NEURAL PAT HWAYS AND REFLEX ARCS

Adaptation from Vivien Chan, JeannaM. Pisegna, Rebecca L. Rosian, and Stephen E. DiCarlo

Introduction
A concept map that organizes the basic concepts of the Nervous System is presented in
figure 1. This map presents the nervous system, with the components branching off into
smaller and smaller subunits. The text describing this map is presented in detail below.

Structurally, the nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The
PNS contains the spinal and cranial nerves leading into and out of the CNS. There are 12
cranial nerves. All other nerves in the body are spinal nerves. Although the CNS and the
PNS are separated into two systems, it is important to realize that they are connected to
each other. The nervous system is constantly bombarded by stimuli, even during sleep.
For example, as you read this, your nervous system is receiving different types of
information gathered by your eyes, such as color, light, texture of the paper, and the words
on the paper. This is known as sensory reception.

There are many types of sensory receptors. They are generally associated with the classic
five senses: vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell. Rods and cones in the retina, special
hair cells in the cochlea, taste buds in the mouth. There are many sensory receptors in the
skin.
A specialized cell of the nervous system conducts information that it receives. A neuron
that conducts sensory information is called an afferent (sensory) neuron. Many billions of
neurons are involved in processing sensory information.
Neurons
Functionally there are three types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and
association neurons. Sensory receptors receive information from outside the body and
from internal organs information to sensory neurons that conduct this information into the
CNS. Thus sensory neurons are input neurons. Sensory neurons can also be called
afferent neurons. An example of a sensory is shown in figure 2.

Motor neurons are output neurons. They conduct information out to skeletal muscles,
smooth muscles, cardiac (heart) muscle, visceral (body) organs, and glands. Motor
neurons are also known as efferent neurons. They make something happen. For
example, efferent neurons can cause contraction in muscles, changes in heart rate,
changes in blood pressure, sweating, and many other physiological functions. Efferent
neurons cause an appropriate response to the sensory information received. An example
of a motor neuron is shown in Fig. 3.

Association neurons are called interneurons. Interneuronas are found between afferent
(incoming sensory information) and efferent (outgoing motor information) neurons.
Interneurons serve many functions and can have many connections. Interneurons are
involved in information processing and are found only in the CNS. An example of an
interneuron is shown in figure 4.

The site of transmission between two neurons is called a synapse. A synapse is an

anatomic structure that involves two neurons and the space between them. The synaptic
space is very small, and it can be seen best with an electron microscope. A synapse is
different from synaptic transmission. Synaptic transmission is an event that occurs at the
synapse; the synapse itself is a structure.

Components of the Central Nervous System

The brain: The brain is made of neurons grouped together according to their function. For
example, neurons dealing with vision are grouped together (sensory areas), and neurons
moving specific muscle groups are placed together (motor areas). Although parts of the
brain are sectioned off by function, areas of the brain are still interconnected so that the
brain works as a whole unit. There are thre main divisions of the brain: forebrain (front
brain), the midbrain (middle brain), and the hindbrain. These divisions are useful for
locating specific structures of the brain (Table 1). In addition, Fig. 6, A and R, shows
labeled structures of the brain that correspond to Table 1.

The cerebral cortex in the forebrain is the largest part of the mammal brain. The
conscious awareness of information is associated with the cerebral cortex. Sensory,
motor, and association areas of the brain are found in the cerebral cortex. Association
areas deal with higher brain functions and are often called silent areas. They are
involved in memory, reasoning, concentrating, problem solving, and many other complex
functions.
The cerebral cortex can be compared with the boss of a company who must be informed
about everything going on. The boss makes most of the important decisions in the
company, just as the cerebral cortex does in the body.
The medulla in the hindbrain is anatomically the lowest part of the brain. It controls the
subconscious activities of the body, which include heart rate, respiration, sleeping and
waking, digestive functions, and electrolyte balance. Many of these functions are also
controlled by a region of the forebrain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is
involved in body temperature control, water balance, and hormonal control, along with
other functions.
Another important structure is the thalamus. Although much research has been conducted
on the thalamus, most of its functions remain unknown. However, many theories about
thalamic function have been proposed. The thalamus is a small, footballshaped structure
that functions as the customs agent of all information going to the cerebral cortex. The
thalamus integrates and directs incoming information along its way to the appropriate area
of the cerebral cortex. Also, all pathways with information exiting the cerebral cortex must
inform the thalamus about what they are doing. The thalamus can therefore be considered
as a customs agent for information entering

The cerebellum is primary involved in coordination of motor activity. Coordination involves

a complex mixture of balance, spatial orientation, and motion. Recent research has shown
that the cerebellum may also be involved with certain types of learning and memory.
The spinal cord. The spinal cord is a long, cylindrical part of the CNS extending downward
from the hindbrain. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae (backbone) as it passes
down the vertebral canal. The spinal cord terminates between the first two lumbar
vertebrae in most adults. Neurons in the spinal cord are also functionally arranged so that
areas dealing with the same types of information are grouped together. Incoming sensory
information occupies one area, the dorsal (back) portion of the cord, and neurons dealing
with motor output occupy another area, the ventral (front) portion of the cord. Recall that
neurons in the brain are arranged in a similar way according to function. Figure 7 is a
representation of a section of the spinal cord in a horizontal slice that illustrates the dorsal
(sensory) areas and ventral (motor) areas.

When information travels to (ascending) or from (descending) the cerebrum, it is specially

organized into regions of the spinal cord called tracts. Each tract carries its own specific
type of information. For example, one ascending tract carries information about pain,
(external) temperature, and deep touch Other tracts carry information about limb position.
Descending tracts carry motor information destined for muscles, visceral organs, or glands
in the periphery. There are many different tracts in the spinal cord.

The different directions of information travel within the spinal cord the spinal cord are like
people riding an escalator or lift of a busy skyscraper (rascacielos). People (information)
can get on and off at different floors (levels of the spinal cord). They can also ascend and
descend in an escalator. To speed up efficiency, different types of information have their
own tracts (their own escalator). Different types of sensory information have their own
upgoing tracts (up escalators) in the dorsal (back) half of the spinal cord, and motor
information has its own downgoing tracts (down escalators) in the ventral (front) part of the
spinal cord. A pictorial representation of the different directions of information travel in the
spinal cord is found in Fig. 8.

So, information travel to the brain in special groups of neurons that deal with the same
types of information called tracts. Information can reach the brain by way of the spinal
cord. The spinal cord is the site where spinal nerves enter and exit to deposit their
information into specialized tracts going to the brain. Uniquely, cranial nerves do not use
spinal cord tracts to take their information to the brain. Recall that the spinal cord is an
extension of the brain downward to the coccyx (tailbone). The spinal cord no longer exists
at the level of the head. However, cranial nerves carry their information into the hindbrain
where the information is segregated and distributed to appropriate areas of the brain.
Horizontally, information can travel within levels of the spinal cord. At each level of the
spinal cord, nerves from the PNS enter and exit the spinal cord. Thus they bring in and
carry away information. This can be compared with people getting on and off escalators at
different floors of a company building. Vertically, information ascends to and descends
from the brain in specialized regions called tracts. Tracts of the spinal cord are organized
by the information that they carry. Specific information about different senses each have
their own tracts. These usuallv ascend to the brain, much like an upgoing escalator.
Information going to specific muscle groups or glands also have their own descending
tracts, much like different down escalators. The different types of information can be
compared with the different professions housed in a large company. For efficiency, each
profession uses its own escalator.

REFLEXES IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Reflexes are predictable output motor responses to specific sensory stimuli. Reflexes are
involuntary or automatic because they occur without thinking about them. Most reflexes
are polysynaptic (contain more than one synapse). Polysynaptic reflexes involve
interneurons. Some reflexes are known as monosynaptic reflexes. They only involve two
neurons and one synapsis Monosynaptic reflexes are the simplest reflexes of the nervous
system.
A reflex arc is a pathway for a reflex. Reflex arcs must have the following parts. A sensory
receptor must be present to receive stimuli. The afferent (sensory) neuron carries the
stimulus information from the sensory receptor. The sensory information goes through the
sensory neuron and into the CNS. There, at least one synapse is made with the efferent
(motor) neuron. The efferent (motor) neuron carries information out to the target muscle,
organ, or gland. The muscle, organ, or gland must be present to execute the action. A
schematic of the components of a monosynaptic reflex arc is presented in Figure 12A, and
a schematic of the components of a polysynaptic reflex arc is presented in Fig. 12B.

1) Patellar tendon reflex (reflejo patellar) The stretch reflex is the classic example used
to demonstrate monosynaptic reflexes. The stretch reflex is a component of the patellar
tendon reflex, but the complete patellar tendon reflex is a polysynaptic one. The

monosynaptic component of the patellar tendon reflex is the essential component of the
reflex and is diagrammed in Fig. 13.
MONOSYNAPTIC STRETCH. The setup for testing this reflex is very simple. Someone
sits elevated with dangling or crossed legs. The patellar tendon below the kneecap
(patella) is tapped with a reflex hammer. Tapping the tendon is the stimulus. Tapping the
tendon causes muscle) to stretch very slightly. Special sensory receptors in the quadriceps
muscle sense this stretch.
The afferent neuron carries the stretch information into the spinal cord. In the spinal cord,
there is a synapse between the afferent (sensory) neuron and the efferent (motor) neuron.
This direct afferent-efferent synapse is monosynaptic. The information carried by the
efferent motor neuron causes the quadriceps muscle to contract. All of this happens
automatically and very quickly, within 20 ms.
Contraction of the quadriceps causes the leg to kick out. This is aided by the polysynaptic
component of the reflex. Note that in an anatomic sense, the leg is only the part of the
lower limb from the knee downwards.
POLYSYNAPTIC COMPONENTS. Many muscles of the body are functionally paired.
There are muscle groups that flex limbs or pull them toward the body. There are also
muscle groups that extend limbs or straighten them out again. These muscle groups have
opposing actions. Both types of muscle groups are attached to any one bone. So, to
produce smooth, coordinated movement, one group of muscles has to relax for the other
group to work efficiently.
For example, when the leg kicks out (extend) the movement is more efficient if the
muscles that normally bend (flex) are relaxed. Muscles have a constant level of muscle
tone, and they must be turned off to be relaxed. To turn off a muscle, or to prevent it
from contracting, the motor nerve going to the muscle must be inhibited.
When the extensor muscles (quadriceps) actually produce the kick outward, the motor
nerves to the leg flexor (hamstring) muscles are inhibited by an interneuron. In this way,
more synapses than just one are involved in producing the patellar tendon reflex. Gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) is a major inhibitory transmitter in the brain and spinal cord.
Glycine, a less common transmitter, is used in the spinal cord by interneurons that inhibit
antagonist muscles.
2) Withdrawal reflex upon painful stimulus. The withdrawal reflex is an important protective
reflex. This reflex prevents excessive injury to the body. The withdrawal reflex is used
when you step on something sharp or when you touch something hot. Your first reaction to
painful stimuli like these is to withdraw your hand or leg or flex it away from the stimulus.
This happens very rapidly, even before your brain can sense the pain.
The withdrawal reflex is a polysynaptic one, but it can be broken down into basic
components. One part of the withdrawal reflex causes your arm or leg to flex away from
the offensive stimulus. This part is similar to the patellar tendon reflex; a schematic
representation of the components of the withdrawal reflex is found in Fig. 14. It is important
to note that, while the muscular component of the withdrawal reflex is similar to the patellar
tendon reflex, it differs because it is a polysynaptic reflex involving an interneuron.

The other part of the reflex involves a sensory awareness of a painful sensation. Further
processing of this information leads to learning and memory.
THE REFLEX. In the withdrawal reflex, sensory receptors receive the painful stimulus.
This information is carried by afferent (sensory) neurons into the spinal cord. In the spinal
cord, the information is passed by an interneuron to the efferent (motor) neuron. The
efferent (motor) neuron carries its information out to the muscle to cause flexion of the limb
away from the stimulus.
Again, because muscles work in functional pairs, the group of muscles that works to
extend your arm or leg is inhibited. Muscles are inhibited when the nerves to them are
inhibited. Motor neurons receive their information from nerves in the spinal cord. This is
the same mechanism as the patellar tendon reflex except that it is for a flexor muscle and
not an extensor one. Also, it is polysynaptic and involves an interneuron to link the sensory
(afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons.
INVOLVING THE BRAIN. Information causing the reflex portion of the withdrawal reflex
enters and exits at the same level of the spinal cord. Additionally, the information reaches
the brain through an ascending tract.
The information coming from the afferent (sensory) neuron reaches the spinal cord. When
it enters the spinal cord, the information about pain hops through one synapse, its
destination: the neurons in the tract that carry pain, temperature, and deep touch
sensations. The tract ascends to the thalamus where it synapses again. Then, the
information is relayed to the correct region of the cerebral cortex.
In the cortex, the information is interpreted as pain. This becomes the first conscious
awareness of pain. Although this response seems to occur almost immediately compared
with the reflex component, it comes at a relatively long period of time after the reflex has
occurred.
In addition to giving awareness of pain, the cortex simultaneously pinpoints the location of
pain in the body. A common secondary reaction to the knowledge of where the pain has
occurred results in an outward behavioral action, such as holding the injured hand or foot.
Finally, the cortex interprets more information concerning the pain and its results over
time. The cerebral cortex compares this pain to other experiences. Dealing with the
information over a period of time leads to the creation of a memory. Therefore, the next
time a painful stimulus is encountered, it tends to be avoided.