EE251 Note 1 - Introduction To Fault Studies

Introduction to Fault
Studies
Prof. Artemio P. Magabo
Prof. Rowaldo R. del Mundo
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
Per-Unit Quantities
Definition:
Per
Unit Value
Actual Value
Base Value
Note:
1. The per-unit value is a dimensionless quantity.
2. The actual value may be complex but the base
value is always real.
3. Percent Value = Per-Unit Value x 100
Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

1. Manufacturers specify the impedances of their
equipment in percent (or per-unit) using the
nameplate rating of the equipment.
2. The per-unit impedances of electrical

equipment of the same type but different
ratings usually lie within a narrow range. This
makes the detection of an erroneous
impedance data easy. Also, if the impedance
of a particular equipment is not known, it is
acceptable for most studies to select from a
range of tabulated typical values.

3. In many instances, the base voltages can be
selected so that the per-unit turns ratio of
any transformer in the system is 1:1. This
makes the primary and secondary currents
(and voltages) of any transformer identical.
4. When per-unit values are used, the connection
of a three-phase transformer does not affect
its per-unit equivalent impedance. The
transformer connection, however, determines
the ratio of the base voltages on the two sides
of the transformer.

5. Per-unit representation yields more relevant
information and easily correlated data.
6. Network calculations are the same for singlephase and three-phase systems. There is less
chance of mix-up between phase and line
voltages, single-phase and three-phase
powers, and primary and secondary voltages.
7. Per-unit calculation is more convenient to use

when the solution requires a digital computer.
Per-Unit Values
Need to define base values for:
1. Voltage, V
1. Current, I
3. Impedance, Z
4. Volt-Ampere, VA
Note:
1. V, I, Z and VA are not independent of each
other.The base values must be chosen so that
basic electrical laws are satisfied .
2. The rating of electrical equipment specify KVA

(or MVA) and voltage (volts or KV).
Choice of Per-Unit Values

1. Choose any two of the electrical parameters.
In general, the base Volt-Ampere and base
Voltage are chosen.
Note: For actual power systems, volt and voltampere are small units. The bases are expressed
in kV and MVA.
2. Calculate the Base Impedance and Base
Current.
Note: The base MVA will also serve as base for
power and reactive power. The base Z will also be
used as base for resistance and reactance.
Single-Phase System
Given a base voltage Vp and a base volt-ampere
VAp, find the base current I and base impedance Z.
Since VAp
VpI , then
Base I
Also, since Vp
Base Z
Base VAp
Base Vp
in Amps
IZ, then
Base Vp
(Base Vp )2
Base I
Base VAp
in
Example: Given base Vp = 20,000 volts and

base VAp = 2,000,000 volt-amperes
Base I
Base Z
Base VAp
Base Vp
100 A
(Base Vp )2
Base VAp
200
Note:
1. If base Vp=20,000 volts, then base kV=20 kV.
2. If base VAp=2,000,000 , then base kVAp=2,000
and base MVAp=2.
Single-Phase System
Other Formulas:
Base I
Base VAp
Base Vp
Base kVAp
Base kVp
in Amps
in Amps
Base MVAp x 1000

Base kVp
in Amps
Single-Phase System
Other Formulas:
Base Z
(Base Vp )2
Base VAp
in
(Base kVp )2 x 1000

Base kVAp
(Base kVp )2
Base MVAp
in
in
Example: For the single-phase system shown,

find the voltage, power and reactive power at the
source.
100+j300
Vs
Load
VL
100 KVA
@ 0.9 PF lag
VL=20kV
Solution using actual values:
Let VL
20 0o kV , the reference phasor.
PL
KVA(PF)
90 kW
QL
PL tan(cos 1 0.9)
43.59 kVars
Solve for the current
PL
jQL
VL
From KVL,
Vs
(100
90
j43.59
20
4.5 j2.18 5
j300)I
VL
(0.32 71.56o )(5

21.1
We get
Ps
jQs
j1.13
25.84 A
25.84)
20.0
21.13 3.07 kV

o
o
Vs I
(21.13)(5) (3.07
25.84 )
105.67 28.91o 92.5 j51.09
Solution using per-unit values:

Assume
Base KVAp=100
We get
Base I
Base Z
Let VL
Base KVAp
Base kVp
Base kVp=20
100
20
(Base KVp )2 (1000)

Base kVAp
5A
4k
1.0 0o p.u, the reference phasor.
PL
KVA(PF)
90 kW
QL
PL tan(cos 1 0.9)
0.9 p.u.
0.44 p.u.
Solve for the line impedance in per-unit
100 j300
4000
0.025
j0.075 p.u.
0.025+j0.075
Vs
PL
jQL
VL
Load
VL
PL=0.9
QL=0.44
VL=1.0
0.9
j0.44
1.0
0.9 j0.44 1.0
25.84 p.u.

Vs
Ps

(0.025 j0.075)I VL
(0.08 71.56o )(1.0
25.84) 1.0
1.06 j0.05 1.06 3.07o p.u.

jQs Vs I
(1.06)(1.0) (3.07o 25.84o )
1.06 28.91o
0.925
j0.5109 p.u.
In actual values,
Vs
1.06(20)
Ps
0.925(100)
Qs
0.5109(100)
21.13 kV
92.5 kW
51.09 kVar
Three-Phase System
For a three-phase system,
VA3
3VAp
VL
3 Vp
Define:
Base VA3
Base VL
3 x Base VAp
3 x Base Vp
Note: The base current and base impedance will

still be I and Z, respectively.
Three-Phase System
Base I
Base kVAp
Base kVp
in Amps
Base kVA3
in Amps
3 Base kVL
Base MVA3 x 1000 in Amps
3 Base kVL
Base Z
(Base kVp )2
Base MVAp
(Base kVL )2
in
Base MVA3
Example: Given Base MVA3 =30 and Base kVL=120,

find the base current and base impedance.
Base I
Base Z
Base MVA 3 x 1000

3 Base kVL
30 x 1000
144.34 A
3 (120)
(Base kVL )2
Base MVA3
(120)2
30
480
If we use single-phase analysis, we get

Base MVAp=10 and Base kVp=69.28
Base I
Base Z
Base MVAp x 1000

Base kVp
10 x 1000
144.34 A
(69.28)
(Base kVp )2
Base MVAp
(69.28)2
10
480
Example: Determine the per-unit equivalent

circuit for the three-phase network shown.
G1
0.381+j0.508
12 MW
0.9 PF lag
13.8 kV
0.571+j0.762
G2
18 MW
0.95 PF lag
Single-phase equivalent circuit

0.381+j0.508
P1=4 MW
PF=0.9 lag
V1=7.97 kV
0.571+j0.762
V1
V2
PL=6 MW
PF=0.95 lag
Define single-phase bases. Let Base MVAp=5 and

Base kVp=7.97.
Base I
Base Z
5 x 1000
627.6 A
7.97
(7.97)2
12.7
5
Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit

0.03+j0.04
P1=0.8 p.u.
PF=0.9 lag
V1=1.0 p.u.
0.045+j0.06
V1
V2
PL=1.2 p.u.
PF=0.95 lag
Define three-phase bases. Let Base MVA3 =15

and Base kVL=13.8.
Base I
Base Z
15 x 1000
627.6 A
3(13.8)
(13.8)2
12.7
15
Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit

0.03+j0.04
P1=0.8 p.u.
PF=0.9 lag
V1=1.0 p.u.
0.045+j0.06
V1
V2
PL=1.2 p.u.
PF=0.95 lag
Generator Impedances
Manufacturers provide the following impedances
in percent or per-unit:
1. Armature Resistance: Ra
2. Direct-Axis Reactances: Xd, Xd and Xd

3. Quadrature-Axis Reactances: Xq, Xq and Xq
4. Negative-Sequence Reactance: X2
5. Zero-Sequence Reactance: X0
Note: The impedances are based on the machines

nameplate rating: MVA (or kVA) and kV.
Per Unit Values for Transformers

The ohmic values of the resistance and leakage
reactance of a transformer depend on whether
the impedances are measured on the high- or
low-voltage side of the transformer.
The impedance of a transformer is expressed in
percent (or per-unit) using its Rated MVA and
Rated kVs as bases, respectively.
The per-unit impedance is the same whether it is
referred to the high-voltage or low-voltage side.
The per-unit impedance of a three-phase
transformer bank, from identical single-phase
units, is the same regardless of the connection.
Example: Consider a single-phase transformer

with the following nameplate rating:
10 MVA
127-69 kV
From
Base Z
we get
Base Z
Z=8%
(Base kVp )2
Base MVAp
1272
10
692
10
1,612.9
476.1
at the HV side
at the LV side
We get the actual impedance of the transformer
0.08(1612.9) 129
0.08(476.1) 38.1
at the HV side
at the LV side
129
Equivalent Circuit
at the HV side
IH
38.1
IH
IX
Equivalent Circuit
at the LV side
IX
Assuming the current is rated
Rated MVA x 1000

Rated I
Rated kV
10000
IH
78.74 A at the HV side
127
10000
IX
144.93 A at the LV side
69
Per-unit equivalent circuit: Let Base MVAp=10
Base kVp=127 at the HV side
Base kVp=69 at the LV side
We get
Base Z=1612.9
=476.1
We also get
at the HV side
at the LV side
Base I=78.74 A at the HV side

=144.93 A at the LV side
The transformer impedance is 0.8 p.u. regardless

of which side is chosen. The current is 1.0 p.u.
regardless of side.
0.08
Per-Unit Equivalent
Circuit
1.0
Example: Given 3 single-phase transformers each

rated 10 MVA, 127-69 kV, Z=8%. The transformers
are connected to form a three-phase bank, wyegrounded at the HV side and delta-connected at
the LV side. What is the rating of the bank?
Volt-Ampere Rating=3x10=30 MVA
Voltage Rating
Base Z
127 3
220 kV at the HV side

69 kV at the LV side
2202
at the HV side
1,612.9
30
692
at the LV side
158.7
30
From the previous example, we get the actual

impedance of the transformer. At the HV side,
Z
At the LV side,
129 , connected in wye

129
0.08 p.u.
1612.9
38.1
12.7 , connected in wye

12.7
0.08 p.u.
158.7
, connected in delta
The bank rating: 30 MVA, 220Y-69 kV, Z=8%

Change in Base Values

Given a per-unit impedance Zpu1 which is based on
kV1 and MVA1. Suppose the bases are changed to
kV2 and MVA2. Find Zpu2, the new per-unit value.
The actual value can be expressed as
Z in
(kV1 )2
Zpu1
MVA1
(kV2 )2
Zpu2
MVA2
Solving for Zpu2, we get
Zpu2
Zpu1
kV1
kV2
MVA 2
x
MVA1
Example: Consider a three-phase transformer

unit with the following nameplate rating:
50 MVA, 220Y-69 Z=10%
Find the percent Z when the bases are 100 MVA,
230 kV at the HV side.
From
Zpu2
we get
Zpu1
kV1
kV2
MVA 2
x
MVA1
Zpu2
220
100
10
x
230
50
18.3%
Note: At the LV side, Base kV=72.1, Zpu2=18.3%.

Per-Unit Representation
Procedure:
1. Establish the Base MVA and the Base kVs
a. Assume a Base MVA for the entire system
b. Assume a Base Voltage for any power

system component (Generator,
Transformer or transmission line)
c. Compute the Base Voltages for the
remaining power system components using
the voltage ratios of the transformers
Per-Unit Representation
2. Using the base MVA and the base voltages,
compute the base current and base impedance
of each subsystem.
3. Determine the per-unit impedance of every
system component.
a. If the impedance is expressed in ohms,
divide the actual value by the base value.
b. If the impedance is expressed in percent,

use the formula for changing base values.
Example: Draw the per-unit reactance diagram

using 50 MVA and 13.8 kV as bases in the circuit
of G1. T1
T2
G1
L2
L1
G2
T3
G3
G1: 20 MVA, 13.8 kV X=20%

G2: 30 MVA, 18 kV X=20%
G3: 30 MVA, 20 kV X=20%
T1: 25 MVA, 220Y-13.8 kV X=10%
T2: Single-phase each 10 MVA, 127-18 kV X=10%
T3: 50 MVA, 220Y-22Y kV X=10%
L1: X=80
L2: X=100
Three-phase rating of transformer T2:

30 MVA, 220Y-18 kV X=10%
Base MVA = 50
Base kV = 13.8 in generator G1
= 220 in lines L1 and L2
= 18 in generator G2
= 22 in generator G3
Convert all reactances to the new bases:
G1: X=0.2 x 50/20=0.5 p.u.
G2: X=0.2 x 50/30=0.33+ p.u.
G3:
T1:
X=0.2 x (20/22)2 x 50/30=0.275 p.u.

X=0.1 x 50/25=0.2 p.u.
T2:
T3:
X=0.1 x 50/30=0.166+ p.u.

X=0.1 p.u.
In lines L1 and L2,
Base Z
2202
50
968
L1:
X=80/968=0.083 p.u.
L1:
X=100/968=0.103 p.u.
0.2
+
EG1
0.5
0.083
+
EG3
0.103
0.375
0.167
0.333
+
EG2
Symmetrical Components
In a three-phase system, a given set of unbalanced
phasors may be replaced by three sets of balanced
phasors which are referred to as the symmetrical
components of the original unbalanced phasors.
The positive-sequence phasors are three-phase
balanced and have the same phase sequence as
the original set of unbalanced phasors.
The negative-sequence phasors are three-phase
balanced but having a phase sequence opposite
to that of the original set of unbalanced phasors.
The zero-sequence phasors are single-phase,
equal in magnitude and in the same direction.
Unbalanced Conditions
Causes of unbalanced conditions:
1. Non-transposition of transmission lines

2. Single-phase transformers used in threephase banks are not identical
3. Single-phase loads are not distributed
equally among the phases
4. Faults
Note: Single-phase analysis cannot be used
when the system is unbalanced.
Assume a sequence abc for the original set of
unbalanced
phasors.
Vb2
Vc1
Va1
Vb1
PositiveSequence
(abc)
Vc2
ZeroSequence
Va0
Vb0
Va2
NegativeSequence
(acb)
Vc0
The vector sum of the sequence components is

shown below to get the phase voltages.
Vc2
Vc1
Va2
Va1
Va
Vb
Vc
Vb2 Vb1
We get
Va
Vb
Vc
Va0
Vb0
Vc0
Va1
Vb1
Vc1
Va2
Vb2
Vc2
Express all sequence components using phase a.
Va0
Vc1
Vb0
Vc0
Va1
Vb1
Note: a
Vb1
Vc1
1 120o
a Va1
aVa1
2
Vb2
Vc2
Vb2
aVa2
2
a Va2
Vc2
Va2
Substitution
gives
Va
Vb
Vc
Va0
Va0
Va0
Va1 Va2
2
a Va1 aVa2
aVa1 a2 Va2
Using matrix notation, we get
Va
1 1
2
=
V
1
a
b
Vc
1 a
or
Vabc
1
a
a2
Va0
V
a1
Va2
A V012
We can show by matrix inversion that A-1 is
1 1
A = 1 a2
1
1
a
A-1 =
a2
1
3
The inverse equations are
Va0
1
=
V
3
a1
Va2
or
V012
1
1
1
a
1
a2
1 a2
Vabc
Va
V
b
Vc
1
1
1
a
1
a2
1 a2
The transformation also applies to unbalanced

currents.
Ia
1 1
Ib = 1 a2
Ic
1 a
Ia0
1
=
Ia1
3
Ia2
or
Ia bc
1
1
Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
1
a
a2
1
a
1
a2
1 a2
A I012 and
Ia
Ib
Ic
I012
A Ia bc
1
Example: Determine the symmetrical components

of the following unbalanced voltages:
Va
Vb
4 0o
We get
Va0
Va1
90o
Vc
8 143.1o
1
(Va Vb Vc )
3
1
(4 j3 6.4 j4.8)
3
0.8 j0.6 1.0 143.05o
2
1
(
V
a
V
a
Vc )
a
b
3
1
3
(4
3 30
8 23.1 )
4.9 18.38

Va2
1
(Va
3
a2 Vb
(4
3 150o
1
3
aVc )
8 263.1o )
2.15
86.08o
We also get
Vb0 Va0 1.0 143.05o
2
Vb1 a Va1 4.9 258.38o
Vb2 aVa2 2.15 33.92o
o
Vc0 Va0 1.0 143.05
o
Vc1 aVa1 4.9 138.38
2
o
Vc2 a Va2 2.15 153.92
The sequence components are shown below
Vc1
Vb2
Vc2
Va1
Positive
Sequence
Va2

Va0 Vb0 Vc0
Vb1
Negative
Sequence
Zero Sequence
The sum of the sequence components is shown

below.
Vc Vc2
Va0
Vb0
Vc1
Va1
Vc0
Vb1
Va2
Va
Vb2
Vb
Zero-Sequence Current
Zero-sequence current cannot flow in or out of a
delta connection.
In a wye-connection with neutral return, the
neutral carries the in-phase zero-sequence
currents.
a
I0
3I0
n
c
b
I0
I0
Zero-Sequence Current
Zero-sequence current can circulate in the delta
connected winding of a transformer. Balancing
ampere turns must be satisfied.
I0
I0
I0
b
c
Example: Single Line-to-Ground Fault
Ia
Ic
Given: Ia
Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
Ib
1500 0o A Ib
Ic 0
o
1
(
I
I
I
)
500
0
A
a
b
c
3
2
o
1
(
I
a
I
a
I
)
500
0
A
a
b
c
3
2
o
1
(
I
a
I
a
I
)
500
0
A
a
b
c
3
Example: Line-to-Line Fault
Ia
Ic
Given: Ia
Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
1
(Ia
3
1
(Ia
3
1
(Ia
3
Ib
Ib
Ic 1500 0o A
Ib Ic ) 0
a Ib a2 Ic ) 866 90o A
a2 Ib a Ic ) 866
90o A
Sequence Networks
When the system is unbalanced, currents and
voltages will contain positive-, negative- and zerosequence components. The ratio of a sequence
voltage to its corresponding sequence current
represents a sequence impedance. Thus, the
unbalanced power system can be replaced by
three sequence networks.
1. Positive-Sequence Network
2. Negative-Sequence Network
3. Zero-Sequence Network
Note: A balanced three-phase system is
modeled using the positive-sequence network.
The Fault Point

The system is assumed to be balanced except at
the fault point.
a
b
Line-to-

ground Va Vb Vc
voltages
Ia
Ib
Ic
c
Fault
Currents
Ground
Note: An equivalent network at the fault point

can be determined using Thevenins theorem.

EE251 Note 1 - Introduction To Fault Studies

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Introduction to Fault

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

2. The per-unit impedances of electrical

Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

Advantages of Per-Unit Calculations

7. Per-unit calculation is more convenient to use

2. The rating of electrical equipment specify KVA

Choice of Per-Unit Values

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: Given base Vp = 20,000 volts and

Base MVAp x 1000

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

(Base kVp )2 x 1000

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: For the single-phase system shown,

Solution using actual values:

20 0o kV , the reference phasor.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Solve for the current

(0.32 71.56o )(5

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Solution using per-unit values:

(Base KVp )2 (1000)

1.0 0o p.u, the reference phasor.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Solve for the line impedance in per-unit

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Note: The base current and base impedance will

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: Given Base MVA3 =30 and Base kVL=120,

Base MVA 3 x 1000

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

If we use single-phase analysis, we get

Base MVAp x 1000

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: Determine the per-unit equivalent

Single-phase equivalent circuit

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Define single-phase bases. Let Base MVAp=5 and

Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Define three-phase bases. Let Base MVA3 =15

Per-unit single-phase equivalent circuit

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

2. Direct-Axis Reactances: Xd, Xd and Xd

Note: The impedances are based on the machines

Per Unit Values for Transformers

Example: Consider a single-phase transformer

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

We get the actual impedance of the transformer

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Assuming the current is rated

Rated MVA x 1000

Base I=78.74 A at the HV side

The transformer impedance is 0.8 p.u. regardless

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Example: Given 3 single-phase transformers each

220 kV at the HV side

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

From the previous example, we get the actual