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MCB4223
(Chapter # 2)
Course Outcomes
Energy Auditing
As previously stated, the overall purpose of the energy audit is to
evaluate the efficiency in which the building systems use
energy to provide a comfortable work environment.
In this evaluation, the energy auditor will typically start at the
utility meters to locate all energy sources coming into the
facility.
The auditor will then identify energy streams for each fuel,
quantify those energy streams into discrete functions, evaluate
the efficiency of each of those functions, and identify energy &
cost savings opportunities.
Spreadsheet Set-up
Set up a spreadsheet to enter, sum, calculate benchmarks, and graph
utility information.
The sample energy accounting form in Figure (next slide)can be
used as a template to organize your data.
Record energy units (kWh, therms, gallons, etc.), electric
demand (kW), and dollars(or RM) spent for each fuel type.
Units of production (number of units, occupied rooms, students,
persons served, etc.) can also be included in your analysis if
such production is directly related to energy consumption.
By analyzing the data, it is possible to identify relationships
between energy use and other factors such as occupancy, sales
volume, floor area, production rates, and outdoor temperatures.
EUI can vary significantly depending on building type. Hospitals have EUIs that can range
from 400 to 500 kBTU/sf, due the high energy demand of interior lighting and hospital
equipment. In contrast, a school may have an EUI in the range of 150 kBTU/sf. Food
services facilities tend to have very high energy usage, and can have EUIs in the range of
800 kBTU/sf.
CONDITIONED AREA
To calculate kWhs or BTUs and RM or dollars (Amount spent to
buy fuel) per square meter or foot, it is necessary that an accurate
assessment of conditioned area be calculated for each building.
This can be done by referring to the dimensions in the blueprints
or by measuring the outside dimensions of the building (length x
width), and multiplying this area by the number of floors.
Generally basement areas and mechanical rooms are not included
as conditioned areas unless HVAC equipment is installed and
operating.
ELECTRICITY COSTS
Evaluating kWh, kW, and power factor charges separately can be
useful in evaluating the impact of demand and power factor
penalties on the monthly electric bill.
High demand costs can sometimes be lowered by simply
rescheduling or alternating run times of particular pieces of
equipment. Savings from installation of power factor correction
devices often have paybacks less than two years.
OHT 16.#
P = VI cos
watts
Reactive Power
Q = VI sin
var
Apparent Power
S = VI
VA
S 2 = P 2 + Q2
OHT 16.#
Power Factor
The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the
ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the
circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of 1 to
1.
A power factor of less than one means that the voltage and current
waveforms are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous product of
the two waveforms (V I).
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a
particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and
voltage of the circuit.
A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally
the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source,
which is normally considered the generator.
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems Pearson Education Limited 2004
OHT 16.#
16.7
OHT 16.#
OHT 16.#
Electric Demand
Care should be taken to distinguish between billing and actual
demand on the utility bill.
Actual demand is the figure registered on the meter and should
be used to evaluate power requirements and load factor of the
facility.
Billing demand is the amount of demand for which the facility
is actually billed. This figure may be different than the actual
demand due to various types of rate schedules.
http://www.think-energy.net/KWvsKWH.htm
Load Factor
The user will get the most electrical energy per dollar if the load is kept constant,
thereby minimizing the demand charge.
The objective of demand control is to even out the peaks and valleys of
consumption by deferring or rescheduling the use of energy during peak periods.
A measure of the electrical efficiency of a facility can be found by calculating the
load factor. The load factor is the relationship between electric kWh consumption
and maximum kW demand for the same billing period.
It is commonly calculated by dividing the monthly kWh consumption by the kW
demand (ratio of average demand to peak demand) multiplied by the number of
hours in the billing period.
This becomes a good indicator of cost savings potential by shifting some electric
loads to off peak hours to reduce overall demand.
Load Factor
If a facility were to consume electricity at a steady rate at the highest demand
registered on the demand meter, the load factor would be 1.00 (one), the
theoretical maximum. This indicates that the facility does not have any
variance in consumption or time of day peaks in demand.
Other than installing more efficient electrical equipment, little can be done to
reduce demand because this facility is already taking full advantage of the
demand for which it is being billed.
A low load factor is a good indication that a facility has demand spikes at
some point in the billing period. In this case, action should be taken to
identify when the spikes occur and operation of nonessential equipment
should be restricted at that time or rescheduled for operation during off peak
hours.
Load Factor
The ideal load factor should be as close to 1.00 as possible. However, most facilities don't operate 24 hours a day, so load factors
will typically be considerably lower than the theoretical maximum.
If a building operates only 12 hours a day, for example, then a load
factor of 0.5 may be the highest possible for that building. The
important thing is to monitor the load factor and establish what is
normal for each facility and meter, noting any significant changes
in the kWh consumption and kW demand ratio.
Many energy management control systems (EMCS) have demand
limiting and load shedding capabilities which can help maintain
acceptable load factors if properly used.
Base Loads
Base loads are the energy-using systems that consume a continuous amount of
energy throughout the year. The base load can be established by drawing
a horizontal line across a graph of energy consumption or cost at the
average point of lowest consumption for each energy type.
The base load is that
portion of consumption
or cost below the line as
shown in Figure.
Typical base loads
include lighting, office
equipment, appliances,
domestic hot water, and
ventilation.
High base loads indicate
conservation efforts
Electricity consumption (Base and Seasonal Loads)
should be focused in
these areas.
Seasonal Loads
Seasonal loads, such as heating and air conditioning, are identified as the
portion of consumption or cost located above the line used to establish base
loads on the graph. Seasonal loads can be the result of changes in weather
or operation of the building, such as the school season.
High seasonal loads may reveal an opportunity to reduce consumption by
making improvements to the heating and air conditioning equipment,
temperature controls, the building envelope, or to other systems which are
affected by seasonal operation.
Consumption Trends
One of the easiest ways to evaluate consumption data is to watch for upward or
downward trends in kWh, demand, natural gas, or costs. This can be done
by graphing two or more years of monthly data on one graph or by
graphing only the annual totals for several years.
INCREASED CONSUMPTION
Building Operation
Lighting Systems
HVAC Systems
HVAC Distribution Systems
Energy Management Control Systems
Building Envelope
Power Systems
Water Heating Systems
Heat Recovery Opportunities
Building Operation
An enormous amount of energy is wasted because building equipment is
operated improperly or unnecessarily.
The amount of heat (sensible and latent) supplied to or extracted from the
indoors in order to maintain a comfortable indoor environment is directly
proportional to the difference in temperature and humidity between indoors
and outdoors.
Consequently, one should lower the heating and raise the cooling
temperature set points and/or lower the humidification set points and raise
the dehumidification set points to minimize the space conditioning
requirements whenever possible.
Building Operation
Depending on building operations, the following systems' operating
hours can be curtailed during unoccupied periods:
HVAC systems
water heating systems
lighting systems
escalators and elevators
other equipment and machinery.
Lighting System
Lighting typically accounts for a significant portion of electrical energy
consumed in commercial buildings. Energy is saved and electric demand is
reduced by reducing illumination levels, improving lighting system
efficiency, curtailing operating hours, and using day lighting.
HVAC Systems
The HVAC systems in the building are made up of energy
conversion equipment, which transforms electrical or chemical
energy to thermal energy, and distribution/ventilation systems,
which transport the thermal energy and supply fresh outdoor
air to the conditioned space.
Energy may be saved in HVAC systems by reducing
ventilation requirements; improving the performance of space
conditioning equipment such as boilers, furnaces, chillers, air
conditioners, and heat pumps; using energy-efficient cooling
systems; and reducing the occurrence of re-heating or
re-cooling.
Building Envelope
Energy is saved when the heat exchange between the building and the outside
environment is reduced and/or solar and internal heat gains are controlled.
Power Systems
Power factor correction is cost-effective when utility penalties are imposed. Low
power factors can be improved by installing energy-efficient transformers and
replacing existing motors with smaller and/or higher efficiency motors, or by
installing variable-speed motor drives.
The peak power demand can be reduced by load-shedding, cogeneration, or cool
storage systems that produce cold water or ice during off-peak hours. Loadshedding may also reduce the total power consumption, as well as the demand.
Power Systems
Cogeneration systems will increase the use of on-site energy, but can
also replace electricity consumption with less expensive fossil energy.
Also, the waste heat from the cogeneration equipment can meet
thermal loads.
Cool storage systems shift the chiller demand to off-peak periods,
reducing on-peak demand.
Evaluation of power management measures requires a determination
of the building demand profile.
Several weeks of data in 15 minute intervals should be taken with a
recording meter. The measurements may have to be taken both in the
cooling and heating season.
Heat recovery opportunities exist where there is a need to reject heat from a
constant supply of high temperature liquid such as air, water, or refrigerant.
Functional Audit
This audit determines the amount of energy required for particular building
functions and identifies energy conservation opportunities in office and plant
HVAC systems, lighting, domestic hot water, and other building functions
similar to commercial buildings.
Process Audit
This audit determines the amount of energy required for each process function
and identifies conservation opportunities in process machinery, heat treatment,
furnaces, pumps and motors, conveying systems, and other process loads.
Transportation Audit
This audit determines the amount of energy required for forklifts, trucks,
and other vehicles.
Energy Use in
Transportation
Terminals
Energy Use in
Warehouses and
Storage Facilities
(Vehicles not
Included)
SUMMARY
One of the more important aspects of energy management and conservation is
measuring and accounting for energy consumption. An important part of the
overall energy auditing program is to be able to measure where you are and
determine where you are going to. It is vital to establish an energy accounting
system at the beginning of the program.
This information will be used to evaluate the overall trends of facility energy
usage, establish benchmarks to determine a realistic estimate of energy savings
potential, disaggregate energy use into discrete functions, and establish a base
line to compare post-retrofit energy usage and calculate energy savings.
SUMMARY
By gathering and organizing energy consumption data as a part of the auditing
process, the auditor can also help establish a system of tracking energy use
against production to monitor production efficiency and answer the kind of
questions typically posed by plant engineers and business managers such as:
SUMMARY