, they improve general
working conditions around the pickle tank.
If an effective inhibitor is used, no harm results from
leaving the material for a prolonged period in the pickling
acid. If no inhibitor i s used, hydrogen evolved when the
iron dissolves in the acid is liable to be absorbed by the
steel and may cause embrittlement or give rise to a
blistered coating when the material is dipped in the molten
zinc bath.
Hydrofluoric acid is required to properly prepare surfaces contaminated with silica from sand molds or
welding rods.
Scale removal must be complete to obtain high quality zinc coatings. Scale, if not removed, will result in uncoated or roughly coated areas. Although scale removal is
mandatory, overpickling will yield abnormally heavy zinc
coating and occasionally poor adhesion of the galvanized
coating.
Small articles are pickled in baskets or crates of
wood, monel metal or other suitable acid-resistant
material. Sheets are held in acid-resisting frames and are
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B. WASHING
Except when the pickling acid (hydrochloric acid)
serves also as a flux, an undesirable practice, the work
must be thoroughly washed after pickling. The first rinse is
best done in warm water because the iron salts dissolve
more easily. But a warm rinse must be kept slightly acid
(pH 3-4) to prevent hydrolysis of the ferric salts formed by
atmospheric oxidation; in the absence of acid, ferric
hydroxide would be deposited on the steel. The warm,
slightly acid rinse needs to be followed by a second dip in
cold running water to complete the removal of iron salts. It
is suggested that only cold water should be used for rinsing, and that the quantity should be kept small, again to
reduce hydrolysis.
C. BLAST CLEANING
Grit, shot or sand blasting are not commonly
employed as methods of surface preparation for hot dip
galvanizing. Acid pickling is less expensive and more practical; where it can be employed, it is generally used. In the
past, blasting was confined mainly to cleaning of ferrous
castings or heavily rusted articles. It is especially applicable to ferrous castings, since their complex and irregular surfaces require excessive pickling time which can
result in uneven, heavy galvanized coatings. Also, castings
do not respond to the conventional chemical cleaning
process employed by most galvanizers, primarily because
of burned-on sand from the casting operation.
Blast cleaning precludes hydrogen embrittlement, a
condition that can result from acid pickling. Its peening action has a tendency to minimize or eliminate stresses that
might be induced by severe cold work during fabrication.
Unlike acid pickling, it removes only surface contamination and does not attack the steel.
Very thick galvanized coatings can be obtained by
deliberately roughing the surface of work by blast cleaning. Also, it eliminates some problems of disposing of acid
waste.
E. DRYING
After fluxing and draining, the work is dried in a low
temperature oven. In the case of plates, spacers are
sometimes used to improve drying. Heat can be supplied
conveniently by passing the flue gases from the galvanizing bath through separate compartments forming the
sides of the oven. Products of combustion containing
sulphur must not enter the oven or come in contact with
the work before dipping. The temperature of the oven
should not exceed 300F (149"C), since the flux may
decompose if it is heated too strongly in drying. Iron salts
can also be formed during drying by interaction between
the flux and the metal surface, thus, the drying
temperature and time should not exceed what is
necessary to produce a degree of dryness that avoids
splashing during the subsequent galvanizing dip. In an
oven with a sufficiently high draught, rapid drying can be
done at 212F (100C).
D. FLUXING
After thorough washing, the work is dipped in a flux
solution. Fluxing is mandatory to dissolve any oxide film
that has formed on the steel after pickling and galvanizing,
and to absorb any remaining impurities on the metal surface, all to ensure that clean steel or iron contacts the
molten zinc. It also acts as a preheating and drying
medium to permit wet material to be immersed into the
galvanizing bath with a minimum of spattering. Reducing
oxidation of the molten zinc surface greatly lowers zinc
ash formation, minimizing bath degradation. Proper fluxing reduces the cost of galvanizing as well as heat loss.
The flux, of course, facilitates wetting of the steel by the
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B. SIZE OF KETTLE
The capacity of the kettle should exceed what is
necessary to accommodate the material being handled:
the articles have to be heated to the temperature of the
zinc during immersion, and unless the bath has sufficient
heat content and ample heating surface areas, high rates
of heating which shorten the life of the pot are required. A
formula for estimating the permissible throughput of a
galvanizing bath is that the weight of steel galvanized per
hour should not exceed one-twentieth of the weight of zinc
in the bath. If this formula is adhered to, rapid temperature
fluctuations can be avoided.
The real limiting factor is, however, the temperature of
the bath wall. Zinc melts at 787F (419C) and in the
molten state attacks all ferrous metals, the rate of attack
depending primarily upon the temperature and becoming
rapid about 878F (479C). The galvanizing bath should,
therefore, be run at the lowest possible temperature and
hot spots must be avoided. Hot spots can be prevented i f
the bath is very uniformly heated, and temperature carefully controlled.
C. WITHDRAWAL RATE
Rate of withdrawal from the spelter also influences
formation of spots. Steel strip of known spotting tendencies was galvanized under identical immersion time and
temperature. Samples withdrawn rapidly revealed considerably less spotting because zinc did not drain so rapidly from the surface, resulting in a heavier coating which
froze before it had opportunity to diffuse into the base
metal to form a spot. Slow withdrawal was accompanied
by deposition of 1.012 ounces of zinc per square foot with
bad spotting compared to 1.258 ounces per square foot for
rapid withdrawal with little spotting.
The rate of withdrawal controls the thickness of the
coating between quite wide limits; the faster the rate, the
heavier the coating. Thus, for control of thickness and
elimination of waste, a multi-speed, power driven hoist is
advisable for most large work. Five feet per minute has
proved a convenient and satisfactory withdrawal rate for
many types of larger work.
In addition to the speed of withdrawal, the free zinc
portion of the coating will be influenced by the temperature of the bath. For a given withdrawal speed, the
amount of free zinc that mechanically attaches itself to
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SSPC C H A P T E R * Z L . O
the existing work will decrease as the temperature increases. This is due to a slight change in the fluidity of the
zinc and also to the improved drainage that results from
the higher temperature metal.
When the coating is completed, the submerged parts
are moved to the flux-free area of the kettle, which should
be cleaned of oxide with a skimmer. Then the work should
be withdrawn with a slow, steady pull. The work is held
over the bath for a short time and allowed to drain. Shaking
the piece will facilitate draining. At this time, parts should
be inspected for uncoated spots, which usually appear
black. If such spots appear, they may be eliminated by
dusting the spot area with a pinch of sal ammoniac (,CI)
and reimmersing in the bath.
D. DROSSING
Galvanizing baths should be freed from dross at weekly or somewhat longer intervals. The bath should be allowed to stand for three hours before drossing to allow the
dross t o settle, at a temperature sufficiently low to
minimize the quantity of iron actually dissolved in the zinc.
E. TUBE GALVANIZING
Unfabricated tubes generally used for electrical conduits are usually galvanized by the manufacturer who has
a galvanizing plant designed for semi-automatic handling.
The protective coating forms on the inside as well as on
the outside of the tube. Normal practice is to smooth and
then to blow steam under pressure through the inside of
the tube to remove molten zinc and leave a smooth bore.
Consequently, the coatings on unfabricated tube are
usually thinner than those on tubular fabrications.
I. EMBRITTLEMENT
To prevent embrittlement during galvanizing, all
malleable castings should be heated to 1,200 to 1,500F
(649-816C) and water quenched. The holding time and the
temperature of the quench water are not important.
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F. PIPE ASSEMBLIES
While the surface must be thoroughly cleaned to produce the galvanized coating, pipe commonly presents two
special cleaning problems. The mill coating (varnish,
iacquer and similar materials) applied by the manufacturer
is normally removable at the galvanizing plant at extra
cost. However, because some formulations, both foreign
and domestic, are extremely difficult to remove with common cleaning solutions, blasting may be required. Removing this mill coat at the galvanizing plant can be avoided by
ordering uncoated pipe from the supplier. Welding millcoated pipe burns and carbonizes the varnish in the surrounding heated areas. This soot requires blasting or
other mechanical removal. The burned coating could be
removed when blasting to remove weld flux, but if welding
has been done with an uncoated rod, any blasting or other
hand cleaning is expensive and highly impractical. Most
pipe is galvanized by the steel producer. Such pipe is used
as electrical conduit.
Varying with different types of steel, the rate of alloying is determined by composition of the base material.
With some compositions of the steel base, the rapid
reaction between zinc and steel produces coatings consisting entirely of (or almost entirely) zinc-iron compound.
These may be gray, with matte surface, and are usually
thicker with ordinary steel compositions. This condition
may be planned, as with pole line hardware using higher
silicon steels to secure unusually heavy coatings, or it may
be the unexpected result of the use of certain low-alloy,
high strength steels for their increased elastic strength.
Where undesirable appearance or reduced adhesion of the
coating accompanies such excessive growth, the
galvanizer may be able to modify his operations to relieve,
in part, this condition. Some of these fast growing
coatings consist of an intimate mixture of zinc-iron compound with zinc of the composition of the bath, and as
such are two phase materials with potential difference of
several tenths of a volt between the constituents. This may
adversely affect corrosion resistance in wet exposure, and
is usually accompanied by reduced adhesion of the
coating. Such structures are termed diffuse alloy.
G. CENTRIFUGING
Centrifuging or spinning is a common practice used
to control the thickness of the free zinc portion of galvan469
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
SSPC C H A P T E R x Z L - O 93
m 8627940 0003917
K. COATING THICKNESS
Coating thickness depends on the composition and
physical condition of the steel being treated and on a
number of factors within the control of the galvanizer. For
example, heavier coatings tend to be deposited on rough
surface and coarsegrained steel, and, at the same time,
the total thickness of the alloy layers tends to be slightly
greater at corners than at hollows.
The coating weight is controlled by the growth of the
iron-zinc alloy layer. Articles galvanized after fabrication
generally have coating weights of at least two ounces per
square foot of surface or the equivalent thickness of about
3.4 mils. The usual range is from 3.5 to 5.0 mils. Normally,
about half the coating thickness is iron-zinc alloy and half
is practically pure zinc.
When very long life is required, extra thick galvanized
coating can provide it. Prior grit blasting of mild steels will
enable the coating thickness to be increased by up to
50-1O0 O h wit hout c hanging the ga Iva nizi ng tech niques.
Coatings to five mils may be produced on reactive siliconcontaining steel (e.g. silicon-killed).
These thick coatings are very protective but will tend
to be a dull, dark grey because the alloy layers extend to
the outer surface. The galvanizer should be consulted if
coatings thicker than those normally given in ASTM and
other standards are required.
With steels of unknown compositions or those having
less than the optimum surfaces required for good galvanizing, constant monitoring should take place to check on the
coating thickness applied to ensure that zinc is not being
utilized uneconomically. Unfortunately, it is not possible
or practical to check the composition of each piece of
steel processed.
A. LIAISON
Considering that design, fabrication and zinc coating
are the three important areas in the production of a
galvanized product, close liaison must be maintained
among designer, fabricator, and galvanizer before the
product is manufactured and arrives at the galvanizing
shop. This three-way consultation can eliminate many
galvanizing problems before they arise.
Subjects worthy of joint decision-making are steel
selection, combinations of materials or surface, welding
procedure, cold forming, size and shape, venting and draining, pipe assemblies, minimizing distortion, overlapping
surfaces, castings and moving parts.
The galvanizer can explain how design and manufacture influences the quality of galvanizing. To derive maximum benefit from his services, it may be helpful to consult him frequently and become familiar with the requirements of the galvanizing process.
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93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 000391i8 955
F. TANKS
Tanks to be galvanized must be designed to produce
uniform coatings of correct thickness, especially on the inside surface. To be effective, the design must enable
careful handling.
There should be at least four openings 1 to 2 in
diameter in each tank, preferably two on one lengthwise
centerline on the shell and the other two on opposite
diameters to these, as close to the heads as is practical. It
is also desirable to have an opening in each head.
The opening must be placed so that the flux on the
part can float to the surface of the bath. It must also prevent air pockets that will keep pickle solution from completely cleaning the inside areas.
Vessels must be filled with pickling and cleaning solutions and emptied several times prior to galvanizing. The
cost of handling is determined by the size of the openings.
To prevent bare spots, side openings must be provided for
gas from pickling to escape. All openings inside the tank
must be flush.
In the submersion of a tank or fabricated product in
molten zinc at approximately 850 F (454OC), the proper
design allows for fast and complete filling of the tank with
zinc through a bottom opening while gas and moisture can
be freely liberated from a top opening.
In the removal of the tank, vessel or structure from the
bath, the zinc should flow from the bottom opening rapidly,
draining out excess zinc while air is freely admitted
through the top opening.
D. OVERLAPPING SURFACES
When contacting surface such as back angles and
channels cannot be avoided, all edges should be completely sealed by welding, since the viscosity of the zinc
prevents it from entering any space less than y32n.
There are further problems with tightly overlapping
surfaces. Pickling liquids that are trapped will volatilize to
steam when immersed in the galvanizing bath. The blowing out of this steam can prevent zinc from adhering to
the area adjacent to such a lap. If there is any retained
pickle liquor, it will weep out and can then damage the
galvanized coating while in service.
Pickling salts can be retained in these tight areas due
to the impossibility of adequate rinsing. The galvanized
coatings may be of good quality in the adjacent area, but
humidity encountered weeks or even months later may wet
these acid salts and cause unsightly rust staining to run
out on top of the galvanized coating.
Oils and greases trapped between tightly contacting
surfaces will not be effectively removed by the cleaning
solutions. They will partially volatilize at the galvanizing
temperature and prevent a satisfactory zinc coating in the
immediate area of the lap joint. Contacting joint surface
should be thoroughly cleaned before fabrication and then
completely sealed by welding.
If the area of an overlap is large, there should be
vented holes through one or both sides into the lapped
aieatopreventanymoisturethat gets in through a pin hole
in the weld from building up explosive pressure. This venting becomes more and more important as the area is larger
or as the steel is thinner.
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coating thickness.
However, certain combinations of elements may
result in a coating that is all or mostlyzinc-iron alloy. While
a description of the mechanism that causes the alloy type
coating is complex, the description of the coating
characteristics is not.
Even in cases where a steel is selected for considerations other than galvanizing, and the chemistry of the
elements (C, Mn, P and Si) exceeds the previously mentioned limits, it usually can be galvanized satisfactorily.
The grade of steel selected should be qualified with the
galvanizer so that he can determine what special galvanizing processing is required. Every attempt should be made
to see that steel to be galvanized is specified accordingly.
Grit blasting the entire assembly minimizes these differences in pickling requirements and results in a heavier
galvanized coating that gives a longer life at higher initial
cost.
Different techniques for pickling (solution concentrations, temperatures, immersion time) and galvanizing (both
temperatures, immersion time) are required for excessively
rusted surfaces; pitted surfaces; machined surfaces; cast
iron (especially with sand inclusions); cast steel; malleable
iron; hot rolled steel; cold rolled steel; and steels containing more than normal carbon, phosphorus, manganese
and silicon.
For acceptable quality, the galvanizer must be
notified of any steel compositions other than low carbon
steel. Combinations of steel, such as low carbon (0.15%
max.), medium carbon (0.15-0.30%), high carbon
(0.30-0.5%), high strength low-alloy, and high silicon will
result in different coating thicknesses and surface appearance. While this is not necessarily detrimental to certain applications, the designer and fabricator must consider it and consult their galvanizer in the planning stages.
With external vent holes, draining zinc flows over the
surface of the pipe and results in a generally rougher
coating. All sections of pipe must be vented to allow complete circulation of molten zinc through every area of the
fabrication.
SEMI-KILLED STEEL
1. Partially killed with silicon
2. Partially killed with aluminum
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A. IRON
The influence of any minor elements in the galvanizing bath on the galvanized product is of primary interest to
galvanizers. The first element to be considered is iron,
since reaction between iron and zinc is the basis for hot
dip galvanizing. As the work passes through the galvanizing bath, molten zinc reacts with the steel to form zinc-iron
alloys on the steel. These alloys constitute a true
metallurgical bond between the steel being processed and
the zinc in the kettle. Although the galvanizing process
depends upon the reaction of iron and zinc, iron has a very
low solubility limit in molten zinc. At about 850F (454C),
the solubility limit is 0.034% iron.
The presence of iron in the bath cannot be avoided in
practice, but it can become undesirable when enough of it
is in suspension as dross to be carried mechanically into
the coating. In abnormal quantity, it may form undesirable
projections or irregular patches of crystalline particles in
the coating.
0003720 503
B. LEAD
While some consider lead - in the amounts that are
soluble in zinc - as having no influence on the physical
properties or life of galvanized coatings, it is commonly
felt that its presence improves the coating. A certain percent of it is necessary for the production of spangles. lt
should be noted, however, that lead concentrations that
are too high may adversely affect adhesion between free
zinc and zinc alloy layers if the parts are exposed to
elevated temperatures.
The specifications for Prime Western Zinc sets a maximum limit for lead content at 1.4%; typical lead contents
are 1.0-1.3%. The solubility of lead in zinc is governed by
the temperature of the bath.
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F. MAGNESIUM
C. ALUMINUM
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Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ore and frequently is found in remelted varieties. It does not have a
detrimental effect upon the galvanized bath or the
galvanized coating. It might be present at a level of up to
0.1 Yo in commercially available Prime Western Zinc.
Cadmium significantly reduces the oxidation rate of
molten zinc, promotes coalescence of iron compounds,
which minimizes floating dross, and has a beneficial effect
on the flux blanket. When used alone it contributes fluidity
to the bath. Its effects are influenced by the presence of
small amounts of other elements. With antimony it gives a
medium to large frosty spangle.
E. COPPER
The typical copper content of Prime Western Zinc
used in galvanizing is almost always less than 0.5%.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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C H A P T E R * 2 L * O 93
2. Roughness
Surface roughness of the galvanized coating is
due to several factors. One of the causes is excessive or uneven growth of the alloy layers arising from the composition or surface condition of
the steel, which are factors outside the control of
the galvanizer. Features of the galvanizing process which can also give rise to general roughness
are over-pickling, excessive immersion in the bath
or excessive bath temperature.
The surface uniformity of the coating is controlled primarily by the drainage of the zinc as the
work leaves the galvanizing bath. A lumpy and
uneven coating results when the rate of
withdrawal is too fast or the bath temperature too
low to allow surplus zinc to run back into the bath.
Runs may also occur because of delayed drainage
from bolt holes, folds, seams and other pockets
where zinc collects. A similar effect may result
where articles are withdrawn in contact with each
other.
Often, however, the condition is due to high
silicon content of the steel. Another cause of
rough areas on galvanized surfaces is the
presence of dross inclusion in the coating
manifested as protrusion or nodules. In applications where the rough finish is aesthetically unacceptable or would interfere with the intended use
of product, it is rarely possible for the galvanizer
to effect any improvement; steel composition and
surface condition should be more closely
specified.
B. INFLUENCES OF TIME
The development of the galvanized coating is a function of the time in the zinc bath. Steel should be submerged as rapidly as possible and in line with safety practices for the operators safety. The total immersion time
will depend on the size and composition of the part. The
surface of the work must reach the melting point of the
zinc before galvanizing can begin. Once the steel has
reached the galvanizing temperature, the reaction between
the molten zinc and steel proceeds very rapidly; with additional time, the growth rate is much reduced.
D. DEFECTS
3. Peeling
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5. Pimples
Pimples are caused by inclusions of dross in the
coating. These may arise from iron salts carried
over on the work from the pickling tank which are
unable to escape from the surface of the coating.
Contamination may also arise from agitation of
the dross layer at the bottom of the bath. Dross
has a rate of corrosion similar to zinc, and its
presence as finely dispersed pimples is often objectionable. However, major dross inclusions are
normally grounds for rejections as they tend to
embrittle the coating.
7. Blisters
Blisters are occasionally encountered in galvanized surfaces. They vary in size from minute projections to large defects. Small fine blisters
sometimes are barely discernible to the eye.
Blisters are known to be caused by discontinuities in the basis steel traceable to the
presence of non-metallic inclusions, laminations,
piped steel, imperfectly welded blowholes,
seams or other faults. The nascent hydrogen
liberated by the reaction of the acid on the steel in
pickling diffuses readily through the steel and is
absorbed in these voids or inclusions. Upon
subsequent heating in the galvanizing operation,
the substantial increase in volume of the
hydrogen gas exerts pressure great enough to
raise the steel surface at points of discontinuity.
Properly made rimmed steels have a heavy
skin and are relatively free from the surface
blowholes that are a direct cause of seams, and
the occurrence of the defect is largely confined to
semi-killed and killed steels.
If the blister is in the free zinc layer, which it
usually is, it can be eliminated by regalvanized
without stripping. The free zinc layer is melted by
the galvanizing bath, allowing the gas to escape,
thereby eliminating the blisters. Similar blisters
can occur on malleable iron castings caused by
moisture or flux entrapped by the irregular surface profile.
6. Bare Spots
Because of the sacrificial action of the zinc,
localized flaws are usually self-healing and have
little effect on the coating life. Where considered
necessary such spots may be patched using one
of the repair methods available for restoring damaged galvanizing. Gross uncoated areas, however,
should be rejected unhesitatingly. Some of the
causes of bare spots in galvanized steel are
described below.
a. Under-Preparation. Remnants of paint, oil,
grease, scale, or rust are perhaps the most common cause of uncoated spots. Such residues are
not wetted by the molten zinc and, therefore, deter
the normal coating reactions. It cannot be
overstressed that thorough preparation of the
steel is the foundation of good galvanizing practice and calls for the utmost care and diligence in
its execution.
b. Welding Slag. Slag deposits from arc welding
are resistant to normal pickling acids and must be
completely removed before the work enters the
galvanizing process. Grit or sand blasting is
strongly recommended for this purpose and is
preferable to the less reliable method of hand
chipping and wire brushing. This cleaning is
usually done by the fabricator.
c. Rolling Defects in Steel. These defects may be
broadly classified as discontinuities in the steel
that have been closed and elongated during roll-
8. Gray Coatings
Gray coatings appear in small localized areas or
as a complete dull gray surface, with no spangle
at all usually, but on occasion in very small
spangles. This appearance is commonly caused
by diffusion of iron to form the zinc-iron alloy
phase at the surface of the coating. It first
develops as a localized dull patch or lace-work
pattern on an otherwise normal surface but may
extend over the entire surface. Gray coatings
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13. Residues
A number of reaction products or residuals stem
from the hot dip galvanizing process. These are
dross, ash, and flux skimmings. While their forma
tion cannot be totally-eliminated, it can be
minimized by exercise of controls and care in
practice. Dross is a pasty solid comprised of zinciron alloy and much adhering zinc. It is denser
than zinc and sinks to the bottom of the kettle.
While zinc-iron alloys contain 6-12% iron, dross
removed from the bottom of the galvanizing bath
analyzes at about 97% zinc and 3% iron.
X. AFTER-TREATMENTS
After galvanizing, the work may be quenched in water
or cooled in air, Small parts, such as nuts, bolts, and
washers that are galvanized in baskets in a batch are
usually centrifuged to remoye excess zinc before it
freezes.
No after-treatment is essential, but components are
often quenched to allow handling and to limit further
growth of the alloy layers that have a dark gray appearance.
9. Distortion
Because galvanizing takes place at the low end of
the stress-relieving temperature range, some
stress relief takes place and distort.ion or warping
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B. ELECTROGALVANIZING
In electrogalvanizing, steel strip or wire is fed continuously through suitable entry equipment, a series of
washes and rinses, and a plating bath. The pure zinc
coating deposited is highly ductile. Because of its excellent adhesion, electrogalvanized steel strip and wire
have good working properties, and the coating remains intact after severe deformation.
1. Strip and Sheet
Electrogalvanized steel is produced in strip coils
or sheets. Most products have a coating weight in
the range of 0.06 to slightly less than 0.2 oz. per
sq. ft. (0.00005 to 0.00017 in. thick on each side). A
small amount carries considerably less - about
0.025 oz. per sq. ft. (0.000021 in. on each side).
Electrogalvanized sheets are produced in
various tempers suitable for simple bending or
forming, for curving, and for rolling into cylinders
without fluting. Spot welding is easily accomplished provided care is taken.
Electrogalvanized steel is easily prepared to
receive decorative finishes. Much of it is produced
with a phosphate treatment or an organic coating.
The phosphate treatment provides adequate
tooth for a good bond with organic finishing
materials. Organic coatings applied over electrozinc so treated maintain good adhesion in
adverse conditions such as sudden changes in
temperature and high humidity. Phosphatized
electrogalvanized steel is used for parts subject
to atmospheric corrosion or salt spray, and for
parts that are to be lacquered or printed.
Phosphate treatment increases corrosion
resistance to a marked degree, particularly in atmospheres with a high sulfur content.
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Appendix
Specifications for Galvanized Coatings
Pertinent ASTM specifications concerned with zinc and
some technical practices are:
A 53 Standard Specification for Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot
Dipped, Zinc Coated Welded and Seamless
A 90 Methods of Test for Weight of Coating on ZincCoated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel Articles
A 111 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron Telephone
and Telegraph Line Wire
A 112 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Tie Wires
A 116 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Iron or Steel
Farm-Field and Railroad Right-of-way Wire Fencing
A 120 Spec. for Black and Hot Dipped Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe for
Ordinary Uses
A 121 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Barbed
Wire
A 123 Spec. for Zinc (Hot Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged
Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars, and Strip
A 143 Rec. Practice for Safeguarding Against Embrittlement of Hot Dip Galvanized Structural Steel Products and Procedure for Detecting Embrittlement
A 153 Spec. for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel
Hardware
A 385 Standard Practice for Providing High-Quality Zinc
Coatings (Hot-Dip)
A 591 Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Electrolytic
Zinc-Coated for Light Coatings Mass Applications
A 641 Spec. for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel
Wire
A 642 Spec. for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) by
the Hot Dip Process, Drawing Quality, Special Killed
A 767 Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A 780 Standard Practice for Repair of Damaged and Uncoated Areas of Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings
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2. Applications
Electrogalvanized sheet is used for manufacturing water cooler housings and exterior panels on
ranges, freezers, dryers, washers, air conditioners
and other major appliances. It is used for deepdrawn parts for kitchen cabinets, refrigerators
and allied products instead of plain cold-rolled
sheet because zinc holds better in the dies and
cuts down greatly on breakage. Bakery equipment
and other merchandizing display cases, stud systems for steel building construction, acoustic
ceiling members, and television masts are also
made of electrogalvanized steel.
ASTM Standard Specification A525 for Steel
Sheet, Zinc Coated (Galvanized) by the Hot Dip
Process is the master specification for galvanized sheet. It spells out the general requirements,
whereas other specifications go into specifics
more clearly. It lists the different kinds of surface
finishes available as well as supplementary
finishes to further retard corrosion such as oiling
and chemical treatments. The latter includes the
various chromate conversion coatings or
modifications thereof that are used for white rust
control.
ASTM Standard Specification A591 for Steel
Sheet, Cold Rolled, Electrolytic Zinc Coated is
the document covering the parameters of electrogalvanized steel.
XIII. CONCLUSION
Hot dip galvanizing methods and practices have improved considerably. The technical aspects of galvanizing
have .been emphasized. It is hoped that the design
engineer will benefit as well as the corrosion engineer
from this discussion. Zinc coated steel is the dominant
method used for economical long-term protection of steel
structures.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Willard Lantz, Howard Lasser, Marshall McGee, John
Montle, Jack Oechsle, Walter Pregmon, Walter Radut, Melvin
Sandler, and William Wallace, Jr.
REFERENCES
1. Specifying Galvanized Steel For Construction Projects. The
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BIOGRAPHY
Ernest W. Horvick has worked for the Zinc Institute, Weirton
Steel Company, Bell Aircraft and Minneapolis Honeywell, in
technical, supervisory and marketing capacities. He is a member
of ACS, the American Society for Metals, the Society of Die
Casting Engineers, the American Society for Testing and Materials, the National Association of Corrosion Engineers and is a Society of Manufacturing Engineers Certified Manufacturing Engineer
in the field of Inorganic Coatings.
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CHAPTER 22
I. INTRODUCTION
Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel is achieved by immersing cleaned steel in a bath of molten zinc. The zinc is metallurgically bonded to the steel to form a tight metallic layer
that provides both barrier and cathodic protection. Cathodic
protection comes into play wherever there are imperfections
in the zinc protective film.
The length of protection provided to steel structures is
related both to exposure environment and to the thickness
of the zinc, which is sometimes expressed in ounces per
square inch. Mils increasingly are also being used to describe
the thickness of the zinc film. Electrodeposition of zinc usually
results in much thinner films of zinc than does hot-dipping,
so that the latter is usually preferred for long-term protection.
Although galvanizing itself may provide many years of
protection to steel structures, coating will extend the period
of protection as well as provide other desirable features. This
chapter addresses the benefits of coating galvanized steel
and how best to achieve them. For more information on galvanizing, see chapter 21.
FIGURE 1
Galvanizing may be painted to extend corrosion protection. Early
corrosion of galvanized steel in tropical environment, caused by
water drainage problems.
required for cathodic protection on buried or immersed structures. The cathodic protection provided by galvanizing, or
an external cathodic protection system protect organic coatings from undercutting at holidays and other imperfections
that arise in the paint film with time.
B. APPEARANCE
Hot-dipped galvanizing of steel results in a metallic finish that may not be pleasing to some people for some applications. They may desire a finish to produce a more pleasing
appearance.
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111. BACKGROUND
Historically, there have been problems obtaining good
performances from organic coatings on galvanized steel.
These have usually been related to improper cleaning of the
galvanizing or improper selection of the organic primer.
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FIGURE 4
Rusting of steel through galvanizing. Zinc was badly corroded due
to exterior storage of siding.
FIGURE 3
Galvanizing may be painted for the purpose of color coding hazards, for instance aviation hazards.
fies danger, and is required for danger signs and for safety
cans containing flammable liquids. Red also signifies stop,
and is required for emergency stop bars, buttons or switches
on hazardous machines. The color yellow signifies caution
and is used to signal a structure, piece of equipment or other
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3 . Weathering
Another approach to obtaining improved primer
adhesion and coating performance is to allow the
galvanizing to weather for six months before painting. Although the surface roughness may contribute to better primer adhesion, surface contaminants
on weathered galvanizing may adversely affect the
coating performance. Thus, deliberate weathering
of galvanizing prior to coating is not recommended.
2. Cement Coatings
Cement coatings have been used on galvanizing,
but they are too rigid to expand and contract with
the metal. Also, they have saponification problems,
if drying oils are incorporated into their formulations.
B. COATING
1. Spraying
Application of coating systems is best accomplished
by spraying. This is another reason to coat galvanizing in a shop environment, where overspray will not
drift to some undesired surface.
5. Home Remedies
A number of home remedies have also been used
in the past to promote adhesion of the primer to galvanizing. These include washing with vinegar or a
solution of copper sulfate to produce surface texture. Neither was advantageous.
Surface treatments for galvanizing prior to
coating are not recommended, because they are
not necessary with the recommended coating systems and thus comprise an unnecessary expense.
Also, if not properly done this procedure may be
detrimental.
2. By Brush
Application of coatings by brush is normally
preferred in the field, where spraying may be a
problem. It can result in fairly uniform dry film
thickness.
3 . By Roller
Application of coatings by roller may be very effective on flat surfaces. It is less effective on surfaces
that are not flat and usually results in greater film
thickness variations than does brush application.
4. By Mitt
Application using a synthetic wool mitt is often done
on tall structures but is not recommended. It always
results in a great variation in coating thickness and
is usually messy.
A. CLEANING
1. Solvent Cleaning
New galvanizing is easily prepared for coating by
solvent cleaning (SSPC-SP 1) to remove any grease
or oil or washing with a mild detergent solution to
remove any dirt or other loose surface contaminant.
5. Striping
Prior to application of the primer coat, it is recom-
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Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
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Maintenance painting may be required to correct fading, discoloration or limited intercoat peeling, or when the
existing orange and/or white painted bands on tall structures
fail to meet the requirements of the color chart of the FAA
Advisory Circular 70/7460-lG.
Two generic coating systems are recommendedfor galvanizing, an epoxy system (with an aliphatic urethane finish
for exterior service) and an acrylic latex system.
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A. PROCEDURE
1. Surface Preparation
The only surface preparation required for cosmetic repairs is removal of paint chalk andlor other
loose surface contaminants by washing or scrubbing with a bristle brush. The weathered coating exteriors will have sufficient texture to permit good
adhesion of finish coats.
The damaged coating should be scrubbed with
a bristle brush to remove all loose coating material
and clean any exposed galvanizing. The sound
coating adjacent to cleaned damaged areas should
be feather-edged by light sanding to permit tight
bonding of repaired areas onto existing sound
coating.
FIGURE 5
Test racks used to evaluate the performanceof particularcoatings.
1. Relative Merits
The epoxy systems will provide long-termperformance, while the acrylic latex system will provide a
cheaper, easier-to-applysystem with a wider range
of colors and glosses at a slight reduction in service life. Both systems are readily available in VOClimited and lead- and chromate-free formulations.
Examples of appropriate government and
SSPC specifications are included. The recommendations are based on extensive long-term exposure
testing of the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory at
Florida and Bermuda.
2. Compatibility
Maintenance painting to correct coating defects,
other than cosmetic, requires use of repair materials that are compatible with the existing deteriorated coating. Generally, this means use of the same
system already on the tower. Where the existing
systems are no longer permitted (e.g., vinyl and
chlorinated rubber systems in geographical areas
with VOC limitations), another compatible system
must be used.
If the generic type of the existing finish coat
is not known, a solvent-solubility test should be
done. To do this, soak a portion of cloth or a cottontipped swab stick in methyl ethyl ketone or acetone,
rub it against the existing finish, and visibly check
whether it has picked up the finish. The finish is
classified as solvent soluble if paint is picked up,
and as solvent insoluble if not.
2. Application
With the epoxy and epoxy urethane systems, it is
best to apply the topcoat on the day after application of the primer. If a delay of more than 7 days
occurs before topcoating, apply a thin film (1-2 mils
wet film thickness) of the primer and allow it to cure
for 4 hours before applying a full coat of the finish.
This will result in good adhesion of the finish coat.
B. SPECIFICATIONS
B. SPECIFICATIONS
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BIOGRAPHY
A portrait and biographical sketch of Richard W. Drisko appear at the end of the chapter on Government Painting Procedures.
REFERENCES
1. American Galvanizing Association and Zinc Institute. Painting
Galvanized Structural Steel. 1986.
2. American Galvanizing Association. Zinc Coatings. 1988.
3. American Galvanizing Association. Touch-up Material for Galvanized Steel. 1979.
4. R. W. Drisko, D. R. Polly, and L. K. Schwab. Salt Spray Evaluation of Coated Galvanized Steel. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, February 1985, pp. 30-39.
5. M.F. Lichenstadter, Lloyd Smith, Dean M. Berger, Gary Satterfield. Problem Solving Forum: How Is Galvanized Steel
Painted? Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, September 1986, pp. 19-24.
6. D. John Long. The Painting of Galvanized Transmission Towers and Substation Structures. Journal of Protective Coatings
and Linings, November 1987, pp. 32-41.
7. D. John Long, Bruce Delventhal, W.D. Dickinson, Jr. Problem
Solving Forum: Most Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Safety Colors Contain Lead Color Pigments.
Does the Lead Content Constitute a Hazard in Application or
Removal of These Coatings? Are Suitable Alternatives Available? Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings, December
1992, pp. 9-1 1.
8. Jan F.H. Eijnsbergen. Duplex Systems. (To be available,
1994).
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CHAPTER 23
Charles G. Munger
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Coatings or pair s are the prin ipal materials of corrosion protection for all steel structures. This is true almost
without regard to the use of the structure, whether it be a
bridge, ship, chemical plant, tank farm, refinery, high rise
office building or underground pipe line. Every exposure of
a coating is different, even though it may be used for the
same purpose at different locations. Bridges in Florida are
exposed to vastly different conditions than bridges in the
northern part of the United States or Canada, and a tank
farm in California is exposed to conditions quite different
from one on the Gulf Coast. As coatings are the primary
protection for all of these vastly different exposures, it is
understandable that failure of coated surfaces is inherent
and that time to failure is the critical dimension in this
phenomenon.
Failure can occur for a number of reasons:
1. Improper selection of the coating for the service.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. The coating may fail because of poor or inadequate surface preparation or application. Here,
surface contamination, poor surface profile, inCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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b 2 7 9 4 0 000393Li O T B
recommended by the manufacturer, nor should the products of one manufacturer be mixed with that of another.
Only the manufacturer can know the true compatibility
characteristics of the paint system which he has
developed and is recommending. Selecting parts of paint
systems from different manufacturers or from different
generic types without basic knowledge of the products is
almost a guarantee of failure.
FIGURE 1
Note chalking of primer on deck.
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m 8627940 0003935
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T34
3. Checking
Checking is an age-related failure of a coating. It
is characterized by uneven and generally nonlinear, non-continuous breaks in the coating.
These breaks are primarily a surface phenomenon
and do not penetrate the full depth of the coating.
Checking can be characterized as visible i f the
checks can be seen with the naked eye, or microscopic if they can be seen only under low
magnification.
There can be several causes of checking. It is
generally a formulation problem which results in
surface stresses in the coating. It can occur when
solvents evaporate very rapidly from the surface
and cause the surface to shrink more rapidly than
the body of the coating. It can be caused by resins
which oxidize on the surface or by certain
pigments which apparently catalyze the checking
reaction on the surface. Essentially, it is a stress
set up in the surface which causes the small
checks to appear while the body of the coating IS
not subject to the same reaction. Wetting and drying, heating, cooling and sunlight exposure may
all contribute to the checking of a coating.
While initially the checks in a coating do not
2. Erosion
FIGURE 2
Badly eroded paint. (Federation of Societies For Coatings
Technology Photo)
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FIGURE 3
Checking magnified ten times. (Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology Photo)
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FIGURE 5
Alligatoring
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 4
Cracking due to overthickness of coating.
Mud-Cracking
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FIGURE 7
Mildew on painted surface. Microscopic examination is often
necessary to determine the difference between mildew and dirt.
(Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology Photo)
7. Wrinkling
Wrinkling is the formation of furrows and ridges in
the surface of a paint system. It occurs when the
surface of the paint film expands more rapidly
during drying than does the body of the paint. It is
proportional to the thickness of the surface layer
that dries more rapidly than the body of the paint
film and to the difference between the drying
rates and the expansion of the surface layer and
the main body of the paint.
Wrinkling results from a formulation failure
and is most common with oil base paints or
alkyds containing driers that increase the rate of
drying. Driers serve two general purposes: to dry
the surface of the paint, and to dry the body of the
paint film; that is, surface driers and body
driers, respectively. Cobalt compounds are a common type of surface drier; zinc and lead compounds are classified as body driers.
Ordinarilv.
Daints are formulated so that the
,, .
drying process proceeds at the same rate on the
FIGURE 8
Failure of inorganic zinc-rich by pinpoint rusting.
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TABLE 1
A SUMMARY OF
FORMULATION-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
2. Erosion
3. Checking
4. Cracking
Small breaks in coating to substrate. May be linear, crosshatched, or curved. Cracks may
or may not be continuous.
5. Alligatoring
6. Mud-Cracking
7. Wrinkling
8. Microorganism
9. Discoloration
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1. Chalking
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TABLE 1 (Continued)
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
2. Mud-Cracking
3. Chemical
4. Pinpoint Rusting
5. Pitting in Seawater
Coating Type
Epoxy polyamide
Permeance
Perms'
0.16
Test
Thickness
Mils
8.10
Amine catalyzed
epoxy
0.19
7.5
.30
Vinyl Chlorideacetate
0.31
5.5
.a3
Vinyl acrylic
0.54
5.10
.a3
2.4
5.10
3.7
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TABLE 2
9. Discolora tion
Because appearance may be as much a function of a coating as its corrosion resistance,
coatings that change color after application and
become unsightly can be considered to have
failed. This type of failure is, of course, one based
on formulation and arises from a number of
causes.
Many of the resins used to formulate
coatings contain unsaturated photosensitive
groups which, on exposure to sunlight, cause
darkening, yellowing or other discoloration of the
vehicle. Vinyl chloride-acetate coatings, as an example, i f used as clear coatings will turn dark
brown or even black within a few weeks of exposure to sunlight. Some epoxy resins tend to
yellow as do some of the more resistant polyurethane resins. Proper pigmentation to shade the
basic resin from sunlight is one of the prime
methods of preventing discoloration.
Often, however, pigmentation is not sufficient. Coatings subject to strong sunlight and
weather conditions should preferably be formulated with silicones, acrylics or aliphatic
polyurethanes in order to reduce any possible color change to a minimum. Many pigments can also
cause color change in a coating. Some orange
pigments are color reactive and darken. Certain
yellow pigments tend to grey and whiten. Lead
pigments are particularly susceptible to attack in
sulfide atmospheres and turn dark or even black.
Iron blue pigments tend to bronze or turn brown.
Obviously, these pigments should not be used in
formulations where the appearance of the coating
is important and where it is exposed to severe
weat her conditions.
10. Sulfide Discoloration
This is the staining of the film by hydrogen
sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide attacks paints containing lead or mercury turning them gray or black in
patches or streaks. Exposure of copper base antifouling paints not only turns them black but can
inactivate the copper causing them to foul rapidly.
This often occurs in contaminated water.
This blackening may be distinguished from
mold growth by treatment with dilute hydrochloric
acid; disappearance of the blackening indicates
the presence of sulfide.
When repainting or painting in hydrogen
sulfide areas, use paints that do not contain mercury, lead or copper pigments or lead driers. If
emulsion paints are used for repainting, it would
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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F STEEL
b
FIGURE 9
Osmosis
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TABLE 3
SOLUBILITY OF CH ROMATE PIGMENTS
Pigment
Calcium Chromate
Grams of CrO, in
Solution in 1000 CC.
Water at Equilibrium 25OC
17.0
Zinc Yellow
1.I
St ront i um Chromate
0.6
0.02
Barium Chromate
0.001
Lead Chromate
0.00005
ELECTRO-ENDOSMOSIS
C A T H O D I C A R E A OF
MOISTURE PENETRATION
ANODIC
C A T H O D I C AREABLISTERS F O R M I N G
AREA
IN T H I S A R E A
.?
STEEL
FIGURE 10
Electroendosmosis
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BLISTERINQ DUE TO
THBRMAL GRADIENT
FIGURE 11
Theirmal Gradient Across Coating
2. Peeling
Peeling is a coating failure usually caused by a
coating having a tensile stength greater than its
bond strength to the surfaces. This was a common early-day cause of vinyl coating failure. It has
been overcome by vinyl primers now having superior bond strength when they are applied to
clean - preferably abrasive blasted - surfaces.
Any coating will peel or pull from the surface i f it
has less adhesion to the substrate than it has tensile strength, or i f it reacts adversely with the
FIGURE 12
Blistering
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SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 3 - 0 9 3
8627740 000394b 8 L T
4. Intercoat Delamination
This is the failure of one coat to adhere to an
underlying coat, whether applied as one coat
following the other or where the top coat is applied as a maintenance coating after some period
of time. The cause is generally within the coating
itself. Air-reactive coatings, either those that require oxygen or moisture for cure, or coatings that
react internally by the action of catalysts or reactive resins are subject to this type of failure. Compatibility of one type of coating to another is
essent ial.
In the case of air-reactive coatings, either by
the absorption of oxygen or water, the surface
becomes rapidly insoluble and dense. In the case
of internally reactive coatings, the entire coating
becomes insoluble and dense. In both cases, the
coatings are insoluble in the original solvents in
the liquid coating. Solventless coatings are also
subject to intercoat delamination.
The second coat should be applied over the
first after the initial set of the first coating, but
before that coating has been completely cured
either by internal or exterior forces.
The temperature of application is also
critical. Since the curing reactions are
temperature-dependent, the higher the temperature, the more rapidly the second coat should be
applied over the first. Manufacturers instructions
should be closely toiiowed where internally or ex-
FIGURE 14
FIGURE 13
Peeling
499
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Flaking
SSPC CHAPTER*23.0
8627940 0003947 7 5 b
FIGURE 15
Scaling
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 16
Intercoat Delamination
I
\.
93
500
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
8627940 0003948 b 9 2
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
must be eliminated. The surface must receive a coat of cement plaster, hard troweled as described above, or a
resinous concrete surfacer must be applied which will fill
all the concrete surface imperfections, have some penetration into the concrete for maximum adhesion and provide a
smooth, pore-free base for the subsequent coatings. Both
of the above methods are applicable for the best coating
service under difficult conditions. Where concrete or stucco surfaces are coated for decoration only, such surface
treatments may not be required.
Aluminum generally has a dense, smooth surface with
a tight aluminum oxide coating on the surface. While this
surface is relatively stable, it can cause adhesion problems for some coatings. Where there are breaks, particularly under alkaline conditions, undercutting and even perforation of the metal may occur.
Copper provides a dense surface with a copper oxide
film over it. Many coatings fail to obtain proper adhesion
to this surface. In many ways, it is similar to aluminum,
although it is not as reactive a surface so that coating
failure is not as prevalent. The failure of many effective
coatings is caused by these types of smooth, dense surfaces. A light dust blasting with used sand or very fine
sand and low pressure air will break up the surface, increase the surface area and allow adhesion that cannot be
obtained by any other means on either of these two types
of surfaces.
l
FIGURE 17
Undercutting
blasting of steel is recommended to remove all contamination and oxidation and to increase the surface area for
maximum coating adhesion. SSPC-Vis 2 provides a standard for evaluating the degree of rusting on painted steel
surfaces. This standard is also available as ASTM-D 610.
Concrete, on the other hand, is a chemically active,
non-uniform, porous surface filled with water and air
pockets, thus making a surface that is very difficult to
paint properly with a continuous coating. In addition to a
very variable surface, it is sensitive to moisture, and when
the moisture is confined under a coating, a pH of up to 13
may be encountered. Only a very inert, highly alkaliresistant and penetrating coating can be expected to perform satisfactorily.
As can be seen in Figure 19 the problems of coating a
concrete substrate to obtain a failure-free coating are
primarily physical. The surface is variable with the most
consistent concrete being a hard, steel-troweled surface
(sidewalk finish). This surface is preferred for coating.
However, because it is often glazed due to the troweling
action, the glaze must be removed by acid etching (1 part
commercial hydrochloric acid and 5 parts water followed
by a clean water wash) or a light brush blast for consistent
coating adhesion. A poured concrete surface as shown in
Figure 19 is the most difficult of all surfaces over which to
apply a consistent, uniform, pore-free coating.
All surface imperfections, air pockets and pinholes
FIGURE 18
Undercutting
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TABLE 4
SUMMARY OF ADHESION-RELATED FAILURES
REMEDY
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
1. Blistering
Minute
to large ( 1 " + )
hemispherical bubbles in coating
containing gas or liquid. May
range from 1 per square foot to
several hundred per square foot.
See ASTM Std D 714-56 (revised
74).
2. Peeling
3. Flaking or scaling
4. Intercoat
delamination
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Undercutting
502
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penetrate the coating, causing early failure in the previously corroded area.
There are two methods that can be used to improve
this situation. 1) After the original blasting, react the surface with a dilute phosphoric acid solution (5%), allow it to
dry, and then re-blast the surface. This procedure produces
a reaction that allows the minute amounts of corrosion
product to be removed on the second blasting. 2) The second procedure, where an inorganic zinc coating can be
used as a permanent primer, is a very satisfactory one. The
inorganic zinc coating tends to react with the minute
amount of corrosion product on the surface, eliminating
its corrosive tendency, and at the same time to react with
the steel surface to provide a very strong chemical bond.
Following the application and cure of the inorganic zinc,
the required top coating can then be applied.
FIGURE 19
Poured Concrete Surface
FIGURE 20
Paint failing on wood grain.
FIGURE 21
Adhesion Retention
sand blasted vs. cold rolled steel. Panel
#69, sand blasted, and panel #73,cold rolled steel, both exposed
to water for the same period, demonstrate the benefit of physical
adhesion.
503
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 3 . 0 9 3
TABLE 5
SUMMARY O F SUBSTRATE-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FA1LURE
FA1LURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE O F FAILURE
1. On Previously
Used Steel
REMEDY
3. On Aluminum
The very smooth aluminum oxide sur- Very lightly dust blast the
aluminum surface, or where
face. No physical adhesion.
applicable, treat with commercial aluminum treatment.
Apply a primer with known
compatibility and strong
adhesion to aluminum surface
4. OnCopper
5. On Wood
6. On Concrete
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--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. On Galvanized or
Metallic Zinc
Surfaces
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
93
= 86279YO
the one that has been roughened and that allows mechanical adhesion in addition to normal wetting of the surface.
Cleanliness of the surface is vitally important, of
course, to the life of any coating. It is a rule of thumb that
any coating applied over a perfectly clean surface will last
longer and be more effective than the same coating applied over a lesser surface. This applies to metals, concrete and wood to the same degree. It also applies to the
repair and maintenance of coatings as well as to original
coating installations.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Thinning
As previously stated, the consistency of a paint or
coating is usually correct as it is received from the
manufacturer. Most manufacturers attempt to
provide the liquid coating at the proper consistency in order to prevent failures related to thinning.
There is no universal thinner for the wide range of
sophisticated coatings that are necessary today.
Improper thinning can cause many different types
of failure. As an example, mineral spirits can be
tolerated by liquid vinyl coatings in certain
amounts; however, i f added excessively to a vinyl
coating poor adhesion will result. Improper thinning of an epoxy coating can increase the viscosity rather than reduce it. An alcohol type solvent
for a polyurethane could cause immediate jelling.
While thinners are an essential part of any
coating, they are incorporated in the manufacture
for proper application, proper leveling on the surface and proper drying.
It is occasionally necessary to decrease the
viscosity of a paint by the addition of thinners.
Such adjustment of the consistency should be
made only as directed or advised by the manufacturer, by means of the proper specified thinners
and at ratios specifically recommended. Substitution of other thinners for the specified ones
should not be undertaken without consultation
with the suppliers; for none of the many thinners
available are generally adaptable for all paint formulations.
Thinners should be added slowly and with
constant stirring. Adding a large amount all at
once may result in local overdilution and may
cause curdling of the paint or flocculation of the
pigment. This precipitation may appear to stir in,
but that portion of the mix that has curdled or flocx l a t e d is never restored to its original condition,
zausing early failure.
0003952 013
3. Atmospheric Conditions
Painters normally determine the time of applica1tion, which can contribute to the success or
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
93
8b27940 0003953 T 5 T
506
Not for Resale
5. Overspray
Overspray is a major cause of pinpoint rusting of
steel surfaces. Many modern, high-performance
coatings have a tendency to overspray unless
properly applied. These include coating types
such as solvent-based inorganic zincs, organic
zincs, solvent-dry vinyls, chlorinated rubbers,
acrylics, heavy-bodied epoxies, and other similar
formulations. Overspray is the adherence of semidried coating particles to the surface to be
coated. The dust or coating particle dries partially
in the air between the spray gun and the surface,
and does not then flow together with or join other
particles to form a continuous coating. There are
bare or very thin areas between these discrete
coating particles. These bare areas act the same
as pinholes, and pinpoint rusting results.
Because overspray is the result of incorrect
spray technique or improper adjustment of spray
equipment, it can occur in any coat from the
primer to the final top coat. It may be caused by
the spray gun being held too far away from the
surface to be coated, being held at a long angle to
the surface rather than perpendicularly, or having
been adjusted with too little material pressure
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 . 0
73
6. Pinholes
Pinholing is a common type of application failure.
It may result from several causes. The formulation
of the coating itself can cause pinholes, primarily
because of improper solvent balance when solvents evaporate too rapidly at one stage of the
drying process. Another, more common cause is
improper application, usually during spraying.
The spray gun may be held too close to the surface with excessive atomization pressure, or excessive material pressure may be combined with
low atomization pressure.
A third cause of pinholes may be the surface
itself. Concrete may already contain innumerable
bugholes that must be filled if an impervious
coating is to be obtained. Pictorial descriptions of
bugholes in concrete are found in the ASTM
Manual of Coating Work for Light Water Nuclear
Power Plant Primary Containment and Other
Safety-Related Faci Iit es.
One cause of pinholing is the top coating of
inorganic zinc primers with organic top coats.
During a period shortly after the inorganic zinc
coating has been applied, it remains a porous film
and solvents from the organic top coats can easily penetrate into the inorganic coating. When the
top coat is applied in the sun or under warm conditions, the penetrated solvent evaporates rapidly
causing vapor pressure within the inorganic zinc
and under the organic top coat. This vapor
pressure may create small blisters or bubbles
which, when they break, cause pinholes to form.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC CHAPTER*23=0 93
= 8627940 0003955 8 2 2
Once the cratering has occurred, it Is difficult
to overcome inasmuch as a second coat applied
over the same area may again crater in the same
spot. The procedure suggested in these cases is
to physically roughen the cratered area by hand
sanding or other means, and then apply the
coating over the area by brush, working the
coating into the cratered areas in order to
physically coat the bottoms of the craters and
make sure that the coating thoroughly wets the
surface. Where this is not practical or it does not
prevent the cratering, the coating must be removed and the surface reprepared, making sure
that the cause of cratering is eliminated before
applying the repair coating.
10. Bleeding
This is the transfer of a soluble colored pigment
or vehicle in a dried film to a subsequently applied
topcoat. It may also be the discoloration caused
by the diffusion of soluble ingredients in the
substrate.
To correct this situation, coat the film containing the bleeding ingredient with two coats of a
sealer in which the bleeder is insoluble. An
aluminum or emulsion finish over asphalt vehicles
or solvent type primers over wood substrates are
examples. For areas of serious corrosion any
sealing material must be selected with care to
make sure of compatibility and proper adhesion.
11. Blushing
This is the hazing or whitening of a finish as the
result of absorption and retention of moisture
formed on the film during or immediately after
spraying. It is normally restricted to lacquers. Correction of this problem is not always possible
without reducing humidity; however, recoating using a mist coat of retarder or a slower evaporating
reducing thinner may help. Correct air pressure at
the gun is important. Avoid using higher air
pressure than needed as this will cause rapid
evaporation and thereby increase moisture condensation.
12. Lifting
This usually occurs when the solvents in a topcoat attack and swell the previously applied film
resulting in distortion, blisters or the formation of a wrinkled finish. It may also be caused by
wax on the surface, use of incorrect thinner, poor
dry of undercoats or poor adhesion of old film.
To correct, remove finish from affected areas
and refinish. Make sure surface is clean and dry.
Allow longer drying time before recoating the
undercoat. Make sure the solvent in the topcoat is
compatible with the previous coat or undercoat
before recoating.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC CHAPTER*23.0
93
TABLE 6
SUMMARY OF APPLICATION-RELATED FAILURES
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
1. Improper Mixing
2. Improper Thinning
of Coating
3. Poor Atmospheric
Conditions for
Coating Application
5. Overspray
6. Pinholes
of Coating
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Improper Coating
Thickness
bubbles being forced into the coating. Spray pot pressure too high
with atomizing air pressure too low.
Pinholes may exist in the substrate
(concrete).
509
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 3 = 0 93
8627940 0003957 b T 5
TABLE 6 (Continued)
COATING FAILURE
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7. Spatter Coat
8. Holidays
9. Cratering
10. Bleeding
11. Blushing
12. Lifting
Excessive application.
Reduce material according to label directions, apply thinner coat i f rolled or brushed on.
Regulate fluid adjustment on the spray gun t o cut
down flow of material. Make sure temperature of
surface and coating are at acceptable level.
If runs or sags are objectionable, the surface
should be removed with solvent or sanded smooth
and refinished.
1. Edges
Edges are always a problem on structures using
steel shapes, where the number of lineal feet of
edge compared to the ptain surface is large. The
edges of sheared plate are one of the worst areas
because they are very sharp. The rounded edges
of steel shapes, such as on I-beams, H-beams and
angles are less of a problem; however, almost invariably where failure occurs on a steel shape, it
will be on the edge first.
One cause is that many of the more
sophisticated coatings, such as vinyls, epoxies or
polyurethanes, have a high surface tension and
also tend to shrink during curing. A high surface
tension of the coating tends to pull the coating
away from an edge, in many cases leaving an extremely thin coating at that point. This being the
case, failure is inherent along the edge. On
51O
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I-beams, angles and similar shapes, the applicator more often than not sprays on the plain
surface while the edge is at a tangent to the spray
and only becomes spatter coated, even though it
may look well covered.
Horizontal surfaces on structural shapes
(I-beams, H-beams, etc.) tend to accumulate dust,
dirt and chemical fumes that flow toward an edge
when any condensation or precipitation occurs.
As a result, a relatively strong chemical deposit
forms and remains on the edge. Such a situation
makes the edge even more susceptible to coating
f ai Iure.
There should be a direct application of the
coating to edges prior to applying an overall coat
to the structure. Edges should be double coated
with each individual coat. This procedure will help
to maintain a full coating thickness in these
areas.
Deep square corners
These areas are on the interior of angles and on
the interior angle of H-beams, I-beams and very
often on built-up, complicated steel sections.
There are two problems. The first is that these
areas will accumulate dirt and dust, and even
though the surface is well prepared by abrasive
blasting, dust seems to accumulate in these
areas to a greater degree than on the plain surfaces. It is also more difficult to remove. When a
coating is applied over dust or dirt in these areas,
shrinkage and oftentimes actual cracking of the
coating occurs, creating an area for immediate
failure.
Second, even though the surface i s
thoroughly clean and free from dust, these areas
more often than not receive a heavy coat because
of the application of the coat to the flat areas with
the spray overlapping into the corner. This can
create the coating thickness on the interior corner
which is greater than recommended for the flat
surface. During curing and when shrinkage occurs, the coating may tend to pull itself away from
the interior corner, creating a very thin film or a
void underneath the coating. Although the coating
may look continuous, if it is exposed to serious
corrosive conditions or immersion, failure occurs
by moisture penetration into this area. The
ultimate cracking and breaking of the film occurs
at this point.
To overcome this design difficulty, apply thin,
multiple coats to the deep corner, allowing each
coat to dry before a second coat.
'
Discontinuous areas
These areas are located around rivets, boltheads,
threads and similar areas. The cause of failure is
similar to that of sharp edges and corners. Careful
appl cation can el imi nate discontinu ities in these
areas.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Welds
There are literally millions of lineal feet of welds
in many structures. Relatively smooth machine
welds create few problems. Even so, there can be
undercuts along edges that should be watched.
Hand welds, in particular, require more care
than plain surfaces. These welds are much
rougher than machine welds and may have deep
undercuts and holes along the edges, with weld
spatter on adjacent surfaces and, in some cases,
very rough, sharp protrusions. All of these are
focal points for corrosion and for coating failure.
Weld spatter, small balls of metal, are spattered away from the weld proper during the
welding process. They are always focal points for
failure. Many times they are lightly adherent and
provide not only protrusions, but undercuts as
well. Weld spatter must be removed from the surface for a proper coating job. These are not
always removed by sand blasting. Once the surface is prepared, however, it is the recommended
procedure to brush coat a weld, working the
coating into all of the rough areas before applying
the overall coat to the plain surface. This aids
materially in preventing premature failure at that
point. Where welds are treated in this manner,
oftentimes the plain surface of a coating will fail
before the area of the weld.
5. Skip welding
Overlapping plates and roof plates are often skip
welded. The reinforcing ring around the top of a
tank may be skip welded. Angles and similar
shapes are skip welded where a continuous weld
is not necessary for ultimate strength. From a
coating standpoint, wherever serious corrosive
conditions exist, skip welds are an invitation to
coating failure and very inadequate surfaces for
proper coating even in mild environments. Water
and moisture accumulate between the plain surfaces of the plates. The skip weld does not keep
out the moisture. It is almost impossible to apply
a coating to the crevice between the skipwelds
and to obtain a satisfactory corrosion resistant
coating at that point.
The only practical answer is complete
welding of all the seams to insure proper coating
life in corrosive areas and to maintain good appearance without rust stains even under milder
conditions. Caulking may even be necessary in
some cases.
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SSPC CHAPTERx23.0
73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 7
SUMMARY OF DESIGN-RELATED FAILURE
~
~~
~~
FAILURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE O F FAILURE
REMEDY
Edges
Interior Corners
Discontinuous
Areas
4. Welds
5. Skip Welding
6. Back t o Back
Angles
7. Storage Tank
Roofs - Interior
8. Pipe Structures
COATING FAILURE
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S S P C CHAPTER*23.0
93
7. Storage tanks
Many storage tanks are constructed with
cone or umbrella type roofs where there is usually
a center pole with I-beam rafters extending out to
the edge of the tank. In addition to the many corners, edges, welds, bolts and rivets, there are two
particularly difficult areas from the standpoint of
the interior coating of such tanks. The first is the
steel between the 1-beam rafter and the steel roof
plate. Here the steel plate is merely laid on the
rafter, and unless the coating is applied to the
underside of the plate and the topside of the
rafter prior to installation, this area will fail even
under mild conditions. If the coating is to be applied after construction, it is necessary to raise
the roof by wedges and prepare the surface to
coat in the best manner possible. This area is particularly vulnerable due to moisture condensation.
The second area is the crevice between the
lapped roof plates. Generally, the roof plates are
welded on the exterior with the lap on the interior.
In this reservoir for corrosive solutions failure
takes place rapidly.
A coating cannot prevent corrosion with this
type of construction. Where a coating is required
on the interior of such a tank, roof plates should
be butt welded or should be welded on each side
of the lap so that a continuous coating is possible.
8. Pipe structures
Much of the construction of off-shore platforms is done with pipe to minimize coating
failure and corrosion. Pipe provides a plain surface with no sharp corners or edges subject to
early failure. It would seem, therefore, that pipe
would be an ideal type of surface to coat. There
can be problems, however, primarily ones of a p
plication.
If failure occurs, other than at a joint, it is
usually longitudinal with the pipe. This is caused
by insufficient overlapping of the spray passes
during the coating process. In coating pipe, it is
essential that each spray be overlapped at least
50%. With large pipe, this means that there are
numerous passes required in order to obtain a
hol iday-free coating.
In addition to areas where pipe is used as the
principal construction member, there may be hundreds of miles of pipe used in a single industrial
plant, all of which require coating. Here, in addition to the cylindrical structure, there are pipe
flanges, valves, threaded joints, bolts, pipe
hangers and pipe racks. These areas have all of
the focal points for corrosion which have been
previously discussed, and wherever corrosion is a
factor, care must be taken to make sure that all of
In almost all coating failures exterior forces are involved, since the environment in which the coating
operates is the primary cause of failure. If there were no
exterior corrosive environment, then no coating failure
could occur, even though there were coating imperfections. In this section, however, ordinary atmospheric conditions are not considered, since it is taken for granted
that coatings must withstand most exterior conditions, including marine conditions.
1. Chemical failure
Chemicals are the most obvious exterior force
that can cause the failure of coatings, since the
chemical industry, considered in its broadest
scope, is one of the largest, if not the largest, industry where severe coating failures can occur.
There are literally thousands of different
chemicals to which a coating may be exposed
and, this being the case, it is understandable that
there are also hundreds of specialty coatings that
have been developed to resist attack by these
chemicals.
The attack may be by simple solution of the
coating, reacting with the coating to render it
useless, or chemicals may actually penetrate the
coating and cause corrosion to the steel
underneath. Attack by volatile acids, such as
hydrochloric and nitric, often cause the latter
failure. The caustic chlorine industry and the
rayon industry can cause coating failures both by
actual coating attack and by penetration and
under-film corrosion. The interior and exterior of
tank cars, specialty tankers and storage tanks in
terminals are all areas where chemical attack of
coating is common.
There is no universal solution to the problem.
Each condition must be considered on its own.
The proper coating must be selected. The best
surface preparation must be used and a defectfree application obtained. An improper coating
selection or improper application of the right
coating can be disastrous.
2. Erosion and abrasion
These are exterior forces that can cause
coating failure. One example is erosion by sand
and wave action of coatings applied to steel piling
on beaches.
Sand erosion by wind is another example.
Other examples are the abrasion on the interior of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC CHAPTERx23.0
93
3. Faying surfaces
Coating failures can occur where joints in steel
structures are formed by riveting or by the use of
SUMMARY
OF
TABLE 8
FAILURE BY EXTERIOR FORCES
FA1LURE APPEARANCE
CAUSE OF FAILURE
REMEDY
1. Chemical
Crevice between contacting steel sur- Prior to joining metal$urfaces joined by rivets or high strength faces, sand blast and apply
bolts.
an inorganic zinc coating
to joint area and beyond.
When the two surfaces are
joined, a corrosion-free
joint will result.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
COATING FA1LURE
2. Erosion and
A brasion
3. Faying surfaces
VIII. SUMMARY
Coating failures may be caused by the coating formulation or the materials from which it is made; by the
basic characteristics of the surface coated; by improper
surface preparation; by the design of the structure coated;
or by poor coating application procedures. Coating
failures can be prevented only by using the proper material
for the job, and by care in the application to achieve complete, uninterrupted coating coverages irrespective of the
built-in problems of the design and materials of construction. On any coating job, the following procedures are
recommended to assure coating success.
1. Analyze the exposure and the structure, and
specify the material which will properly meet the
conditions. Do not compromise on price or qual-
514
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 3 - 0 9 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
REFERENCES
1. G.W. Segreu, Causes & Prevention of Paint Failure, Steel
Structures Painting Manual, Volume 1, Good Painting Practice, Chapter 18, 1954.
515
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S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 93
CHAPTER 24
I. INTRODUCTION
II. BACKGROUND
The operational readiness of a modern, technologically sophisticated fleet is of paramount importance to the
defense of our nation. Marine coatings comprise a key element in the maintenance program required to achieve and
retain this readiness. The United States Navy is committed
to providing this protection in the most reliable and cost
effective manner available. This is being achieved through
an active research program to develop (1) new formula-type
coatings which can be purchased competitively and (2)
performance-type specifications for which manufacturers
can qualify products. Most of the coatings used on Navy
ships are of the high performance type that require surface
preparation and application by experienced personnel. Those
coatings used by ship forces for everyday maintenance (e.g.,
alkyds) are more tolerant of applicator skill. The effectiveness of the coatings in the Navys ship corrosion control program is reflected in the present drydocking cycles of five to
seven years.
Coated surfaces on Navy ships are subjected, as
shown in Figure 1, to a variety of destructive conditions
(e.g., a salt laden, high humidity atmosphere; total seawater immersion; and acidic exhaust gases) with temperatures ranging from those of the tropics to those of the
Arctic. They must be resistant to physical damage from
such forces as cavitation, drag (friction), impact with
waves and mooring structures, and abrasion by chains.
Each coating system must adhere tightly to the particular
substrate (ferrous and nonferrous metals, wood, plastics,
and elastometers) to which it is applied, and it must resist
deterioration from a variety of chemicals (e.g., distilled,
potable, and salt water; hydrocarbon fuels and lubricants;
and sanitary wastes). In addition, antifouling coatings
must prevent the attachment and growth of marine
organisms on immersed surfaces. These organisms
increase frictional drag, which results in loss of speed and
maneuverability and increased fuel consumption. Fouling
may also promote localized corrosion, damage to
coatings, reduced buoyancy, and inoperable equipment.
Thus, ships of the Navy require a combination of versatile
and specialized coatings to meet many different requirements to keep them operational. Many of these coatings
may also prove to be as cost effective on commercial ships
as on those of the Navy.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 . 0
93
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003964 835
-IzL
r-
---
__
~
_ _ _ ~=-=
o Extreme Temperatures
o Intense Sunlight
o Thermal Shock
Wind Driven Saltwater and Spray
.- _
Deck Areas
4
-
t-
____
~
c:,=-
-_
-9
o Humidity
o Heat/Fire
o Cooking Fumes
Soiling
o Abrasion
-z2_r$So
FUEL
WATER
CARGO
CARGO
~BALLAST.
.__-\/Y
o Hydrocarbon Fuels
o Distilled, Potable, and Salt Waters
0 Corrosive and Sensitive Cargoes
o Chlorination System
Underwater Hu I I
o Marine Fouling
o Seawater Immersion
o Abrasion
o Galvanic Corrosion
o Cavitation
FIGURE 1
517
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 - 0 9 3
8627940 0003965 7 7 1
TABLE 1 * *
IDENTIFICATION OF COATINGS USED ON SHIPS
NAVY FORMULA
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SPECIFICATION
TYPE'
USE
TT-S-711
oil stain
wood interiors
spar varnish
TT-P-6456
alkyd-zinc molybdate
111
MIL-E-15090
alkyd/powder
121
MIL-P-15931
vinyl-cuprous oxide
antifouling (red)
124
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (white)
125
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (green)
126
DOD-E-24607
chlorinated alkyd
nonflaming (gray)
129
formerly MIL-P-16189;
MIL-P-15931 now used
vinyllcuprous oxide
150-156
MIL-P-24441
epoxy polyamide
(different colors)
MIL-C-11796
petrolatum
corrosion-preventive
compound
MIL-R-15058
MIL-C-16 173
corrosion preventing
compound
MIL-D-23003
epoxy polyamide
DOD-P-23236
epoxy
DOD-P-24380
chlorinated rubber
anchor chain
MIL-D-24483124667
epoxy
DOD-P-24555
silicone-aluminum
high temperature
DOD-P-24596
84 and 84D
518
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 4 - 0 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE 1 (Continued)
NAVY FORMULA
SPECIFICATION
TYPE*
MIL-P-24647
MIL-(2-46081
USE
antifouling systems
intumescent insulating
coating
TT-P-28
silicone-aluminum
high temperatures
TT-V-51
asphalt varnish
MIL-E-24635
silicone-alkyd
exterior
semi-gloss enamel
519
Not for Resale
A. SURFACE PREPARATION
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Currently recommended methods of preparing different ship surfaces for coating are listed in Table 2. Steel
surfaces are much more prevalent on Navy ships than
other materials, with aluminum representing a large
portion of superstructures. A near-white blast finish is
suitable for all the coatings used on steel surfaces. Of the
many different types of coatings used on ships, inorganic
zinc primers are the least tolerant of a lower level of
cleaning: It should be noted that even in shipyards and
maintenance depots, mechanical cleaning is occasionally
used on small touch-up areas or those areas difficult to
reach with blast cleaning.
TABLE 2
RECOMMENDED METHODS OF SURFACE PREPARATION OF
VARIOUS SUBSTRATES FOR COATING
SUBSTRATE
Steel
Galvanized steel
Aluminum
Wood
Scraping to remove loose coating and sanding or planing with hand or power
equipment.
Plastic
B. COATING APPLICATION
The Navy is currently changing its recommended
method of coating application from an atomized spray to
airless spray techniques. It is also experimenting with
multicomponent airless spray equipment. Ship forces
generally use brush or roller techniques since they require
less skilled personnel.
C. TYPES OF COATINGS
1. Steel Surfaces
The great versatility of formulas 150-156 of MIL-
520
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 4 * 0 73
The approved inorganic zinc primers are providing excellent corrosion control on exterior surfaces above the boottopping (see Table 3). The cathodic protection provided by
these primers has not been long lasting in continuous immersion service, even when topcoated, because of topcoat
damage during service. As indicated in Table 3, Formula 150
(epoxy) can be used as a barrier coat between these primers
and the silicone alkyd finish coat (MIL-E-24635). This is required because of an incompatibility between zinc-rich coatings and drying oil paints.' A new performance-type
specification for zinc-rich primers for shipboard use, DODP-24648, was approved in 1985.
Formulas 121 (red) and 129 (black) are cuprous oxidecontaining antifouling paints which have received extensive
use. Their effectiveness, however, is usually limited to two
years, depending upon the type of service. New ablative cuprous oxide antifouling paints for 5 to 7 years service are
described by MIL-SPEC-MIL-P-24647.
TABLE 3
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR STEEL
SHIP AREA
*Formula 150 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 154 (1) or Formula 153 (1); Formula 121 (2)
Hull boottopping
area
*Formula 150 (1); Formula 161 (1); Formula 154 (1); Formula 129 (2)
* NAVSEA-approvedcommercial epoxy; Formula 129 (2)
MIL-P-24647 (5 - 7 year system)
Near vertical
surface above
boottopping
Horizontal surfaces
and waterways
52 1
Not for Resale
In the early 1970s, the Navy began using flamesprayed aluminum to protect the faying surfaces
between aluminum superstructures and steel
hulls. In 1978, this technique was extended to
areas that were difficult to reach or extremely
TABLE 4
COATING SYSTEMS FOR INTERIOR STEEL
COATINGS IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
SHIP AREA
Decksa
Saltwater tanks
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Sanitary tanks
Formula 150 (1); Formula 156 (1); Formula 151 (1); Formula 152 (1)
Inaccessible voids
M IL-C-46081intumescent coating
aOn dry, living (habitable) spaces, such as sleeping, messing, recreation, and passageway areas.
'Sculleries, washrooms, showers, etc.
'Formula 124 can be tinted with DOD-C-22325colorants to other colors.
dNaval Sea Systems Command.
522
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R U 2 4 . 0 93
TABLE 5
ITEMS R ECEIVING FLAM E-SPRAYED ALU MINUM M ETALLIZING
MILITARY STANDARD 2138
AREA OF USE
Deck hardware and machinery; tiedowns; steam riser valves and piping;
exhaust stacks and covers; fire station hardware; lighting fixtures; masts;
and booms.
Propulsion Plant
and Machinery
Steam valves, reducers, stops, strainers, and piping; bottom blow valves
and piping; pump and machinery foundations; boiler skirts; electrical and
mechanical casings; diesel headers and exhaust system components;
hangers; brackets; and supports.
2 . Galvanized Steel
TABLE 6
COATINGS FOR MACHINERY AND PIPING
SURFACE
Ferrous sheet metal
(exterior or interior;
heated)
TT-P-28 (1)
Ferrous machinery
(exterior; heated)
TT-P-28
DOD-P-24555 (1)
DOD-P-24555 (2)
Machinery gage boards
(including gages and
clocks)
523
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTER*24-0 93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 3 9 7 3 T75
TABLE 7
COATING SYSTEMS FOR ALUMINUM SURFACES
COATING IN SYSTEM AND NUMBER OF COATS
SHIP AREAS
Exterior topside
Habitability areas
Wet spacesb
3. Aluminum
The coating systems used on aluminum alloy ship
surfaces are listed in Table 7. In March 1974, the
Naval Ship Engineering Center issued a pocketsize manual (Ship Hull Structure Maintenance and
Repair) to provide additional practical information
on topside coating. It includes specific recommendations related to aluminum super-structures,
such as dissimilar metal problems, surface preparation, aluminum flame spray techniques, coating
materials, sealants, and application methods. Metal
containing paints should not be used on aluminum.
D. SAFETY PRACTICES
The Navy safety procedures reflect the latest commercial practices in the protection of the health of workers
and the physical integrity of the structures being coated.
The health aspects are overseen by the Navys Bureau of
Medicine and Surgery, and the structural aspects by the
ship operational organization and the facilities command.
The controllingdocuments are all cited and discussed in Naval
ShipsTechnical Manual, Chapter 631 (Preservationof Ships
in Service).
4. Wood
Wood that is to be varnished is first filled with a
filler (paste). Exterior painted wood is treated as
shown in Table 8 . Interior wood is either covered
with one coat of approved aluminum paint and two
coats of approved finish paint to match the surroundingsor stainedwith commerciallyavailable stain
and coated with three coats of Formula 80 varnish.
IV. TRENDS
5 . Plastic
Plastic surfaces to be painted are treated with
Formula 150.Additional primer coats are not required
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
524
Not for Resale
TABLE 8
COATING SYSTEMS FOR EXTERIOR WOOD
SHIP AREA
Boottopping area
Vertical surfaces
above boottopping
Horizontal surfaces
waterways
aPrepared by mixing 2 Ib. of TT-P-320, Type II,Class 2 aluminum paste into 1 gal. of
Formula 80 varnish.
V. SUMMARY
The severe environmental forces encountered by Navy
ships require tough, durable, and often specialized coatings. The presently used systems described in this chapter
have provided satisfactory protection in a cost effective
manner. Improved painting materials and procedures are
sought, however, to control spiraling maintenance costs,
permit improved operational capabilities, and conform to
governmental regulations related to health, safety and
environmental concerns. The research and development
required to meet these and future needs will be
challenging.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
525
TABLE 9
TT-V-51
MIL-P-24380
Catapult launching
valves and exhaust
tees; lagging on
As specified in MIL-F-90;
Helmets
MIL-E-24635(haze grey)
Inaccessible surfaces
(galvanized and
nonferrous)
Unpainted
Inaccessible surfaces
(ungalvanized steel)
Messenger buoys
Propellers (composition or
corrosion-resistant)
Rings buoys
Shafting, inboard
Shafting, outboard
Smoke pipes
TT-P-28 (2)
Sonar domes:
Rubber
MIL-P-24647
Stainless steel
DOD-P-23236 (2 or 3 coats)
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
526
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R k 2 4 . 0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter: Leon Birnbaum, David Bloodgood, Theodore Dowd, Ben
Fultz, Dan Gelfer, Jack Hickey, Edward Hobaica, Hing Dear, AI
Hohman, Howard Milam, Neil M. Miller, Hugh E. Peck, Walt Radut,
Alfred E. Smith, William Wallace.
REFER ENCES
1. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Technical Manual, Chapter 631. Preservation of Ships in Service (Paints and
Cathodic Protection). Washington, January 1970.
Washington, January 1970.
2. C.G. Munger, Practical Aspects of Coating Repair, Materials
Performance, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 46-52, February 1980.
3. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 80-06: Repair of
Exterior Protective Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, July 1980.
4. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 79-04: Surface
Preparation for Coatings. Port Hueneme, CA, April 1979.
5. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-09R: Coating
Interiors of Steel Potable Water Tanks. Port Hueneme, CA,
July 1979.
6. Naval Ship Systems Command. NAVSHIPS Notice 9190: Navy
Polyamide-Epoxy Systems for Interior and Exterior Ship Surfaces. Naval Ship Systems Command, Washington, June
1972.
7. Civil Engineering Laboratory. Techdata Sheet 77-19: Incompatibility of Paints. Port Hueneme, CA, November 1977.
8. H.H. Vanderbilt and R.A. Sulit. Thermal Spray Technology
Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation and Service
Applications in the U S . Navy, Tri-Service Conference on
Corrosion. US. Air Force Academy, Colorado, November
1980.
9. H.S. Preiser and S.D. Rodgers. "Coatings - the Promise and
Challenge for Enhanced Naval Performance," chapter in Corrosion Control by Coatings, H. Leidherser, Jr. (editor). Princeton, NJ, Science Press, 1979.
10. Navy Environmental Health Center letter 41AIJRB:crh
6260.1G serial 9-130 of May 14, 1979.
11. J.D. Keane, J.A. Bruno and R.E.F. Weaver. Performance of
Alternative Coatings in the Environment (PACE), Steel Structures Painting Journal. Pittsburgh, PA, August 20, 1979.
BIOGRAPHY
Stephen D. Rodgers has been
employed in the paint field for 35
years. Mr. Rodgers specializes
in protective finishes and the
related surface preparation technology for the marine industry.
Mr. Rodgers' experience includes 22 years in paint RDT&E
with the Navy, 7 years as the
Head of the Corrosion control
Branch of the Naval Sea Systems Command, with responsibilities for corrosion mitigation by
design, cathodic protection and
protective finishes. As a Senior engineer, Mr. Rodgers has provided consulting engineering services in private industry for 5 years.
Mr. Rodgers is a registered professional Corrosion Engineer in
the State of California and a Nuclear Safety Related Coating Engineer (National Board of Registration for Nuclear Safety Related
Coating Engineers and Specialists).
Mr. Rodgers has 8 patents and 45 publications.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
527
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0
CHAPTER 25
V. Roger Pludek
I. INTRODUCTION
The rising cost of labor and energy and the scarcity of
raw materials make conservation a necessity today, particularly with regard to steel structures that cannot easily
be dismantled and replaced. When they suffer unchecked
corrosion, steel structures fail, and their failure has a profound influence on the economic and social welfare of all
people. As more and more corrosive effluent is being emitted, and the corrosiveness of atmosphere, soil and natural
waters increases, the negative effect on steel structures is
compounded.
The effects of poor design can seldom, if ever, be corrected by coatings. Preventive control, beginning with
design, offers the best answer to the difficult problem of
corrosion. A majority of service failures caused by corrosion would not occur i f proper precautions were taken at
the design stage. All designers, engineers and technical
workers engaged in a construction project must work together to create an integrated corrosion control system."
111. MATERIALS
Among the most fundamental design activities, the
appreciation and evaluation of materials of construction
take the lead. Only thus can unnecessary work be avoided
and serious mistakes prevented.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
528
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 - 0
8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003776 5 5 7
93
IV. COMPATIBILITY
A. INTRODUCTION
Some designers dont appreciate the total structure
as one complete whole with its inherent design character,
which transcends its material and elemental boundaries.
This badly conceived inter-relation among the materials
within the structure can ruin even the best design.
All intermaterial parameters must be properly appreciated and evaluated before any final design decision is
taken. This evaluation must take into account problems
caused by direct contact between dissimilar metals or induced by changes of polarity, by transfer of electrolysis
through a medium, by transport of metallic particles in the
environment, by stray currents or by any other adverse effect arising from the proximity of incompatible materials.
Y
-I
iz
m
U
S E A WATER
FIGURE 2
B. DISSIMILAR METALS
1. Faying surfaces of dissimilar metals should be
designed for effective separation. Separation materials of
suitable shape, thickness, consistency and mode of application should be used (gaskets, butyl tape, sealant,
etc.).
2. Insulation must be sufficiently thick and cover
sufficient area of bimetallic joints to prevent conductive
medium from by-passing it and reaching the faying surfaces of the connection.
3. Crevices between structural metals and plastics
may support an increased rate of corrosion (crevice and
chemical attack). Test their compatibility.
4. Input of large cathodic areas of metal with small
anodic areas must be prevented in design of structures exposed to corrosive environments.
5. Key structural units, especially if these are
smaller than adjoining units, should be made in more noble metals (Figure 1).
6. Less noble structural members in bimetallic
structures should be made larger or in a thicker metal form
MO NEL
SEALANT OR LEADS
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 1
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
529
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R + 2 5 = 0 93
6 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003977 493
V. GEOMETRY
With appropriate geometry in the design of a structure, the designer can do much to control corrosion.
1. Structural design is an integral part of a structural
member and its function.
2. Structural design geometry should be simple,
sleek and streamlined.
3. Design forms should assist in preventing
geometry-dependent corrosion (crevice, impingement,
galvanic, electrolysis, etc.).
4. The designer should select shapes, forms or their
combinations whose fabrication, jointing and treatment
does not worsen the corrosion hazard.
5. The design geometry must support all or most of
the selective corrosion preventive measures (initially and
within lifetime).
6. Corrosion-prone areas must be accessible.
7. Size and shape of structural members must conform to the method and technique of the selected protection (e.g. for galvanizing by single, double dipping; progressive galvanizing).
8. Prevent entrapment of liquids and absorbent
solids within the structural assembly. Provide adequate
drainage (Figure 5).
CATHODIC
CORRODES
TIN
CHROMIUM
NICKEL
LEAD
COPPER METALS
STAINLESS STEEL
ZINC
ALUMINUM
CAOMIUM
SILVER
FIGURE 4
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Coatings containing metals or their active compounds must not be applied on top of coatings containing
zinc or aluminum on structures to be submerged in sea
water.
6. The designer must consider the possibility of a
change of polarity of metallic coatings on bimetallic connections under any probable environmental conditions.
7. Partially cured or under-cured organic materials
and coatings can be a source of corrosion.
8. At temperatures above 150F (66C) the possibility of emission of hydrochloric acid should be considered
for certain vinyl paints.
9. Zinc- or cadmium-plated components should not
be used in heated compartments containing phenolics,
varnishes, unstable insulating materials or encapsulants.
10. Galvanized fasteners should not be used on
stainless steel structures at high temperatures.
ENTRAPMEUT
COTITS.
WELD
DRAIN
HOLE
BETTER
BEST
D. STRAY CURRENTS
1. Avoid passage of electric current between structures and environment as described in the chapter on
cathodic protection (HVDC, other DC and AC stray currents; electric traction, welding plants, power undertakings and cathodic protection stray currents).
2. Insulating couplings can be used to separate
metallic components for control of stray currents.
3. In a conductive environment however, surface
films can negate the effect of an increase in the length of
the insulating couplings, and result in external current
jump.
4. Avoid critical leakage of stray current by increasing the earth contact resistance of structures, insulating
BAD
BETTER
BEST
FIGURE 5
530
Not for Resale
[ SHEET
\ \ \\
RAIN
/+
BACK OF FLANGE
METAL
SPOT WELD
POOR
I
u
BAD
BETTER
FIGURE 9
FIGURE 6
2. The design layout of structures must offer easy initial preservation and repainting (Figure IO).
K
PIPES
rPIPES7
SIDE
FILLET
ACCESS
HOLE
BAD
BETTER
FIGURE 10
SEALING
COMPOUND
A
FIGURE 7
11. Steel reinforcement must be embedded in sufficient thickness of concrete to suit the severity of environment. Minimum thickness of concrete for mild conditions
is
inch (1.3 cm); for corrosive conditions, 2 inches (5 cm);
and for hydraulic structures, 2-3 inches (5-8 cm). Reinforcing steel can be bare, clean metal; coated metal where
shallower embedment is indicated; powder epoxy coated
where concrete is exposed to sea water or road salt; or
even combined metal coating and powder epoxy coating in
concrete exposed to exceptionally severe environments.
12. The designer should not use back-to-back angles
that are bolted or intermittently welded (Figure 8).
BRACING
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BAD
BETTER
NNEL
FIGURE 11
4. Joined structural members prepared for galvanizing must be fully enclosed by sound, poreless and continuous welds (does not apply to open ends of hollow section members).
5. The geometry of structural steel for metal spray
deposition must permit efficient blast cleaning overall as
well as complete coverage of surface with the spraydeposited metal.
6. Complex structural shapes diminish the effectiveness of paint applied over them. Protruding fasteners
should be avoided. Corners should be well rounded to aid
efficiency of the painting films (Figures 12 and 13).
BEST
FIGURE 8
531
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0
93
= 8b27940
1-1
PREFERRED
AVOID
0003979 2bb
--@-
FIGURE 12
PREFERRED
AVOID
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AVOID
PREFERRED
FIGURE 13
VIL MECHANICS
Mechanical integrity of any structural metal can be
reduced or terminated by any of the known types of corrosion. Thus, all relevant types of corrosion should be
carefully considered in the design and appropriate protective measures taken. Stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen
FIGURE 14
532
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 - 0 9 3
86279LIO 0003980 T 8 8
FIGURE 15
FIGURE 16
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
533
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERm2-5-0 9 3
FDI ATTSD
IX. PROTECTION
A. COATINGS
Protective coatings alone can not maintain a poorly
designed structure in a usable state. The true function of
protection is to retain and improve the effectiveness of
those anti-corrosion properties that have been built into
the design of the structure itself. These intrinsic corrosioncontrol attributes of the designed structures and the extrinsic corrosion protection are complementary to each
other. Their use will depend largely on their economic advantages and engineering value.
The corrosion protection should be made up to suit
the whole structural entity. Piecemeal protection of in
dividual structural members, sub-assemblies or units is
shortsighted and illogical. For the best protection, t h e
geometry of the structures, location and relative position
of the critical parts of the structures, the degree of application difficulties, and the reciprocal effectiveness of the
protective measures must be reconciled.
The new, sophisticated, protective measures must not
be incorporated into the design haphazardly. The design of
the structures must suit their use. The less the surfaces
are accessible, the better must be their protection.
The designer must not be rigid in his attitude toward
protection. He should specify only the necessary, safe and
economically feasible methods of protection. He should
give preference to methods and techniques that can be
utilized by skilled personnel under controlled conditions.
Local climatic conditions on the production site and
subsequent ports of call, including the erection site, will
have a considerable influence on the eventual selection of
the protective measures. Difficulties in obtaining skilled
labor could critically affect the reliability and safety of the
adopted protective measures. It is usually preferable,
therefore, to select materials, methods or techniques that
will give the best possible results and that can be readily
secured in the operational locality of the structures.
Basically, the corrosion protection of structures con-
ROUGH
SURFACE
BAD
BETTER
BEST
FIGURE 17
B. SURFACE PREPARATION
1. Exposed surfaces should be protected in storage,
fabrication, assembly and in use by temporary or permanent protective measures.
2. The texture of surface not only influences the
mechanical efficiency of structures, but it has also an effect on the results obtained from the corrosion control.
This applies whether the structures remain bare or a
coating is applied.
3. A smooth surface finish avoids sharp irregularities that are potential source of fatigue cracks and
corrosion.
4. The designer should evaluate which texture of
surface provides the best base for the protection and
specify this in the design. He should stipulate whether the
structural material should remain raw as is, untreated as
fabricated, or whether it should be blast cleaned, rough--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
534
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 . 0
93
sists of the protective measures that provide the separation of surfaces from the environments, those that provide
cathodic protection or anodic polarization and those that
cater to the adjustment of the environment. The available
methods can be used singly, individually, or they can be
combined to suit the requirements. Usually, the sum of two
or more protective measures can provide a much better
degree of protection than the straight total of their individual effects.
X. MAINTAINABILITY
A. INTRODUCTION
Structures may fail as a result of catastrophic failures
of individual structural components or by a progressive
degradation and deterioration of performance. Each of
these failures can be attributed to factors of mechanics
and corrosion.
The structures must be so designed that their
maintenance can be undertaken as a regular and
economically feasible activity.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
535
Not for Resale
STRUCTURE
BAD
FIGURE 18
XI. ECONOMICS
A. INTRODUCTION
Corrosion causes loss of capital assets and business
profits. Corrosion control, therefore, can justify itself in
536
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*25=0 9 3
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 5 = 0 9 3
BIOGRAPHY
V.R. Pludek, prior to his
retirement, was a corrosion
control consultant and proprietor of CORROSION DESIGN CONTROL. He worked
on diversified corrosion engineering projects in the U.K.,
Europe, the Americas, Asia,
Africa and Australia for 35
years. He has lectured at the
University of Calgary and the
Southern Alberta Institute of
Technology.
Following an undergraduate degree in Europe, he took post graduate studies in the U.K.,
Canada, and the U.S.A.
He is a Fellow of the Institution of Corrosion Science and
Technology, London, U.K., and a Corrosion Specialist in the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He is a member of the
American Society for Metals and the Sea Horse Institute, and a
past member of the Canadian Forces Corrosion Prevention Committee, the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the
Electrochemical Society.
He has been a corrosion consultant in numerous countries,
dealing with corro5,ion control for ships, shipyards, harbors,
nuclear energy facilities, food plants, and oil industries. He has
several inventions related to corrosion prevention in stacks,
aerials, and ship shafts.
His many published works include an EnglishlCzech bilingual technical dictionary (1942), and a book on Design and
Corrosion Control (1977).
B. REQUIREMENTS
A properly designed structure must serve its purpose
with an acceptable degree of efficiency. It should last only
as long as it is to the advantage of the proprietor or user,
and it should be as cheap as possible. It does not need to
last forever. Corrosion of the structures must not limit
their life to a significantly short period; it must not vitally
interrupt their inherent utility; and it must not endanger the
life and health of the users. Reasonable precautions
should be taken in the plan, but an overdesign should be
avoided.
Considering the shortages of raw materials facing the
world, the recoverable and recycleable materials of the
structures should be preserved from total destruction. The
constantly changing causes of corrosion from new techniques and new chemicals or processes has to exert a
significant influence on the concept of corrosion control
planning.
Given the shortage of materials and energy, designing
obsolescence into any structure by increasing its corrosion potential, by selecting corrosion-prone materials and
treating them with negligent protective coating systems, is
a serious error. Well-balanced design, integrated function,
corrosion control and reasonable cost are sound policies.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author and editors gratefully acknowledge the active
participation of the following in the review process for this
chapter. Frank LaQue, R. Martell, W. Mathay, I. Metil, C. Munger,
Melvin Sandler, Eugene Praschan, Melvin Sandler.
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8b279qO 0003985 5 b T
CHAPTER 26.0
I.
INTRODUCTION
In 1991, 6.3 million U.S. workers became ill or were injured on the job. The total includes both minor discomfort
and serious injury. Roughly 8 people in every 100 were affected. Of course, some industries are more dangerous than
others. In the painting and paperhanging industry, (no breakdown for painting only is available), the rate was somewhat
higher than average - 9.9 per hundred, while the injury rate
for ship building and repairing was 44.1. By contrast, the rate
in the financial industry was only 2.3 per hundred.
Workers in the painting industry have to be alert to the
possibility of falling from scaffolds, being struck by material
falling from above, becoming caught or being electrocuted
by the machinery their jobs require. They also need to be
aware of occupational illnesses that may result from coating and coating removal operations. Exposure to lead pigments and silica in abrasives can cause serious and even
fatal illness. Various solvents affect the nervous system and
are known or possible carcinogens.
About 2,800 workers were killed on the job in 1991, or
4.3 per 100,000 full-time workers. According to the Bureau
of Labor Statistics, although fatalities are not available for
the painting industry alone, the incidence is not much higher
than this national average.
These figures suggest that it is in the best interest of
everyone engaged in the painting and coating trades, employers, employees, managers and suppliers, to take health
and safety issues quite seriously.
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93
may be exposed to and what federal, state and local regulations require. The contractor must also be familiar with various approaches to compliance, including engineering, work
practice and administrative controls, air and personnel
monitoring and the proper use of personal protective
equipment.
A contractor who does not have the expertise to keep
abreast of safety regulations and to comply with them may
be subject to regulatory fines and civil and criminal liability.
The owner who hires such a contractor runs the risk of being included in legal actions against the contractor. For instance, according to OSHA guidance to inspectors, when one
employer is not meeting requirements to inform employees
of workplace chemical hazards at a multi-employerwork site,
the other employers may be cited also.
Contractors who do not make health and safety a priority often suffer reduced productivity and lower worker
morale. The owner may also be affected by unnecessary
work stoppages and slow downs, and unfavorable publicity
as a result of a serious accident or pattern of occupational
injury and illness at its work site.
Contracting firms who value their employees and practice safety on each job every day will reap many benefits not
only for themselves but for the owners that hire them. Good
safety performance reduces lost work hours, which in turn
reduces the contractors insurance costs while increasing
productivity. A contractor with lower insurance costs can do
the job at less cost to the owner. Everybody wins.
D. RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS,
EMPLOYEES AND INSPECTORS,
CONSULTANTS AND ENGINEERS
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FIGURE 1
Paint vapors can be flammable if adequate ventilation is not
provided.
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93
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2 . Health Hazards
a. Causes - A variety of paint ingredients or chemicals may be harmful to the human body. For instance, some chemicals may cause irritation,
sensitization, central nervous system effects, or systemic effects. Most people can withstand chemical
exposures for short periods of time at low doses;
however, some people are immediately sensitive to
some ingredients and almost everyone will be affected to a degree if exposed for a cuff icient period
of time. Continued exposure may cause the body
to become sensitized so that subsequent contact
may result in an aggravated reaction, especially for
anyone with a chronic illness.
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may irritate the respiratory tract and/or cause adverse health effects to other body systems by being transferred via the blood stream. The third route
of entry of solvents into the body is by ingestion. Ingestion of solvents may affect the gastrointestinal
tract as well as other body organs. The following
precautions should be used while working with toxic solvents:
(1) Properly label, seal and store all toxic solvents
when not in use.
(2) Adequately ventilate all areas where solvents
are used or stored.
(3) Wear the proper respirator and eye protection.
(4) If a solvent gets splashed into the eye, immediately flush the eye with water for a minimum
of fifteen minutes and seek medical attention.
(5) Wear the appropriate gloves and clothing
when handling solvents.
(6) Practice good personal hygiene after handling
any solvents.
(7) Consult the Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the material
that is in use, and the specified protective equipment needed when using the material.
(8) If permissible exposure limits are exceeded,
as determined through air monitoring conducted by an industrial hygienist, then engineering
control and respiratory protection becomes
necessary.
c. Hazards of Solvents and Thinners - Most solvents are toxic to some degree, depending upon exposures. Solvents may enter or affect the body in
three ways. The most frequent way solvents affect
the body is by skin contact. When a solvent is allowed to contact the skin, even for a short period
of time, it will start to damage the skin or cause dermatitis. Dermatitis is reddening and swelling of the
skin. The second route of entry of solvents into the
body is by breathing, or inhalation.
Once solvents are inhaled, the vapors can pass
from the lungs directly to the blood. The solvent
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e. Hazards of Pigments and Other Additives
(1) Heavy Metal Pigments - Pigments are another
paint component that may be toxic to the human
body. The most common contain lead, chromium, and oxides of iron, titanium, and zinc.
Precautions such as ventilation, respirators,
hygiene facilities, and personal protective clothing should be implemented when applying or
removing paints containing these pigments. The
substitution of hazardous pigments with nonhazardous pigments is the best method of controlling future occupational health hazards.
The removal of paints containing heavy
metal pigments without control measures greatly increases an employees chances of developing a heavy metal poisoning. Airborne pigments
such as lead may enter the body by inhalation
and ingestion. Exposure to lead may affect each
person differently. Even before symptoms appear, lead may cause unseen injury to the body.
During early stages of lead poisoning, mild
symptoms may be overlooked as everyday medical complaints, including: loss of appetite, trouble sleeping, irritability, fatigue, headache, joint
and muscle aches, metallic taste, decreased sex
drive, lack of concentration and moodiness. Brief
intense exposure or prolonged overexposure
may result in severe damage to the bloodforming, nervous, kidney and reproductive systems. Some noticeable medical problems include: stomach pains, wrist or foot drop, high
blood pressure, nausea, anemia, constipation or
diarrhea, tremors, convulsions or seizures.
(2) Silica - Silica (both crystalline and amorphous)
and the silicates clay, diatomaceous earth, mica,
and talc are widely used as extender pigments.
With the exception of clay, all have been demonstrated to produce fibrosis of the lung. A preliminary study of the health hazards in the painting
trades suggested that mixed dust pneumoconiosis is common among painters. While extender
pigments are used in substantial quantities in
some paint formulations, these materials may be
at least partially locked up by encapsulation in
the resinous binder.
(3) Organic pigments - The chronic hazards
posed by these materials are largely unknown.
Many of the pigments are based on dyestuffs: the
dyestuff is combined with an inorganic compound
to produce an insoluble pigment. The dyestuffs
have been studied more extensively than the pigments, and several have been implicated as
cancer risks. In paint the biological availability of
these materials is probably limited by the insolubility of the pigments and their partial encapsulation in the paint resin matrix. Fat andlor water
soluble dyes are used in some wood stains, increasing the potential hazard.
FIGURE 2
Eye and respiratory protection are needed for spray painting.
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- Activators and
catalysts found in some coatings, such as mercury compounds, can be very harmful if proper
protective clothing and respiratory protection is
not used.
clothing, respiratory protection, medical monitoring, posting of warning signs, and worker
training.
The Texas Department of Health also issued
an advisory on the hazards of using silica abrasives to the oil and gas pipe coating industry.
Both documents strongly recommend observing
OSHAs PEL of 100 pg/m3 based on an 8-hour
time-weighted average.
(3) Chemical Strippers - Chemical strippers are
used to soften the existing coating for removal
by scraping andlor flushing. Chemical strippers
eliminate airborne hazards but proper protective
clothing such as coveralls, gloves and glasses
should be worn to prevent skin and eye irritation.
Caustic compounds in some chemical strippers
can cause burns if not immediately washed off
the skin and can cause eyes, nose and throat irritation upon inhalation. Solvent-based strippers
are also available. Health hazards may vary from
irritation and central nervous system depression
possible with substances such as xylene to the
possibility of human carcinogenicity, as with
methylene chloride. Chemical strippers containing solvents may require use of respiratory protective devices.
(4) Acids and Alkalis - Acids and alkalis commonly found in wash primers and chemical strippers (e.g., sodium hydroxide and phosphoric
acid) are highly corrosive, and appropriate measures should be instituted concerning storage,
handling, waste disposal, ventilation, personal
protection and first aid.
(5) Chemical Spills - Clean up spills immediately
and wash immediately if skin comes into contact
with a hazardous substance. If a solventlchemical gets splashed into the eye, immediately flush
the eye with water for a minimum of fifteen
minutes and seek medical attention. Wear the appropriate gloves and clothing when handling
spills. Practice good personal hygiene after handling any spills. Consult the Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS) to determine the toxicity of the
material that is in use, and the specific protective equipment needed when using the material. Store and dispose of all oily or solvent wetted
rags in metal containers with a tightly sealed lid.
Respiratory protection should be worn if the spill
creates a hazardous atmosphere, or the MSDS
indicates it is necessary.
(6) Materials Removed From Surfaces - A prejob analysis of the surface materials should be
conducted to determine whether the coating contains hazardous materials. If the coating contains
potentially hazardous constituents then respiratory and protective clothing should be worn when
working with the removed material.
f. Hazards
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B. PAINT APPLICATION
i.General
Paint products are used widely in industry to provide a surface coating for protection against corrosion, for appearance, as electrical insulation, and
for a number of special purposes. The hazards associated with the industrial application of these
products will be discussed in this section. Common
methods of application include airless spray, conventional spray (air atomizing) and electrostatic
spray.
e. Airless spray equipment must be grounded to prevent static sparking. If extension cords are used,
make sure that they have a ground wire and that
the ground is connected.
Do not spray solvent through the nozzle tip because this can build up static electricity and cause
explosion or fire. Take the tip off before spraying
solvent through the system.
f.
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SSPC CHAPTERs26.0
h. Conduct hydrostatic tests at least once, preferably twice a year. Check all valves, including safety
valves, daily.
FIGURE 3
Airless spray systems exert considerable force and can cause
serious injury if not handled carefully.
2. Airless Spray
Because airless spray systems operate at high pressure, give special attention to safety during operation. A tip guard and trigger lock must be on all
airless spray-guns. Fluid sprayed from the gun is
propelled with sufficient force to penetrate skin and
cause serious damage. In the event of injection, special treatment by a physician is required. The attending physician should be advised of the materials
ingredients (an MSDS would be helpful) and of the
nature of the injection (high pressure).
The entire system is pressurized so that hose
ruptures or leaks at fittings can result in dangerous
high pressure spray. Some important safety practices to help avoid these hazards include the following:
a. Never point the gun at anyone.
b. Do not make adjustments to the equipment setup, such as changing nozzles or fittings, without first
shutting off the pump and releasing the system
press ure.
4. Electrostatic Spray
In electrostatic spraying, an electrical charge is applied to the atomized coating particles, either by the
creation of an ionized zone within the spray cone
area, or by imparting a charge to the fluid stream
prior to its release from the spray gun head. The
charged, atomized paint particles are attracted to
the conductive object being finished by the electrostatic potential between the paint and the object.
The level of exposure to the paint is determined
by the overspray and rebound that occurs during
spraying. Effective ventilation controls, protective
clothing and respiratory protection should be worn
while using this painting method. All electrostatic
equipment must be properly grounded.
5. Compressor Pumps
When using a compressor never overload it. Place
the compressor in an open and level area. Place the
compressor in a remote location because it requires
a good supply of clean, fresh air in order
c. Always make sure the fluid hose is in good condition before spraying; kinks or abrasion can develop into a rupture. Store hose in a dry area.
d. Do not use standard hardware on an airless system; only high pressure fittings can be used. High
pressure hose is required for fluid flow. The
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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8 b 2 7 9 4 0 0003992 7 T T H
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FIGURE 4
Specialized protective equipment is required for abrasive
blasting.
C. SURFACE PREPARATION
1. Abrasive Blasting
Without proper precautions the high pressures used
in blast cleaning can cause injuries. Injection of
water beneath the skin should be treated as seriously as any other chemical injection. In addition,
abrasive material may cause harm at high or even
moderate pressures, and continuous exposure to
the dust may result in lung disease.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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to avoid the possibility of shock. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) should be used with all electric cords and tools.
In confined spaces and other areas where there
may be a danger of explosion, power tool cleaning
should not be conducted because of the possibility
of sparking.
The operator must be certain that the tools in
use are checked and safe. Make sure that the abrasive media is attached securely and tightened. Tools
should not be operated above maximum operating
speed. Tools should not be run unless in contact
with the work surface. Manufacturers directions
should always be strictly followed.
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5 . Pressure Pots
Sandblast pots and related blast machinery should
be built to standards set by the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) or National Board
Code. Pots not meeting these requirements must
not be used. The ASME code means that everything
has been done to make the vessel as safe as possible. The code prohibits any field welding on blast
machines.
Blast pressures should stay within the
manufacturers blast machine ratings. High blast
pressures increase wear and tear on blast
machines, and increase operator fatigue. Unless
otherwise specified, maximum working pressure of
blast machines and related components must not
exceed national board approved 125 psis (8.5 BAR).
Pot tenders and others working near abrasive
blasting operations may need to be equipped with
respirators, gloves, hard hats and safety glasses.
Most abrasive blasting operations produce noise
levels in excess of 90 decibels so hearing protection devices (ear plugs or earmuffs) should also be
worn.
Never force the lid off the sandblast pot. If the
lid is difficult to open, stop and check the air pressure. The pot must be depressurized before opening the pot lid, or before any changes to hose
couplings, or repairs of any kind are allowed.
A blast machine should never be moved while
it contains abrasives. Abrasive blasting machines
which will be towed on a highway should be
equipped with properly operating brakes, taillights,
fenders and side reflectors.
3 . Water Jetting
Although water itself is relatively safe, the extremely
high pressure often used for water jetting can be
hazardous. Prior to starting any water jetting operation, employees should examine the condition of
the hoses, hose fittings, couplings and unions. Any
equipment showing wear should be replaced to prevent sudden parting and whipping under pressure.
Water jetting hoses should be secured to the
staging at the working level leaving only enough free
hose so the hose weight can be properly and safely handled by the blaster. Any electrical equipment
in the area of operations that presents a hazard to
the operator should be de-energized, shielded or
otherwise made safe. Operators should wear appropriate waterproof clothing, head, eye and hearing protection during all water jetting operations.
When water jetting operations are conducted
in confined spaces, the blaster should be in constant
communication with the stand-by person. Employees should take precautions to protect the water
blasting equipment from freezing in cold weather
and signs should be posted to advise others in the
area when water blasting operations are being performed. As always, injection of water beneath the
skin should be treated as seriously as any other
chemical, and a physician should be consulted.
For more information on safe practices for
water jetting, see The Water Jet Technology Associations booklet RecommendedPractices for the Use
of Manually Operated High Pressure Water Jetting
Equipment.
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FIGURE 5
Failure to use proper access equipment can lead to falls, a com-.
mon source of injury in coating operations.
2. Fail Hazards
Falls from heights are a significant hazard faced by
painters and blasters in day-to-day work. Because
falls are a routine hazard, there is a tendency not
always to take the precautions necessary when
working from elevated work surfaces. But when
working from heights, safety can not be taken for
granted. The hazards of high work subject employees to possible injury and death, and an employer to possible OSHA citations and fines.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
0003994 5 7 2
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S S P C CHAPTER*Zb*O 93
SSPC CHAPTERW6.0 9 3
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3. Confined Spaces
ments, groups that develop voluntary industrial standards or labor representatives. Once the need for
a new standard has been identified, OSHA Advisory Committees, which include representatives of
management, labor and state agencies, develop
recommendations.
In the very early stages of the process, OSHA
may request additional information needed for the
development of a standard by publishing an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in the Federal Register, a daily record of federal business.
When a first draft of the proposed regulations has
been completed, a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking must appear in the Federal Register. Interested parties must then have at least 30 days to
comment on the way proposed regulations will impact them. Following this comment period, the final regulations are published in the Federal
Register, and incorporated into the Code of Federal Regulations, a permanent record of government
regulations organized by subject. (See Appendix for
more details on sources of information.)
Those who feel they will be adversely affected
by a standard may request a judicial review. Employers that cannot meet the standard, or believe
an exception should be made in their case because
their facilities or methods are at least as effective,
can request a temporary or permanent variance.
When new or particularly hazardous conditions
warrant, OSHA may develop emergency standards,
which take effect immediately. Once these standards have been published in the Federal Register,
they are also subject to comment and review before
they are published as permanent standards.
d. atmospheric testing;
1. Authority
In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety
and Health Act, which created the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, a division of the
Department of Labor. OSHA is responsible for developing and enforcing mandatory job safety and
health standards. The agency also conducts
research, training and record keeping related to
health and safety issues. Some states have been
approved to administer their own state OSHA
programs.
If OSHA discovers violations during an inspection, the employer will receive a citation, which details the violation, includes information about
penalties and a schedule for compliance. Penalties
may depend on the seriousness of the violation,
knowledge of the violation, and a show of cooperation, or good faith.
3. Regulatory Process
Some OSHA standards have been mandated by
Congress. They may also be initiated by the agency in response to petitions from other parties including the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH), state and local govern-
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Type of Violation
Possible Penalty
Serious Violation
Willful Violation
Willful Violation Resulting in
Death
Repeat Violation
Failure to Correct Violation
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5 . Consultation Assistance
OSHA provides a Consultation Service that can help
employers evaluate and improve their compliance.
The service was developed with small employers in
mind. Although the program is funded by OSHA, it
is entirely voluntary. No penalties are issued, and
OSHA enforcement compliance officers do not see
the results.
State officials or university staff often operate
the Consultation Service. They may point out weaknesses in an employers health and safety program
and provide the training and technical assistance
needed to resolve any problems. Firms that participate in the program receive a limited one-year exemption from OSHA inspection.
OSHAs Voluntary Protection Programs encourage employers to take their health and safety
programs beyond the letter of the law - and provide
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
SSPC CHAPTER*26*0 9 3
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FIGURE 6
Workers may be required to wear hearing protection under
OSHAs Occupational Noise Exposure Standard.
3 . Respiratory Protection
FIGURE 7
In order to test the level of air contaminants, a vacuum pump
on the workers belt is used to pull air through a specialized
filter placed in the workers breathing zone.
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The design, construction, load-bearing capabilities, platform guarding, and use of all scaffolding must comply with OSHA standard, 29 CFR
1926.451, Scaffolding.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Protective Measures
(A complefe list of options for respiratory
protection appears in the Interim Final
Rule's Table on Respiratory Protection,
1926.62(f).)
>2,500 pg/m3
*manual demolition
*manual scraping
*manual sanding
*heat gun applications
*general clean-up
-power tool cleaning with
dust collection systems
-spray painting
*any other task where employer
has reason to believe task could
exceed PEL
*abrasive blasting
*welding, cutting, and
torch burning
b. Foot Protection - Where the potential for serious foot injury exists, safety-toe footwear for employees should be required and meet the
requirements specified in American National Standard for Personnel Protection - Protective Footwear,
241.
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3 . Protection Factors
Various groups have established protection factors
for respirators, including NIOSH, OSHA, ANSI, and
others. In fact, there is quite a controversy over the
level of protection afforded by different categories
of respirators.
FIGURE 9
Supplied air respirators deliver breathing air from outside the
work environment.
FIGURE 8
Air purifying respirators filter contaminants from the air workers
breathe.
2 . Types of Respirators
In general there are two basic types of respirators.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
552
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553
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SSPC C H A P T E R U 2 b - 0 93
SSPC CHAPTER*26.0
9 3 M 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004003 300
The Water Jet Technology Association
P.O. Box 1365
,Golden, CO 80402
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review process for this chapter: Rex
Bison and Daniel O. Chute.
Richard Grunberg provided a number of pictures for this
chapter.
BIOGRAPHY
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CHAPTER 27.0
Bernard R. Appleman
A.
B.
C.
D.
APPENDICES
INTRODUCTION
A. Definitions
B. Classifying Wastes
C . Responsibilities for Hazardous Waste
D. Sampling & Testing
E. Treatment & Disposal of Hazardous Waste
F. State Regulation of Hazardous and Non-Hazardous
Waste
I. WATER QUALITY
A. Federal Clean Water Act
B. Reportable Quantities for Hazardous Substances
C. Water Quality Standards
D. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
E. Potable Water in Storage Tanks
FIGURE 1
Dust from abrasive blasting operation.
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agencies have not established sufficient policies or procedures for coordinating the various divisions within the agency. Consequently, the protective coatings and related
industries affected by these regulations must deal with these
regulations individually, responding to and complying with
each specific requirement. If there are inconsistent or conflicting requirements between one or more environmental
regulations (even from the same agency), the industry may
need to bring this to the attention of appropriate officials.
This is not to say, however, that government agencies,
be they federal, state, or local, cannot collaborate on enforcement as well as regulatory development. In one of the more
dramatic instances of inter-agency cooperation, the Texas
Air Control Board (TACB) developed a stringent regulation
for containing lead-based paint debris during removal operations on water storage tanks.
The TAC6 was responding in part to an incident in which
citizens of Cedar Park, TX complained to the Texas Health
Department about air-borne dust from an open blasting operation on a water tank. In the process of investigating the complaint, public health officials found lead-based paint chips
contaminating the soil of the entire neighborhood, and the
chips were traced to the open blasting operations. Not only
did two agencies work together on this complaint, but the
air quality regulation subsequently developed by the TACB
had the effect of protecting the ground as well as the air.
2 . Paint Application
In the process of spraying (and other means of application), a substantial portion of the liquid coating
does not reach the substrate but is lost due to overspray. In addition, most coatings have appreciable
quantities of volatile organic compounds (solvents)
that can contribute to smog formation.
3. Waste Production
Both coating removal and coating application generate waste products, which must be properly disposed of. In many instances, the waste may be
classified as hazardous by EPA or state environmental agencies because of the heavy metal (e.g., lead)
content of the residue, or the solvents of unused
paint or thinner.
4. Product Storage
Under certain circumstances, toxic or otherwise undesirable components of applied coating films may
leach into the environment. Examples include coatings used for lining of potable water storage tanks,
coatings used in food and beverage plants, and antifouling coatings. Leaching occurs because many of
these ingredients are water-soluble or flake or erode
into the environment.
C. REGULATORY AGENCIES
The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal
agency responsible for developing and enforcing environmental regulations. Congress intended that protection be a
joint Federal-state responsibility. Most of the statutes provide for states to implement and enforce the regulations. In
some instances states must meet certain requirements to be
delegated authority (e.g., hazardous waste regulation under
RCRA).
Individual states may have their own environmental
agencies, variously known as the Department of Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Resources,
Department of Natural Resources or state EPA. Other state
or local agencies that may be involved are health agencies
and fish and game commissions. State environmental regulations must be at least as stringent as federal regulations,
but they may be more stringent. In some cases, county or
municipality requirements may be stricter than state or federal regulations. The following discussion focuses primarily
on federal requirements. State and local authorities should
also be consulted.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 0
SSPC CHAPTER*27.0 93
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There are no federal regulations regarding permissible levels for contaminants or hazardous material
in soil relevant to protective coatings. The potential
impact of soil contamination is discussed in Chapter 27.3.
REFERENCES
1. Water Tower Project Shut Down for Lead Contamination: Citation and Lawsuits Follow, Journal of Protective Coatings and
Linings (JPCL),October, 1990, pp. 97-99. Texas Reviews Comments on Blasting Rule for Water Tanks, JPCi, July, 1991,
p. 31.
2. Clean Air Act, Public Law 91-604, December 31, 1970.
3. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Public Law 101-549,
November 15, 1990; and Public Law 102-187, September 4,
1991.
4. Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Public Law 92-500, October 18,1971, and Clean Water Act of 1977, Public Law 95-217,
December 28, 1977.
5. Clean Water Act of 1987, Public Law 100-202, December 22,
1987.
6. Safe Drinking Water Act (Title XIV of the Public Health Service
Act, Public Law 93-523, December 16, 1974).
7. Resource Conservation Act, Public Law 94-580, October 21,
1976.
8. Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments, Public Law 98-616,
November 9, 1984.
9. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act, Public Law 96-510, 1980.
1O. Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986. Public Law 99-499, October 17, 1986.
11. Toxic Substances Control Act, Public Law 94-469. October 11,
1976.
12. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Public Law
92-516, October 21, 1982.
13. Lead-Based Paint: Interim Guidelines for Hazard Identification
and Abatement in Public and Indian Housing, September 1990,
rev. May 1991. Washington, DC: Office of Public and Indian
Housing, May 1991.
5. HUD Guidelines
The Department of Housing and Urban Development has developed the only available
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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SSPC CHAPTER*27*0 93
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8627940 0004007 8 2 9
CHAPTER 27.1
2. HAPS
As part of the CAAA, Congress specifically added
approximately 190 additional Hazardous Air Pollutants (abbreviated as HAPS) to the list of substances that required control. This list included
many of the common solvents used in paints, such
as xylene, toluene, and methyl ethyl ketone (see Table l). Previously, under the National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program,
EPA had been charged with regulating HAPS. However, there was no significant progress because of
the requirement to apply health-based standards
and because of the lack of specific targets.
The CAAA selected specific HAPS (with provisions for adding and deleting substances) and established a new approach for controlling HAPS. The
190 substances listed will be subject to controls
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Table 1
HAZARDOUS AIRPOLLUTANTS USED
IN PROTECTIVE COATINGS APPLICATIONS
2. PA Regulation of VOCs
EPA defines VOCs as a group of chemicals that
react in the atmosphere with nitrogen oxides in the
presence of heat and sunlight to form ozone. Not
included are methane and other compounds determined by EPA to have negligible photochemical
reactivity. Many solvents used in paints contain
VOCs.
VOCs can be controlled in several manners.
One approach (which has been used by EPA for certain industries) is to limit the total quantity of VOCs
that can be emitted from a given facility for a unit
of time (e.g., one ton of VOC per year). The second
approach is to limit the amount or proportion of VOC
permitted in a coating formulation. This method has
also been widely employed by EPA and state agencies. This is the most common method, and will be
discussed in greater detail below. A third approach
is to control the transfer efficiency of the coating application. This approach reduces the amount of
coating material that evaporates, rather than landing on the substrate. This is probably the least used
of the three approaches described.
EPA has classified VOC sources into two broad
categories: mobile sources and stationary sources.
Mobile sources include cars, trucks, and other vehicles. The VOCs produced by mobile sources are
not relevant for the protective coatings industry.
Fabricating shops that coat steel are included
among the stationary sources listed by EPA. There
are numerous other stationary sources which use
other types of coatings being regulated for VOC
such as furniture, aerospace, and automotive.
These are outside the scope of this chapter.
Until the passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act
Amendments, EPA was not mandated to regulate
VOCs from coating operations. Rather, it was
charged with preparing guidance documents, called
Control Technique Guidelines (CTG) which states
and localities could use as a basis for regulating
VOC emissions from various shop coating operations. The CTG for industrial shop coating operations is discussed under item 4, VOC from
Shop-Applied Coatings, below.
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Chromium Compounds
Epichlorohydrin (Chloro-2,3-epoxypropane)
Ethylene Glycol
Formaldehyde
Glycol Ethers
Hydrochloric Acid
Isophorone
Lead Compounds
Methyl Chloroform (1,1,1 ,-Trichloroethane)
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (2-Butanone)
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (Hexone)
Methylene Chloride (Dichloromethane)
Styrene
Toluene
Triethylamine
Xylenes (m,o,p or mixed)
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FIGURE 2
Applying coating in the fabricating shop,
Table 2
CLASSIFICATION OF OZONE NON-ATTAINMENT AREAS
Definition of
Major Source
Designation
Ozone (ppm)
Marginal
0.121 to 0.138
Moderate
0.138 to 0.160
Serious
0.160 to 0.180
Severe
0.180 to 0.280
Extreme
>0.280
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Title IV - Acid Deposition Control. Title IV is devoted to restricting sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from coal-burning electric utility plants to prevent
what is known as acid rain. Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen emissions are transformed in
the atmosphere and fall to the earth in rain, fog, and
snow.16 Acid rain can harm the natural environment
as well as buildings. It IS also suspected to be hazardous
to human health.
Title V - Permits. Title V calls for states to develop
operating permits for major sources covered under Title l and for sources covered in other titles, including
Title 111. The permitting program provides a way of tracking sources and their emissions. Shop painting
ties are among the sources typically required to
for operating permits,
Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection. Title
provides measures for preventing the depletion of t
stratospheric ozone layer, which is actually beneficial
or good ozone. As described in section B of this chapter, Ozone and VOC, stratospheric ozone absorbs
cosmic radiation before it reaches the earth. The radiation IS linked to the risk of skin cancer. Some solvents
used in degreasing operations or in coatings can contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion. Hence, such
materials are also under the domain of Title VI. (See discussion under 8.8 Compliance with VOC Rules.)
Title Vfl - Enforcement. Title VI1 significantly
strengthens the EPAs authority to enforce the C A M .
The Title authorizes EPA to impose criminal as well as
civil sanctions against violators.
Title Vlfl - Miscellaneous Provisions. Title VIII
addresses the control of air pollution on the Outer Continental Shelf (sources within 25 miles of shore); on the
US-Mexico border; and in international border areas (areas in the US that are subject to emissions originating outside the US).
Title IX - Clean Air Research. Title IX calls for
research on topics such as monitoring and modeling
methods, health effects associated with air pollutants,
the effects of air pollution on the ecosystem, modeis for
predicting accidental releases, pollution prevention, acid
precipitation, and clean alternative fueling.
iitle X - Disadvantaged Business Concerns. Title
X requires EPA to make at least 10 percent of federal
funds for CAAA research available to disadvantaged
business concerns, which are defined as those that are
at least 51 percent owned and controlled by black americans, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, Asian
Americans, women, or disabled Americans.
Title XI - Clean Air Employment Transition Assistance. Title XI amends the Job Training Partnership
Act to include assistance to workers adversely affected
by compliance with the CAAA.
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Congress to develop a Control Technique Guideline (CTG) to reduce emission of VOCs and PM-10
from shipbuilding and ship repair operations. EPAs
aim was to develop limits for VOCs concurrently with
those for HAPS. This was based on the assumption
that many shipyards were major sources, for which
HAPS regulations were required by November 15,
2000.
In 1992, EPA surveyed shipbuilders and coating manufacturers to determine the current status
of regulations and technology.20 Regulations affecting marine coating operations were in effect in
California (several districts), Connecticut, Maine,
Louisiana, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin.
The most comprehensive regulations were those
from California and Louisiana, which had specific
rules for shipbuilding operations. From the survey,
EPA, working with shipyard representatives, classified marine coatings into 12 specialty and 2 general categories. Four coating types (epoxy, alkyd,
inorganic zinc and anti-fouling coatings) comprise
90% of the total coatings used for shipbuilding activities. Epoxy alone represented 60% of the volume
for the shipyards surveyed. The survey also identified xylene, toluene, and MEK as the three most
commonly used HAPS. Others were MIBK, hexane,
ethyl benzene, and glycol ethers.
In trying to develop a rule to encompass both
HAPS and VOCs, EPA must combine the requirements for these two distinct rules. As discussed in
Section A, HAPS require control using Maximum
Available Control Technology (MACT). Regulation
of VOC under the CTG as prescribed in the CAAA
requires conformance with Best Available Control
Measures (BACM). A detailed description of these
terms is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Some examples of approaches to meeting
these requirements are suggested below, based on
proposals by EPA. An example of Best Available
Control Measure (BACM) would be to adapt the
most stringent current VOC control regulations for
marine coatings (Le., those in effect in California).
For the HAPS, MACT is the average of the best 12%
of the control technology. This 12% could be based
on individual coatings or on individual shipyards. For
example, EPA has characterized epoxy coatings
based on their use and VOC levels. The MACT
would be the average of the 12% of epoxy coatings
having the lowest VOC requirements. This level is
about 135 g/L (1.1 Iblgal), compared to the overall
average for epoxies of 350 g/L (2.9 Ibs/gal). Alternately, the MACT could be computed based on the
average VOC level for the 12% of the shipyards having the lowest average VOC emissions. The regulation was still under development as of Fall 1993.20
EPAs basic concern is that reducing the VOCs
does not increase the level of HAPS content in the
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SSPC CHAPTERx27.L
where
VOC = VOC content in g/L of coating less water and
exempt solvent
),
Wo = Weight percent of organic volatiles (V, - W
= Weight percent of water
W
,
V,
= Volume percent of water (Ww)(Dc/Dw)
D,
= Density of coating glL at 25C
= Density of water, g/L at 25OC (0.997 x 103)
D
,
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Table 3
ANALYSIS OF VOC EMISSIONS
Component
Density
Volume
(W
Weight
(%o)
Water
1.o
240 cc
(24)
240 g
(27.3)
Solvent
0.75
300 cc
(30)
225 g
(25.6)
Resin
0.9
460 cc
(46)
414 g
(47.1)
Coating
0.88
100.00
(100)
879
(100.0)
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Houston-Galveston-Brazoria, TX
Milwaukee-Racine, WI
New York-N New Jersey-Long Is, NY-NJ-CT
Southeast Desert Modified AQMA, CA
Severe
Attainment Date 1 1 /1512005
Baltimore, MD
Philadelphia-Wilm-Trent, PA-NJ-DE-MD
San Diego, CA
Ventura County, CA
Serious
Attainment Date 1 1 /I 5/2000
Atlanta, GA
Baton Rouge, LA
Beaumont-Port Arthur, TX
Boston-Lawrence-Worcester (E.MA), MA-NH
EI Paso, TX
Greater Connecticut
Muskegon, MI
Portsmouth-Dover-Rochester, NH
Providence (All RI), RI
Sacramento Metro, CA
San Joaquin Valley, CA
Sheboygan, WI
Springfield (Western MA), MA
Washington, DC-MD-VA
Moderate
Attainment Date 11/15/96
Atlantic City, NJ
Charleston, WV
Charlotte-Gastonia, NC
Cincinnati-Hamilton, OH-KY
Cleveland-Akron-Lorain, OH
Dallas-Fort Worth, TX
Dayton-Springfield, OH
Detroit-Ann Arbor, MI
Grand Rapids, MI
Greensboro-Winston Salem-High Point, NC
Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY
Kewaunee County, WI
Knox & Lincoln Counties, ME
Lewiston-Auburn, ME
Louisville, KY-IN
Manitowoc County, WI
Miami-Fort Lauderdale-W. Palm Beach, FL
Monterey Bay, CA
Nashville, TN
Parkersburg, WV
Phoenix, AZ
Pittsburgh-Beaver Valley, PA
Portland, ME
Raleigh-Durham, NC
Reading, PA
Richmond-Petersburg, VA
Table 4
OZONE NONATTAINMENT AREAS IN 1990
Extreme
Attainment Date 1 1 /15/201O
Los Angeles - South Coast Air Basin, CA
Severe
Attainment Date 11/15/2007
Chicago-Gary-Lake County , I L-lN
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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TABLE 4 (continued)
Salt Lake City, UT
San Francisco-Bay Area, CA
Santa Barbara-Santa Maria-Lompoc, CA
St. Louis, MO-IL
Toledo, OH
Marginal
Attainment Date 11 Il 5I1992
Albany-Schenectady-Troy, NY
Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton, PA-NJ
Altoona, PA
Birmingham, AL
Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY
Canton, OH
Cherokee County, SC
Columbus, OH
Door County, WI
Edmonson County, KY
Erie, PA
Essex County (Whiteface Mtn), NY
Evansville, IN
Greenbrier County, WV
Hancock & Waldo Counties, ME
Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle, PA
Indianapolis, IN
Jefferson County, NY
Jersey County, IL Sussex County, DE
Johnstown, PA
Kent and Queen Annes Counties, MD
Knoxville, TN
Lake Charles, LA
Lancaster, PA
Lexington-Fayette, KY
Reno, NV
Scranton-Wilkes-Barre, PA
Seattle-Tacoma, WA
Smyth County, VA (White Top, Mtn)
South Bend-Elkhart, IN
Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, FL
Walworth County, WI
York, PA
Youngstown-Warren-Sharon, OH-PA
C. AIR
1. General
Lead has been known to be toxic to humans for
thousands of years. One of the major routes of exposure to humans is through inhalation of lead dust
particles. In the 1970s EPA established the NAAQS
level of 1.5 micrograms (pg) of leadlm3 averaged
over 90 days.27 This regulation was intended for
continuous operations that produced lead dust, such
as battery or pigment manufacturing or lead
smelters. The 90-day provision allows for some variations in the daily emission levels as long as the
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= 8b27940
DA =
x 1.5 pglm3
PD
(3)
where
= Daily Allowance (pg/m3)
PD
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DA
ADA = DA x
24
H
(4)
where
ADA = Adjusted Daily Allowance (pg/m3)
H
00040Lb 831
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FIGURE 3
Ambient air monitor for PM-10 particulates.
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term projects. However, monitoring is being specified on some paint removal projects.
Monitoring might be initiated when there is a
belief that emissions from a short term paint removal
project (particularly lead) could have an effect on
the overall air quality in a region. Monitoring may
also be imposed when the lead paint removal site
is in a residential area, or next to schools, hospitals, playgrounds, and other areas of public access
to better assure public health and welfare. For work
already underway, complaints over visible emissions
or questions as to the seriousness of emissions
could be investigated using monitors. Prior litigation
over emissions may also trigger monitoring on future projects. For example, monitoring has been required in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, since
1987 for most abrasive blast cleaning projects greater than 10,000 square feet (900m2) in area as a
result of earlier litigation over silica contamination.29
From the above, it is obvious that the decision
regarding whether to monitor a given project is not
clear cut. However, if there is a potential for public
exposure to the dust, such monitoring will provide
a high degree of assurance that emissions are within acceptable limits. Without the monitoring, such
judgments are strictly subjective. However, for work
within the confines of a plant, where it can be established that dust and debris will not carry across
the property line into a community, such monitoring will provide little benefit.
If ambient air monitoring is specified, the costs
of the project will increase. The cost will extend beyond the price of the monitoring and analysis as
monitoring will usually necessitate tighter and more
stringent controls over the containment.
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0004018 6 0 4
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REFERENCES
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0.
14. The Clean Air Act and The Paint and Coatinas Industrv. Issue Analysis by National Paint & Coatings Association,
Washington, DC, 1992.
15. Stanley Santire, 1990 Federal Clean Air Act Amendments: An
Overview, JPCL, September 1993, pp. 46-50.
16. a. Implementation Strategy for the Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990, Update 1992. Publication 400-A-92-004. Washington,
DC: U S . EPA, July 1992.
b. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990: A Guide for Small
Business, U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation Publication
450-K-92-001. Washington, DC: U S . EPA, September 1992.
17. U.S. EPA. Control of Volatile Organic Emissions from Existing
Stationary Sources, Volume VI: Surface Coating of Miscellaneous Metal Patts and Products. June 1978 EPA-450-12-78-015,
NTIS PB-286-157.
18. Update: Regulations on Coating Operations for Heavy-Duty
Industrial Maintenance Painting, JPCL, February 1991, pp.
55-116.
19. Negotiating Committee Agrees on VOC Limits: EPA to Draft
Proposal, JPCL, October 1993.
20. Summary of BACMIMACT Options, Shipbuilding and Ship
Repair NESHAPICTG, U.S. EPA, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, May 25, 1993.
21. SSPC Guide lox, Guide to Specifying and Testing Coatings
Based on Volatile Organic Content, Draft #4, July 1993.
22. Determination of Volatile Matter Content, Water Content, Density, Volume Solids and Waste Solids of Surface Coatings,
40 CFR Part 60, Appendix A, Method 24.
23. ASTM D 3690 - Standard Practice for Determining Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Content of Paints and Related Coatings.,
American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia: 1991.
24. ASTM D 2369 - Standard Test Method for Volatile Content of
Coatings. American Society for Testing and Materials. Philadelphia: 1990.
25. EPA Revises VOC Test Method, JPCL, September 1992,
pp. 78-79.
26. VOCs: Texas Extends AIM Rules; Revises Shop Rules, JPCL,
August 1992, pp. 41-43.
27. 40 CFR 50.12, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Lead.
28. Preventing Lead Poisoning In Construction, DHHS Publication 91-116, National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health
(1991), JPCL, January 1992, pp. 40-54.
29. K.A. Trimber, G. Manown, and L. Lambert, Air and Soil
Monitoring During Elast Cleaning Operations, Lead Paint
Removal from Industrial Structures, SSPC 89-02. Pittsburgh,
SSPC, 1989. pp. 20-25.
30. Housing and Community Development Act of 1992, Title X,
Residential Lead-Eased Paint Hazard Reduction Act of 1992,
102nd U.S. Congress, October 5, 1992.
31. Guide for Containing Debris Generated During Paint Removal
Operations, SSPC Guide 61 (CON), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
SSPC, March 1992.
32. NIOSH Method 7082, Lead, National Institute of Occupational
Safety ? Health.
33. 29 CFR 1910.1025, Lead, (3, Permissible Exposure Limits
(PEL) .
3, Permissible Exposure Limits
34. 29 CFR 1926.62, Lead,
(PEL).
35. K. A. Trimber, Industrial Lead Paint RemovalHandbook, second
edition. SSPC 93-02. Pittsburgh: SSPC, 1993.
36. 40 CFR 50.6, National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air
Quality Standards for Particulate Matter.
37. A. J. Sadar and H. L. Patel, Air Monitoring Guidance for Abrasive Blasting Operations, JPCL, December 1987, pp. 31-32,
68, 70.
38. Abrasive Blasting Media, Ship Hull Blast Cleaning, MIL-A-2262A
(SH), February 6, 1987. Washington: Naval Sea Systems Command. 1987.
572
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
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No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
SSPC CHAPTER*27.2
93
CHAPTER 27.2
Bernard R. Appleman
A. DEFINITIONS
RCRA regulations are published in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Parts 261-281. Sections of the
hazardous waste regulations of most relevance to the protective coatings industry are as follows:
Part 261
Identification and Listing of Hazardous
Waste
Part 262
Standards Applicable to Generators of
Hazardous Waste
Part 268
Land Disposal Restrictions
Waste is generally defined as any material which is discarded and not intended for some other productive use. EPA
defines solid waste as any garbage, refuse, sludge, or semisolid. The definition also includes liquid wastes which are
not otherwise regulated under the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act.
A waste is considered hazardous if it poses a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment. A more formal definition of a hazardous waste is
given below.
Hazardous waste is a subset of hazardous substances.
Materials may be defined as hazardous based on characteristics such as toxicity, corrosivity, ignitability (.e., flash
point) and reactivity (e.g., explosion hazard). Also included
as hazardous wastes are materials contributing to water pollution, hazardous air pollutants, or other substances defined
as such by federal agencies.
Thus, in identifying requirements for handling and treating wastes and other materials, it is necessary to know the
agency or agencies having jurisdiction over the particular
substances. The Federal EPA has jurisdiction over handling
and disposing of hazardous and solid waste. In 1976 Congress enacted the Resource Conservation & Recovery Act
(RCRA)7 which was amended in 1984 by the Hazardous and
Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA).8 RCRA and HSWA are
designed to track and regulate hazardous waste from
manufacture to final disposal. Another federal regulation,
the Comprehensive Environmental ResponseCompensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA)g, also known as the Superfund,
was enacted in 1980. CERCLA is intended to control cleanup
and designate liability for abandoned, undercontrolled, or inactive waste sites, and to deal with hazardouswaste releases
in an emergency. CERCLA is discussed in Chapter 27.3.
Congress main goal under RCRA is to reduce or
eliminate the generation of hazardous waste and ensure that
wastes generated are treated, stored, and disposed of so as
to minimize present and future threats to human health and
the environment. RCRA regulations include subtitles A
through J. Subtitle C deals with handling, disposal, and treatment of hazardous wastes. (Subtitle D addresses state or
regional solid waste.) Another subtitle of interest is Subtitle
I, which covers regulations of underground storage tanks.
The remaining subtitles deal with general administrative provisions of the Act.
B. CLASSIFYING WASTE
1. Listed Wastes
EPA has identified over 400 substances that are
considered hazardous. These include spent paint
solvents, such as xylene, acetone, ethyl acetate,
and methyl isobutyl ketone, spent halogenated solvents (e.g., methylene chloride, l , I ,l-trichloroethane and carbon tetrachloride), cyanide and
compounds, toxic organics, and sludges from various manufacturing and treatment processes. Each
of these has been assigned a specific EPA
hazardous waste number (e.g., F003 for xylene).
2 . Characteristic Wastes
These are substances which are defined as
hazardous based on one or more of the following
four characteristics:
ignitability
corrosivity
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reactivity
toxicity
Metal
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Selenium
Silver
Threshold Concentration
5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
100.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
1.O milligrams per liter (ppm)
5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
0.2 milligrams per liter (ppm)
1.O milligrams per liter (ppm)
5.0 milligrams per liter (ppm)
WASTE
1. Major Parties
Under RCRA, EPA was directed to establish a program designed to control the management of
hazardous waste from its generation to its ultimate
disposal (.e., from cradle to grave). EPA has
assigned responsibility for three key groups:
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FIGURE 4
Clean-up of polluted waste site.
A generator is defined by EPA as any person whose act or process produces hazardous
waste. A facility owner is the primary generator of
the hazardous waste produced by removing coatings from structures. This is true even though a contractor may be the party that actually physically
removes the paint (e.g., by abrasive blast cleaning).
In some states, the contractor has been designated as Co-generator, indicating a shared responsibility. However, this designation does not relieve
the facility owner from full responsibility for ensuring that all operations (.e., generation [by removal],
transportation and disposal) and the other activities
described below are performed in accordance with
RCRA rules.
The disposal of waste paints or thinners determined to be hazardous may sometimes be the
responsibility of the contractor who purchased them.
If the coatings have been used in shop application
(e.g., rail car or steel fabricating shop) the shop facility is the waste generator.
A transporter is defined as the person engaged
in the offsite transportation of hazardous waste. Accordingly, transporting the waste within a site (.e.,
relocating to a special storage area from the generation area) does not fall within 40 CFR Part 263, and
may be performed by the generator without any additional permit.
Treatment and disposal of hazardous waste are
most commonly performed by specially licensed facilities located off the premises of the waste
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If a waste that has been collected and tested is determined to be hazardous, the generator must arrange for some
type of treatment to render the waste non-hazardous. This
requirement is based on the 1990 Land Disposal Restrictions
(Land Ban) (40 CFR 268). This regulation prohibits the land
disposal of any hazardous waste. Typical treatments for lead
containing wastes are summarized below. Treatment is not
required if the material is to be recycled or reused for beneficial purposes. As noted above, such materials are not classified as hazardous waste and are not subject to these RCRA
requirements.
For hazardous waste, treatment can be performed onor off-site. On-site treatment is permitted by EPA under very
special circumstances as described below. Off-site treatment
services are offered by a number of firms that specialize in
this type of technology.
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SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 2
There are several kinds of materials that, when added to abrasives prior to blasting lead containing
paint, will result in a non-hazardous waste being
generated. Examples are steel grit and a proprietary
cementitious-type material. These additives chemically react with the lead during the TCLP digestion
procedure and will reduce the solubility below the
threshold limit of 5 mg/l.
a. Steel Grit - A Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) studyde has shown that adding 3-6% by
weight of G-80 steel grit to conventional expendable abrasives has reduced the leachable level of
lead from over 50 mgl to less than 1-2 mg/l. The
same study, and other field histories, have indicated that the stabilization of lead may not be permanent, because over time the lead solubility could
increase as the steel grit oxidizes. Thus, this treatment, while satisfying the letter of the RCRA law,
could lead to leaching of lead into the environment,
after the waste has been landfilled. Leaching, in
turn, could cause significant problems for the generator. A potential solution to this problem is to further treat the grit-stabilized lead waste with one of
the cementitious materials described above. In this
case, however, the recordkeeping would be simplified because the waste is not hazardous and the requirements for holding containers and the waste
analysis plan are not in effect.
b. Proprietary Additives - Proprietary additives are
typically incorporated at 15-18% of the weight of the
conventional abrasive (e.g., coal slag, copper slag,
silica sand). One such addition has been found to
effectively reduce the leachable lead content to approximately 0.1 mgll, well below the threshold level.47 This stabilization method, as identified by the
manufacturer, involves pH control and encapsulation. Unlike waste containing steel grit additives,
waste containing this proprietary material shows
no increase in leachable content after running multiple leaching procedures. Because this material is
blasted onto the surface along with the abrasive, it
should be manufactured or treated to reduce dusting and to avoid leaving a soluble deposit on the
578
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REFERENCES
References 1-13 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.0. References
14-38 are listed at the end of Chapter 27.1.
39 40 CFR 261, Appendix II, Method 1311, Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure.
40. 40 CFR 261.24, Table 1, Maximum Concentration of Contaminants for the Toxicity Characteristic.
41. 49 CFR 172-179, U.S. Dept. of Transportation Regulationc on
Transporting Waste.
42. G. Tinklenberg and L. M. Smith, The Criticiality of Sampling
and Quality Control for Hazardous Waste Testing, JPCL, April
1990, pp. 36-44.
43. Guide for the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation Debris, SSPC Guide 71 (DIS), SSPC 92-07. Pittsburgh:
SSPC, March, 1992.
44. Sampling for Lead Analysis, G. Tinklenberg, SSPC Lead Paint
Bulletin, Summer 1993.
45. EPA Method 1320, published in EPA SW-846, Testing Method
for Evaluating Solid Wastes: PhysicallChemicalMethods, third
ed. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, November
i986.
46. FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102 with S. G. Pinney & Associates, 1989. Removal, Containment & Disposal of Lead
Paint From Highway Bridges. Preliminary results submitted
for publication in SSPC Tutorial on Industrial Lead Paint
Removal, by Principal Investigator L. M. Smith.
47. L. M. Smith, Pre-and Post-Blast Additives for Stabilizing Lead
Waste, unpublished presentation, SSPC 6th Annual Conference on Lead Paint Removal & Abatement, March 15-17,1993.
48. Appendix D, Proposed Revision to SSPC Guide 7, Guide for
the Disposal of Lead-Contaminated Surface Preparation
Debris, August 1993.
49 California Administrative Code, Title 22, Section 66261.24.
50 The Effect of Zinc-Rich Coatings on the Environment, prepared by the SSPC Zinc-Rich Task Force, JPCL, July 1992, p.
45-53.
51 Illinois Issues Fact Sheet on Disposal of Lead-Based Waste,
JPCL, March 1992, p. 45.
52. Guidelines for Disposal of Residual and Household Waste,
Pennsylvania Dept. of Environmental Resources, 1992.
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SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 7 . 2
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CHAPTER 27.3
I. WATER QUALITY
Table 6
FEDERAL AMBIENT WATER
QUALITY CRITERIA FOR SELECTED METALS53
580
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Zinc
10 pgll
50 pgll
10 pgll
15 pgll
5000 pgll
There is a direct relationship between the level for drinking water and the level for certain heavy
metals under the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching
Procedure (TCLP). EPA assumes that water leached
from a landfill will be diluted by a factor of 100 before it can penetrate into drinking water sources. For
example, chromium-containing waste cannot be
land-disposed unless the leachable chromium content is less than 5000 pg/l(5 mg/l) which is 100 times
the drinking water standard of 50 g/I. The drinking
water standard for lead has recently been reduced
from 50 pg/l to 15 pg/l. The TCLP level for lead
however, is still at 5 mgll. It is anticipated that within the next few years, the criteria for lead as a
hazardous waste will also be reduced from 5 mg/l
to 1.5 mgll.
FIGURE 5
Contamination of water from blasting debris.
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SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
S S P C C H A P T E R m 2 7 . 3 93
= 8b27940
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FIGURE 6
Another case of water contamination.
0004029 4 9 T
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
93
8b27940 0004030 L O I
EPA intends to use TSCA to respond to broad concerns about exposure to lead, as it has in the past
to regulate asbestos and PCBs. It is in the process
of conducting a comprehensive review of lead under the act and is considering a variety of steps up
to and including a ban or severe restrictions on the
use of lead pigments in industrial paint. A variety
of possible approaches were outlined in an Advance
Notice of Proposed Rulemaking published in the
Federal Register on May 13, 1991. Other options
would include economic incentives for reductions in
the use of lead.
2. Provisions Primarily Affecting Formulators
The act authorized EPA to obtain and evaluate information on the health and environmental effects
of chemicals. If EPA concludes that particular substances pose an unreasonable risk, it also has the
authority to restrict, or even ban, use and manufacturing of the material.
A manufacturer is required to notify the EPA
before manufacturing, using or importing a new
chemical. This section of TSCA primarily affects
B. CERCLAANDSUPERFUND
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), issued in 1980, is intended to prevent and correct spills and releases of
hazardous substances and wastes.9 It is also known as Superfund, because the act establishes a fund to clean up
583
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8 6 2 7 7 4 0 0 0 0 4 0 3 1 O48
c. Threat of Release - Even if a release does not occur, a party can be held liable for remedial costs
based on a substantial threat of release. Examples include lead lying on the ground, badly corroded chemical storage tanks, or abandoned drums.
d. Environment - The environment is defined broadly to include surface water, ground water, drinking
water supplies, land surfaces, subsurface strata,
and ambient air.
hazardous waste sites. The act was extended in 1986 under the Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act
(SARA), which clarified provisions of CERCLA and increased
the funds for clean-up.10
CERCLA authorizes EPA to force responsible parties
to remove and remediate any release of hazardous substances into the environment. The definitions of these terms,
given below, provide EPA with very broad power.
1. Definitions
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Table 8
SELECTED LIST OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
AND REPORTABLE QUANTITIES
(40 CFR 302.4, Appendix A)
Hazardous
Substance
Reportable
Quantity
Comments
Hydrochloric Acid
Paint solvent
Methylene Chloride
Paint stripper
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Nitrite
Toluene
Paint solvent
1,1,1,-Trichloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Degreasing solvent
Xylene
Paint solvent
Zinc Metal
*The spill must be reported if this amount of waste is spilled in a 24-hour period.
584
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004032 T 8 4
2 . Emergency Notification
To comply with section 304 of SARA Title III, companies must determine whether they produce, use
or store a hazardous substance that is included on
1) the list of extremely hazardous substances (40
CFR 355) or 2) the list of substances subject to
emergency notification requirements, found under
CERCLA (40 CFR 302.4)70. A company that does
produce, use or store such a substance is covered
by section 304. It must notify the National Response
Center, and the state and local emergency planning
committees if it spills or otherwise accidentally
releases more than the reportable quantity of any
such substance that may result in exposure outside
the company site. This does not include releases
such as permitted discharges to water or emissions
to air. The notification should include:
a. the chemical name;
b. an indication of whether the substance is
extremely hazardous;
c. an estimate of the quantity released into the
environment;
d. the time and duration of the release;
e. known or anticipated acute or chronic health
effects;
f. proper precautions; and
g. name and phone number of a contact
person.
A written emergency notice should include any
more recent information including response actions
and any need for medical attention for those
exposed.
585
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93
Ab27940 0004033 9 L O
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A. SECONDARY CONTAINMENT
1. Affect on Coating Suppliers and Contractors
Federal regulations require that some tanks be supplied with secondary containment, structures capable of preventing material stored in a tank from
migrating to soil, groundwater or surface water.
Other considerations such as CERCLA and civil liability associated with a spill prompt companies to
invest in such systems.9 The need for secondary
containment systems provides a business opportunity for coatings suppliers and contractors. Concrete
is the material most often used for secondary containment structures. Coatings are an integral part
of such designs because they increase the impermeability and chemical resistance of concrete
and prevent cracking.
2 . Regulatory Requirements
a. Applicable Regulations - Tanks used to store and
treat hazardous wastes are subject to 40 CFR Part
264 of Subpart J of the Standards for Owners and
Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage
and Disposal Facilities (part of RCRA).
The title of this section is somewhat misleading. The requirements apply both to treatment,
storage and disposal facilities and to large quantity
generators (those who generate more than 1,000 kg
(2,200 Ib) of hazardous waste a month and store the
material for more than 90 days on site). Tanks conCopyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
Systems
A secondary containment system must be able to
survive contact with the substance in the tank until
587
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c. Reinforced Thick-film Systems - Reinforced thickfilm systems can be used to create films of more
than 80 mils (2 mm). Glass cloth or synthetic fibers
are chosen on the basis of their resistance to a particular chemical. These systems can be effective in
preventing some cracks, and should be designed
to withstand exposure to the most aggressive chemicals, for up to 72 hours. A resinous topcoat improves their chemical resistance. Coats of
reinforced paint with one layer of reinforcement may
be less expensive but also less chemical resistant
than those with multiple layers.
Introduction
Certain underground storage tanks are regulated
because they may leak and pose a threat to the environment and human health. Coatings and lining
systems are among the accepted means of preventing leaks in underground storage tanks (USTs) and
complying with federal and state regulations.
There are several million underground storage
tanks in the USA, containing petroleum or
hazardous chemicals. The tank system consists of
the tank itself and associated piping. A tank system
is considered underground if at least 10% of the
volume is below grade level. The vast majority of
underground storage tanks (in particular those installed before 1980) were constructed of bare carbon steel. As a result of differential aeration of soils,
aggressive soil conditions, pH variation, and the
presence of water and other corrosive materials inside the tank, there is the possibility of severe corrosion of both the interior and exterior of tanks and
piping.
As a result of corrosion as well as piping and
mechanical failures and installation mistakes, many
thousands of USTs are leaking. Leaks may also
result from spills and overfills during filling, emptying, or operation of the tanking system. Leaking underground storage tanks can contaminate
groundwater, which is a major source of drinking
water for US populations. EPA estimates that as
many as a quarter of all the tank systems in the US
are leaking.71
FIGURE 7
Installing an underground storage tank.
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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1. FDA
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1. Use
3. FIFRA
Biocides like copper and organotin compounds are
considered pesticides and must also be registered
under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act.12 According to some paint
manufacturers, meeting all the requirements for
registering a new biocide is so prohibitively expensive ($2-5million) as to effectively preclude any uses
of new materials.
4. Foulant Release Coatings
Some ship and power plant operators have begun
to use silicone, siloxanes and fluorinated resins because these materials do not need to be registered
under FIFRA. They are not considered pesticides
because they do not kill sessile organisms, but make
it difficult for them to attach to the painted surface.81
53. FederalRegister. Volume 50, 30784 (July 29, 1985). Water Quality Criteria; Availability of Documents. 52 FR 62143 (Zinc), Appendix A - Summary of Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
54. Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC 20460.
55. Water Quality, Progress Report prepared by L. M. Smith for
FHWA Contract DTFH61-89-C-00102. 1989.
56. H. Hunt and J. Gidley, The Toxicities of Selected Bridge Painting
Materials and Guidelines for Bridge Painting Projects, Report
FHWA/CA/TL/90/08, California Dept. of Transportation, September
1990.
57. Canadian Fisheries Dept. issues Guidelines on Protecting Aquatic
Life During Bridge Painting. JPCL, January 1992, pp. 32-34.
58. G . Thorpe, Water Quality Impact: Environmental Viewpoint, Lead
Paint Removal from Steel Structures, SSPC 86-01, 1988, pp. 50-54.
59. Car Department Officers Association Protective Coatings Committee. PA Update Paper: Overview of the Stormwater Permit Program.
September 21, 1992.
60. M. K. Snyder and D. Benderski. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program, Report 265. Removal of Lead-Based Bridge
Paints. Washington DC: Transportation Research Board, December. 1983.
61. M. Bauer, Changing Regulations on Coatings for Contact with
Potable Water, JfCL, December 1988, pp. 27-33 and 89-90.
62. Majority of States Plan to Adopt NSF Standards for Potable Water
Contact, JPCL, October 1990, pp. 39-40 and 97-99.
63. Environmental Health & Safety Regulations, Unit 7 from SSPC
5-Day course on Specifying and Managing Protective Coating
Projects. SSPC, May 1993.
64. G. Rauscher, Compliance with TSCA for Product Development, J f C L , May 1990, pp. 68-72.
65. P. R. Nau and B. S. Fultz. Coatings and Linings for Secondary
Chemical Containment in Power Plants, JPCL, October 1990, pp.
42-49.
66. K. A. Kapsanis, Coating Concrete: A Review of Regulations, Technical Activities, and Resources, JPCL, August 1991, pp. 58-65.
67. Oil Pollution Act: Public Law 101-380, August 18, 1990.
68. EnvironmentalLaw Handbook, 12th Edition. Rockville, MD, Government Institutes, Inc., 1993.
69. U.S. EPA. Title 111 Fact Sheet: Emergency Planning and Community
Right-To-Know. April 1988.
70. Guide to Pollution Prevention: The Fabricated Metal Products lndustry, Report EPA/65/7/90/006. Washington, DC, U S . EPA, 1990.
71. U.S. EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks, Musts for Usts.
July 1990, EPA/530/ UST-88/008.
72. Control of General Corrosion on Metallic Buried, Partially Buried,
or Submerged Liquid Storage Systems, NACE RP02-85. Houston,
NACE International, 1985.
73. R. C. Cronau, Protecting Underground Storage Tanks, JPCL, August 1988, pp. 48-49.
74. Interior Lining of Underground Storage Tanks, API RP 1631, 2nd
ed. Washington DC, American Petroleum Institute, December, 1987.
75. Sti-P3 Single Wall Steel Underground Tanks: The Iron-Clad
Storage Solution, Publication 3500M20. Northbrook, IL: Steel Tank
Institute, 1987.
76. C. Boyer, Protective Coatings for Food and Beverage Plants:
Regulatory and Formulating Issues. JPCL, July 1990, pp. 36-39.
77. D. Finch, Coating Selection for Food and Beverage Facilities:
Regulatory Compliance and Corrosion Protection, JPCL, September 1992, pp. 62-72.
78. P. K. LaGoy and W. Wilder, Evaluation of the Potential for
Environmental Exposure to Lead Released from Paint Containing Zinc Dust, JPCL, March 1993, pp. 24-36.
79. Interim Guidance on Establishing Soil Lead Cleanup Levels at Superfund Sites, Directorate 9355.4-02, EPA Office of Solid Waste
& Environmental Response, September 7, 1989.
80. Organotin Antifouling Paint Control Act, Public Law 100-333, June
16, 1988.
81. E.G. Leitch and F.Z. Puzzuoli, Evaluation of Coatings to Control
Zebra Mussel Colonization: Preliminary Results, 1990-1991, JPCL,
July 1992, pp. 28-38.
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APPENDIX A
HOTLINES AND OTHER PHONE NUMBERS
Clean Air Act Computer Bulletin Board
Emergency Planning and Community Right
to Know (EPCRA) Information Hotline
(919) 541-5742
(703) 412-9877
(800) 535-0202
PUBLICATIONS
U S . EPA Public Information Center (PIC)
U.S. EPA National Center for Environmental
Publications and Information (NCEPI)
U S . EPA Center for Environmental Research
Infor matio n (CERI)
National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
(202) 260-7751
(513) 569-7980
(513) 569-7562
(703) 487-4650
(202) 260-8600
(202) 260-2180
(202) 260-5543
(202) 260-4267
(703) 308-8850
(202) 260-4814
APPENDIX B
PROFESSIONAL AND TRADE ORGANIZATIONS
Air and Waste Management Association
P.O. Box 2861
Pittsburgh, PA 15230
(412) 232-3444
APPENDIX C
SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL
REGULATIONS FROM TITLE 40 OF THE CODE OF
FEDERAL REGULATIONS.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT*
593
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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SSPC C H A P T E R u 2 7 - 3 93
SSPC CHAPTER*27*3 93
81
40 CFR 100-149
112
116
117
122-125
136
141-149
40 CFR 150-189
152
155
156
40 CFR 240-299
260
26 1
262
263
265
266
267
268
280
40 CFR 300-399
300
302
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the active participation of the following in the review of this chapter: Kenneth Trimber,
Mike Bauer, and John Montle.
BIOGRAPHY
Karen Ann Kapsanis is the editor of the Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings (JPCL). Since joining the staff of JPCL in 1988, she
has written extensively on environmental regulations that affect industrial maintenance painting operations.
BIOGRAPHY
Monica Madaus has worked as a technical writerleditor for a number of environmental and health and safetyfirms. She worked as a technical editor and regulatory assistant for the Center for Hazardous
Materials Research where she assisted with a newsletter and a technical and regulatory hotline.
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Appendix
DOC - Department of Commerce
DOD - Department of Defense
DODIS - Department of Defense Index of Specifications
DOE - Department of Energy
DOL - Department of Labor
DOT
Department of Transportation
EP - Extraction Procedure
EPA - Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA
Emergency Planning and Community Right-toKnow Act
F - Degrees Fahrenheit
FAR - Federal Acquisition Regulation
FDA
Food and Drug Administration
FGD - Fuel Gas Desulfurization Systems
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration
FIFRA - Fedral Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act
FSCT
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
FTC - Federal Trade Commission
GFCI - Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter
GSA - General Services Administration
HEW
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
HRB - Highway Research Board
IS0
International Organization for Standardization
JAN - Joint Army-Navy
LAER - Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
LEL - Lower Explosive Limit
LC - Lethal Concentration
LD - Lethal Dose
LOCA - Loss of Coolant Accident
LOSOLVE - Evaluation of Low-Solvent Maintenance Coatings for Highway Structural Steel
LQG - Large Quantity Generator
MAC - Maximum Allowable Concentration
MARAD - Maritime Administration
MEK - Methyl Ethyl Ketone
MFFT - Minimum Film Forming Temperature
MPIP - Meat and Poultry Inspection Program
mil - 0.001 inches
MSDS - Material Safety Data Sheet
MSHA - Mine Safety and Health Administration
MVT - Moisture-Vapor Transmission Rate
NAAQS - National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NAD
Non-Aqueous Dispersion
NAS - National Academy of Sciences
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
APPENDIX A: ABBREVIATIONS
The abbreviations and acronyms listed below include
those used in this manual along with a few others that may
help to clarify paint technology and regulatory language.
AAQS - Ambient Air Quality Standards
AASHTO - American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Higienists
AIHC
American Industrial Health Council
AIM - Architectural and Industrial Maintenance (Coating)
ANSI
American National Standards Institute (formerly
ASA)
APCA - Air Pollution Control Association (now AWMA)
APCD - Air Pollution Control Districts
AQCR - Air Quality Control Regions
AQMD - Air Quality Management District
ARBBA - American Railway Bridge and Building Association
AREA - American Railway Engineering Association
ASA
American Standards Association (now ANSI)
ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
AWS
American Welding Society
AWMA - Air and Waste Management Association (formerly APCA)
AWWA - American Water Works Association
BACT - Best Available Control Technology
BAT - Best Available Technology
BATRA - Best Available Technology Reasonably Available
BCT - Best Conventional Technology
C
Degrees Centigrade
CAA - Clean Air Act
CAAA - Clean Air Act Amendments (1990)
CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
CFM - Cubic Feet Per Minute
CFR - Code of Federal Regulations
CMA - Chemical Manufacturers Association
COE - Corps of Engineers (US. Army)
COH - Coefficient of Haze
CPSC - Consumer Product Safety Commission
CPVC - Critical Pigment Volume Concentration
CTG - Control Technique Guidelines
DBA - Design Basis Accident
DEP - Department of Environmental Protection (States)
DER
Department of Environmental Resources (States)
DFT - Dry Film Thickness
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NESHAP - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health
NPCA - National Paint and Coatings Association
NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NSPS - New Source Performance Standards
NVM - Non-Volatile Matter
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
PACE - Performance of Alternative Coatings in the Environment
PCB
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
PDCA - Painting and Decorating Contractors of America
PEL - Permissible Exposure Level
PMN - Premanufacture Notice
PRA - Paint Research Association
PSD - Prevention of Significant Deterioration
psi - Pounds Per Square Inch
PVC - Pigment Volume Concentration
QPL - Qualified Products List
RACT - Reasonably Available Control Technology
RCRA - Resources Conservation and Recovery Act
CAE - Society of Automotive Engineers
SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope
SFSA - Steel Founders Society of America
SIP - State Implementation Plan
SNAME - Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
SNUR - Significant New Use Rule
SQG - Small Quantity Generator
SSPC - Steel Structures Painting Council
TACB - Texas Air Control Board
TCLP - Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
Tg - Glass Transition Temperature
TLV - Threshold Limit Value
TRB - Transportation Research Board
TSCA - Toxic Substances Control Act
TPQ - Threshold Planing Quantity
TWA - Time Weighted Average
UEL
Upper Explosive Limit
UK - United Kingdom
USDA - United States Department of Agriculture
UST - Underground Storage Tank
VLCC - Very Large Crude Carrier
VOC - Volatile Organic Compounds
VSMF
Visual Search Microfilm
WFT - Wet Film Thickness
APPENDIX B: DEFINITIONS
These definitions deal with some of the more specialized terms used in this manual. SSPC reports and manuals,
the various regulations, ASTM methods and standards, and
the open literature are sources for many of these definitions.
Other sources include the PaintKoating Dictionary published
by the Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology
(FSCT) and Chapter 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
Some definitions have been modified, when appropriate, to more fully reflect their common usage in coatings technology or regulation terminology (air pollution, toxic
substances and health and safety) relating to the corrosion
protection of structural steel.
ABATEMENT -The reduction in degree or intensity of pollution.
ABOVEGROUND STORAGE TANK - A device meeting the
definition of tank that is situated in such a way that the entire surface area of the tank is completely above the plane
of the adjacent surrounding surface and the entire surface
area of the tank (including the tank bottom) is able to be
visually inspected.
ABRASION RESISTANCE - The ability of a coating to resist
being worn away and to maintain its original appearance and
structure when subjected to rubbing, scraping, or wear.
ABRASIVE - A fine graded (sized) granular or spherical
material which is used in a blast cleaning process for structural steel.
ABRASIVE BREAKDOWN - A measure of particle breakdown after impact.
ACCELERATED AGING -Any set of conditions used in an
attempt to produce in a short time the results obtained under normal conditions of aging. In accelerated aging tests,
the usual factors considered are heat, light, or oxygen, either
separately or combined.
ACCELERATED TESTING - A set of conditions intended
to simulate those encountered in practice, but which have
been accentuated artificially in an attempt to provide useful
performance results in shorter periods of time. Coatings do
not necessarily behave under such tests exactly as they will
under actual conditions, but many coatings which give good
performance under these tests have possibilities which are
worthy of further considerations and experiments.
ACCELERATED WEATHERING - Tests designed to simulate, but at the same time to intensify and accelerate, the
destructive action of natural outdoor weathering on coating
films. The tests involve exposure to artificially produced components of natural weather, e.g., light, heat, cold, water
vapor, rain, ionic solutions, etc., which are arranged and
repeated in a specific cycle. There is no universally accepted test, and different investigators have found widely different cycles to be useful.
ACCEPTANCE TESTING - The purchasers testing of
received products to determine that the quality of manufactured products meets specified requirements.
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creased human death rates, to increased serious irreversible illnesses, or to increased incapacitating reversible
illnesses.
AIR POLLUTION
The presence in the outdoor atmosphere of any dust, fumes, mist, smoke, other particulate
matter, vapor, gas, odorous substances, or a combination
thereof, in sufficient quantities and of such characteristics
and duration as to be, or likely to be, injurious to health or
welfare, animal or plant life, or property, or as to interfere
with the enjoyment of life or property.
AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS - Legal constraints on
pollutant emissions, production processes, or control
systems.
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR - Protects the wearer by
preventing the entrance of airborne particulates such as dust,
mist, metal fumes and smoke. Cannot protect the wearer
from materials such as poisonous gases, because these
materials can pass through the filter.
AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGIONS (AQCR) - Geographical units of the country, sometimes involving several states,
as required by U.S. law, reflecting common air pollution
problems, for purposes of reaching national standards. The
state implementation plans must provide for achievement of
NAAQS in every AQCR.
AIR QUALITY CRITERIA - The level of pollution and
lengths of exposure above which may occur adverse effects
on health and welfare.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS - The level of pollutants
prescribed by law or regulation that cannot be exceeded during a specified time in a defined area.
ALIPHATIC SOLVENTS - Hydrocarbon solvents compounded primarily of paraffinic and cycloparaffinic (naphthenic) hydrocarbon compounds. Aromatic hydrocarbon content
may range from less than 1% to about 35%.
ALKYD RESINS - Synthetic resins formed by the condensation of polyhydric alcohols with polybasic acids. They may
be regarded as complex esters. The most common polyhydric alcohol used is glycerol, and the most common polybasic acid is phthalic anhydride. Modified alkyds are those
in which the polybasic acid is substituted in part by a monobasic acid, of which the vegetable oil fatty acids are typical.
ALLERGIC RESPONSE - The first exposure causes no evident effect, but sensitizes the subject. After about two weeks,
an identical exposure of the subject can result in a severe
asthmatic response or skin eruption.
ALLIGATORING - A type of crazing or surface cracking of
a definite pattern, as indicated by name. The effect is often
the result of weather aging of a coating.
ALTERNATE IMMERSION (WATER) - An exposure in
which a surface is in frequent, perhaps fairly long, immersion in either fresh or salt water alternated with exposure to
the atmosphere above the water.
ALUMINUM PAINT - Coating consisting of a mixture of
metallic aluminum pigment in powder or paste form dispersed in a suitable vehicle.
597
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERa27.3 93
major impact on industrial maintenance-type coating operations throughout the US. The rule will be promulgated nationwide in ozone attainment areas as well as non-attainment
areas.
ARCHITECTURAL COATING - Coating intended for on-site
application to interior or exterior surfaces of residential, commercial, institutional, or industrial buildings - as opposed
to factory applied (industrial) coatings. They are protective
and decorative finishes applied at ambient temperatures.
AROMATIC SOLVENTS Hydrocarbon solvents comprised
wholly or primarily of aromatic hydrocarbon compounds. Aromatic solvents containing less than 80% aromatic compounds are frequently designated as partial aromatic
solvents.
ARTIFICIAL WEATHERING - See ACCELERATED
W EATHER1NG.
ASPHALT MASTIC - A dense mixture of sand, crushed
limestone and fiber bound with a select air-blown asphalt.
ATMOSPHERE - The air surrounding the earth. Also called
troposphere.
ATTAINMENT AREA - An area which meets National Ambient Air Quality Standards for a particular pollutant such as
ozone, lead and four other common pollutants. See NONATTA1NMENT AREA.
BACKGROUND LEVEL - With respect to air pollution, the
amounts of pollutants present in the ambient air due to natural sources.
BACTERIAL CLEANING - Removal of scale and rust by
spraying or dipping the steel into a solution containing a bacterium, an inorganic salt and glucose.
BAKING FINISH - A paint or varnish that requires baking
at temperatures above 150OF for the development of desired
properties.
BARIUM METABORATE - White crystalline pigment prepared by precipitation from aqueous solution. Used in paint
as an anti-corrosion pigment.
BARRIER COAT - Coating used to isolate a paint system
from the surface to which it is applied in order to prevent
chemical or physical interaction between them, e.g., to prevent the paint solvent attacking the underlying surface or to
prevent bleeding into the new paint system.
BASIC LEAD SILICO CHROMATE - Calcined basic lead
chromate - basic lead silicate complex on a silica core, used
as a corrosion-inhibitive pigment.
BASIC ZINC CHROMATE - Yellow pigment used primarily for its corrosion-inhibiting properties.
BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY - An emission limitation based upon the maximum degree of reduction for each pollutant subject to regulation which would be
emitted from any major stationary source or major modification thereof. In no event is the application of best available
control technology to result in emissions of any pollutant
which would exceed the emissions allowed by any applicable standard.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
598
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
93
8627940 0 0 0 4 0 4 6 579
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BINDER - Nonvolatile portion of the liquid vehicle of a coating. It binds or cements the pigment particles together and
the paint film as a whole to the material to which it is applied.
The amount of binder needed to completely wet a pigment
is determined primarily by the particle size, shape, chemical composition, and density of the pigment; and the particle size, degree of polymerization and wetting properties of
the binder. See also VEHICLE.
BIOSPHERE - The portion of Earth and its atmosphere that
can support life.
BITUMINOUS COATING - Asphalt or tar compound used
to provide a protective finish.
BLAST CLEANING -Cleaning and roughening of a surface
(particularly steel) by the use of metallic or nonmetallic grit
or metal shot (usually steel), which is projected against a surface by compressed air, centrifugal force, or water.
BLASTING CAGE - A movable enclosure around the
blaster that contains dust and paint.
BLEEDING The diffusion of colorants through a coating
from a previously painted substrate.
BLISTERING - Formation of dome-shaped projections in
paints or varnish films resulting from local loss of adhesion
and lifting of the film from an underlying paint film (intercoat
blistering) or the base substrate.
BLUSHING A film defect that appears as a milky opalescence as the film dries.
BODY -Apparent consistency or viscosity of a paint as assessed subjectively. A practical term widely used to give a
qualitative picture of consistency. For Newtonian liquids,
body is the same as viscosity.
BOSUNS CHAIR - A rigging system for a single individual
that allows access to heights.
BOTTOM-DRYING - Drying of a film from the bottom
towards the top of the film.
BOXING - Pouring paint from one container to another
several times to ensure proper mixing.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION - A national organization which establishes and publishes standard specifications and codes of practice.
BRUSHING - Application of a coating by means of a brush.
BRUSH-OFF BLAST - Lowest blast cleaning standard. This
standard is defined in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification No. 7, Brush-off Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP 7).
BUBBLE BUSTER - Compound used to reduce the formation of bubbles in a coating.
BUBBLE ONCEPT - Method Of implementing air pollution regulations where a giant bubble is imagined to be
placed over a manufacturing plant. At the top of this bubble
is a single Opening through which all the plants pollutants
escape. Under this approach, the only pollution measurement would be taken at the top of this bubble. Therefore
599
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
600
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R t 2 7 . 3
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
601
Not for Resale
8627940 0004049 2 8 8
602
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3 9 3
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 73
m 8627740
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0004050 T T T
603
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
73
8627740 O O O L ) O 5 1 936
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
604
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTERx27-3 93
605
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
606
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
73
IMPACT RESISTANCE - Ability of a coating to resist a sudden blow; ability to resist deformation from impact.
INDIRECT COSTS - Such costs as engineering fees, overhead, cost of capital, and depreciation.
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENT - Atmospheric exposures
that include urban communities, manufacturing centers, and
industrial plants (but would not include heavy industrial environments such as coke plants, which fall under chemical
environments). The atmosphere contains a considerable
amount of gas containing sulfur and industrial fumes that increase the rate of corrosion and adversely affect the paint life.
INDUSTRIAL FINISHES OR COATINGS - Coatings applied
to factory-made articles (before or after fabrication), usually
with the help of special techniques for applying and drying
as opposed to trade sales paints.
INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE PAINTS - High performance
coatings formulated for resistance to heavy abrasion, water
immersion, chemicals, corrosion, temperature, electrical current or solvents.
INERT PIGMENT - A pigment that remains relatively inactive or chemically unchanged in paints under stated conditions. The term has little significance unless the conditions
are stated. This term is also used to describe extender
pigments.
INHIBITIVE PIGMENT - Pigment that assists in the prevention of corrosion or some other undesirable effect.
INHIBITOR - General term for compounds or materials that
slow down or stop an undesired chemical change such as
corrosion, oxidation or polymerization, drying, skinning, mildew growth, etc.
INORGANIC COATINGS - Coatings based on silicates or
phosphates and usually used pigmented with metallic zinc.
Also see CEMENT PAINT and ZINC-RICH PRIMER.
INSPECTOR - An individual or group of individuals whose
job it is to witness and document the coating work in a formal fashion.
INTERNAL PHASE - In an emulsion, the discontinuous
phase. For example, in an oil-in-water emulsion, the oil is the
internal phase.
JEEP TEST - High voltage holiday detection test.
JOB STANDARD - The minimum acceptable standard of
quality for a coatings project established prior to beginning
the work.
KORT NOZZLES - Tube-like enclosures around a propeller.
LACQUER - Coating composition that is based on synthetic
thermoplastic film-forming material dissolved in organic solvent and that dries primarily by solvent evaporation. Typical
lacquers include coatings based on vinyl resins, acrylic
resins, chlorinated rubber resins, etc.
LAITANCE - A milky white deposit on new concrete.
LAND DISPOSAL - Placement in or on the land, including
but not limited to, placement in a landfill, surface impoundment, waste pile, injection well, land treatment facility, salt
dome formation, salt bed formation, underground mine or
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
607
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
93
= 8627740
compound a toxic chemical. The term manufacture also applies to a toxic chemical that is produced coincidentally during the manufacture, processing, use or disposal of another
chemical or mixture of chemicals, including a toxic chemical that is separated from that other chemical or mixture of
chemicals as a byproduct, and a toxic chemical that remains
in that other chemical or mixture of chemicals as an impurity.
MARINE COATINGS - Paints and varnishes specifically formulated to withstand water immersion or exposure to marine atmosphere.
MARINE ENVIRONMENT - An atmospheric exposure that
is frequently wetted by salt mist, but which is not in direct
contact with salt spray or splashing waves. This environment
contains a high concentration of chlorides.
MASTICS - Adhesive composition.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET - Printed information
concerning a hazardous chemical which must be provided
by manufacturers and made available to all employees. It
must include such information as the identity and chemical
composition of the material, physical and chemical characteristics and hazards, health hazards, route of entry and permissible exposure limits.
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE LEVELS - Voluntary standards
for levels of contaminants in drinking water established by
NSF International in conjunction with the American Water
Works Association, the Conference of State, Health, and Environmental Managers (COSHEM), and the Association of
State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA). Generally
equivalent to 10% of the maximum contaminant level (MCL)
from EPAs Primary Drinking Water Standards issued under
the Safe Drinking Water Act. Intended as third-party standards for evaluating the health effects of additives to drinking water.
MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVELS (MCLs) - The maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water which is
delivered to the free flowing outlet of the ultimate user of a
public water system, except in the case of turbidity where
the maximum permissible level is measured at the point of
entry to the distribution system. Contaminants added to the
water under circumstances controlled by the user, except
those resulting from corrosion of piping and plumbing caused
by water quality, are excluded from this definition.
MEDIUM OIL VARNISH - Varnish of medium oil content,
usually containing from 18 to 25 gal of oil per 100 Ib of resin.
METAL SPRAYING - Application of a spray coat of metal
(usually zinc or aluminum) onto a prepared surface (usually
shot blasted mild steel). The metal to be sprayed is rendered
molten by passing it, in wire or powder form, through a flame
pistol that projects the semimolten metal onto the surface
by means of a jet of compressed air.
METALLIZING - Applying a thin coating of metal to a metallic or non-metallic surface. See FLAME SPRAY.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
OOOLI055 5 8 1
608
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTER*27=3 9 3
= 8627940
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS - Requirements pertaining to any stationary source, the construction
or modification of which is commenced after the publication
in the Federal Register of proposed national emission ctandards for hazardous air pollutants which will be applicable
to such source.
NONAQUEOUS DISPERSION(NAD) - The solvent analog
of a latex; the polymer is dispersed in a volatile organic liquid
which is not a solvent for the polymer. Nonaqueous dispersions have a much higher solids content than conventional
high molecular weight solvent coatings. Like lattices, the viscosity is independent of the molecular weight.
NON-ATTAINMENT AREA - An area which does not meet
National Ambient Air Quality Standards for a particular pollutant such ozone, lead and four other common pollutants,
as shown by monitored data or calculated by air quality
modeling (or other methods determined to be reliable). Nonattainment areas must make progress toward compliance under a schedule developed as part of the Clean Air Act
Amendments.
NONDEGRADATION CLAUSE - A legal provision stipulating that the present air quality of an area must not be lowered.
The provision is meant to protect those areas whose air quality is already better than federal standards require.
NON-METALLIC ABRASIVES
Naturally occurring, byproduct, and manufactured abrasives used for blast cleaning.
NON-POINT SOURCE - A source of water pollutants which
is not an industrial or municipal discharge from a discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, such as a pipe, ditch,
or channel which is designed to emit effluent into a water
body. See POINT SOURCE. An example of a non-point
source would be municipal or agricultural runoff. Discharges
from painting of bridges or other structures over or near water
are non-point sources, because there is normally not an intent to discharge into the body of water.
NONVOLATILE MATTER - Ingredients of a coating composition that, after drying, are left behind on the material to
which they have been applied, and that constitute the dry
film. The term also applies to coatings components such as
varnishes, resins, solvents, thinners and diluents, driers and
additives, etc. Also called SOLIDS and TOTAL SOLIDS.
NONVOLATILE VEHICLE - The liquid portion of a paint excepting its volatile thinner and water.
NOTICE OF PROPOSED RULEMAKING Anouncement
of a federal agencys plans to propose, amend or revoke a
regulation, published in the FederalRegister. The public must
have an opportunity to comment before a final rule is pubIished.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (OSHA) - Federal agency responsible for administration and enforcement of the Occupational Health and
Safety Act.
000405b 4 L B
609
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERt27.3 93
OFFSETS An air pollution control policy that treats an entire region as if it is in a gigantic bubble. The EPA insists only
that the over-all clean air standards be achieved within the
bubble without specifying the precise means. See BUBBLE
CONCEPT.
OIL LENGTH - Ratio of oil to resin in a medium. For an
oleoresinous varnish, the oil length may be expressed in
terms of parts by weight of oil to one part by weight of resin
or, in American practice, in terms of U.S.A. gallons of oil per
100 Ib. of resin. Thus, a 25 gallon varnish would mean, in
American usage, a varnish composed of 25 U S A gallons
of oil to 100 Ib of resin. For an alkyd resin, the oil length is
expressed as the percentage of oil by weight in the resin.
A paint that contains drying oil, oil varnish,
OIL PAINT
or oil-modified resin as the basic vehicle ingredient. The common (but technically incorrect) definition is any paint soluble in organic solvents.
OLEORESINOUS VEHICLE -A vehicle prepared by the addition of a resin to a drying oil. These two components may
or may not be further processed to obtain specified properties. Alkyd resins are sometimes, but not generally, included in this category.
OLIGOMER - A polymer composed of molecules containing only two, three or a few units, or mers.
ONE-COMPARTMENTCOATING - Cross-linking systems
which can be stored in a single compartment, as opposed
to a two-cornpartment coating.
OPACITY - The degree of obscuration of light. Often expressed as the fraction (percent) of a beam of light that fails
to penetrate the smoke or dust plume.
OPERATING PERMIT - (AIR) Authorization to discharge air
pollutants. The permitting program provides a way of tracking sources and their emissions. Shop painting facilities are
among the sources typically required to apply for operating
permits. Under the Clean Air Act Amendments, states must
develop operating permit programs which can be expected
to include facilities which have not needed a permit in the
past.
ORANGE REEL
Surface condition of a coating, resembling the texture of an orange skin.
ORGANIC SOLVENTS - Organic materials, including
diluents and thinners, that are liquids at standard conditions
and that are used as dissolvers, viscosity reducers, or cleaning agents.
ORGANOSOL - Combination of dispersion resins and
plasticizer, dispersed in a mixture of volatile organic solvents,
that contain both polar and nonpolar solvents.
OSHA INJURY AND ILLNESS RECORD - A log and summary of all recordable occupational injuries and illnesses that
each employer must keep. Summaries must be posted annualIy.
OSHA LOG 200 - See OSHA INJURY AND ILLNESS
RECORD.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
610
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
61 1
Not for Resale
PROTECTION FACTOR -A measure of the degree of protection provided to the wearer by a respirator.
PSYCHROMETER A test instrument that is used to determine humidity and dew point.
QUALIFIED PRODUCTS LIST
A list of coating systems
that have been approved by the user for the protection of
structural steel. These coatings have passed such tests as
the qualifying agency believes necessary to demonstrate
satisfactory performance.
QUALITY CONTROL - The system whereby a manufacturer ensures that materials, methods, workmanship, and the
final product meet the requirements of a given standard.
REACTIVE DILUENT - A viscosity reducer for coatings that
has low volatility and will become a permanent part of the
coating through chemical reaction, usually under ambient
conditions. It is used in high solids coatings to reduce the
loss of organic solvents into the atmosphere.
REACTIVE PIGMENTS Those pigments that react with
the vehicle, as in the formation of zinc and lead soaps with
drying oils, and pigments such as red lead which react with
acids formed at metal surface to prevent rust.
REACTIVITY - A characteristic exhibited by a solid waste
which can be shown by standard tests to do any of the following: readily undergo violent change without detonating,
react violently with water, form potentially explosive mixtures
with water, generate dangerous quantities of toxic materials when mixed with water or other materials, or one that is
capable of detonation or is a forbidden explosive under
Department of Transportation regulations.
REASONABLY AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
(RACT) - The lowest emission limit that a particular source
is capable of meeting by the application of control technology that is reasonably available considering technological and
economic feasibility.
RECORDABLE OCCUPATIONAL INJURIES OR ILLNESSES - Those which result in: I ) fatalities, regardless
of the time between the injury and death, or the length of
the illness; or, 2) lost workday cases, or other than fatalities,
that result in lost workdays; or 3) Nonfatal cases without lost
workdays which result in transfer to another job or termination of employment, or require medical treatment (other than
first aid) or involve: loss of consciousness or restriction of
work or motion. This category also includes any diagnosed
occupational illnesses which are reported to the employer
but are not classified as fatalities or lost workday cases.
RED LEAD - Bright red to orange-red tetroxide; excellent
opacity with good properties as a primary constituent of anticorrosive primer for iron and steel.
REDUCERS - Solvents or thinners added to a coating, varnish, resin, latex or emulsion for the purpose of lowering its
viscosity andlor nonvolatile content.
REFERENCE METHOD - Any method of sampling and
analyzing for an air pollutant as specified by the regulations.
6' i 2
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*27-3 93
613
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 ? . 3
SSPC CHAPTERt27.3
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 00040bL 8 4 5
cised in the selection of pigments used with the silicate because of its alkalinity.
SILICONE One of a class of compounds comprising polymerizable, high-temperature-resistant resins, lubricant
greases, and oils, organic solvent-soluble water repellants,
surface tension modifiers for organic solvents, etc.
SILICOSIS - A pulmonary disease caused by prolonged inhalation of silica dust.
SKIN - Film formed over a vehicle or liquid coating during
storage.
SLOW SOLVENT
Solvent with a slow evaporation rate.
SMALL QUANTITY GENERATOR (SQG) - A generator
who generates between 100 and 1000 kilograms (between
220 and 2,200 pounds or about 300 gallons) of hazardous
waste and no more than 1 kg of acutely hazardous waste
in a calendar month. Most hazardous waste regulations apply to these generators.
SMOG - The irritating haze resulting from the suns effect
on certain pollutants in the air, notably those from automobile exhaust and petrochemical processes. Also a mixture
of fog and smoke.
SOIL CORROSION - An electrochemical process that can
be prevented by isolating a steel structure from the soil and
by cathodic protection.
SOLIDS Nonvolatile matter in a coating composition, .e.,
the ingredients of a coating composition that, after drying,
are left behind and constitute the dry film. Also called
NONVOLATILE MATTER.
SOLIDS BY VOLUME -The volume of the nonvolatile portion of a composition divided by the total volume, expressed
as a percent.
SOLID WASTE - Any material not exempted under
hazardous waste regulations (including solids, liquids and
contained gas) which is discarded.
SOLVENT - Liquid, usually volatile, that is used in the
manufacture of paint to dissolve or disperse the film-forming
constituents, and that evaporates during drying and therefore does not become a part of the dried film. Solvents are
used to control the consistency and character of the finish
and to regulate application properties.
SOLVENTLESS COATING - A 1000/0solids coating.
SPARK TEST - Method of detecting holidays on metallic
substrates by means of a spark test tool.
SPATTER COATING - An incomplete or not continuously
wet coating caused by a faulty spray painting application.
SPRAYING - Method of application in which the coating
material is broken up into fine mist that is directed onto the
surface to be coated. This atomization process is usually,
but not necessarily, effected by a compressed air jet.
SPREADING RATE - The area covered by a unit volume
of coating material. Frequently expressed as square feet per
gallon.
STANDARD - A reference point or a practice established
by general agreement.
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614
Not for Resale
SURFACE PREPARATION - Any method of treating a surface in preparation for coating. Swedish standards (identical to SSPC-Vis 1) include photographic depictions of the
surface appearance of hand and power tool cleaning and various grades of blast cleaning over four initial mill scale and
rust conditions of steel.
SURFACTANTS - Contracted from surface-active
agents, these are additives which reduce surface tension
and may form micelles and thereby improve wetting (wetting
agents); help disperse pigments (See DISPERSANTS); inhibit foam (See DEFOAMERS); or emulsify (See EMULSIFIER). Conventionally, they are classified as to their charge:
anionic (negative), cationic (positive), nonionic (no charge),
or amphoteric (both positive or negative).
SUSPENDING AGENT - A material used in a paint to improve its resistance to the settling of pigments.
TACK-FREE - Freedom from tack of a coating after suitable drying time. In some cases, coatings are tack-free after
application; tack may not develop until a little later.
TANK - Stationary device designed to contain an accumulation of product, hazardous waste or other material which is
constructed primarily of non-earthen materials such as wood,
concrete, steel or plastic which provides structural support.
TEST FENCE - An apparatus consisting of a fence strategically located in a part of the country for specific weather
conditions (temperature, humidity, corrosivity, etc.) and facing a specific direction and angle. It contains a series of exposure racks on which test panels are exposed.
TEST METHOD A definitive, standardized set of instructions for the identification, measurement, or evaluation of one
or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material.
THERMAL SPRAYING - A process whereby a material is
brought to its melting point and sprayed onto a surface to
produce a coating.
THERMOPLASTIC - Capable of being repeatedly softened
by heat and hardened by cooling.
THERMOSET A material that will undergo or has undergone a chemical reaction by the action of heat, catalysts,
ultraviolet light, etc., leading to a relatively infusible state.
THINNER -The portion of a paint, varnish, lacquer, or related product that volatilizes during the drying process. Any
volatile liquid used for reducing the viscosity of coating compositions or components; may consist of a simple solvent,
a diluent, or a mixture of solvents and diluents.
THIXOTROPIC PAINT
Paint that, while free-flowing and
easy to manipulate under a brush, sets to a gel within a short
time when it is allowed to remain at rest. Because of these
qualities a thixotropic paint is less likely to drip from a brush
than other types and can be applied in rather thicker films
without running or sagging.
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES - A figure developed by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
which is intended to represent the level of airborne contaminants that will cause no adverse effects, even after
prolonged exposure. A concentration of air-borne material
that experts agree can be inhaled for a working lifetime by
615
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 . 3
93
almost all workers without any injury. The few workers who
will be affected will develop their symptoms so slowly that
periodic medical examination can be expected to detect them
while the effects are still reversible. While Permissible Exposure Limits are legally binding limits, required by OSHA,
TLVs are recommended limits.
THRESHOLD PLANNING QUANTITY (TPQ) Quantities
of substances used in industry which trigger emergency planning and reporting requirements. A lower TPQ reflects a substance that is considered more hazardous. Applicable
TPQs for specific substances are found in several sections
of the regulations developed under the Emergency Planning
and Community Right to Know Act. TPQs are also given for
substances which are covered by the act, but for which there
is no substance-specific TPQ.
THROUGH-DRYING Uniform drying throughout the film
as opposed to bottom-drying or top-drying.
TIE COAT - Intermediate coat used to bond different types
of paint coats. Coating used to improve the adhesion of succeeding coatings.
TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE - The average level of airborne contaminants to which an employee is exposed.
Generally, the average is calculated for an 8-hour work shift.
TOEBOARD - A barrier secured along the sides and ends
of a platform, to prevent material or a person from falling from
it.
TOOTH
Anchoring profile of a substrate that enhances
adhesion of a coating created mechanically or by the use
of solvents.
TOP COAT - The coating intended to be the last coat applied in a coating system; usually applied over a primer, undercoaters, or surfacers.
TOP-DRYING - Drying of a film on the top only.
TOUCH-UP PAINTING Application of paint on small areas
of painted surfaces to repair mars, scratches, and small areas
where the coating has deteriorated, in order to restore the
coating to an unbroken condition.
TOXICITY - Characteristic of a solid waste which is shown
to contain specified contaminants, including lead and chromium, at a concentration equal to or greater than the regulatory level, using a standard test method known as the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure.
TOXICITY CHARACTERISTIC LEACHING PROCEDURE
(TCLP) A standard test used to determine if a solid waste
is considered a hazardous waste by virtue of its toxicity. It
is intended to simulate the leaching of toxic constituents that
would take place in a landfill.
TOXICITY (HUMAN) - The capacity of a substance to injure by chemical means. All substances are toxic. They differ
in degree of toxicity and in the nature of injury they may
cause. Toxicity is called ACUTE when the adverse effect is
the result of swallowing a substance once, having it on the
skin for a few hours, or breathing it for up to a work shift.
Toxicity is called CHRONIC when the adverse effect is the
result of swallowing, contact or breathing almost daily for a
year or longer. The word SUBACUTE is used for effects of
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
616
Not for Resale
617
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 * 3 93
WET-ON-WET COATING Technique of painting whereby further coats are applied before the previous coats have
dried, and the composite film then dries as a whole. The
process requires specially formulated paints.
WET SPONGE TESTER - A low voltage holiday detection
device.
WET STORAGE STAIN - White corrosion products (zinc
hydroxide or zinc oxide) on zinc coated articles.
WETTING -The ability of a vehicle to spread uniformly and
rapidly over the surface of pigment particles. A vehicle with
good wetting properties assists in the grinding or dispersion
of pigments and the ability to wet the surface to which the
finish coating is applied.
WHITE BLAST - Blast cleaning to white metal. This standard is defined in Steel Structures Painting Council Surface
Preparation Specification No. 5, White Metal Blast Cleaning (SSPC-SP 5).
WHITE RUST - White corrosion products (zinc hydroxide
and zinc oxide) on zinc coated surfaces.
WIRE BRUSH - Cleaning a surface with a wire brush including both hand wire brushing (SSPC-SP 2) and power wire
brushing (SSPC-SP 3).
WORK MIX - A mixture of sizes of abrasive comprised of
newly added abrasive and fractured or flaked, used abrasive.
WRAP AROUND EFFECT - The effect of an electrostatic
charge upon a sprayed coating, so that the coating covers
all exposed conductive areas, including edges.
WRINKLING
A distortion in a paint film appearing as
ripples.
ZINC CHROMATE - Bright yellow pigment comprised substantially of zinc chromate. It is used in anti-corrosive paints
and primers for steel.
ZINC DUST Finely divided zinc metal used as a pigment
in protective paints for iron and steel.
ZINC OXIDE A fine, white pigment used in paint for mildew resistance and film reinforcing properties. Although not
commonly considered an anti-corrosive pigment, it does add
anti-corrosive properties to steel primers.
ZINC-RICH PRIMER - Anti-corrosive primer for iron and
steel incorporating zinc dust in a concentration sufficient to
give electrical conductivity in the dried film, thus enabling
the zinc metal to corrode preferentially to the substrate, .e.,
to give galvanic protection.
ZINC SHOT BLASTING (Zincing)
A modification of the
normal blast cleaning procedure in which metallic zinc particles are substituted for all or part of the shot, grit, or sand.
ZINC SILICATE PRIMER Inorganic zinc-rich primers that
contain a silicate binder.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
618
Not for Resale
93
APPENDIX C
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS
REFERENCED IN VOLUME 1
A90
All1
AASHTO M-69
AASHTO M-70
AASHTO M-72
AASHTO M-229
AASHTO M-300
A112
A116
A l 20
A121
A l 23
A l 43
A l 53
ANSI N5.12
ANSI N101.2
ANSI N101.4
ANSI 241
ANSI 287.1
A242
A384
A385
A5251A525M
A591
A641 IA641M
A642
A780
B6
B117
8454
619
Not for Resale
~
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*27.3
8487
B498
6499
6504
8555
8571
8633
8695
8696
c190
D5
D14
D34
D36
D49
050
D95
D126
D135
D154
D185
D283
0284
D296
0344
D427
D444
D451
D478
D480
D521
0522
D523
0555
D562
D564
D609
D61O
D660
D661
D662
D6951D695M
D714
0715
620
Not for Resale
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 7 3
D785
D822
D823
0870
D879
D913
D968
D970
01014
D1044
D1084
D1135
D1150
D1200
D121O
D1296
D1301
D1308
D1394
D1474
D1475
D1545
D1640
D1648
D1649
D1653
D1737
D1844
D1845
D1849
D2090
02092
D2134
D2196
D2197
D2200
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
621
Not for Resale
(canceled) Standard Single- and MultiPanel Forms for RecordingResults of Exposure Tests of Paints
Standard Test Method for Viscosity by
Ford Viscosity Cup
Standard Test Method for Fineness of
Dispersion of Pigment Vehicle Systems
Standard Test Method for Odor of Volatile Solvents and Diluents
Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of White Lead Pigments
Standard Test Method for Effect of
Household Chemicals on Clear and Pigmented Organic Finishes
Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of White Titanium Pigments
Standard Test Methods for Indentation
Hardness of Organic Coatings
Standard Test Method for Density of
Paint, Varnish, Lacquer, and Related
Products
Standard Test Method for Viscosity of
Transparent Liquids by Bubble Time
Method
Standard Test Methods for Drying, Curing or Film Formation of Organic Coatings at Room Temperature
Standard Specification for Basic Lead
Silico Chromate Pigment
Standard Specification for Strontium
Chromate Pigment
Standard Test Methods for Water Vapor
Transmission of Organic Coating Films
(canceled) Method of Test for Elongation
of Attached Organic Coatings with Cylindrical Mandrel Apparatus (replaced by
0522)
Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Basic Lead Silicochromate
Standard Test Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Strontium Chromate
Pigment
Standard Test Method for Package Stability of Paint
Standard Test Method for Clarity and
Cleanness of Paint and Ink Liquids
Standard Practice for Preparation of
Zinc-Coated Steel Surfaces for Painting
(canceled) Test Methodfor Softening of
Organic Coatings by Plastic Compositions
Standard Test Methods for Rheological
Properties of Non-Newtonian Materials
by Rotational (Brookfield) Viscometer
Standard Test Method for Adhesion of
Organic Coatings by Scrape Adhesion
Visual Standard for Abrasive Blast
Cleaned Steel (SSPC-Vis 1)
SSPC CHAPTER*27-3 9 3
D2240
02244
D2247
02369
D2371
D2448
02455
D2488
D2621
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
D2698
D2742
D2744
D2792
D2801
02805
D3134
03168
03271
03274
03359
D3363
D3842
D3843
D3911
D3912
D3960
D4082
D4227
D4228
D4256
04400
D4417
D4537
D4541
D4940
D5043
D6222
E l 62
E307
E308
622
Not for Resale
E376
G6
G8
G9
G1O
G11
G13
G14
G17
G18
G19
G20
G53
A b 2 7 9 4 0 0004070 8 9 8
Bureau of Reclamation
AWWA C205
AWWA C206
AWWA C209
ANSIIAWWA
C215
AWWA C602
AWWA D102
1-GP-14
1-GP-40
CANICGSB 1.40-M89
1-GP-59
CANICGSB
1.59-M89
1-GP-69
CANICGSB
1.69-M89
1-GP-122
CANICGSB
1.122-M91
1-GP-140
CAN ICGSB 1.140-M89
1-GP-166
1-GP-l66M
Coal-Tar Protective Coatings and Linings for Steel Water Pipelines - Enamel
and Tape Hot-Applied
Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and
Coating for Steel Water Pipe
Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe
Cold-Applied Tape Coatings for the Exterior of Special Sections, Connections
and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines
Extruded Polyolefin Coatings for the Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines
Cement-Mortar Lining of Water
Pipelines
(withdrawn) Painting Steel WaterStorage Tanks (being Revised)
NOW:CANKGSB - 1.59-M89
Enamel, Exterior, Gloss, Alkyd Type
NOW:CANKGSB
Paint, Aluminum
NOW:CANKGSB -1.122-M91
Primer, Vinyl, Anti-Corrosive
1-GP-167
1-GP-171
1-GP-171M and
- 1.69-M89
NOW:CAN K G S B - 1.140-M89
Primer, Red Lead, Iron Oxide, Oil Alkyd
Type
NOW:1-GP-166M
Primer, Basic Lead Silico Chromate, Oil
Alkyd
Enamel, Exterior, Basic Lead Silico
Chromate, Alkyd Type
Now: 1-GP-171M and amendment
Coating, Inorganic Zinc
amendment
1-GP-182
1-GP-l82M
NOW:1-GP-182M
Vinyl, Exterior Paint,
M-54 VR-3
M-55 VR-6
623
Not for Resale
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 * 3 9 3
SSPC C H A P T E R a 2 7 - 3 73
8627740 000407L 7 2 4
FED-CTD-141
21 CFR 175
FED-STD-595
A-A-341
BB-A-1034
L-(2-530
P-c-111
P-C-436
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29 CFR Part
1900-1910
(1901.1 to
1910.999)
29 CFR Part
1910.1O00 to
End
29 CFR 1926
P-c-437
SS-P-385
TT-C-490
40 CFR
400-699
40 CFR
700-799
TT-C-542
TT-E-489
TT-E-490
TT-E-529
TT-E-1593
TT-L-26
TT-L-50
TT-P-19
TT-P-28
Department of Transportation
49 CFR 172
49 CFR 173
49 CFR 178
49 CFR 179
TT-P-3 1
TT-P-38
TT-P-8 1
TT-P-86
TT-P-320
TT-P-595
TT-P-6 15
TT-P-636
TT-P-641
624
Not for Resale
TT-P-645
TT-P-664
TT-P-1046
TT-P-1757
TT-P-2784
TT-S-711
TT-S-1543
TT-V-51
TT-V-81
TT-V-119
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004098 9-77
DOD-C-24596
MIL-C-24667
MIL-C-38334
MIL-C-43616
MIL-C-46081
MIL-C-46156
MIL-C-46168
MIL-C-46487
MIL-C-81302
MIL-C-85285
MIL-C-87936
MIL-D-23003
MIL-D-24483
MIL-D-24667
MIL-C-11O90
MIL-C-11796
MIL-C-13924
MIL-C-14460
MIL-C-16173
MIL-C-17504
MIL-(2-19537
MIL-C-19565
DOD-C-22325
MIL-C-22542
MIL-C-22750
DOD-E-699
MIL-E-15090
MIL-E-15145
MIL-E-17970
MIL-E-17971
DOD-E-1821O
DOD-E-24607
MIL-E-24635
MIL-F-902
MIL-H-13528
MIL-L-14486
625
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTERx27.3 73
S S P C CHAPTERa27-3 73
DOD-P-24648
MIL-L-19537
iJllL-P-28577
MIL-P-28578
MIL-P-38336
MIL-P-53030
MIL-R-15058
MIL-R-19907
MIL-R-21006
MIL-S-5002
MIL-V-1174
NACE RPO178
NACE RP0274
NACE RP0275
NACE RP0285
NACE RP0287
NACE TMO 70
NACE TMO 75
NSF International
ANSIINSF 61
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
626
Not for Resale
6 2 7 9 4 0 0004LOO 355
SA J 827
SSPC-PS 1.09
SSPC-PS
Guide 2.00
SSPC-PS
2.03"
SSPC-PS 2.05
SSPC-PS
Guide 3.00
SSPC-PS
Guide 4.00
SSPC-PS 4.02
SSPC-PS 4.04'
SSPC-PS 11.o1
SSPC-PS
Guide 12.00
SSPC-PS 12.01
SSPC-PS 13.01
SSPC-PS 14.01
SSPC-PS
Guide 15.00
SSPC-PS 15.01
SSPC-PS
16.01 +
SSPC-PS
Guide 17.00
SSPC-PS 18.01
SSPC-PS 24.00
SSPC-Paint 1 '
SSPC-Paint 2'
SSPC-Paint 5
SSPC-Paint 8
SSPC-Paint 9
SSPC-Paint 11 '
SSPC-Paint 16
SSPC-Paint 17
SSPC-Paint 18
SSPC-Paint 19
SSPC-Paint 20
SSPC-Paint 21
SSPC-Paint 22
SSPC-Paint 23
SSPC-Paint 24
SSPC-Paint 27*
SSPC-Paint 1O1
SSPC-Paint 102
SSPC-Paint 104
SSPC-Paint 106
SSPC-Paint 108
SSPC-PA 1
SSPC-PA 2
SSPC-PA
Guide 3
SSPC-PA
Guide 4
SSPC-Guide to
Vis 1-89
SSPC-Guide to
vis 2
627
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 93
SSPC CHAPTERx27-3 9 3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 1 291
..
Underwriters Laboratory
UL 45
These painting systems and paints use chromate pigments, toxic substances that are closely regulated. Users
are urged to follow all health, safety and environmental requirements in applying, handling or disposing of these
materials
+These painting systems and paints use lead pigments.
It has become evident over the last several years that the
hazards and precautions associated with leaded paints outweigh their merits. Leaded paint poses a health hazard both
to those who apply it and those who remove it. Containment
and disposal requirements add significantly to the cost of using leaded paint. SSPC has proposed to withdraw all SSPC
specifications for leaded paint. Under this proposal, all
specifications for paints that contain lead would be withdrawn. Paints containing lead would also be deleted from
SSPC Paint Systems, Guides and Commentaries. If a system offers no non-lead alternatives for a particular use, the
system itself would be withdrawn.
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTER*27.3
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0 0 0 4 1 0 2 128
93
W
K
3
3
A
t-
>
K
W
I-
E
E E E Er
o
Cu
x
al
r
t-
u
z
W
-I
a
W
U
3
ta
U
(z
W
I-
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
629
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERx27.3
Index
. . . . . . . . . . . .340
. . . . . . . . . . . . .513.515
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
...................... 52
58.59
efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
243
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54.55. 6162
.54.55. 61-62
grounding .....................
.62+ 7879
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 77.178
helmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hose construction ........................ 54
hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
lead paints. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78-79
metering valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54.56, 187
. . . . . . . . . . . .56. 186
moisture separato
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
new steel . . . . . .
....................
.........................
189
57
. . . . .222.236
hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57-58
. . . . . . . . .187
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. anchor pattern .
metallic. breakdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38.39
metallic. cast steel . . . . . .
metallic. characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
metallic. chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallic. chilled cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
metallic. common uses . .
metallic. consumption rate
metallic. cost of wear .....................
32
metallic. coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. cut steel wire . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. de.flashing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
metallic. degree of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
metallic. effect of hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
metallic. failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.38.39
metallic. flaking failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
metallic. flow rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
metallic. fracture failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36. 38
metallic. hardness . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .38
metallic. history . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. impact energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37. 40
metallic. impact life cycle . . . . . . . .
metallic. iron grit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. malleable iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
nozzle materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
nozzle orifice size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..55, i 8 8
nozzle size . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .53
.56. 186
oil separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6163
paint residue recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78. 87
portable enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
pressure pot . . . . . . . .
procedure . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 58.59
production rates . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 60. 76
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .58
283
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
respirators ..............................
56
. . . . . . . . . . 6163
safety requirements
silicosis .................................
78
static electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.54.61
steam propelled ..........................
83
variables .............................
5960
venturi nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water curtain .....................
Abrasive feed. centrifug
............ 22
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . .
............55
Abrasive flow .........
Abrasive handlers. field painting ............. 223
Abrasive injection. water blast
cleaning .......
............... 64
Copyright The Society for Protective Coatings
Provided by IHS under license with SSPC
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
metallic. microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
metallic. operating mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39-41
metallic. physical properties . . . . . . . . . .32.34-35
metallic. production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
metallic. profile . . . . . . . . . .
metallic. selection . . . . . . . .
metallic. shot peening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3941
metallic. size specifications
metallic. size versus coverag
metallic. size versus impact energy . . . . . . . . . . 36
metallic. steel grit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58.60. 86
metallic. steel shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58.86
metallic. surface cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. surface etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
metallic. velocity .........................
35
metallic. versus non-metallic
metallic. work mix . .
. .32. 37-41. 43-44
metallic. work mix re
nt . . . . . . . . . . . .40
metallic. zinc shot ........................
84
non-metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45.51. 58. 296
nonmetallic. aluminum oxides . . . . . . . . . .46. 48.
non.metallic. breakdown
. . . . . . . . . . .49
non.metal1ic. breakdown
. . . . . . . . . . . 51
non.metallic. breakdown
non.metallic. by-product . . . . . . . . . . . . .4546. 50
non.metallic. carbon dioxide
pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 83
non.metallic. characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
non.metallic. chemical propenies . . . . . . . . .48. 50
non-metallic. cherry pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
non.metallic. coal slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58. 60. 62
non.metallic. consumption rates . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
non.metallic. copper slags . . . . .47. 48. 58. 60. 62
non.metallic. corncobs . . . . . . . . . .
non.metallic. degree of cleaning .
non.metallic. dense versus light . .
nonmetallic. density . . . . . . . . . . . .
non.metallic. dusting ...................... 50
non.metallic. environmental
constraints ............................
48
non.metallic. evaluation tests . . . . . . .
-51
non.metallic. flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
non.metallic. foundry castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
non.metallic. free silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..48. 50
non.metallic. garnets . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5 46. 48. 52
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
sands
nonrmetallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.meta1lic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.rnetal1ic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
non.metallic.
glass beads
hard versus SOA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
hardness
heavy mineral
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4546. 48
ice particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .E3.84
49
impact ......................
large versus small . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
58
limestone ....................
magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
magnesium silicate . . . . . . . . . . . .58
manufactured . . . . . . . . . ..45-46. 50
metal smelting slags . . . . . . . . . . . 45
millscale surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
naturally occurring . . . . . . . . .45. 50
nickel slags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47. 58
........
45
specific gravity
.......................
. 57.58
......................
65
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S S P C CHAPTER*27.3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
194 196
Ai: supply couplings, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Air supply hose, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . 53
Air supply, abrasive blast cleaning ....... .53,188
93
Ab27940 0004104 T T O
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
primers. formulation . . . .
Antifouling coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.298.299. 592
Federal Insecticide. Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
foulant release coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
Organotin Antifouling Paint Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
zebra mussels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
Appearance in container. paints. tests . . . . . . . .212
Appearance properties, binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Appearance. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Application characteristics,
194. 196
paints, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176. 544 Application equipment, paints . . . . . . . . . . .
spray technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Application properties. binders . .
Alcohols. solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
qualify control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Application-related paint failures . . . . . . . . . .505-510
Application technique air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
inside corners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
adducts and polyamides .
. . . . . . . . . . 541
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
urethane binders . . . . . . . .
. . . . .ll9-120 Application, paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150-167
Applicator. evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Apprenticeship training of painters . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Alkali silicate. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2-13 Approval. painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Alkyd. binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118.121-122 138 Architectural and Industrial
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 5. 381-382.416
564
Maintenance Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.558.560
National Ambient Air Quality
Alkyd paints. health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . .540-541
Alkyl silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . .13.127
Standards . . . . . . . . . . .558,560. 562. 568. 571
Alligatoring. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489-490 Arch span bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Aluminum oxides. non-metallic
Aromatic. hydrocarbon solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
urethane binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119-120
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46.48. 52.58. 60.86
Asphalt enamel, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Aluminum-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Aluminum. coatings. thermal spray . . . . . . .457-458. Asphalt mastic, extruded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.352-353
460-461.463
flake pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144 ASTM-D 1640 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168 Atlas Test Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.322-323
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145,434. 524 Atmospheric weathering, paints,
358
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17. 338
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387.400 Atmospheric exposure environments . . . . . .338-339,
381-382,385
Ambient conditions measurements.
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183-185 Atmospheric exposure environments,
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Ambient curing. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.126-127 Automatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Azelaic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
American Bureau of Shipping
survey requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294.299
American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123,538
American National Standards
Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Back to back angles. coating failures . . . . . . . . . 512
American Petroleum
Bacterial cleaning. surface
Institute. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
.84.85
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
American Railway Bridge and
Bacterial exposure environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Building Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263.269
Ballast tanks. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
American Railway Engineering
Barges. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
paint residue recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
American Society for Testing
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .309,311-312
and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
gments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
American Society of Safety Engineers . . . . . . . . 554
Barrier. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lo-11,280. 298, 331
American Water Works Association . . . . . . . . . . .315
paints, choice of vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Ammonium silicates. zinc-rich
protection, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
.126-127
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458
Analysis. pickling baths . . . . . . . . . . . . .108-110.112
Barriers, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Anatase titanium dioxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Basic lead silico-chromate
Anchor pattern. abrasive blast
.140-141.
245
pigments ......................
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..189.192-193 Batelle Memorial Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Baths. immersion. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37.40-41
spray. phosphating ......................
100
Angle of impingement. centrifugal
Beam span, bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
280
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bendability, paints, tests .................... 357
Angular versus round, non-metallic
46 Bids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238-240
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
invitation for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
238
Angular. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Angular profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Animal bristles. brushes .....................
93 Bilge areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 8-120
Anodic areas. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. 365
acrylic latex ........................
.121-122
Anodic inhibitors. pigments . . . . . . . . . ..6.138. 146
aliphatic urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anodic passivation ........................
142
alkyd ......................
1
adsorption ............................. 143
appearance properties . . . . . . . .
precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
application properties ....................
121
Anodic reactions. corro
catalyzed epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Anlicorrosion, paints .
chlorinated rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119,121-122
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1 7,122. 138-149
S S P C CHAPTERx27.3
146,245
long oil alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
391
oil-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
oiticica oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
performance properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
phenolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.119,121-122
polyurethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
primer, purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
polyvinyl butyral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
176
silicone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
sjlicone alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
styrene-based . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 19
thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . .
thermosetting . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 11
toxic materials . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 179
t u n g ~ i.l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
two-component epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . .ll8,121-122
urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.120-122
vinyl acetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vinyl butyral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
vinyl chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
vinyl copolymer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
vinyl-alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
water-borne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Bins, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Bituminous enamels, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Black light test, surface contaminants . . . . . . . . .401
Blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
abrasive air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.63 295-296
abrasive air, equipment . . . . . . . . . . .248,250-251
abrasive characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57.58
abrasives, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.32. 34
closedcycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
dust-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
equipment. abrasive air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52-63
equipment. centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249.250
equipment, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186189
equipment. pressure type . . . . . . . ..52.55,57,59
equipment. suction type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52.56
equipment, vacuum recovery . . . . . .52.56 85-87
field versus shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
188
interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -60
mechanics. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .35,37-38
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3244,295
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4551.296
nozzle size, abrasive consumption . . . . . . . . . . .53
nozzle size versus air consumption . . . . . . . . . . 53
regulations .............................
291
respiratory protection .....................
52
room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176. 545
selection of metallic abrasives ..... .38.39. 4243
selection of non-metallic abrasives . . .
shop versus field . . . . . . . . . .
versus pickling, paint life . . .
water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water, high pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295-297
Blast couplings. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .54-55
Blast enclosures, centrifugal blast
.23,25
cleaning ............................
Blast furnaces, painting . . . . . . .
Blast hoods, abrasive blast cleaning ........ 56-57
Blast hoses, abrasive blast cleaning ....... .54- 55
Blast nozzles, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .60
Blast pattern centrifugal blast
.22-23
cleaning .............................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280-292
inspection, highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281.288-289
inspection. railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
laterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-269
life expectancy. paints. highway . . . . . . . .287.288
maintenance painting, highway . . . . . . . .281.282.
287-288
open deck . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
paint application. highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting costs. railroad
. . . . . . . . . . . . 269
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
painting. accidents . .
196.256,274.275.
284.343
Brushes. animal bristles .....................
93
application production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Chinese hog . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 154
cleanup ...............................
166
horsehair ..............................
154
natural fibers ............................
93
nylon ..............................
153-154
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
632
Not for Resale
C
Cable supported scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . .170.171
Calcium barium phosphosilicate.
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium borosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium carbonate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Calcium phosphosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium strontium phosphosilicate
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calcium zinc molybdate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Calibration, dry film thickness
gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199-201
Calibration standards. dry film
.199.201
thickness gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
California Air Resources Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
California Department of
.87.286
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carbon dioxide pellets. non-metallic
83
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cargo boxes. barges. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Cargo carriers. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Cargo holds. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Cargo tanks. ships. painting . . . . . . . . .293.304-305
Case hiclories. materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . 399
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.135.136
Cast steel abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.34
Catalysts. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cathode. effect of location upon
5
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cathodic areas. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.365
Cathodic disbonding. paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Cathodic inhibitors. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . .138.145
Cathodic pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Cathodic polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
140
Cathodic protection . . . . . . . . . . . .267.268.280. 355
basic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.364365
coatings with ....................
.7.363-364
construction of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -372-373
current flow ........................
.366-367
design of system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369.372
electrical potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..365.367
evaluating effectiveness . . . . .
galvanic anodes . . . . . . . . . . .7.367.368. 370-371.
373.375
hydrogen evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
366
impressed current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.11. 299.
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 9 3 E 8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004106 8 7 3
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Cathodic reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cathodic reactions. corrosion
of steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Cavitation erosion. exposure
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.339.340
Cellosolve silicates. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i27
Cement mortar. application . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343.344
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.332.333.336
Centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22.32. 34
abrasive feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
abrasive recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
abrasive velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
abrasive volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
adjustable wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-27
advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
air-wash separator ....................
.23.25
angle of impingement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
blast enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
blast patiern .........................
.22.23
blast wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.22.23.25
degree of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
dust collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.25
equipmenl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.188.249-250
equipment selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28.29
gantrycrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
hand-held systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
in-line systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.23.24
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
machines. operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.25
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
portable systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .23.28.30. 86-87
post-fabrication system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25.28
pre-fabrication systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24.26-27
rate of cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
roll conveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -26-27
self-propelled systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
ship deck systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ship hull systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
ship side systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
shipbottom systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
shop cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.26.28
wheel travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
work car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -25.26
work handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 25. 27-29
Chalking. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.487-488
Characteristics. thermal spray
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
457
Checking. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488-489.494
Chemical analysis. paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 7
Chemical bonding. adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
zinciich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128.i33
Chemical cleaning. government
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90.97
Chemical coatings. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
Chemical curing. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15.16. 117
Chemical exposure environments.
513
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Chemical inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
Chemical plant painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412-419
Chemical plants. exposure
412
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical properties metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . 35
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48. 50
Chemical reactions. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
pigment-vehicle combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.128-130
Chemical resistance. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
zinc-rich primers ........................
134
Chemical resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Chemical separator. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Chemical versus physical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chemical, exposure environments . . . . . . . B O .429
Cherty pits, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chilled cast iron abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32.34
Chinese hog brushes . . .
Chip blow line. painting ....................
422
Chipper. rotary. rotary impact
72
cleaning tools ............................
Chipping hammers, hand tool cleaning . . . . . . 6849
415. 483
Chlorinated solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.90-91
Choke valves. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Chromate-free acid rinses.
.......................
103
nts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
Chromates. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . l l . 144-145.246
pigments. solubilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Chromic acid rinses. phosphating . . . . . . . . 102-103
Chromic acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
Chromium paints. hazards. abrasive
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.78-79
Chromium. regulated materials . . . . . . . . . . . .il. 79
Circular nozzles. water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 65
Citric acid cleaning. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
Clean Air Act Amendments . . . . . . . . . .558.560-568
architectural and industrial maintenance
564
coatings rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
hazardous air pollutants . . .558.560-562.564-565
maximum available control technology . .560.564
summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562-563
Cleaners. acid. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
alkali. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -90-91
detergent. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Cleaning shop. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . .247-248
Cleaning. field welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
shop welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
steel to be enclosed in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . 243
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308.311-312
Cleanliness. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
between coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202-203
paint application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
Cleanup. brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
mitts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
paint application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
spray equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
water-borne paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
558
Clemtex Coupons. profile measurements . . . . . . 192
Closedcycle blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Coal slag. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .60.62
Coal tar enamel. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315.351
Coal tar e w x v . binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 8
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16.315-316.334.335.
...
..........
633
Not for Resale
460-461,463
Code of Federal Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . .548,558
Coefficient of friction, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133.134
Cofferdams, ships, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Cohesion failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 1
Coke oven plants, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390.395
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Cold weather, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
248
Colloidal silica, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Colloidal dispersions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Color selection, painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Color, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Colors, abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306,393.394, 420,481
Comparators, profile measurements . . . . . . . . . . 192
Compatibility between coats of paint . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Compatibility, maintenance painting . . . . . .272.416
Composition specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Composition
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-58
millscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
paints, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
212
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability
Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559,580, 563-585
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
hazardous substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 584
National Response Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
reportable quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . .580,584-585
Superfund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
558
threat of release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Compressed air cooled aftercoolers . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Compressed air standard OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Compressor size, abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Concrete encased steel. painting . . . . . . . .247,278
Concrete pipe, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Concrete-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501,503
Concrete, coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394,422,432-433
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387, 432
Conductive extenders, zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.12.14, 131-132
Conductor, electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4,363-365
Configuration designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533.534
Confined spaces standard, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Construction industry standard OSHA . . . . .550-551
Consultation assistance, OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Consumption rates, metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
non-metallic abrasives ..................... 60
Contact surfaces, painting . . . . . :. . . . . . . . .258-259
Containers sampling paints from . . . . . . . .213,216
Contaminants abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3
Corner-related failures . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Corners. inside. applicatio
Corps of Engineers. specifications . . . . . . . . . . .449
Corrosion of steel. anodic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
cathodic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
millscale formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
pitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
rust formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion prevention. designs for . . . . . . . . . 246-247
29-430. 528-537
designs for. bridges . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 264
Corrosion survey. painting pr
Corrosion. anodic areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5. 365
at discontinuities in a
5-6
paint film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.5. 365
cathodic areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 5
direct current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..268. 363-365
effect of cathode location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
effect of dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
effect of film thickness .
effect of millscale . . . . .
effect of noble metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
effect of polarization upon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
effect of resistance upon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
effect of steel composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
effect of stray electrical
currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
effect of surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
electrochemical ......................
.3. 349
electrochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4. 139
.246. 267
electrolytic ........................
fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
galvanic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4. 6-7
8627940 0004107 7 0 T
.
.
.
.
paints. oxidation
..
zinc-rich primers .
Current flow. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . .366-367
Currents. stray electrical.
7
effect upon corrosion ......................
Cut steel wire abrasives ..................... 32
Cutter bundles. rotary impact
cleaning tools ........................
.72-73
3-4. 6
prevention. designs for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330. 418
prevention. function of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
protection. painting ......................
280
reinforcing steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
268
stray electric currents ....................
268
Corrugated siding. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Cost accounting. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Cost and cost sharing contract ..............238
...........................
.......................
Decks painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
312
Defects. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . .475-477
Defense Supply Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Degree of cleaning. centrifugal
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
effect on surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 9-20
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Dense versus light. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Density, measurements, paints.
tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
. . . . . . . . . 46-47
non-metallic abrasives
Department of Agricultur
S . . . . . . . . . 591
Department of Defense Index
of Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense,
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Housing and Urban
Development Guidelines . . . . . . . . . .559. 591-592
Depth micrometers. profile
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
192-193
Dermatitic materials, binders . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 542
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Design Basis Accident, tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Design features bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
.to
Design. coating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
considerations, hot dip
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.470-472
for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . .246-247, 330.
418, 421, 429-430
for corrosion prevention.
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
264
for corrosion prevention, coatings . . . . . . .534-536
for corrosion prevention.
dissimilar metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
529
for corrosion prevention, economics . . . . . . . . 536
for corrosion prevention. geometry . . . . . .531-532
for corrosion prevention. insulation . . . . . . . . . 529
for corrosion prevention, joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
for corrosion prevention,
maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.535-536
for corrosion prevention, materials . . . . . .528-530
for corrosion prevention, mechanical . . . .532-533
for corrosion prevention.
pipe hangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
for corrosion prevention,
steel grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
for corrosion prevention, stiffeners
for corrosion prevention, surfaces .
for corrosion prevention
tank interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
for corrosion prevention, vessels
Design-related paint failures . . . . . .
Design. for better painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246-247
for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246-247
for corrosion prevention,
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
264
joints. for corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
pipe hangers, for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
steel grating, for corrosion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
rosion prevention . . . . . . . . . .246
Detergent cleaners, solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Detergent cleaning, foamed
94-95
detergent solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 94-95
high pressure-hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dew point, measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t 8 4 -186
measurements. psychrometer . . . . . . . . . .18 4-186
Di-iron phosphide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 14 131-132
Dial surface profile gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Dichromates, rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-66
Digital thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
184
Dipping operations, thinnin
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .256
Dipping procedure. hot dip
.468-470
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Direct costs, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
Direct currents. corrosion . . . . . . . . . . .268. 383-365
459
Disadvantages, sealers .....................
Discoloration, failures ...................... 494
Discontinuities in a paint
film. corrosion
. . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Discontinuity-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
S S P C C H A P T E R k 2 7 . 3 93
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
E
Ear protection. power tool cleaning . . . . . .
Economics. designs for corrosion
prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403. 408. 412
ship painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
294
Eddy current. dry film thickness
gages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
198. 202
Edge-relaled failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510.51 1
Edge protection. maintenance
painting ............................... 425
Edge striping ........................
Elcometer 300 dry film
197
thicknessgages .........................
Elcometer. dry film
thickness gages . . . . . . . . .
Elcometer Pencil Pull-oif. dry film
thickness gages . . . . . . . . .
Electric arc gun. thermal spray .......... .456-457
Electric psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrical conductivity zinc-rich primers . . . . . . .129
Electrical conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Electrical potential. cathodic
proteclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.365.367
Electrical standard. OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
Electrical tools. safety. power
tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Electrically driven machines. rotary
cleaning tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 t
Electrochemical corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3. 349
Electrochemical inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -147
Electrochemical reactions corrosion . . . . . . . .4. 139
Electrochemical reactions. pigments . . . . . .138-139
Electrochemical tests. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
.478-479
Electrogalvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electrolytic conductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363-365
Electrolytic corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246. 267
Electrolytic pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114. 115
Electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257. 354 355
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 62-164
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160. 343
Electrostatic holiday detection
.203-204
instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emission spectroscopy paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Emissivity paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Enamels. catalyzed epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.351-352
Enforcement. OSHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Environment-related paint failures . . . . . . . .513-514
Environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-21
coal tar paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
.330. 347-348
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
525
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 115
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.90. 96
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30. 78-79.
88. 324
tank painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315. 319
Environmental impact. surface
preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Environmental Protection Agency . . . . . .72. 78. 81.
290. 315. 556-593
Environmental reactions. zinc-rich
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128
Environmental regulations . . . . . . . . . .79. 246. 295.
556-594
air quality regulations . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 560-572
antifouling coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
592
Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.558. 560
Clean Air Act Amendments . . . . . . . .558. 560-568
Clean Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 580-582
Comprehensive
Environmental Response.
Compensation and Liability
AC1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 580. 583-585. 589
federal acts and regulations . . . . . . . . . . .557-559
hazardous material regulations . . . . .559. 583-587
hazardous waste regulations . . . . . . .558. 573-579
591-592
miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556-559
.559. 592
pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
regulatory agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
regulatory structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558.573-578
Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
soilquality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
559. 591
sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592-593
storage vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.587-591
Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act . . . . . . . . .558-559. 585-587
Toxic Substances Control Act . . . . . . . . .559. 583
waste handling and
disposal regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573-579
water pollution control regulations . .558. 580-583
268
Environmental zones .......................
Environmental zones. painting
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.264-267
zone 10 ...............................
264
zone 2A ...........................
zone 2 8 ............................ 267-268
zone 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
268
SSPC C H A P T E R r 2 7 . 3 9 3 I 8627940 O O O Y L O 9 5 8 2
Extruded polyethylene .
Extruded polypropylene
Eye protection. goggles
hand tool cleaning . .
power tool cleaning .
safety . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .353.354
. . . . . . . . . . . . .178, 549
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
peeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.498-499
507
pinholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pinpoint rusting . . . . . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pipe structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
runs and sags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509-510
scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
shop primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
spatter coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
507
steel-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500-501, 503
storage tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
sulfide discoloration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
506
thickness-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
thinning-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
undercutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139, 500-501
underfilm corrosion, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
water tank lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
weather-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.505.506
weld-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
wood-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.502.503
wrinkling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
zinc-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501.502
Faying surfaces, designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
painting . . . . . . . . .
zinc-rich primers . .
Federal Acquisition R
. . . . . . . .448
Federal Highway Administration . . . . . . . . .283, 289
Federal Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Federal specifications
448-449
Federal Specifications and
Standards, Index of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Standard No 595
Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Supply Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Federal Supply Classification
Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federal Test Method Standard
No 141 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Federation of Societies for
Coatings Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fence rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fence painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Ferric molybdate, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fiberglass, ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Field application, phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . .99, 102
Field bolt heads, paint
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Field coating, paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Field history, materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . .-322
.250, 278
Field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
abrasive blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223-224
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
223
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
costs, equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-223
costs, example calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . .224.226
costs, labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222.223
costs, materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223-224
costs, work sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..236-237
223
helpers ................................
271
new steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint application ........................
223
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
pot tender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222
..........
223
riggers . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
shop primed steel ....................... 271
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
224
supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
223
Field surface preparation, costs . . . . . . . . . . . .75-77
Field tests, materials
.322, 331, 399
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint evaluations ........................
219
220
panel preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
panel racks ............................ 219
performance evaluations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
test panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Field topcoating, specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Field versus shop, blast
.227, 421
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field versus shop, paint
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
= Bb27940
0004110 2 T 4
637
Not for Resale
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
metallic abrasives. effect of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Hazardous materials. regulation . . . . . .559. 583-587
Comprehensive Environmental Response.
Compensation and
Liability Act . . . . . . . . . . 558-559 580. 583-585
Emergency Planning and Community
Right to Know Act . . . . . . . . . .558.559. 585-587
Federal Insecticide. Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559. 592
SARA Title 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.559. 585-587
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558.559. 585-587
Toxic Substances Control Act . . . . . . . . .559. 583
Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558. 573-579
acutely hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
characteristic wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573.574
classifying wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573.574
contingency plan and training . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
empty containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.4
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573. 575-576
identification number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575.576
land disposal restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 573. 577
573
listed wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
manifests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
on-site treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
578
packaging and labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
pretreatment of blast abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 578
574
recycled or reused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
responsibilities for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574.577
sampling and testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
scrap metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
state regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
toxicity characteristic leaching
procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574. 577-579
transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576.578
treatment. storage and disposal
.573. 575. 577
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
waste analysis plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576. 578
waste accumulation time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
539-548
abrasive blast cleaning.
chromium paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78-79
abrasive blast cleaning.
lead paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.79
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . .62. 64. 78.79 545
access and rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
air atomization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
544
compressor pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
confined spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
degree of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
544
electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.539.540
hand and power tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.540.541
ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
linseed oil primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.544.545
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
289-290
painting bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
546
pressure pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.63
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254. 554
spray application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256. 544-545
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . 78. 254. 545-546
463
thermal spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water jetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
welding. cutting and heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
worker awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.540.541
aliphatic and aromatic polyamines.
polyamine adducts and polyamides . . . . . . . 541
alkyd paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
540
causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
curing agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
epoxy resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
heavy metal pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
isocyanates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
liquid epoxy resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
materials removed from surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 543
of types and components of paints . . . . . . . . . 540
organic pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
542
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 9 3
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 - 3 9 3 I6627940 0004LLL 1 3 0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
542. 543
541
solvents and thinners ....................
surface preparation materials . . . . . . . . . . .78. 543
. . . . . . . . . 541
urethane resins
Heat curing zinc-ri
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Heat.resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382.383.
393, 433
Heated spray. equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
257
Heaters, paint ............................
Heavy mineral sands. non-metallic
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4546. 48
Helmets. air.fed. abrasive
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .62-63
blast cleaning
Helpers, field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Hematite .................................. 3
High pressure hot detergent.
solvent cleaning ......................
94-95
High pressure, water blast
cleaning ..............................
64-65
High voltage. holiday detection
instruments ........................
.203.205
High-build lacquers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
High-build paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
High-solids lacquers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High-solids paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Highway bridges. exposure
environments ........................... 283
inspection .....................
.281. 288-289
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281.282.
287-288
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
283
. . . . . . . . . 280292
History. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32. 34
History zinc-rich primers
. . . . . .125.126
341
Holidays. detection ........................
detection inspection . . . . . . . . . .203.204. 317. 327
detection pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352.353. 355
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
high voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K-D Bird D o g . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
low voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
spy .......................
Tinker-Rasor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hoods. blast. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-57
Hopper barges. fresh water
service ................................
307
154
Horsehair, brushes ........................
Hose construction. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hoses. abrasive blast cleaning .....
. .187
Hot dip galvanizing,
coatings ............................
465480
continuous .............................
478
defects ......................
design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470-472
dipping procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468470
process variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474-477
steel selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation . . . . . . . . .
treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
type of zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
welding procedures ...................... 472
Hot spray. paint application ................. 257
Hot stacks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392-393
Housekeeping standard. OSHA .............. 551
Hulls. exteriors painting ....................
311
interiors. painting ................... .31 1-312
303
ships. painting ..........................
Humid interior exposures ................... 281
Humidity. paint application .................. 343
Hydraulic structures. maintenance
painting ...............................
346
........... .330-348
.......... .330-340
............. 76
............. 76
83-84
.......
638
Not for Resale
S S P C C H A P T E R * 2 7 = 3 93
....
L
Labeling requirements. quality
acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Labor hour contract .......................
239
Labor, costs. field painting . . . . . .
.222.223
Laboratory. paints. quality
.398.399
screening. materials selection .
testing. materials selection . . . . . . . .322.323. 331
Lacquers .........................
.14.15. 117
...........................
15
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
accessories . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 168
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limestone non-metallic
abrasives ...............................
58
Limitations, water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Limitations, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . .134.135
Linings. cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . ..332.333. 336
chemical separator . . . .
coal tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dry foodstuff tanks . . . . . . .
epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
food processing tank . . .
liquid foodstuff tanks . . .
neoprene . . . . . . . . . . . .
phenolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
323
phenolidepoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
polyester ..........................
.323-324
polyethylene .......................
.326.337
polyvinyl chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
railroad tank car . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .326
steel tanks . . . . . . . . . . .
steel tanks. materials
selection . . . .
.......
. 321 -324
tanks. curing . . .
........
. .326.327
tanks, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
327
tanks. maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
tanks. paint application . . . . . . . .
tanks, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . .324.325
vinyl ........................
vinyl ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
water tanks. failures . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linseed oil. binders . . . . . .
............
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inspection. ships
.....
. . . . . . 300
intercoat contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
job standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
management awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
materials selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..426,434435
outside contractor ....................
425-426
paint application . . .
.435
paint compatibility . .
.272
painting history . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 318
personnel . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .425
planning . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . ..425-426
plant personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
procedures .............................
228
procedures, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..300-302
programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.402403.412.
425426,434436
railroad ...........................
.271-272
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
reports, ships ......................
.302-303
specifications, ships . . . . . . . . . . .
surface preparation
tanks . . . . . . . .
. . . .413414,425,435
....................
318
138,146,245
Linseed oil and red lead primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Liquid epoxy resins. health hazards ............541
Lithium silicates. zinc-rich
.126-127
primers ...........................
Living areas. ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
Long oil alkyd, binders ..................... 391
Loss of Coolant Accident. tests . . . . . . . .
Low carbon steel pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low permeability. paints ....................
397
Low pressure. water blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low temperature, phosphating
Low voltage. holiday detection.
instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low-alloy steel ............................
7.8
paints .........
79
639
Not for Resale
414-416,418,420
painting, hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . .330-340
Materials. designs for corrosion
prevention .........................
.528-529
Materials, field painting, costs . . . . . . . . . . .223-224
McKenzie. M G ...........................
126
Mechanical, design for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532-533
protection. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138-139
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC cHApTER1c27.3
93
8627940 0004LL3 T O 3
. . . . . . . .196.
201
166
Mitts, cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153. 155. 160
Mixing. equipment, drum paint agitator . . . . . . . . 151
equipment, paint shaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
latex paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15 1.152
manual paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 1.152
mechanical. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 196, 343
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255,274, 277
related. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
two-component paints . . . . . . . . . . . .151.152, 195
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
Moist atmospheres. exposure
environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.381, 384
Moisture separators, abrasive
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.56. 186
Moisture vapor transmission
rates, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moisturecuring, urethane binders
Molybdated zinc oxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . -142
Molybdates, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142, 144
81
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Morgan Whyalla pipeline. zinc-rich primers 126. 136
Mudcracking, failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490, 494
Multicoat systems. shop painting . . . . . . . . . 421422
Muriatic acid. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-109, 115
NACE RP-0275 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.358-361
Nap. roller covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
National Ambient Air Quality
Standards . . . . . .78. 558.560. 562. 568.569, 571
National Association of Corrosion
Engineers. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450. 592
National Association of Environmental
Professionals. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
National Bureau of Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
National Fire Protection Association. address . . 593
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health. ................................
548
address ...............................
554
National Lead Abatement Council. address ....593
National Leak Prevention Association. address .593
National Paint and Coatings Association ...... 449
450.554. 593
address .......................
National Public Health Service ............... 315
O
Organic pigments. health hazards . . . . . . . .542.543
Occupational Safety and
Health Administration . . . . . . . . . .72. 78. 306. 315
authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
compliance program . . . . . . . . . . .
consultation assistance . . . . . . . . .
enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
549
general duty clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
regulatory process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Ohm's Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Oil-alkyd. painting system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
Oil-based binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
Oil-modified urethane binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Oil separators, abrasive blast cleaning . . . . .56. 187
ollution Act of 1990 ....................
587
ca oil. binders. ....................... 138
Old work. fresh water service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Olivene rutile, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . 45
On-the-job training of painters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
Opaque pigments .........................
117
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
640
Not for Resale
. .
P-C-111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
P-C-436 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
92
PC437 ..................................
Pads. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153.155
Paint application . . . . . . . . . . .150-167. 274-275. 325
204
adhesion testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
air spray., . . . . . . . . . . . . .156-157. 160, 194. 196
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . .157. 159.160 194. 196
application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
automatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
brush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150.152.154 196. 256.
274-275. 284. 343
brush versus spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
cement mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343-344
150
chlorinated rubber .......................
cleanliness between coats . . . . . . . . . . . . .202.203
.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.258.259
cure of coating . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .2O4.205
150
damp surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 343
dry film thick
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257-258
drying ovens
drying painte
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259-261
150
effect of surroundings ....................
effect of weather . . . . . . . .
. . . . .15O. 274
electrostatic spray . . . . . . .
.160.257. 343
equipment ........................
.257. 401
equipment. cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
.... 166
equipment. cleanup ....
327,341,357
lacquer paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
manual mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I51.152
mechanical mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
mitts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 155,160.483
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . .151, 195,255,274,277,343
overspray loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-155
paint heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
paint recirculating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
painting booths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . .401.403,416-418.
426-428
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352-361
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
pre-job conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.257-258
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274.275
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214,275
roller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150,153.160. 284.417
rust preventives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345.346
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176.1 80,278-279
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.426-428
shop versus field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
solvent recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150,152-153, 156-165,
194,196,249,256-258,274.275.
284.285. 343
spray pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
spray technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.164.165
spreading rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
SSPC-PA 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.254.255, 277
storing painted steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259,261
strainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.152-153
striping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.256-257
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153,343
thinning . . . . . . . . . . .152,195,255-256,277.343
tinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 5 1.152
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
two-component equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
twocomponent paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
ventilation equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
vinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.150.344-345
volume solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.192. 198
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387.388
water-borne paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. 345
wet film thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Paint application, hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544-545
air atomization method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
compressor pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544445
electrostatic spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Paint crews. railroad bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Paint dusts, toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Paint heaters, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Paint house, fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Paint life, effect of film thickness . . . . . . . . .Il, 271
effect of millscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
effect of rusting environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
effect of surface pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
effect of surface preparation . . . . . .140,244.245.
272,415
64 1
Not for Resale
434.481.485. 523-524
government practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448-451
handrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
highway bridges and structures . . . . . . . .280-292
history determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
hot liquor tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
hot stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392.393
hull exteriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
hull interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311.312
hulls. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
hydraulic structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330.348
hydraulic structures. materials
.330-340
selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
in fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242-262
industrial plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.377-378
initial versus maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . .226-228
inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.261.288-289
interior areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.393-394
interior areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
interior decks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
interior process areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
interior structural steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
irrigation works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330.348
living areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
machined surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259.260
machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.436
machinery and equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
machinery areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
masonry encased steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293.516-527
navy ships. environmental constraints . . . . . . . 525
new equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422.425
new structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
nuclear power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442.447
peak tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
penstocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
petroleum refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396.41 1
petroleum tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
pickling plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349-362
pipelines. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270,330.348. 433.436
plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
potable water tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . .315.319.380
potable water tanks. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.442-447
preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
prejudices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
process equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
programs. administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
programs. approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. coatings suppliers . . . . . . . . . . .377.378
programs. color selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
programs. corrosion survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
programs. economics . . . . . . . . . . . .403.408.412
programs. inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403.418
programs. inspection and spot repair . . . . . . . 421
programs. job standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
programs. maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425-426
programs. maintenance painting . . . . . . .402-403.
412.434-436
programs. materials selection . . . . .377.379-380.
396.398. 414-416.418.420
programs. new construction . . . . . . .418.421.425.
429-434
programs. paint application . . . . . . . . . . .401403.
416-41 8.426428
programs. planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377.378
programs. pre-job conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
programs. recommendation form . . . . . . . . . . . 409
programs. records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
programs. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403,409
programs. specifications . . . . . . . . . .378-379.398.
417-421. 430
programs. surface preparation . . . . . . . . .399.401.
412-414.418
pulp and paper mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420-428
railroad bridges and structures . . . . . . . . .263.279
reasons for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275. 394
roofing. galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SSPC CHAPTER*27*3 93
SSPC CHAPTERx27.3
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289,348
safety, ships
. . . . . . . . 306
salt cake silo ...........................
422
salt contaminated steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268.273
shipbottoms ........................
29E-299
ships and vessels, fresh
water service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307-314
ships and v
water service . . . .293-306
shop welds
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
shop, fabric
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247-248
siding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
spray equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
steel enclosed in concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
steel gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
steel piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.269,281
steel plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.390-395
steel stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
steel tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315-319
steel to be fireproofed . . . . . . . . . .
steel to be permanently enclosed
stern and propeller areas . . . . . . .
superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
systems, boottops . .
systems, costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229-230,
234
systems. enamels
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
........................
270
ctures . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..349-362
underwater areas. ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
voids, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..379-389
water treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379-389
weather decks, ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394,524
Paints, abrasion resistant . . . . . .298.303.338. 397
acceptance tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215221
acrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
acrylic emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.381-382
acrylic epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
acrylics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
adhesion to metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aliphatic urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415,431,433
alkyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 381-382.416,483
anticorrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO-18,
298,331
anti-fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.298-299
application equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 - 1 1 , 280,298,331
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I17-120
bituminous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
= 8b279YO
OOOYOBL b73
379381.383.387.392.485
coalescing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17-118
coke oven plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
compatibility between
compatibility with rust
. . . . . . . . 272
compatibility. mainten
crude oil resistant . . .
. . . . . . . .397
drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
259,261
emissivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
enamels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351-352
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15. 284.315-317.
335.392 432,485
epoxy ester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
epoxy polyamide . . . . . . . . I 6.355. 398.415416.
433.488
epoxy polyamine . . . . . . . . . . ..16.355.398. 484
epoxy polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
evaluation of new materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
evaluations. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
219
evaluations. service tests
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
failures. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.486.515
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
failures. prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486.515
fish oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. I 4. 397
frequently wet exposure environments . . . . . .347
grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
heat resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382.383.393.433
high-build . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.11. 276. 284
high-build epoxy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379-381.
387
high-Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
impact resistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
122
oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14-15.117
. . . .15. 117.118. 382.485
lead-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
381
life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . .
275-276
life expectancy. highway bridges . . . . . . .287.288
low permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
materials. costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229-230.234
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
255.274.277
moisture vapor transmission rates . . . . . . . . . .493
navy ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516-527
non-skid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 303
oil base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .483
oxidation curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. 117
panel evaluation records . . . . . . . . .215.218-219
petrolatum . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
.......................
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
pot-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 7
product information sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
quality acceptance. users . . . . . . . . . . . . .213-221
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
quality control tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207-212
quality control. manufacturing . . . . . . . . . .207-212
red lead-linseed oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
139
residue recovery, abrasive blast cleaning . .78.87
residue recovery. barges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
residue recovery. tarpaulins
. . . . . . . . . . 87
sampling. from containers . . .
sampling. from tanks . . . . . . .
sampling. quality acceptance
silicone aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393.415
solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.117.120. 123
642
Not for Resale
335.337. 381.386-387.483
viscosity. effect of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
water-borne . . . . . . . .286.288. 315.339.381-382
water-borne epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430431
weatherability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
zinc dust-zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.431-432
Panel preparation. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
Panel racks. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Panel tests. scriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Particle-teparticle contact.
zinc-rich primers. . . . . . . . . . . .129.131.134. 145
Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79.558, 560. 569-570
air quality regulations . . . . . . . .558. 560. 569-570
methods for assessing particulate emissions .570
PM-1O emission standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .569-570
Passivating rinses, phosphating . . . . . . . . . .IO2-103
Passivation, anodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
anodic. adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
anodic. precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
inhibitive pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.10-11
mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4.6
Peach pits, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Peak count. profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-43
Peak distribution. profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
. . . . . . . . . . .305
Peak tanks ships. painting
. . . . . . . . . .4041
Peak.to.valley. profile . . . . .
Peeling. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498499
Penetration resistance. paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . 358
Penknife test. adhesion .................... 204
Penstocks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
335
Performance. evaluations. field tests
paints. tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
properties. binders ......................
121
specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Personal protective
equipment. OSHA standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
head protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
foot protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
respiratory protection . .
Personnel. maintenance pa
Pertechnetate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Petrolatum paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Petroleum Equipment Institute. address . . . . . . . 593
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 396.411
Petroleum refinery.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .405.407
painting systems .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Petroleum solvents. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 90
Petroleum tanks. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
pH of abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
non-metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pH of surface. effect on paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
for inorganic zinc-rich primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Phenolic. bin
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119.121.122
linings . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15.315.335.392
Phenolic. epoxy. linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Phosphate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
144
Phosphates, rust inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66.81
welded assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
Pigment volume concentration . . . . . . . . .11.12. 139
Pigment-vehicle combinations.
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Pigments
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117.338
aluminum flake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
anatase titanium dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
anodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
anodic inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138.146
anti-corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 17. 122. 138-149
barium metaborate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
basic lead silicochromate . . . . . . . . .140.141,245
borosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium barium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium borosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
calcium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium strontium phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . 142
calcium zinc molybdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
cathodic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
cathodic inhibitors . . . . . . . .
cathodic protection . . . . . . . .
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
chromate-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
chromates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.144.145,246
chromates. solubilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
electrochemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 3 8-139
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
extender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
ferric molybdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
inhibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11, 138-149
inhibitive mechanisms . . . .
42.144. 146
inhibitive, passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,
. 10-1i
iron oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
lamellar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
lead chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
lead silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
lead suboxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
lead-free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
mechanical protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I38.139
metallic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
molybdated zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
molybdates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I42.144
opaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I 7
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
passivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,6
pertechnetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I44
phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
primer. purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
red lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138.140. 143.245
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.176,179,542
selection of, for finish coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
sciorin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
sodium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
strontium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I43-144
strontium nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I43.144
technetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
toxic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I78.179
tribasic lead phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
typical compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
zinc chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140.144. 146
zinc dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145. 246
zinc oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
zinc phospho oxide ......................
146
zinc phosphosilicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
zinc potassium chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-146
zinc salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.I46-147
zinc yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Pigments and other additives, health hazards . . 542
chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Piling. steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269.281
Pinholes, failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Pinpoint rusting. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Pipe hangers. designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Pipe rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.154.159
Pipe structures failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Pipeline, coatings, desirable
.349-351
characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...........................
355
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
chromate-free rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
chromic acid rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO2.103
comparison of zinc and iron phosphate . . . . . . 103
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
factory application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
field application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.99,102
gels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i02
government specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
immersion baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
immersion process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
low temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO1-102
manual process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
passivating rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO2-103
pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8
process operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
selection of process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
spray baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
spray process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-106.
111.113. 115
pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.98,102
Phosphosilicate, pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Physical adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Physical properties. metallic abrasives . . .32,34-35
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48-51
paint tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.211.212,218
Physical tests, paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Physical versus chemical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . .20
Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.IO4-116
acid embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
baths, analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 0 8.I IO, 112
baths, liner materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
baths. quality control . . . . . . . . . . . ..108.110, 112
chromic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
clear water rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
cold rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
cost accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-115
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . .104,115
equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.110, 112-114
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Footner process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-113
for galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
for inorganic zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
heat treated steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
high strength steels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
hot rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
hydrochloric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-109.115
hydrofluoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
hydrogen embrittlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
hydrogen evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
inhibitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 110.111. 115
low carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
millscale removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
muriatic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO4.1 09,115
neutralizing rinses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
nitric acid., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.104,106
operation procedures ....................
106
operation records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . .104-106,
111-113,115
plants, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 6
plants, ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
post-treating of metal ....................
105
pre-cleaning of metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i13
quality control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
rate, effect of acid concentration . . . . . . . .107.108
rate, effect of agitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7.108
rate, effect of iron salts . . . . . . . . . . .107-109,
112
rate, effect of temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7.108
rust removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
smut, causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
smut, removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11O
sodium dichromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
special steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
stainless steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104,111
sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104-113,115
sulfuric-phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1 2.113
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
tanks, construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 6 , 114
tanks, lining . . . . . . . .
. . . . .106,114
versus blast cleaning. paint life . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
hydroblasting . . . . . . . .
.
. 76
metallic abrasives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
160
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
roller application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75-77
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .E1-82
.
.
.
.
. 285
Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
angularity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
burnish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
controlled cavitation cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
effect on film thickness measurements . . . . 200
height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-41
measurements . . . . . . . . . .i85-187. 192-193, 324
measurements, Clemtex Coupons . . . . . . . . . . 192
measurements, comparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
measurements, depth micrometers . . . . . .192-193
measurements, dial surface profile gage . . . . 186
measurements, Keane-Tator
comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i85-186, 192
measurements, Testex Press-O-Film
Tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186, 193
measurements, replica tape . . . . . . . . . . .186, 193
metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37, 40-44
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48
peak count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-43
peak distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
peak-to-valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-41
requirement, effect on surface preparation . . . . 20
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 189, 192
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238-240
request for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Protective clothing, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Protective equipment, water blast cleaning . . . . . . 67
Psychrometer, dew point measurements . . 182-185
electric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 82-185
relative humidity measurements . . . . . . . 183-185
sling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182,183
Psychrometric tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Pulp and paper mills painting . . . . . . . . . .420, 428
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423-434
269
278
271-272
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
644
Not for Resale
.
.
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3 73
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
S
Sacrificial anodes. cathodic protection . . . . . . . . 299
Safe Drinking Water Act . . . . . . . . . .558. 581-583
drinking water standards . . . . . . . . . .58 1.583
maximum allowable levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
maximum contaminant levels . . . . . . . . .558. 582
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538.539
incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
sources of information . . .
. . . . . 554
Safety and health programs
establishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
owner evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Safety. professional organizations . . . . . . . . . . . .538
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180. 538-555
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . .61-63. 545
airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176, 544
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 545
buddy system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
catalysts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179, 541. 543
check list. painting tank interiors . . . . . . . 320
cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179. 543
colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306. 393-394. 420
degree of hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
dermatitic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179, 541
equipment. hand tool cleaning . . . .68-69. 545-546
eye protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 550
fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 -262
first aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
government regulations . . . . . . . .180, 538-555
hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .72-74, 545-546
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178-179, 540-544
manufacturers instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
paint application . . . . .176-180. 278-279. 544-545
paint materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 539-544
paint removers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 543
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289. 348. 544-545
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403, 419
painting tank interiors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 542-543
portable supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172-173
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . . .72-74. 545-546
procedures. navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524-525
protective clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 551
respiratory protection . . . . . . . . . . . .177, 551-553
rigging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173-174. 176. 546-548
scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172. 174. 176. 546
ships. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261-262
signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
180
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 176
solvents . . . . . . . .176. 178. 179. 539-541, 543
stationary supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
steam cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176, 545-546
tank painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410, 41 1
toxic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178. 540-543
water blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64. 67. 546
Sags and runs. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509-510
Salt cake silo. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Salt contaminated steel. painting . . . . . . . .268, 273
Salt water service. painting, ships
and vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293-306
tugboats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Salt water. frequently wet exposure . . . . . . .267-268
Sampling procedures, quality
acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 214, 216
Sand injection. water blast cleaning . . . .65. 79-80
Sand volume, wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . 80
Sands, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Sash brushes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168-175
accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
aerial supports . . . . . . . . . . . . .111-174
cable supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170-171
choice of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171-172
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172-174
Scalers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Scaling hammers, impact cleaning tools . . . . . 69-70
Scaling. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .498-500
Scanning electron microscopy. paint tests . . . . . 399
Scissors lift. ground supports . . . . . . . . . . .169-170
Scrapers. hand tool cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-69
Scriber panel tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Sealers. advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458-460
Secondary containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-590
acceptable containment structures . .587. 589-590
choice of coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588
flake and fiber-filled coatings . . . . . . . . . .588. 590
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588
645
Not for Resale
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Silicone aluminum. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393. 415
Silicone binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Silicosis. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Single component.
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Size specifications. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . 33
Size versus coverage. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . 36
Size versus impact energy. metallic abrasives . . . 36
Size. abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-47
Slags, boiler, non-metallic abrasives . . . . .45. 4748
coal. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . .60, 62
copper. non-metallic abrasives
metal smelting. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .45
mineral. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
nickel, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Sling psychrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182. 184
Soaps. inhibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.138. 142
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
ngineers . . . . . . . . . . .32, 35
Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Society of Naval Architects and Marine
Engineers. address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Sodium chromate. pigments . .
Sodium dichromate, pickling .
Sodium silicates. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . .126-127
Soil conditions. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Soil. regulations
Housing and Community Development Act . . . 559
Soils. oily. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
semi-solid. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
solid containing solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Solid deck bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Solubilities. chromate pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..68. 71. 273
acid cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.91
alkali cleaners . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
brushes . . . . . . . . .
chlorinated solvents
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .90-91
choice of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
91
detergent cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
environmental constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90. 96
foamed detergent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94-95
government specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
high pressure-hot detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-95
materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.97
methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90.97
mineral spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
oily soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
painted surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
petroleum solvents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
rinse water. ionic content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
.91. 176
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
semi-solid soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
solvent wiping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
sponges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
steam cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91, 93-94
stoddard solvent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
surface contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . .90-97. 105. 401
waste disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
xylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Solvent phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
Solvent recovery. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Solvent resistance. zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . 133
Solvent wiping. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Solvent-reducible zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . .131-132
Solvents. alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
aliphatic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
aromatic hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
chlorinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
.120. 123
comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
dermatitic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
evaporation times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120. 123
field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
.120. 123
flash points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
glycol ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ketones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
nitroparaffin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .117. 120. 123
. . . . . . .120. 123
threshold limit values . .
water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Solvents and thinners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539-541
fire hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.539-540
health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
precautions . . . . . . . . . . . .176. 178-179. 306. 541
Southern Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Spatter coating. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Specific gravity, abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57-58
Specifications. Bureau of Reclamation . . . . . . . . 449
chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Department of Defense. Index of . . . . . . . . . . . 449
federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448-449
field topcoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
479
government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448-451
Guide to U S Government Paint . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Joint Army-Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
maintenance painting. ships . . . . . . . . . . .300-301
Maritime Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448-449
or-equal clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
painting programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378.379. 398.
417-421. 430
performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
448
pre-job review of. by fabricators . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
quality acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
size, metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Spills hazardous substances . . . . . . . .558.584-585
reportable quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . .580. 584-585
Splash zone exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Sponges. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Spot cleaning. maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . .273
Spray. application. hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
automatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
257
electrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257. 354-355
.156.157
equipment. air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
equipment. airless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157.159
equipment. cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
159
equipment. hook-ups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
156
gun. air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
gun. airless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
157
paint application . . . . . . . .150, 152.153, 156-165.
194. 249, 258-258.
274-275. 284-285. 343
painting. air supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
painting equipment. inspection . . . . . . . .193. 195
pattern adjustment, spray technique . . . . . . . . 165
pot. paint application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
process. phosphating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
technique. air pressure adjustment . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. air spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. airless spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
technique. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . .164.165
technique. paint viscosity adjustment . . . . . . . 165
technique. spray pattern adjustment . . . . . . . . 165
versus brush. paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Spreading rates. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Spy. holiday detection. instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 204
SSPC-PA 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .150. 185. 343. 388. 418
SSPC-PA 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198, 199. 201. 417
.176, 182
SSPC-PA 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-PA 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343, 391. 416
119
SSPC-Paint 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
SSPC-Paint 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 1i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 16 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 253
SSPC-Paint 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.119. 253
SSPC-Paint 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
119
SSPC-Paint 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118. 129. 253
119. 253
SSPC-Paint 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118. 253
SSPC-Paint 22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
646
Not for Resale
SSPC-Paint 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119. 253
119
SSPC-Paint 24. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-Paint 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
SSPC-Paint 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122. 144. 272
SSPC-Paint 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
SSPC-Paint 29 . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .118. 253
SSPC-Paint 101 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-Paint 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-Paint 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 1.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 2.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
SSPC-PS 2.05 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 3.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-119
SSPC-PS 4.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 11.O1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 12.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 135
SSPC-PS 12.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118. 135
SSPC-PS 13.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
SSPC-PS 15.00. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 16.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 17.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
SSPC-PS 18.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-PS 24.00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
SSPC-SP 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 184. 273
SSPC-SP 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 272. 283
.75. 272. 283
SSPC-SP 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 273
SSPC-SP 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SSPC-SP 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
SSPC-SP 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75. 273. 283
SSPC-SP 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
SSPC-Vis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
SSPC-Vis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Stacks. steel. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Standardization Documents Order Desk . . . . . p. 218
State Highway Departments. survey . . . . . . . . . . 285
State Implementation Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Static electricity. abrasive blast
cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54. 61
Stationary scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Stationary supports. safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Staurolite. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . .45. 60
Steam cleaning. equipment . . . . . . . . . . .93-94. 102
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91. 93-94
Steam propelled. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . 83
Steel encased in concrete. cleaning . . . . . . . . . . 243
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247. 270
Steel Founders Society of America . . . . . . . . . . .35
Steel grating. designs for
corrosion prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Steel grit. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . .58. 60. 86
Steel plants. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390-395
paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Steel related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500.503
Steel selection. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . 472473
Steel shot. metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . .58. 86
Steel Structures Painting Council.
address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450. 593
Steel Tank Institute, address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Steel. composition. effect upon corrosion . . . . . . . . 7
galvanized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
low-alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
new. abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
permanently enclosed painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
plate. laminations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182-183
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
theory of corrosion . . . .
weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7-8. 263
Steels. heat treated. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . . . . . . . . . . . 106
high strength pickling
special, pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
stainless. pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104. 111
Stepladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Stern and propeller areas. painting . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Stiffeners. designs for corrosion prevention . . . .246
Stoddard solvent. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Storage. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254-255. 277
pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Storage vessels. regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-591
hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-588. 590
petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584. 589
regulations. underground storage
tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559. 588-591
SSPC CHAPTERa27.3
. . . . . . . . .558-559.
585-587
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
National Response Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
planning and response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 301-303. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
section 31 1-312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585-586
section 313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
threshold planning quantity . . . . . . . . . .585.587
toxic chemical release inventory . . . . . .586.587
Superintendent of Documents. address . . . . . . . 450
Superstructures. bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
312
Supervision. shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Supervisors field painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Surface area and tonnage bridges . . . . . . . .269-270
Surface conditions. effect on
19
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fabricated steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
pre.painting. highway bridges . . . .
black light test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chlorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.lo.297
effect on adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
effect on corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
oily soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
semi-solid soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
sulfates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface finish. non-metallic abra
surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Surface preparation
abrasive air blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . .295-296
abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . .52.63. 105,243.
283. 342.417
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . .3244,45.51. 86.295-296
air-water-sand blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-81
alkali cleaners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
bacterial cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 84-85
blast cleaning . . . . . . . . .2241.52-63.79.83, 273
blast cleaning. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283-284
centrifugal blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . .22.31.295
chemical cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9097
chemical cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
choice of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19.21. 273
citric acid cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
closed-cycle blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
coke oven plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
concrete . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 387.432
copper . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
costs . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .75-77.81.401
costs. estimating procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .76-77
costs review .
cryogenic coating removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
direct costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
dust removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
342
93
272. 283.297,342
handling cleaned surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 466-467
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
inspection . . . . . . . . . .75.188.193, 260-261.284,
288-289.327,341
laser cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
maintenance painting . . . . . . ..413-414,425,435
masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.22-31
metallic abrasives . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .32-44
navyships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
new approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.78-79
new structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
non-metallic abras'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-51
painting programs
. .399401,412-414. 418
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98-103
physical cleanliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.104-116
pickling. fabricating plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
plasma-hot gas cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.444445
power tool cleaning . . . . . . . .68.74,272,283.297
production rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.75-77
profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20.192. 284
regulations . . . . . . .79.88, 291.543-546.569-571
rust inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180
ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
shop cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
shop painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426428
solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . .90-97.105. 273.401
spot cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
steel plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
thermal cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
thermal spray coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .458-459
ultrasonic cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.85.86
visual comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185,192
visual standards . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 189
warranties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
waste treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386-387
water blast cleaning . . . . . .64.67,79-83,295-297
water treatment plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386-387
wet abrasive blast cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79.83
wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387,400
xenon flash lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83,85
zinc shot blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..13,134,135
Surface preparation, hazards . . . . .78,254,543-546
abrasive blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
acids and alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
caustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
chemical strippers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
dust and abrasive fines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
hand and power tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
pressure pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176-180
silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
water jeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
welding. cutting and heating . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface repairs. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . 342
Surface temperature, measurements. . . . . . . . . .185
thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface treatment, rust inhibitors. .
T
Tank barges. fresh water service . . . . . . . .307.309
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
309
Tank painting, environmental constraints . . . . . . 315
Tankers, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Tanks, coatings inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317-318
crude oil, painting . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
dry foodstuff, lining . .
exteriors, painting . . . . . . . . . . . .316-317,
433434
field erected, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
fire protection, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
food processing. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
fuel oil. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
hot liquor. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
interiors, design for corrosion prevention . . . . 321
interiors, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315-316.
318
interiors painting. regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
interiors. painting, safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
interiors, painting. safety check list . . . . . . . . . 320
lining. curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326-327
lining, inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
lining, maintenance painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
lining, paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325327
lining, surface preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . .324-325
liquid foodstuff. lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
maintenance painting . . . . . . .
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
402
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270,394,400-402
painting, environmental constraints . . . . . . . . .319
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106,114
pickling, lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.106,114
potable water. painting . . . . . . . . . . .315,319,380
safety. painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410,411
sampling paints from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213-214
steel, lining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320-329
steel, lining, materials selection . . . . . . . .321-324
steel, painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.315-319
storage. failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
water, lining failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
cleaning . . . . . . . . . 65
Tapes, coal tar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355-356
polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
polyvinyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Tarpaulins, paint residue recovery . . . . . . . .
Technetium. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Temperature resistance, zinc-rich primers . . . . . 133
Temperature-resistant paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Temperature effect on paint viscosity . . . . . . . . . 161
ambient, pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
effect on pickling rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IO7-108
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.183-185
operating. pipeline painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
paint application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153,343
Test panels. field tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Testex Pressa-Film Tape, profile
.186.193
measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Testing procedures, quality acceptance . . . . . . . 213
Testing, primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Tests, abrasive breakdown rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
breakdown non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Design Basis Accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -442
effect of surface preparation on paint life . . . .114
evaluation of non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . .48-51
evaluation, zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . . . .135-136
field. for abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
647
Not for Resale
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004087 091
93
U
US Department of Agriculture
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436. 591
US Food and Drug Administration.
regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436, 591
Ultrasonic cleaning. surface preparation . . . . .E5-86
Ultraviolet spectroscopy. paint tests . . . . . . . . . . 399
Undercutting. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Underfilm corrosion. causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Underground structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349-362
Underground. exposure environments . . . . .335-337
exposure environments. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Underground storage tanks . . . . . . . . .559, 587-591
corrosion protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589-590
existing petroleum underground
storage tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
federal regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559. 587-590
new petroleum undergound storage tanks . . . 589
secondary containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587-589
state regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590-591
underground chemical tanks . . . . . . . . . . .589-590
648
Not for Resale
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3
SSPC CHAPTERs27.3
93
8 6 2 7 9 4 0 0004096 O T 4 W
X
Xenon flash lamps. surface preparation . . . . .83. 85
Xylene. solvent cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Z
Zahn cup. viscosity measurements . . . . . . .187. 195
Zinc chromate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . .140. 144. 146
Zinc dust. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145. 246
Zinc oxide. American process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
.140. 145. 246
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zinc phosphate. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98.103
pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
146
Zinc phospho oxide. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Zinc phosphosilicate. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Zinc potassium chromate. pigments . . . . . . .145.146
Zinc-related failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501-503
Zinc salts. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146-147
Zinc shot blasting. surface preparation . . . . . . . . . 84
Zinc silicate. coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
145
Zinc yellow. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zinc. coatings. hot dip galvanized . . . . . . . .465-480
coatings. thermal spray . . .457458. 460-461. 463
Zinc. pigments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Zinc. type. hot dip galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . 473474
Zinc-coated. non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Zinc-dust-zinc oxide. paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Zinc-rich primers . . . . . . . . .6. 10. 12. 122. 125.137.
145. 284-285. 315-316. 339. 431-433
abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129. 134
adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. 133-135
.12.13
alkali silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
alkyl silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13. 127
.126-127
ambient curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ammonium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126-127
application of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
--`,,,,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
649
Not for Resale
barrier protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
131
binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.i35.136
bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cargo carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
case histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-136
cathodic protection . . . . .6, 13, 129. 131. 133-134
127
cellosolve silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
chemical bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128-133
chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . .
chemical resistance . . . . . . . . . . .
coefficient of friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133.134
colloidal silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
compared with galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . .132.133
conductive extenders . . . . . . . . . . .12.14, 131-132
curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. i 26-131
drilling rigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
environmental reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
.127.128
ethyl silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
evaluation tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135.136
.133.134
faying surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
field tests . . . . .
film thickness . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 12. 127
Golden Gate Bridge ..................... 136
heat curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126
history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.125.126
inorganic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12-13, 118, 125-132,
383, 392.393, 415-416, 444
inorganic versus organic . . . . . . . . . . .13, 134-135
inorganic, characteristics . . . . . . . . . . .
inorganic. pickling for . . . . . . . . . . . . .
inorganic, single component . . . . . . . .
inorganic, surface pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134-135
linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
lithium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.127
mist coats for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
nuclear power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
organic . . . . . . . . . . . . .12. 118, 125, 131-132. 415
organic characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
particle-to-particle contact . . . .129. 131, 134. 145
pipelines. Morgan Whyalla . . . . . . . . . . . .126, 136
pipelines, Woronora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
128. 130
post-curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126, 127, 131
potassium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126-127
pre-construction primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
production platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
refineries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
self-curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127.128, 131-132
silica sol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
single component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128. 132
sodium silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126.127
solvent resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-132
. . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 134-135
tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
temperature resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
tie-coats for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
topcoating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i
3. 115. 122, 128
131.132. 134, 303, 339
Type 1-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Type 1-B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Type 1-C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-132
Type 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
versus galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
water-reducible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Zinc.rich, inorganic, painting system . . . . . . . . . .287
Zinc.rich, organic, painting system . . . . . . . .286287
Zircon, non-metallic abrasives . . . . . . . .
Zones, environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
chemical exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
frequently wet, fresh water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
frequently wet, salt water . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267-268
normally dry (rural) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
painting systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266-267
zone 1 B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
zone 2A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
zone 2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267-268
zone 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268