Introduction to Combustion Processes

AERO 533

Venkat Raman
3049 FXB
Office hours
T 10-11
W10-11
Other times by appointment

Course Structure

Class time
Lectures through slides
Made available on Canvas

Extra classes
To cover lost lecture time due to travel
Probably 2-3 times during the semester

- Either start classes early (30 minutes earlier) or have additional

sessions at the end of the day

Use office hours to ask for clarifications

Through email will also work

Course Grading

Homeworks (60%)
1 per unit (possibly 2 on longer sections)
Roughly 7-10 days

Exams (40%)
One mid-term [middle of October]
One end-term [last day of class]
No final exam

No make-up exams
Exam dates will be changed only for a medical or family
emergency

Combustion Processes

Defined as those processes where the chemical reaction of fuel

with oxidizer is used to release energy

Controlled processes

- Energy used to derive work

Uncontrolled processes

- Energy release is lost

Mostly in natural processes

Many different combustion processes exist

Both natural and engineered

Combustion devices - Gas Turbines

Aircraft engines
Stationary gas turbines

Aircraft Engines

Stationary Power Generation

Combustion devices - Internal Combustion Engines

Combustion Devices: Rockets

Solid and liquid propellants

High thrust to weight ratio
(engine)

Low specific impulse

High thrust

Combustion devices - Supersonic Engines

Flow inside engine at supersonic

speeds

Shock-based compression
No explicit compressor in the
engine

Combustion Processes in Nature

Wild Fire

Type 1a Supernovae

Wild fires
Heterogeneous combustion of forest matter

Astrophysical processes
Some supernovae processes akin to turbulent combustion
For later reference: Close to premixed flame propagation

Key Questions in Combustion Sciences

Fossil fuels are limited in supply

Estimates are around 70 years worth of resources

Fossil fuels generate emissions

CO2 contributes to global climate change
Pollutants (NOx, soot, unburnt hydrocarbons) increase health
risk

How to increase device efficiency?

Reduces fuel consumption

How to reduce emissions?

How to generate and use renewable fuels?

Fuels

Fuels contain chemical bonds

Require energy to create these molecules

Rearrangement of chemical bonds leads to energy release

Typically requires an oxidizer

Different fuels for different applications

Aircrafts: Kerosene
Stationary power generation: Natural gas
Rockets: Hydrogen, kerosene, hydrazine
Internal combustion engines: Gasoline, diesel
Supersonic engines: hydrogen, ethylene, jet fuels

Most fuels involve hydrocarbons

Emissions from Combustion

Emissions are products of combustion

Four main classes
Carbon dioxide

- Main product of hydrocarbon oxidation

NOx

- Mostly due to oxidation of nitrogen in the air at high temperatures

- Some fuels contain nitrogen, which could also be oxidized
Soot

- Solid particles formed due to inefficient combustion

Unburnt hydrocarbons, including carbon monoxide

- Due to incomplete oxidation of hydrocarbons

- Highly toxic components can be generated

NOx Emissions

NO

(oxides of nitrogen)

NO - nitric oxide
NO2 - nitrogen dioxide
Do not confuse with N2O (laughing gas, nitrous oxide)
Formed by reaction of nitrogen in air with oxygen at high
temperatures
Characterized by ``slow reactions (compared to fuel oxidation)
Form nitric acid or ozone - adversely affects lungs

Soot Emissions

Soot particulates
Solid particles made of carbonrich ringed structures
Complex morphology
Highly carcinogenic
Long lifetime once emitted
Creates smog

Technic

Unburnt Hydrocarbons and Carbon Monoxide

1 Table 2.

CO (carbon monoxide)

Compound

Toxic above 35 ppm (parts per

million)
Colorless and odorless

CO also indicates loss of efficiency

Reduces energy release associated
with final oxidation to CO2

Unburnt hydrocarbons (UHCs)

Collection of partially oxidized fuel
components
Extremely toxic, highly carcinogenic
Persist in the atmosphere

Compound EIs normalized

(4-15% rated thrust) evaluated as th

3
4
5

Methanol
Propene
Acetaldehyde
Butene + Acrolein
Acetone + Propanal +
Glyoxal
Benzene
Toluene
mass 107
mass 121
mass 135
mass 149
Naphthalene
Methylnaphthalenes
Dimethylnaphthalenes
Phenol
Styrene
Acetic acid

APEX 1
EIx/EIHCHO
0.18
0.36
0.32
0.30
0.18
0.15
0.056
0.088
0.074
0.035
0.014
0.018
0.009
0.0026
0.063
0.020
0.16

propene quantified assuming that 68% a

from propene.
butene + acrolein quantified assuming th

Aircraft Engines and Pollutants

Aircraft engines present a complex optimization challenge

Different pollutants produced under different operating conditions
Pollutants often conflict with the goal of increasing engine
efficiency

Landing Take Off Cycle (LTO)

the investment in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and combustion

chemistry models that has been made over the last 30 years or so. In the RQL
design the primary combustion zone of the combustor is operated richer than
stoichiometric at take-off and climb, in a fairly narrow air/fuel ratio (AFR) band
that avoids smoke formation whilst making little NOx.

Rich-Quench-Lean Engines
Figure 9

Schematic illustration of an RQL combuster

Figure 10 shows, schematically, the relationship between NOx formation, flame

temperature and AFR together with acceptable and unacceptable operating
bands.

aerodynamics and residence times. The most modern designs also owe much to
the investment in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and combustion
chemistry models that has been made over the last 30 years or so. In the RQL
design the primary combustion zone of the combustor is operated richer than
stoichiometric at take-off and climb, in a fairly narrow air/fuel ratio (AFR) band
that avoids smoke formation whilst making little NOx.

Emissions

Figure 9

Schematic illustration of an RQL combuster

Figure 10

NOx production versus AFR and gas temperature

NOx production versus AFR and gas temperature

Problematic operating conditions
Practical operating regions
NOx production rate
Combustion temperature [K]

Combustion
temperature
[K]
3000
Climb-out

Cruise
Approach

Take off

NO produced at high

2000

Idle

Figure 10 shows, schematically, the relationship between NOx formation, flame

temperature and AFR together with acceptable and unacceptable operating
bands.

CO & UHc
Emissions

temperatures

C
o
NOx pr

D
Lean
instabillities

Flame
blow-out

n
tio
du c

on

temperatures

1000

ti
produc
Smoke

Soot produced at low air/fuel ratio

High efficiency required higher

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Air/fuel ratio

Optimal condition is a trade-off

between fuel efficiency and NO
Higher engine pressure ratio
emissions
results in higher flame

temperature, which:
- reduces HC & CO
- increases NOx formation rate

Engine operating pressures and

by-pass ratio have gone up

Combustor technology tends to

offset trend towards increased
NOx

Increases efficiency

NO x

SFC

1960
combustor
technology

2000
combustor
technology

2020 goal
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Overall Pressure Ratio

Figure 14

Example carpet plot of engine cycle trade offs - CO2/NOx/Noise

ACARE NOx goal largely removes the

significance
of -this
Cycle tradeoffs
CO2 effect
NOx Noise

Reduces noise by reducing jet

exhaust velocity

at a fixed technology level

OPR Trades 1% CO2 equates to 20% NOx

Low Fan Pressure Ratio

Increases NOx by increasing

combustor temperature
Reduces HC and CO
emissions

CO2, % (Relative to Base Engine)

Higher engine pressure ratio and

bypass ratio:
- improve fuel efficiency (SFC),
thereby reducing CO2
- facilitate noise reduction by
reducing exhaust jet velocity
x

SFC (lb/lb-hr), or EI (NOx)

CO2 - NOx Trade-off

Engine Optimization

H ig

hF
an

P re

s su

re R

a tio

Min OPR

Min NOx

1-3%

(min FPR)

T3 RL max
(max OPR)

Min CO

R)

Const FPR

Linesof
of
Lines
Constant
Constant
Overall
Overall
Pressure
Pressure
Ratio(OPR)

Incr OPR/T3
(~FB(OPR))

Min Noise

(F P

Lines of
Constant
Fan Pressure
Lines
Ratio of
(FPR)

Ratio (OPR)

15-30%
LTO NOx, %(Relative to Base Engine)

4
5
6
7
8
9

significant impact on the total emissions burden from the complete LTO cycle, at least in
this first attempt to assess the speciated emissions. Variation in the HC speciation profile
at higher powers are unlikely to have a significant impact on airport air-quality modeling
or to risk assessment from the compounds that are HAPs.

UHC Emissions

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Volatiles emissions dominated by idle operation

More than engine design, air traffic management plays a crucial
role

Figure 4. Emission Rate vs. Time in Mode. The estimated emission rate, coupling fuel
flow and emission index for UHC for a CFM56-3C1. The LTO profile begins and ends
with a 7.5 minute APU interval. In this figure the apparent area of the boxes reflect the
total emissions magnitude for the defined modes.
Relationship of Dedicated Engine Tests to Airport Measurements: Dedicated engine
tests allow control of the engine operation. However emissions at airports are due to
airplanes being operated as required to satisfy airline requirements. Table 3 compares

Key Concepts to Learn

How does combustion take place?

What are the molecular processes that lead to heat release

What is a flame?
The physical structure of chemical reactions

How do pollutants form?

What are the chemical pathways?
What is the role of turbulence?

Can combustion lead to run-away processes?

What are detonations?