Engineering For Dummies

g Easier!
Making Everythin
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Learn to:
Understand key mechanics concepts
Grasp principles of stress, strain, and
deformation and their interactions
Solve indeterminate statics problems
James H. Allen III, PE, PhD

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering
University of Evansville
Chapter 1
Predicting Behavior with

Mechanics of Materials
In This Chapter
Defining mechanics of materials
Introducing stresses and strains
Using mechanics of materials to aid in design
echanics of materials is one of the first application-based engineering

classes you face in your educational career. Its part of the branch of
physics known as mechanics, which includes other fields of study such as
rigid body statics and dynamics. Mechanics is an area of physics that allows
you to study the behavior and motion of objects in the world around you.
Mechanics of materials uses basic statics and dynamics principles but allows
you to look even more closely at an object to see how it deforms under load.
Its the area of mechanics and physics that can help you decide whether
you really should reconsider knocking that wall down between your kitchen
and living room as you remodel your house (unless, of course, you like your
upstairs bedroom on the first floor in the kitchen).
Although statics can tell you about the loads and forces that exist when an
object is loaded, it doesnt tell you how the object behaves in response to
those loads. Thats where mechanics of materials comes in.
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Part I: Setting the Stage for Mechanics of Materials
Tying Statics and Mechanics Together

Since the early days, humans have looked to improve their surroundings by
using tools or shaping the materials around them. At first, these improvements were based on an empirical set of needs and developed mostly
through a trial-and-error process. Structures such as the Great Pyramids in
Egypt or the Great Wall of China were constructed without the help of fancy
materials or formulas. Not until many centuries later were mathematicians
such as Sir Isaac Newton able to formulate these ideas into actual numeric
equations (and in many cases, to remedy misconceptions) that helped usher
in the area of physics known as mechanics.
Mechanics, and more specifically the core areas of statics and dynamics, are
based on the studies and foundations established by Newton and his laws
of motion. Both statics and dynamics establish simple concepts that prove
to be quite powerful in the world of analysis. You can use statics to study
the behavior of objects at rest (known as equilibrium), such as the weight
of snow on your deck or the behavior of this book as it lies on your desk.
Dynamics, on the other hand, explains the behavior of objects in motion,
from the velocity of a downhill skier to the trajectory of a basketball heading
for a winning shot.
What statics and dynamics both have in common is that at their fundamental
level, they focus on the behavior of rigid bodies (or objects that dont deform
under load). In reality, all objects deform to some degree (hence why theyre
called deformable bodies), but the degree to which they deform depends
entirely on the mechanics of the materials themselves. Mechanics of materials (which is sometimes referred to as strength of materials or mechanics of
deformable bodies) is another branch of mechanics that attempts to explain
the effect of loads on objects.
The development of mechanics of materials over the centuries has been
based on a combination of experiment and observation in conjunction with
the development of equation-based theory. Famous individuals such as
Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) and Galileo Galilei (15641642) conducted
experiments on the behavior of a wide array of structural objects (such as
beams and bars) under load. And mathematicians and scientists such as
Leonhard Euler (17071783) developed the equations used to provide the
basics for column theory.
Mechanics of materials is often the follow-up course to statics and dynamics in the engineering curriculum because it builds directly on the tools and
concepts you learn in a statics and dynamics course, and it opens the door to
engineering design. And thats where things get interesting.
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Chapter 1: Predicting Behavior with Mechanics of Materials
11
Defining Behavior in Mechanics

of Materials
The fact that all objects deform under load is a given. Mechanics of materials helps you determine how much the object actually deforms. Like statics,
mechanics of materials can be very methodical, allowing you to establish
a few simple, guiding steps to define the behavior of objects in the world
around you. You can initially divide your analysis of the behavior of objects
under load into the study and application of two basic interactions: stress
and strain.
With the basic concepts of stress and strain, you have two mechanisms for
determining the maximum values of stress and strain, which allow you to
investigate whether a material (and the object it creates) is sufficiently strong
while also considering how much it deforms. You can then turn your attention
to specific sources of stress, which I introduce a little later in this chapter.
Stress
Stress is the measure of the intensity of an internal load acting on a cross section of an object. Although you know a bigger object is capable of supporting a bigger load, stress is what actually tells you whether that object is big
enough. This intensity calculation allows you to compare the intensity of the
applied loads to the actual strength (or capacity) of the material itself. I introduce the basic concept of stress in Chapter 6, where I explain the difference
between the two types of stress, normal stresses and shear stresses.
With this basic understanding of stress and how these normal and shear
stresses can exist simultaneously within an object, you can use stress transformation calculations (see Chapter 7) to determine maximum stresses (known
as principal stresses) and their orientations within the object.
Strain
Strain is a measure of the deformation of an object with respect to its initial length, or a measure of the intensity of change in the shape of a body.
Although stress is a function of the load acting inside an object, strain can
occur even without load. Influences such as thermal effects can cause an
object to elongate or contract due to changes in temperature even without
a physical load being applied. For more on strain, turn to Chapter 12.
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12

As with stresses, strains have maximum and minimum values (known as
principal strains), and they occur at a unique orientation within an object.
Ishow you how to perform these strain transformations in Chapter 13.
Using Stresses to Study Behavior

Stresses are what relate loads to the objects they act on and can come from
a wide range of internal forces. The following list previews several of the
different categories of stress that you encounter as an engineer:
Axial: Axial stresses arise from internal axial loads (or loads that act
along the longitudinal axis of a member). Some examples of axial
stresses include tension in a rope or compression in a short column.
For more on axial stress examples, turn to Chapter 8.
Bending: Bending stresses develop in an object when internal bending
moments are present. Examples of members subject to bending are the
beams of your favorite highway overpass or the joists in the roof of your
house. I explain more about bending stresses in Chapter 9.
Shear: Shear stresses are actually a bit more complex because they can
have several different sources. Direct shear is what appears when you
try to cut a piece of paper with a pair of scissors by applying two forces
in opposite direction across the cut line. Flexural shear is the result of
bending moments. I discuss both of these shear types in Chapter 10.
Torsion (or torque) is another type of loading that creates shear stresses
on objects through twisting and occurs in rotating machinery and
shafts. For all things torsion, flip to Chapter 11.
Studying Behavior through Strains

You can actually use strains to help with your analysis in a couple
of circumstances:
Experimental analysis: Strains become very important in experiments
because, unlike stresses, theyre quantities that you can physically measure with instruments such as electromechanical strain gauges. You can
then correlate these strains to the actual stresses in a material using the
materials properties.
Deformation without load: Strain concepts can also help you analyze
situations in which objects deform without being subjected to a load
such as a force or a moment. For example, some objects experience
changes in shape due to temperature changes. To measure the effects
of temperature change, you must use the concepts of strain.
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Chapter 1: Predicting Behavior with Mechanics of Materials
13
Incorporating the Material

into Mechanics of Materials
After you understand the calculations behind stress and strains, youre
ready to turn your attention to exploring the actual behavior of materials.
All materials have a unique relationship between load (or stress) and
deformation (or strain), and these unique material properties are critical
in performing design.
One of the most vital considerations for the stress-strain relationship is
Hookes law (see Chapter 14). In fact, its probably the single most important
concept in mechanics of materials because its the rule that actually relates
stresses directly to strain, which is the first step in developing the theory
that can tell you how much that tree limb deflects when youre sitting on
it. This relationship also serves as the basis for design and the some of the
advanced calculations that I show you in Part IV.
Putting Mechanics to Work

When you have the tools to analyze objects in the world around them, you
can put them to work for you in specific applications. Here are some common
mechanics of materials applications:
Combined stresses: In some cases, you want to combine all those single
and simple stress effects from Part II into one net action. You can analyze complex systems such as objects that bend in multiple directions
simultaneously (known as biaxial bending) and bars with combined
shear and torsion effects. Flip to Chapter 15 for more.
Displacements and deformations: Deformations are a measure of the
response of a structure under stress. You can use basic principles based
on Hookes law to calculate deflections and rotations for a wide array of
scenarios. (See Chapter 16.)
Indeterminate structures: For simple structures, the basic equilibrium
equations you learn in statics can give you all the information you need
for your analysis. However, the vast majority of objects are much more
complex. When the equilibrium equations from statics become insufficient to analyze an object, the object is said to be statically indeterminate. In Chapter 17, I show you how to handle different types of these
indeterminate systems by using mechanics of materials principles.
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Columns: Unlike most objects that fail when applied stresses reach the
limiting strength of the material, columns can experience a geometric
instability known as buckling, where a column begins to bow or flex under
compression loads. Chapter 18 gives you the lowdown on columns.
Design: Design is the ability to determine the minimum member size that
can safely support the stresses or deflection criteria. This step requires
you to account for factors of safety to provide a safe and functional
design against the real world. Head to Chapter 19 for more.
Energy methods: Energy methods are another area of study that relates
the principles of energy that you learned in physics to concepts involving stresses and strain. In Chapter 20, I introduce you to energy method
concepts such as strain energy and impact.
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Contents at a Glance
Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Setting the Stage for Mechanics of Materials ...... 7
Chapter 1: Predicting Behavior with Mechanics of Materials...................................... 9
Chapter 2: Reviewing Mathematics and Units Used in Mechanics of Materials ...... 15
Chapter 3: Brushing Up on Statics Basics .................................................................... 25
Chapter 4: Calculating Properties of Geometric Areas ............................................... 41
Chapter 5: Computing Moments of Area and Other Inertia Calculations ................. 55
Part II: Analyzing Stress ............................................ 83

Chapter 6: Remain Calm, Its Only Stress!..................................................................... 85
Chapter 7: More than Meets the Eye: Transforming Stresses.................................... 99
Chapter 8: Lining Up Stress Along Axial Axes ............................................................ 131
Chapter 9: Bending Stress Is Only Normal: Analyzing Bending Members .............. 149
Chapter 10: Shear Madness: Surveying Shear Stress ................................................ 161
Chapter 11: Twisting the Night Away with Torsion .................................................. 177
Part III: Investigating Strain .................................... 189

Chapter 12: Dont Strain Yourself: Exploring Strain and Deformation.................... 191
Chapter 13: Applying Transformation Concepts to Strain ....................................... 201
Chapter 14: Correlating Stresses and Strains to Understand Deformation............ 215
Part IV: Applying Stress and Strain........................... 233

Chapter 15: Calculating Combined Stresses............................................................... 235
Chapter 16: When Push Comes to Shove: Dealing with Deformations ................... 251
Chapter 17: Showing Determination When Dealing
with Indeterminate Structures................................................................................... 273
Chapter 18: Buckling Up for Compression Members ................................................ 301
Chapter 19: Designing for Required Section Properties ........................................... 313
Chapter 20: Introducing Energy Methods................................................................... 331
Part V: The Part of Tens ........................................... 343

Chapter 21: Ten Mechanics of Materials Pitfalls to Avoid........................................ 345
Chapter 22: Ten Tips to Solving Mechanics of Materials Problems ........................ 349
Index ...................................................................... 355
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g Easier!
Making Everythin
Optics
Learn to:
Use optics principles and devices properly
Avoid common mistakes in working with
typical optics problems
Determine image locations and
characteristics with simple calculations
Grasp the basic concepts behind lasers
and laser applications
Galen Duree, Jr., PhD

Professor of Physics and Optical Engineering
Director, Center for Applied Optics Studies
Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
Chapter 1
Introducing Optics,
the Science of Light
In This Chapter
Uncovering the basic properties of light
Getting a glimpse of optics applications
ight is probably one of those things that you take for granted, kind of
like gravity. You dont know what it is or where it comes from, but its
always there when you need it. Your sight depends on light, and the information you get about your environment comes from information carried by the
light that enters your eye.
Humans have spent centuries studying light, yet it remains something of a
mystery. We do know many properties of light and how to use them to our
benefit, but we dont yet know everything. Therefore, optics is the continuing
study of light, from how you make it to what it is and what you can do with it.
In fact, optics consists of three fields: geometrical optics, physical optics, and
quantum optics. As we learn more about light, we find new ways to use it to
improve our lives. This chapter shines a little, well, light on light.
Illuminating the Properties of Light

Because of an accidental mathematical discovery, light is called an electromagnetic wave, a distinction indicating that light waves are made up of
electric and magnetic fields. Youre probably used to thinking of light as the
stuff your eyes can detect. For many people who work with light on a regular
basis, however, the term light applies to all electromagnetic radiation, anything from ultra-low frequencies to radio frequencies to gamma rays.
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10
Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals

Light has both wave and particle properties (as I discuss in the chapters in
Part I), but you cant see both at the same time. Regardless of the properties,
light is produced by atoms and accelerating charges. You can choose from
many different arrangements to produce light with the desired wavelength
or frequency (basically, the color that you want). Optics covers every light
source from light bulbs to radio transmissions.
You have three ways to manipulate where light goes (that is, to make light
do what you want): reflection, refraction, and diffraction, which I introduce
in the following sections. You can use some basic equations to calculate the
result of light undergoing all these processes. Optics then goes farther to
investigate ways to find practical uses of these phenomena, including forming
an image and sending digital data down a fiber.
Creating images with the

particle property of light
You most commonly see the particle property of light when youre working
with geometrical optics, or making images (see Part II). In this theory, the particles of light follow straight-line paths from the source to the next surface.
This idea leads to the simplest type of imaging: shadows. Shadows dont give
you a lot of information, but you can still tell the shape of the object as well
as where the light source is.
Two important concepts in geometrical optics are reflection and refraction. Reflection describes light bouncing off a surface. Refraction deals with
the bending of the path of the light as the light goes from one material to
another. You can use these processes to create and modify images, and
knowledge of these effects can also help you deal with factors called aberrations, which cause an image to be blurry. You can also use the lenses and
mirrors that work with refraction and reflection to eliminate the washed-out
effect you sometimes get when creating an image; if you have too much light,
all the images created wash each other out, so all you see is light.
Harnessing interference and diffraction

with the wave property of light
Physical optics, which I cover in Part III, looks at the wave properties of light.
Interference (where two or more waves interact with each other) and diffraction (the unusual behavior of waves to bend around an obstacle to fill the
space behind it) are unique to waves.
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Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light
11
To explain optical interference (interference between light waves), you need

to know about optical polarization. Optical polarization describes the orientation of the plane that the light waves electric field oscillates in. In optics,
only the electric field matters in almost all interactions with matter, because
the electric field can do work on charged particles and the magnetic field
cant. Several devices can change the polarization state so that light can be
used for many different applications, including lasers and optical encoding.
The wave property allows you to use interference to help measure many
things, such as the index of refraction and surface feature height or irregularities. Specifically, several optical setups called interferometers use interference
for measurement.
Diffraction, the other unique wave phenomenon, determines resolution,
which is how close two objects can be while still being distinguishable.
Arrangements with many slits placed very close together create a diffraction
grating, which you can use to help identify materials by separating the different colors of light the materials emit.
Using Optics to Your Advantage:

Basic Applications
Understanding the basic properties of light is one thing, but being able to
do something practical with them is another. (Head to the earlier section
Illuminating the Properties of Light for more on these basic characteristics.)
Putting the fundamental knowledge to good use means developing optical
instruments for a wide variety of uses, as I discuss in Part IV. Heres just a taste
of some of the practical applications of optical devices:
Manipulating images: As I note earlier in the chapter, knowing how
images are made and changed with different types of lenses or mirrors
allows you to design simple optical devices to change what the images
look like. Eyeglasses are designed and built to correct nearsightedness
or farsightedness, and a simple magnifying glass creates an enlarged
image of rather small objects.
Physical characteristics limit how large an image a simple magnifier
can make, so you can build a simple microscope with two lenses placed
in the right positions to provide greater enlargement of even smaller
objects. To see things far away, you can build a telescope and to project
an image onto a large screen, you can build a projector.
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Developing lighting: You can use also use optics principles to design
lighting sources for particular applications, such as specific task lighting, general area lighting, and decorative lighting. The development of
incandescent light bulbs, compact fluorescent bulbs, and future devices
such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) all start with knowledge of the optical properties of materials.
Seeing where the eye cant see: Optics, and particularly fiber optics,
can send light into areas that arent directly in your line of sight, such as
inside a collapsed building or a body. Fiber optics relies on knowledge
of total internal reflection (see Chapter 4) to be able to trap light inside a
small glass thread.
Expanding Your Understanding of Optics

The fundamental principles of optics can tell you what will happen with light
in different situations, but making something useful with these principles
isnt so easy. Applications of optics, including optical systems, combine two
or more optical phenomena to create a desired output. Most applications of
optics require knowledge about how optical principles work together in one
system; making optical systems requires careful thought to make sure that
the light behaves in the way you want it to when you look at the final result,
whether thats light from a particular source (such as a light bulb or laser) or
an image from a telescope or camera.
Why are such advanced applications important? Seeing how all the optics
phenomena work together (often in subtle ways) is the point of optical engineering. Knowing how light interacts with different materials and being able
to read this information has led to advances in important fields such as medical imaging and fiber-optic communication networks.
Considering complicated applications

Some optics applications, such as those in Part V, require combinations of
many different optics principles to make useful devices. Cameras that record
images require knowledge of image formation, focusing, and intensity control
to make nice pictures. Holography and three-dimensional movies put depth
perception and diffraction gratings to work. Many medical-imaging techniques exploit the effects of light and how light carries information.
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Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light
13
Lasers are a special light source with many uses. Because lasers are light,
you have to understand how light works so that you can use them effectively
and safely. Lasers today are involved in medical applications, various fabrication tasks, numerous quality control arrangements, optical storage discs
such as CDs and DVDs, and a variety of military and law enforcement applications (but no laser guns yet).
Complex imaging devices can also allow you to see in low- or no-light situations. Thermal cameras create images based on temperature differences
rather than the amount of reflected light. The age-old arrangement of looking
at the heavens requires modifications of the simple telescope to overcome
some of the limitations of using refracting optics.
Adding advanced optics

Advanced optics (see Part VI) covers phenomena that arent simply based
on simple refraction. When the index of refraction normally independent
of the intensity of the light changes with the intensity, weird things can
happen, such as frequency conversion in crystals. The area of advanced
optics that studies these effects is called nonlinear optics, and it has provided
numerous new diagnostic capabilities and laser wavelengths.
Another area of advanced optics is single photon applications. Single photon
applications show some rather bizarre behavior associated with the fact
that light is in an indeterminate state unless you make a measurement. This
subject (also presented in Part VI) is the basis for new applications in secure
communications and super-fast computing.
Paving the Way: Contributions to Optics

The field of optics is full of contributions from students challenging the establishment and the established way of thinking. Part VII includes some experiments you can try to experience some of the optics principles presented in
this book; building some simple optical devices lets you begin to discover the
challenges of building optical systems. After all, experiments are the root of
discovery, so Part VII also looks at some important optics breakthroughs and
the people who performed them.
All this information allows you to see how knowledge of optics advanced with
contributions from newcomers to the field as well as established optical scientists. Using the basic principles outlined in this book, youll have enough
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14

knowledge to be able to delve deeper into any optics subject you encounter
in school, work, or just your curiosity. As optics technology progresses,
youll have the basic background knowledge to tackle any of the technology
paths that develop. After all, the field of optics benefited from contributions
from many different levels; if that doesnt motivate you to make the next significant contribution to the science of light, I dont know what will.
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Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals ...... 7
Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light ..................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Brushing Up on Optics-Related Math and Physics ................................... 15
Chapter 3: A Little Light Study: Reviewing Light Basics ............................................. 31
Chapter 4: Understanding How to Direct Where Light Goes ..................................... 45
Part II: Geometrical Optics: Working

with More Than One Ray ............................................ 57
Chapter 5: Forming Images with Multiple Rays of Light ............................................. 59
Chapter 6: Imaging with Mirrors: Bouncing Many Rays Around ............................... 69
Chapter 7: Imaging with Refraction: Bending Many Rays at the Same Time ........... 77
Part III: Physical Optics: Using the Light Wave ........... 95

Chapter 8: Optical Polarization: Describing the Wiggling Electric Field in Light .... 97
Chapter 9: Changing Optical Polarization .................................................................. 113
Chapter 10: Calculating Reflected and Transmitted Light
with Fresnel Equations ............................................................................................... 131
Chapter 11: Running Optical Interference: Not Always a Bad Thing ...................... 143
Chapter 12: Diffraction: Lights Bending around Obstacles ..................................... 161
Part IV: Optical Instrumentation:

Putting Light to Practical Use .................................. 179
Chapter 13: Lens Systems: Looking at Things the Way You Want to See Them ..... 181
Chapter 14: Exploring Light Sources: Getting Light Where You Want It ................ 197
Chapter 15: Guiding Light From Here to Anywhere ................................................... 213
Part V: Hybrids: Exploring More

Complicated Optical Systems .................................... 227
Chapter 16: Photography: Keeping an Image Forever .............................................. 229
Chapter 17: Medical Imaging: Seeing Whats Inside You (No Knives Necessary!) ... 247
Chapter 18: Optics Everywhere: Exploring Other
Medical, Industrial, and Military Uses ...................................................................... 259
Chapter 19: Astronomical Applications: Using Telescopes ..................................... 271
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Part VI: More Than Just Images:

Getting into Advanced Optics ................................... 285
Chapter 20: Index of Refraction, Part 2: You Can Change It! .................................... 287
Chapter 21: Quantum Optics: Finding the Photon..................................................... 301
Part VII: The Part of Tens ......................................... 311

Chapter 22: Ten Experiments You Can Do Without a $1-Million Optics Lab ......... 313
Chapter 23: Ten Major Optics Discoveries and
the People Who Made them Possible ....................................................................... 319
Index ...................................................................... 325
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Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................. 1
About This Book .............................................................................................. 1
Conventions Used in This Book ..................................................................... 2
What Youre Not to Read ................................................................................ 3
Foolish Assumptions ....................................................................................... 3
How This Book Is Organized .......................................................................... 3
Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals ........................ 4
Part II: Geometrical Optics: Working with More Than One Ray ...... 4
Part III: Physical Optics: Using the Light Wave .................................. 4
Part IV: Optical Instrumentation: Putting Light to Practical Use ..... 4
Part V: Hybrids: Exploring More Complicated Optical Systems ...... 5
Part VI: More Than Just Images: Getting into Advanced Optics ...... 5
Part VII: The Part of Tens ...................................................................... 5
Icons Used in This Book ................................................................................. 5
Where to Go from Here ................................................................................... 6
Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals ....... 7

Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Illuminating the Properties of Light .............................................................. 9
Creating images with the particle property of light ........................ 10
Harnessing interference and diffraction
with the wave property of light ...................................................... 10
Using Optics to Your Advantage: Basic Applications ............................... 11
Expanding Your Understanding of Optics .................................................. 12
Considering complicated applications ............................................. 12
Adding advanced optics ..................................................................... 13
Paving the Way: Contributions to Optics ................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Brushing Up on Optics-Related Math and Physics . . . . . .15

Working with Physical Measurements........................................................ 15
Refreshing Your Mathematics Memory ...................................................... 16
Juggling variables with algebra .......................................................... 16
Finding lengths and angles with trigonometry ................................ 18
Exploring the unknown with basic matrix algebra .......................... 21
Reviewing Wave Physics .............................................................................. 26
The wave function: Understanding its features and variables ...... 26
Medium matters: Working with mechanical waves ......................... 28
Using wavefronts in optics ................................................................. 29
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xii
Optics For Dummies

Chapter 3: A Little Light Study: Reviewing Light Basics. . . . . . . . . . . .31
Developing Early Ideas about the Nature of Light .................................... 31
Pondering the particle theory of light ............................................... 32
Walking through the wave theory of light ........................................ 32
Taking a Closer Look at Light Waves .......................................................... 33
If light is a wave, whats waving? Understanding
electromagnetic radiation ............................................................... 33
Dealing with wavelengths and frequency:
The electromagnetic spectrum ...................................................... 36
Calculating the intensity and power of light .................................... 36
Einsteins Revolutionary Idea about Light: Quanta................................... 37
Uncovering the photoelectric effect
and the problem with light waves.................................................. 38
Merging wave and particle properties: The photon........................ 39
Let There Be Light: Understanding the Three
Processes that Produce Light .................................................................. 40
Atomic transitions ............................................................................... 40
Accelerated charged particles ........................................................... 41
Matter-antimatter annihilation ........................................................... 42
Introducing the Three Fields of Study within Optics ................................ 42
Geometrical optics: Studying light as a collection of rays ............. 42
Physical optics: Exploring the wave property of light .................... 43
Quantum optics: Investigating small numbers of photons ............ 43
Chapter 4: Understanding How to Direct Where Light Goes . . . . . . . .45

Reflection: Bouncing Light Off Surfaces ..................................................... 45
Determining lights orientation .......................................................... 46
Understanding the role surface plays
in specular and diffuse reflection................................................... 47
Appreciating the practical difference between
reflection and scattering ................................................................. 48
Refraction: Bending Light as It Goes Through a Surface .......................... 50
Making light slow down: Determining the index of refraction ....... 50
Calculating how much the refracted ray bends: Snells law .......... 51
Bouncing light back with refraction: Total internal reflection....... 52
Varying the refractive index with dispersion ................................... 53
Birefringence: Working with two indices
of refraction for the same wavelength .......................................... 54
Diffraction: Bending Light around an Obstacle ......................................... 55
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Table of Contents
xiii
Part II: Geometrical Optics: Working

with More Than One Ray ............................................. 57
Chapter 5: Forming Images with Multiple Rays of Light . . . . . . . . . . . .59
The Simplest Method: Using Shadows to Create Images ......................... 60
Forming Images Without a Lens: The Pinhole Camera Principle ............ 62
Eyeing Basic Image Characteristics for Optical System Design .............. 63
The type of image created: Real or virtual ....................................... 63
The orientation of the image relative to the object ........................ 63
The size of the image relative to the object ..................................... 64
Zeroing In on the Focal Point and Focal Length ........................................ 65
Determining the focal point and length ............................................ 65
Differentiating real and virtual focal points ..................................... 66
Chapter 6: Imaging with Mirrors: Bouncing Many Rays Around. . . . .69

Keeping it Simple with Flat Mirrors............................................................. 69
Changing Shape with Concave and Convex Mirrors ................................. 70
Getting a handle on the mirror equation and sign conventions ... 71
Working with concave mirrors .......................................................... 72
Exploring convex mirrors ................................................................... 74
Chapter 7: Imaging with Refraction: Bending

Many Rays at the Same Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Locating the Image Produced by a Refracting Surface ............................. 78
Calculating where an image will appear ........................................... 78
Solving single-surface imaging problems.......................................... 80
Working with more than one refracting surface .............................. 83
Looking at Lenses: Two Refracting Surfaces Stuck Close Together ....... 85
Designing a lens: The lens makers formula ..................................... 85
Taking a closer look at convex and concave lenses........................ 88
Finding the image location and characteristics
for multiple lenses ........................................................................... 89
Doh, fuzzy again! Aberrations ........................................................... 91
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Part III: Physical Optics: Using the Light Wave ............ 95

Chapter 8: Optical Polarization: Describing
the Wiggling Electric Field in Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Describing Optical Polarization ................................................................... 97
Focusing on the electric fields alignment ........................................ 98
Polarization: Looking at the plane of the electric field ................... 99
Examining the Different Types of Polarization ........................................ 100
Linear, circular, or elliptical: Following the vector path .............. 100
Random or unpolarized: Looking at changing or mixed states ... 107
Producing Polarized Light .......................................................................... 108
Selective absorption: No passing unless you get in line ............... 108
Scattering off small particles ............................................................ 109
Reflection: Aligning parallel to the surface..................................... 110
Birefringence: Splitting in two .......................................................... 111
Chapter 9: Changing Optical Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Discovering Devices that Can Change Optical Polarization .................. 113
Dichroic filters: Changing the axis with linear polarizers ............ 114
Birefringent materials: Changing
or rotating the polarization state ................................................. 117
Rotating light with optically active materials ................................ 121
Jones Vectors: Calculating the Change in Polarization .......................... 121
Representing the polarization state with Jones vectors .............. 121
Jones matrices: Showing how devices will change polarization .... 124
Matrix multiplication: Predicting how devices
will affect incident light ................................................................. 126
Chapter 10: Calculating Reected and Transmitted

Light with Fresnel Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Determining the Amount of Reflected and Transmitted Light .............. 131
Transverse modes: Describing the orientation of the fields ........ 132
Defining the reflection and transmission coefficients ................... 133
Using more powerful values: Reflectance and transmittance ...... 134
The Fresnel equations: Finding how much
incident light is reflected or transmitted .................................... 135
Surveying Special Situations Involving Reflection
and the Fresnel Equations ...................................................................... 136
Striking at Brewsters angle .............................................................. 137
Reflectance at normal incidence: Coming in at 0 degrees ............ 137
Reflectance at glancing incidence: Striking at 90 degrees ............ 138
Exploring internal reflection and total internal reflection ............ 138
Frustrated total internal reflection:
Dealing with the evanescent wave ............................................... 139
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Chapter 11: Running Optical Interference:

Not Always a Bad Thing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Describing Optical Interference................................................................. 143
On the fringe: Looking at constructive
and destructive interference ........................................................ 144
Noting the conditions required to see optical interference ......... 145
Perusing Practical Interference Devices: Interferometers ..................... 146
Wavefront-splitting interferometers................................................ 146
Amplitude-splitting interferometers................................................ 151
Accounting for Other Amplitude-Splitting Arrangements ...................... 154
Thin film interference ........................................................................ 154
Newtons rings.................................................................................... 157
Fabry-Perot interferometer............................................................... 158
Chapter 12: Diffraction: Lights Bending around Obstacles . . . . . . . .161

From Near and Far: Understanding Two Types of Diffraction ............... 162
Defining the types of diffraction ...................................................... 162
Determining which type of diffraction you see .............................. 163
Going the Distance: Special Cases of Fraunhofer Diffraction ................ 164
Fraunhofer diffraction from a circular aperture ............................ 165
Fraunhofer diffraction from slits...................................................... 167
Getting Close: Special Cases of Fresnel Diffraction ................................. 172
Fresnel diffraction from a rectangular aperture ............................ 173
Fresnel diffraction from a circular aperture................................... 174
Fresnel diffraction from a solid disk................................................ 175
Diffraction from Fresnel zone plates ............................................... 175
Part IV: Optical Instrumentation:

Putting Light to Practical Use ................................... 179
Chapter 13: Lens Systems: Looking at Things
the Way You Want to See Them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
Your Most Important Optical System: The Human Eye.......................... 181
Understanding the structure of the human eye............................. 182
Accommodation: Flexing some muscles to change the focus ..... 183
Using Lens Systems to Correct Vision Problems .................................... 185
Corrective lenses: Looking at lens shape and optical power....... 185
Correcting nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism ....... 186
Enhancing the Human Eye with Lens Systems ........................................ 190
Magnifying glasses: Enlarging images
with the simple magnifier.............................................................. 191
Seeing small objects with the compound microscope ................. 192
Going the distance with the simple telescope ............................... 194
Jumping to the big screen: The optical projector ......................... 195
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Chapter 14: Exploring Light Sources:
Getting Light Where You Want It. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
Shedding Light on Common Household Bulbs ........................................ 198
Popular bulb types and how they work .......................................... 198
Reading electrical bulb rates............................................................ 201
Shining More-Efficient Light on the Subject: Light Emitting Diodes ..... 201
Looking inside an LED ....................................................................... 202
Adding color with organic light emitting diodes ........................... 203
LEDs on display: Improving your picture
with semiconductor laser diodes................................................. 204
Zeroing in on Lasers .................................................................................... 205
Building a basic laser system ........................................................... 206
Comparing lasers to light bulbs ....................................................... 211
Chapter 15: Guiding Light From Here to Anywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

Getting Light in the Guide and Keeping it There:
Total Internal Reflection ......................................................................... 213
Navigating numerical aperture: How much light
can you put in? ............................................................................... 214
Examining light guide modes ........................................................... 215
Categorizing Light Guide Types................................................................. 216
Fiber-optic cables .............................................................................. 216
Slab waveguides ................................................................................. 220
Putting Light Guides to Work: Common Applications ............................ 221
Light pipes .......................................................................................... 221
Telecommunication links.................................................................. 221
Imaging bundles ................................................................................. 224
Part V: Hybrids: Exploring More

Complicated Optical Systems .................................... 227
Chapter 16: Photography: Keeping an Image Forever . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Getting an Optical Snapshot of the Basic Camera................................... 230
Lens: Determining what you see ...................................................... 231
Aperture: Working with f-number and lens speed .............................234
Shutter: Letting just enough light through ..................................... 236
Recording media: Saving images forever ........................................ 236
Holography: Seeing Depth in a Flat Surface ............................................. 237
Seeing in three dimensions............................................................... 237
Exploring two types of holograms ................................................... 238
Relating the hologram and the diffraction grating ........................ 240
Graduating to 3-D Movies: Depth that Moves! ......................................... 243
Circular polarization.......................................................................... 243
Six-color anaglyph system ................................................................ 244
Shutter glasses ................................................................................... 244
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Chapter 17: Medical Imaging: Seeing Whats

Inside You (No Knives Necessary!) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
Shining Light into You and Seeing What Comes Out .............................. 247
X-rays ................................................................................................... 248
Optical coherence tomography ....................................................... 250
Endoscopes ........................................................................................ 251
Reading the Light that Comes Out of You ................................................ 253
CAT scans ........................................................................................... 254
PET scans ............................................................................................ 255
NMR scans .......................................................................................... 256
MRI scans ............................................................................................ 257
Chapter 18: Optics Everywhere: Exploring Other

Medical, Industrial, and Military Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
Considering Typical Medical Procedures Involving Lasers ................... 259
Removing stuff you dont want: Tissue ablation............................ 260
Sealing up holes or incisions ........................................................... 263
Purely cosmetic: Doing away with tattoos,
varicose veins, and unwanted hair .............................................. 264
Getting Industrial: Making and Checking Products Out with Optics .... 265
Monitoring quality control ............................................................... 265
Drilling holes or etching materials .................................................. 265
Making life easier: Commercial applications.................................. 266
Applying Optics in Military and Law Enforcement Endeavors .............. 267
Range finders ...................................................................................... 267
Target designation ............................................................................. 268
Missile defense ................................................................................... 268
Night vision systems ......................................................................... 269
Thermal vision systems .................................................................... 270
Image processing ............................................................................... 270
Chapter 19: Astronomical Applications: Using Telescopes. . . . . . . .271

Understanding the Anatomy of a Telescope ............................................ 272
Gathering the light ............................................................................. 272
Viewing the image with an eyepiece ............................................... 273
Revolutionizing Refracting Telescopes .................................................... 274
Galilean telescope .............................................................................. 275
Keplers enhancement....................................................................... 276
Reimagining Telescope Design: Reflecting Telescopes .......................... 277
Newtonian ........................................................................................... 277
Cassegrain........................................................................................... 278
Gregorian ............................................................................................ 279
Hybrid Telescopes: Lenses and Mirrors Working Together .................. 280
Schmidt ............................................................................................... 280
Maksutov............................................................................................. 281
Invisible Astronomy: Looking Beyond the Visible .................................. 282
When One Telescope Just Wont Do: The Interferometer...................... 283
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Optics For Dummies
Part VI: More Than Just Images:

Getting into Advanced Optics .................................... 285
Chapter 20: Index of Refraction, Part 2: You Can Change It! . . . . . . .287
Electro-Optics: Manipulating the Index
of Refraction with Electric Fields ........................................................... 287
Dielectric polarization: Understanding
the source of the electro-optic effect .......................................... 288
Linear and quadratic: Looking at
the types of electro-optic effects ................................................. 289
Examining electro-optic devices ...................................................... 293
Acousto-Optics: Changing a Crystals Density with Sound .................... 295
The acousto-optic effect: Making a variable diffraction grating ... 295
Using acousto-optic devices ............................................................. 296
Frequency Conversion: Affecting Light Frequency with Light .............. 297
Second harmonic generation: Doubling the frequency ................ 297
Parametric amplification: Converting
a pump beam into a signal beam ................................................. 298
Sum and difference frequency mixing:
Creating long or short wavelengths............................................. 299
Chapter 21: Quantum Optics: Finding the Photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301

Weaving Together Wave and Particle Properties ................................... 301
Seeing wave and particle properties of light .................................. 302
Looking at wave and particle properties of matter ....................... 304
Experimental Evidence: Observing the Dual
Nature of Light and Matter ..................................................................... 306
Youngs two-slit experiment, revisited ........................................... 306
Diffraction of light and matter .......................................................... 307
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer .................................................. 308
Quantum Entanglement: Looking at Linked Photons ............................. 308
Spooky action: Observing interacting photons ............................. 308
Encryption and computers: Developing technology
with linked photons ....................................................................... 309
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Part VII: The Part of Tens.......................................... 311

Chapter 22: Ten Experiments You Can Do
Without a $1-Million Optics Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
Chromatic Dispersion with Water Spray .................................................. 313
The Simple Magnifier .................................................................................. 314
Microscope with a Marble .......................................................................... 314
Focal Length of a Positive Lens with a Magnifying Glass ....................... 314
Telescope with Magnifying Glasses .......................................................... 315
Thin Film Interference by Blowing Bubbles ............................................. 316
Polarized Sunglasses and the Sky.............................................................. 316
Mirages on a Clear Day ............................................................................... 317
Spherical Aberration with a Magnifying Glass ......................................... 317
Chromatic Aberration with a Magnifying Glass ....................................... 318
Chapter 23: Ten Major Optics Discoveries

and the People Who Made them Possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
The Telescope (1610).................................................................................. 319
Optical Physics (Late 1600s) ...................................................................... 320
Diffraction and the Wave Theory of Light (Late 1600s).......................... 320
Two-Slit Experiment (Early 1800s) ............................................................ 321
Polarization (Early 1800s) .......................................................................... 321
Rayleigh Scattering (Late 1800s) ............................................................... 321
Electromagnetics (1861) ............................................................................. 322
Electro-Optics (1875 and 1893) .................................................................. 322
Photon Theory of Light (1905)................................................................... 322
The Maser (1953) and The Laser (1960) ................................................... 323
Index ....................................................................... 325
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Chapter 1
Introducing Signals and Systems

In This Chapter
Figuring out the math you need for signals and systems work
Determining the different types of signals and systems
Understanding signal classifications and domains
Checking out possible products with behavioral level modeling
Looking at real products as signals and systems
Using open-source computer tools to check your work
hich came first: the signal or the system? Before you answer, you
may want to know that by system, I mean a structure or design that
operates on signals. You live and breathe in a sea of signals, and systems
harness signals and put them to work. So which came first, you think? It
may not really matter, but Im guessing as I smooth out a long imaginary
philosopher-type beard that signals came first and then began passing
through systems.
But I digress. The study of signals and systems as portrayed in this book centers on the mathematical modeling of both signals and systems. Mathematical
modeling allows an engineer to explore a variety of product design approaches
without committing to costly prototype hardware and software development.
After you tune your model to produce satisfactory results, you can implement
your design as a prototype. And at some point, real signals (and sometimes
math-based simulations) test the system design before full implementation.
When studying signals and systems, its easy to get mired in mathematical
details and lose sight of the big picture the functional systems of your end
result. So try to remember that, at its best, signals and systems is all about
designing and working with products through applied math. Math is the
means, not the star of the show.
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Part I: Getting Started with Signals and Systems

Two broad classes of signals are those that are continuous functions of time t
and those that are discrete functions of time index n. Throughout this book, I
separate information on continuous- and discrete-time signals and systems.
In this chapter, I introduce simple continuous and discrete signals and the
corresponding systems. I also point out some of the distinguishing characteristics of signal types.
Before getting started, I want to mention that signals as functions of time are
how most people experience the real world of computer and electronic engineering, yet transforming signals and systems to other domains specifically, the frequency, s-, and z-domains and back again is quite beneficial in
some situations. I touch on the transformation of signals and systems in this
chapter and dig into the details in Parts III and IV.
In this chapter, I also cover the important role of computer tools in signals
and systems problem solving and tell you how to use a few specific opensource programs. If you want to set up these freely available tools on your
computer, you can follow along when I describe specific functions that
enable you to check your work or work more efficiently after you get a
handle on core concepts and techniques.
Applying Mathematics
Anyone aspiring to a working knowledge of signals and systems needs a solid
background in math, including these specific concepts:
Calculus of one variable
Integration and differentiation
Differential equations
To actually implement designs that center on signals and systems, you also
need a background in these subjects:
Electrical/electronic circuits
Computer programming fundamentals, such as C/C++ and Java
Analysis, design, and development software tools
Programmable devices
Many signals and systems designers rely on modeling tools that use a matrix/
vector language or class library for numerics and a graphics visualization
capability to allow for rapid prototyping. I use numerical Python for examples
in this book; other languages with similar syntax include MATLAB and NI
LabVIEW MathScript.
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Chapter 1: Introducing Signals and Systems
11
Finding perspective on analog processing

Once upon a time, the implementation path for
signals and systems was purely analog circuit
design. As technology has advanced, solutions
based on digital signal processing (discrete-time
signals and systems) through powerful low-cost
and low-power digital hardware has become
the mainstay. Digital hardware solutions are
programmable and can be reconfigured through
software updates after products ship.
The signals youre likely to work with in the real

world are analog in nature, but youll almost
always process them digitally. Knowing programming languages is important in this environment. Yet analog signal processing is alive
and well its vital to your working knowledge
of signals and systems but the overall role
of analog processing in current design is less
formidable than its been in the past.
With so many electrical engineering solutions being software-based today

versus a matter of analog circuitry (see nearby sidebar Finding perspective
on analog processing) a system designer can also be the implementer.
This leap requires only simulation code to be transformed into the implementation language, such as Verilog or C/C++.
Working pencil-and-paper solutions for signals and systems coursework
requires a good scientific calculator. I recommend a calculator that supports
complex arithmetic operations, using the minimum number of keystrokes. At
minimum, your calculator needs to have trig, log, and exponential functions
for signals and systems work.
Getting Mixed Signals . . . and Systems

Signals come in two flavors: continuous and discrete. Its the same story with
systems. In other words, some signals and some systems are active all
the time; others arent. In this section, I describe continuous and discrete
signals along with the corresponding systems. I also tell you how to classify
certain signals and systems based on their most basic properties.
Going on and on and on

Continuous-time signals and systems never take a break. When a circuit is
wired up, a signal is there for the taking, and the system begins working
and doesnt stop. Keep in mind that I use the term signal here loosely; any
one specific signal may come and go, but a signal is always present at each
and every time instant imaginable in a continuous-time system.
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12

Continuous-time signals
Continuous signals function according to time t. A sinusoidal function of
time is one of the most basic signals. The mathematical model for a sinusoid
, where A is the signal amplitude,
signal is
is the signal frequency, and is the signal phase shift. The independent
variable is time t. If youre curious about the first peak of x (t) occuring at
3/16, notice that this occurs when the argument of the cosine is 0 the is,
or
.
I cover this signal in detail in Chapter 3, but to help you get acquainted,
check out the plot of a sinusoid signal in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1:
The plot of
a sinusoidal
signal.
The amplitude of this signal is 3, the frequency is 2 Hz, and the phase shift is
rad.
Continuous-time systems
Systems operate on signals. In mathematical terms, a system is a function or
, that maps the input signal
to output signal
.
operator,
An example of a continuous-time system is the electronic circuits in an ampli.
fier, which has gain 5 and level shift 2:
See a block diagram representation of this simple system in Figure 1-2.
Figure 1-2:
A simple
continuoustime system
model.
Building an amplifier that corresponds to this mathematical model is another

matter entirely. You can create a simple electronic circuit, but it will have
limitations that the math model doesnt have. Its up to you, as an electronic
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engineer, to refine the model to accurately reflect the level of detail needed
to assess overall performance of a design candidate.
Working in spurts: Discrete-time

signals and systems
Discrete-time signals and systems march along to the tick of a clock. Mathematical
modeling of discrete-time signals and systems shows that activity occurs
with whole number (integer) spacing, but signals in the real world operate
according to periods of time, or the update rate also known as the sampling
rate. Discrete-time signals, which can also be viewed as sequences, only exist
at the ticks, and the systems that process these signals are, mathematically
speaking, resting in the periods between signal activity.
Systems take inputs and produce outputs with the same clock tick, generally
speaking. Depending on the nature of the digital hardware and the complexity of the system, calculations performed by the system continue between
clock ticks to ensure that the next system output is available at the next
tick when a new signal sample arrives at the input.
Discrete-time signals
Discrete-time signals are a function of time index n. Discrete-time signal
,
, takes on values only at integer number
unlike continuous-time signal
values of the independent variable n. This means that the signal is active only
at specific periods of time. Discrete-time signals can be stored in computer
memory because the number of signal values that need to be stored to represent a finite time interval is finite.
The following simple signal, a pulse sequence, is shown in Figure 1-3 as a
stem plot a plot where you place vertical lines, starting at 0 to the sample
value, along with a marker such as a filled circle. The stem plot is also known
as a lollipop plot seriously.
Figure 1-3:
A simple
discretetime signal.
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14

The stem plot shows only the discrete values of the sequence. Find out more
about discrete-time signals in Chapter 4.
Discrete-time systems
A discrete-time system, like its continuous-time counterpart, is a function,
, that maps the input
to the output
. An example of a
discrete-time system is the two-tap filter:
The term tap denotes that output at time instant n is formed from two time
instants of the input, n and n 1. Check out a block diagram of a two-tap filter
system in Figure 1-4.
Figure 1-4:
A simple
discretetime system
model.
In words, this system scales the present input by 3/4 and adds it to the past
value of the input scaled by 1/4. The notion of the past input comes about
. The term filter
is lagging one sample value behind
because
describes the output as an averaging of the present input and the previous
input. Averaging is a form of filtering.
Classifying Signals
Signals, both continuous and discrete, have attributes that allow them to be
classified into different types. Three broad categories of signal classification
are periodic, aperiodic, and random. In this section, I briefly describe these
classifications (find details in Chapters 3 and 4).
Periodic
Signals that repeat over and over are said to be periodic. In mathematical
terms, a signal is periodic if
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15
The smallest T or N for which the equality holds is the signal period. The
property of
sinusoidal signal of Figure 1-1 is periodic because of the
cosine. The signal of Figure 1-1 has period 0.5 seconds (s), which turns out to
Hz. The square wave signal of Figure
be the reciprocal of the frequency
1-5a is another example of a periodic signal.
Figure 1-5:
Examples of
signal classifications:
periodic
(square
wave) (a),
aperiodic
(rectangular
pulse) (b),
and random
(noise) (c).
Aperiodic
Signals that are deterministic (completely determined functions of time) but
not periodic are known as aperiodic. Point of view matters. If a signal occurs
infrequently, you may view it as aperiodic. The rectangular pulse of duration
shown in Figure 1-5b is an aperiodic signal.
Random
A signal is random if one or more signal attributes takes on unpredictable
values in a probability sense (you love statistics, right?).
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16

The full mathematical description of random signals is outside the scope of
this book, but here are two good examples of a random signal:
The noise you hear when youre between stations on an FM radio. See a
waveform representation of this noise in Figure 1-5c.
Speech: If you try to capture audio samples on a computer of someone
speaking the word hello over and over, youll find that each capture
looks a little different.
Engineers working with communication receivers are concerned with random
signals, especially noise.
Signals and Systems in Other Domains

Most of the signals you encounter on a daily basis in computers, in wireless
devices, or through a face-to-face conversation reside in the time domain.
Theyre functions of independent variable t or n. But sometimes when youre
working with continuous-time signals, you may need to transform away from
) or the s-domain
the time domain (t) to either the frequency domain (
(s). Similarly, for discrete-time signals, you may need to transform from the
discrete-time domain (n) to the frequency domain ( ) or the z-domain (z).
Systems, continuous and discrete, can also be transformed to the frequency
and s- and z-domains, respectively. Signals can, in fact, be passed through
systems in these alternative domains. When a signal is passed through a
system in the frequency domain, for example, the frequency domain output
signal can later be returned to the time domain and appear just as if the timedomain version of the system operated on the signal in the time domain.
This section briefly explores the world of signals and systems in the frequency,
s-, and z-domains. Find more on these alternative domains in Chapters 13 and 14.
Viewing signals in the frequency domain

The time domain is where signals naturally live and where human interaction
with signals occurs, but the full information for a signal isnt always visible
in that space. Consider the sum of a two-sinusoids signal (as depicted in
Figure 1-6):
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Figure 1-6:
The frequency
domain view
for a sum
of a twosinusoids
signal.
The top waveform plot, denoted s1, is a single sinusoid at frequency f1 and
peak amplitude A1. The waveform repeats every period T1 = 1/f1. The second
waveform plot, denoted s2, is a single sinusoid at frequency f2 > f1 and peak
amplitude A2 < A1. The sum signal, s1 + s2, in the time domain is a squiggly line
(third waveform plot), but the amplitudes and frequencies (periods) of the
sinusoids arent clear here as they are in the first two plots. The frequency
is composed of just two sinusoids,
spectrum (bottom plot) reveals that
with both the frequencies and amplitudes discernible.
Think about tuning in a radio station. Stations are located at different center
frequencies. The stations dont interfere with one another because theyre
separated from each other in the frequency domain. In the frequency spectrum plot at the bottom of Figure 1-6, imagine that f1 and f2 are the signals
from two radio stations, viewed in the frequency domain. You can design a
receiving system to filter s1 from s1 + s2. The filter is designed to pass s1 and
block s2. (I cover filters in Chapter 9.)
Use the Fourier transform to move away from the time domain and into the
frequency domain. To get back to the time domain, use the inverse Fourier
transform. (Find out more about these transforms in Chapter 9.)
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Traveling to the s- or z-domain and back

From the time domain to the frequency domain, only one independent vari, exists. When a signal is transformed to the s-domain, it becomes
able,
. The two variables (real and
a function of a complex variable
imaginary parts) describe a location in the s-plane.
In addition to visualization properties, the s-domain reduces differential equation solving to algebraic manipulation. For discrete-time signals, the z-transform
accomplishes the same thing, except differential equations are replaced by
difference equations. Did you think going to the z-domain meant taking a nap?
Details on difference equations begin in Chapter 7.
Testing Product Concepts with

Behavioral Level Modeling
Computer and electrical engineers provide society with a vast array of
products ranging from cellphones and high-definition televisions to
powerful computers with high resolution displays that are small and lightweight. The mystery of how brilliant people come up with world-changing
ideas may never be solved, but after an idea is out there, engineers work
through a process that allows them to test, or model, potential solutions to
find out whether the idea is likely to work in the real world. For products
that rely on signal processing, engineers use signals and system modeling
and analysis to reveal whats possible.
When youre trying to quickly prove a solution approach, youll often turn to
behavioral level modeling of certain elements of the overall system to avoid
low-level implementation details. For example, a subsystem design may
require knowledge of a signal parameter (such as amplitude or frequency) to
function. At first, you may assume that the parameter is well known. Later,
you add low-level details to estimate (not perfectly) the parameter. As your
confidence and understanding grows, you represent the low-level details in
the model and actual implementation becomes possible.
Behavioral level modeling also applies when you need to model physical
environments that lie outside a design but are needed to evaluate performance under realistic scenarios.
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19
In this section, I describe the role of abstraction as a means to generate preliminary concepts and then work those concepts into a top-level design. The
top-level design becomes a detailed plan as you work down to implementation specifics. Mathematical modeling is a thread running through the entire
process, so you come to rely on it.
Staying abstract to generate ideas

Behavioral level modeling isnt void of hardware constraints and realities,
but it requires a certain level of abstraction to allow preliminary concept
solutions to materialize quickly. Behavioral level models depend on applied
mathematics.
In other words, computer and electronic engineers dont frequently handle
actual hardware and devices used for an implementation. The model of the
hardware is whats important at this point. The engineers job is to conceptualize systems and subsystems through a framework of mathematical
concepts, and abstraction provides great creative freedom to explore the
possibilities.
Suppose you seek a new design for an existing system to improve performance. You hope to make such improvements with new device technology.
You dont want to get bogged down in all the details of how to interface this
device into the current design, so you move up in abstraction with a model to
quickly find out how much you can improve performance with a new design.
If adequate improvement potential doesnt exist, then you settle down and
investigate other options. Rinse, lather, and repeat.
Keep in mind that improved performance isnt always the primary objective
of signals and systems modeling. Sometimes, a design is driven by cost, availability of materials, manufacturing processes, and time to market, or some
other consideration.
Working from the top down

A design that relies on signals and systems starts from a top-level view and
works down to the nitty-gritty details of final implementation. Analysis and
simulation performed at the top level depends on behavioral level modeling.
The model is ultimately broken into subsystems for testing and refinement,
and then the system comes together again before implementation.
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20

Typically, your task as an electronic engineer is to create some new or enhanced
functionality for a computer- or electrical-based product. For example, you
may need to support a new radio interface due to recent standard updates. At
first, the changes may seem simple and straightforward, but as you dig into the
work, you may begin to see that the changes require significant adjustments
in signal processing algorithms. This means that the new radio interface will
require a few totally new designs, so you need to model and simulate various
implementation approaches to find out whats likely to work best.
Relying on mathematics
Many people write off signals and systems as a pile of confusing math, and
they run for the hills. True, the math can be intimidating at first, but the
rewards of seeing your finely crafted mathematical model lead the way to a
shipping product is worth the extra effort at least I think so. In the end, the
math is on your side. Its the only way to model concepts that function properly in the real world.
My go-to approach when a problem seems unsolvable: Take it slow and
steady. If a solution isnt clear after you think about the problem for a while,
walk away and come back to it later. Practice and experience with various
problem-solving techniques and options help, so try to work as many types of
problems as you can especially in the areas you feel the most discomfort.
Eventually, a solution reveals itself.
When possible, verify your solutions by using computer analysis and simulation tools. In this book, I use Python with the numerical support and visualization capabilities of PyLab (NumPy, SciPy, matplotlib) and the IPython
environment to perform number-crunching analysis and simulations. For
problems involving more symbolic mathematics, I use the computer algebra
system (CAS) provided by Maxima.
Exploring Familiar Signals and Systems

Im guessing you have some level of familiarity with consumer electronics,
such as MP3 music players, smartphones, and tablet devices, and realize that
these products rely on signals and systems. But you may take for granted the
cruise control in your car. In this section, I point out the signals and systems
framework in familiar devices at the block diagram level a system diagram
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21
that identifies the significant components inside rectangular boxes, interconnected with arrows that show the direction of signal flow. The block diagram
expresses the overall concept of a system without intimate implementation
details.
MP3 music player

Signals and systems are operating in all the major peripherals of the music
player even in the processor. In reality, signals are in every part of the
system, but I exclude pure digital signals in this example, so I dont address
memory. The processor runs an operating system (OS); under that OS, tasks
perform digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms for streaming audio and
image data. Note that this book is focused on one-dimensional signals only.
Find a top-level block diagram of an MP3 device in Figure 1-7. All the peripheral
blocks (the blocks that sit outside the processor block) contain a combination
of continuous- and discrete-time systems. You stream digital music in real
time from memory in a compressed format. The processor has to decompress
the audio stream into signal sample values (a discrete-time signal) to send
to the audio codec. The audio codec contains a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) that converts the discrete-time signal to a continuous-time signal.
The Wi-Fi and Bluetooth radios (blocks with antennas) interface to the processor with digital data but interface to the antenna by using a continuoustime signal at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. The sensors block acquires analog
signals from the environment, temperature, light level, and acceleration in
three dimensions.
Figure 1-7:
MP3 music
player block
diagram.
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22
Smartphone
The structure of a smartphone is similar to an MP3 music player, but a
smartphone also has a global positioning receiver (GPS) and multiband
radio blocks that send and receive continuous-time signals from base
stations (antenna sites) of a cellular network. The GPS receiver acquires
signals from multiple satellites to get your latitude and longitude. The
primary purpose of the GPS in most smartphones is to provide location
information when placing an emergency call (E911).
Check out a block diagram of a smartphone in Figure 1-8. Four antennas are
shown, but only a single multiband antenna is employed in most models, so
only a single antenna structure is really needed.
Figure 1-8:
Smartphone
block
diagram.
The multiband cellular radio subsystem is thick with signals and systems.
The multiband digital communications transmitter (tx) and receiver (rx)
allows the smartphone to be backward compatible with older technologies
as well as with the newest high-speed wireless data technologies. This transmitter and receiver enable the product to operate throughout the world. A
smartphone is overflowing with signals and systems examples!
Automobile cruise control

I think all new automobiles come equipped with a cruise control system now.
This is good news because this feature may keep you from getting a speeding
ticket when youre driving long distances on the interstate. Its also great for
getting better gas mileage. But Im no sales guy for cruise control. I just think
this product is interesting from a signals and systems standpoint.
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23
Figure 1-9 shows a block diagram of a cruise control system. Cruise control
involves both electrical and mechanical signals and systems. The controller
is electrical and the plant, the system being controlled, is the car. Wind and
hills are disturbance signals, which thwart the normal operation of the control system. The controller puts out a compensating signal to the throttle to
overcome wind resistance (an opposing force) and the force of gravity when
going up and down hills. The error signal that follows the summing block is
driven to a very small value by the action of the feedback loop. This means
that the output velocity tracks the reference velocity. This is exactly what
you want. For a more detailed look at cruise control, check out the case
studies at www.dummies.com/extras/signalsandsystems.
Figure 1-9:
Block diagram of an
automobile
cruise control system.
Using Computer Tools for

Modeling and Simulation
Todays technology-based solutions are rarely built without the use of some
form of computer tool. Signals and systems research and product development is no exception. Throughout this book, I show you how to solve problems by hand calculation and how to check your work with computer tools.
Hand calculation is vital for building concepts. Computer tools help ensure
that you dont make mistakes. And why wouldnt you use the best tools available for your work?
A variety of commercial and open-source tools are available for signals
and systems problem solving. Two broad categories are computer algebra
system (CAS) programs, such as Mathematica, Maple, and Maxima, and those
that excel at vector/matrix problem solving, such as MATLAB, NI LabVIEW
MathScript, Octave, and Python. Both types of computer programs offer function libraries that are tailored to the needs of the signals and systems analysis and simulation.
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24

The examples in this book feature two open-source tools:
Scientific Python via PyLab and the shell IPython
Python becomes scientific Python with the inclusion of NumPy and
SciPy for vector/matrix number crunching and matplotlib for
graphics.
CAS Maxima via wxMaxima
Ive chosen open-source tools because I want to provide an easy on-ramp for
users everywhere. Both Mac and Windows OS computers can run these software products via free downloads. Specifically for this book, I wrote the code
module ssd.py, which provides additional signals and systems functions.
After you import this module into your IPython session, you can run all the
examples in this book. I prefer to use the QT console version of IPython (see
www.ipython.org). Similarly for wxMaxima, the notebook ssd.wxm contains all the example code from this book, organized by chapter.
Getting the software

Python and IPython (including NumPy, SciPy, and matplotlib) from Enthought
Python Distribution (EPD) is a free download for the 32-bit version (www.
enthought.com/products/epd_free.php). Python(x,y) is also very good,
especially under Windows (http://code.google.com/p/pythonxy). If
youre running Linux, in particular Ubuntu Linux, the Ubuntu Software Center
is a good starting place. If youre an experienced open-source user, you can
do a custom install as opposed to the monolithic distributions. If youre looking for a full integrated development environment (IDE) for debugging Python,
I suggest the open-source IDE Eclipse (www.eclipse.org) with the plug-in
PyDev (http://pydev.org). Eclipse is supported on Mac, Windows, and
Linux. I developed the module ssd.py by using this setup.
Find wxMaxima for Windows and Mac at http://andrejv.github.com/
wxmaxima. Under Ubuntu Linux, you can find wxMaxima in the Ubuntu
Software Center.
To get files specific to this book go to www.dummies.com/extras/
signalsandsystems for the Python code module ssd.py and the Maxima
notebook ssd.wxm along with some tutorial screencasts and documents.
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25
Exploring the interfaces

Take a quick tour of the interfaces of these computer programs when you
get them installed. I provide a peek of how the program looks on the Mac in
Figures 1-10, 1-11, and 1-12. The appearance and functionality for Windows is
virtually the same.
Figure 1-10:
The
wxMaxima
notebook
interface to
Maxima.
You can send Maxima plots to a file in a variety of formats or display them
directly in the notebook, as shown in Figure 1-11.
Figure 1-11:
The IPython
QT console
window.
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26

You can write and debug functions right from the console window, as shown
in Figure 1-12.
Figure 1-12:
matplotlib
plot window
resulting
from a call
to plot
(x,y) in
IPython.
You can manipulate plots by using the controls you see at the bottom of the
figure window. Plot cursors are also available. You can save plots from the
command line or from the figure window. Many of the plots found in this
book were created with matplotlib.
Seeing the Big Picture

Figure 1-13 illustrates the content organization of this book as an unfolding
of core topics, starting from the time domain and moving to the frequency
domain before exploring the s- and z-domains. Continuous (left side) and discrete (right side) signals and systems topics parallel each other every step of
the way with some continuous- and discrete-time topics shared (center)
within a few chapters. The last four chapters, which follow the z-domain
chapter, emphasize applications, including signal processing, wireless communications, and control systems.
I start with the time domain because this is where signals originate and where
systems operate on signals (with the exception of transform domain processing, which is covered in Chapter 12). The frequency domain augments a base
knowledge of both signals and systems and is important to grasping sampling
theory, which leads to the processing of continuous-time signals in the discretetime domain. The s- and z-domain are the last of the core topics, but by no
means are they any less important than the topics that come before them.
The s- and z-domains are particularly powerful when working with linear
time-invariant systems described by differential and difference equations.
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27
After covering the core topics, you can appreciate the chapter that focuses
on how to work across domains (Chapter 15). Get a taste of how signals and
systems fit into the real world of electrical engineering by reading the case
studies at www.dummies.com/extras/signalsandsystems. Take a look
at the application examples to get inspired when youre struggling to see the
forest for the trees of the dense study of signals and systems.
Figure 1-13:
Signals and
systems
topic flow.
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Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Getting Started with Signals and Systems ........... 7
Chapter 1: Introducing Signals and Systems .................................................................. 9
Chapter 2: Brushing Up on Math ................................................................................... 29
Chapter 3: Continuous-Time Signals and Systems ...................................................... 51
Chapter 4: Discrete-Time Signals and Systems ............................................................ 77
Part II: Exploring the Time Domain.............................. 97

Chapter 5: Continuous-Time LTI Systems and the Convolution Integral ................. 99
Chapter 6: Discrete-Time LTI Systems and the Convolution Sum ........................... 119
Chapter 7: LTI System Differential and Difference Equations
in the Time Domain ..................................................................................................... 149
Part III: Picking Up the Frequency Domain ............... 163

Chapter 8: Line Spectra and Fourier Series of Periodic
Continuous-Time Signals ............................................................................................ 165
Chapter 9: The Fourier Transform for Continuous-Time Signals and Systems ..... 191
Chapter 10: Sampling Theory....................................................................................... 219
Chapter 11: The Discrete-Time Fourier Transform for Discrete-Time Signals....... 241
Chapter 12: The Discrete Fourier Transform
and Fast Fourier Transform Algorithms ................................................................... 263
Part IV: Entering the s- and z-Domains ...................... 283

Chapter 13: The Laplace Transform for Continuous-Time ....................................... 285
Chapter 14: The z-Transform for Discrete-Time Signals ........................................... 307
Chapter 15: Putting It All Together: Analysis and Modeling Across Domains ....... 327

Chapter 16: More Than Ten Common Mistakes to Avoid
When Solving Problems .............................................................................................. 345
Chapter 17: Ten Properties You Never Want to Forget ............................................ 351
Index ...................................................................... 355
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g Easier!
Making Everythin
Statics
Learn to:
Grasp the study of statics for success
in the classroom
Apply complex concepts such as
vectors, internal and external forces,
and free-body diagrams
Solve problems in every aspect of
statics
James H. Allen III, PE, PhD,

Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering
University of Evansville
Chapter 1
Using Statics to Describe

the World around You
In This Chapter
Defining statics and related studies
Introducing vectors
Exploring free-body diagrams
Looking at specific applications of statics
tatics is a branch of physics that is especially useful in the fields of

engineering and science. Although general physics may describe all the
actions around you, from the waving of leaves on a tree to the reflection of
light on a pond, the field of statics is much more specific.
In fact, statics is actually a part of most physics courses. So if youve ever
taken a high school or college physics course, chances are that some of the
information in this book may seem vaguely familiar. For example, one of the
first areas you study in physics is often Newtonian mechanics, which is basically statics and dynamics.
Physics classes typically cover a wide range of topics, basically because
physics has a wide range of applications. Conversely, a statics course is
much more focused (which doesnt necessarily mean its simple). Whoever
said that the devil is in the details may well have been talking about statics.
Before you panic, close the book, and begin questioning why you ever thought
you could understand statics, let me reassure you that just because statics
isnt always simple doesnt mean its always difficult. If anything, statics does
happen to be very methodical. If you follow some basic steps and apply some
basic ideas and theory, statics actually can become a very straightforward
application process.
Now, about those details . . .
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10
Part I: Setting the Stage for Statics
What Mechanics Is All About

The study of the world around you requires knowledge of many areas of
physics, often referred to as mechanics. The mathematician Archimedes of
Syracuse (287212 BC) is often credited as being the first person to systematically study the behavior of objects by using mechanics and is attributed with
saying Give me a place to stand and I will move the Earth. This statement,
while rather grandiose for his time, proves itself to be at the very heart of the
study of mechanics (and, more specifically, statics).
Mechanics refers to one of the core areas of physics, usually concentrated
around the principles of Sir Isaac Newton and his basic laws of motion, and is
an area of concentration that engineers and scientists often study in addition
to basic physics classes. These courses develop the core curriculum for many
basic engineering programs and are usually common classes across all disciplines. Specific engineering disciplines may require additional courses in each
of these core areas to teach additional (and often more advanced) topics.
One of these core areas is in the area of statics, which isnt the study of how
you should move across a shag carpet in order to apply a jolt of electricity
to your younger siblings or how to implement the latest hygiene techniques
to avoid those dreadful bad hair days. In this book, I define statics as the
mechanical study of the behavior of physical objects that remain stationary
under applied loads (which I discuss later in this chapter). The behavior of
the floor beams in your house as you stand in the middle of your living room
is an example of a static application.
The area of dynamics, on the other hand, is the study of objects in motion.
So as you walk down the hall, your behavior and its effect on your house
becomes a dynamic application. The result of a car driving down a bumpy
road, the flow of water through a creek, and the motion of those shiny
little metallic balls that hang from strings and haunt/hypnotize you with
their clack, clack, clack as they bounce off each other are all examples of
dynamic behavior.
Finally, you come to mechanics of materials (sometimes referred to as strength
of materials), which is yet another branch of mechanics that focuses on the
behavior of objects in response to loads. This area of mechanics builds on
concepts from both dynamics and statics.
Putting Vectors to Work

One of the most basic tools to include in your basket of statics tricks is the
knowledge of vectors, which I discuss in detail in Part II of this book. Think
of vectors as being one of the major staples, such as rice or potatoes, of your
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Chapter 1: Using Statics to Describe the World around You
11
statics kitchen. Statics forms the foundation for a complete meal of engineering design. Vectors come in all shapes and forms, and you can use them for a
wide variety of purposes, which I introduce you to in Chapters 4 and 5.
But the vector discussion doesnt end there. I also show you several different
ways to mathematically work with vectors, including building the foundation
for a vectors equation (see Chapters 6, 7, and 8).
Peeking at a few vector types

One of the first vectors you need to get familiar with is the position vector,
which basically tells you how to get from one point to another. These vectors
are very handy for giving directions, measuring distances, and creating other
vectors; you can read about them in Chapter 5.
The most common type of vector that you deal with has to do with loads,
or forces (see the following section). Think of a force as being that number
that pops up when you step on your bathroom scale that reminds you that
you should have worked out last night instead of eating a second helping of
cheesecake. The bigger that number gets, the bigger the force that is being
applied to your scale. Forces are one of the major types of actions that can
affect a body in statics.
Understanding some purposes of vectors

One purpose of vectors is to help define direction. Many forces act along
straight lines but arent necessarily acting at a distinct point. By creating
a unit vector (a special type of vector with a specific length), you can define
the direction of these lines without actually knowing the specific coordinates
or location data; unit vectors also prove to be very useful for creating forces
(another type of vector). Check out Chapter 5 for more on these vectors
as well.
You can also use vectors to define the rotational behaviors (or spinning
effects) of an object, which I explain in Chapter 12.
You can also combine multiple vectors to create a single combined vector,
which can be useful for dealing with multiple forces. In addition, knowing
how you can break down vectors into smaller vectors and calculate their size
allows you to determine, say, how big a chair needs to be to support a given
weight, including figuring out the size of its legs and even the number of legs
necessary. In fact, for three-dimensional statics problems, vectors are practically mandatory. Chapters 7 and 8 deal with combining and breaking down
vectors, respectively.
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12
Defining Actions in Statics

In mechanics, you must become familiar with a large number of actions to be
able to study how an object behaves, ranging from velocity and momentum
in dynamics, to thermal effects, stress, and strain in mechanics. Fortunately,
the types of effects in statics are contained in a fairly brief list:
Forces: Forces are a type of load that causes an object to translate (move
linearly) in the direction of the applied force. Forces can be spread out
or acting at a single location, but they always cause an object to want
to translate. You can use forces to measure the intensity of one object
striking another, the weight of a car as it drives across a bridge deck, or
the effect of water pressure on the side of a submarine. Flip to Chapters
9 and 10 for more on forces.
Moments: Moments are a type of load that causes an object to rotate in
space without translation. Moments are usually the result of some sort
of twisting or spinning effect, such as a shaft attached to a motor, or a
reaction from a second object that is acting on the other. For example,
turning the handle of a wrench applies a moment to a bolt, which then
causes it to rotate. Chapter 12 gives you the lowdown on moments.
One of your biggest challenges in statics is how to accurately depict and determine the type of action or behavior being applied to a system. If an elephant
sits on your favorite living room recliner, you can easily tell what the final outcome of that action will probably be: You now have a broken chair, and a trip
to the furniture store is in your future. Although most people will wonder how
you got an elephant in your living room in the first place, as a statics enthusiast youre more interested in exploring the behavior of the elephants weight
and determining how much force is transmitted through the seat, into the legs,
and ultimately into the ground. This field is where your study of statics begins
(dont worry, no zoology or elephant anatomy knowledge is required).
Because forces and moments are such an important part of statics, you need to
be able to calculate them for different kinds of problems. In Part III, I show you
how to calculate forces and moments in both two- and three-dimensional situations. Load effects in statics are typically classified into three basic categories:
Concentrated forces: Concentrated forces (or forces that act at a single
point) include the force from a ball as its thrown toward a wall, or
even the force that your shoes exert on the floor from your self weight.
Icover these forces more in Chapter 9.
Distributed forces: Distributed forces are forces that are spread over an
area and are used to represent a wide variety of forces on objects. The
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13
weight of snow on the roof of your house or of soil pressure on your

basement wall is a distributed load. Chapter 10 shows you how to determine their net effect (or the resultant), and Chapter 11 illustrates how to
determine the location where this resultant is acting.
Concentrated moments: Concentrated moments are a type of load that
causes a rotation effect on an object. The behavior of your hand on a
door knob or a wrench on a nut is an example of rotational behaviors
that are caused by moments. I describe the types of moments and how
they are created in more detail in Chapter 12.
Sketching the World around You:

Free-Body Diagrams
The ability to draw a free-body diagram (or F.B.D., the picture representations
of the problem you want to investigate) is vital when you start a static analysis because F.B.D.s depict the problem youre trying to solve, and they help
you write the equations you need for performing a static analysis. In fact,
if you dont get the F.B.D. completely correct, you may end up solving for a
completely different problem altogether.
The more you practice creating free-body diagrams, the more proficient
you become. Free-body diagrams must feature various items, including
dimensions, self weight, support reactions, and the various forces I discuss
in PartIII. (Head to Chapter 13 for a full checklist of required items.) You
can also break a larger F.B.D. into additional diagrams; this tactic is useful
because you can use these smaller diagrams to find information that helps
you solve for a wide variety of effects, such as support reactions (physical
restraints) and internal forces, that you may not notice on the larger drawing.
You can find information on these topics in Chapter 14.
When youre working with F.B.D.s with multiple applied loads and supports,
simplifying those diagrams can make your work a lot, well, simpler. Chapter15
gives you several tricks for simplifying F.B.D.s; one of the most useful techniques is the principle of superposition, which allows you to quickly compute
behaviors by simply adding the responses of the individual cases. You can
also simplify your diagram by moving a force from one location on an object to
another while preserving the original behavior; you can read more about this
in Chapter 15 as well.
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14
Unveiling the Concept of Equilibrium

Isaac Newton (16421727) helped establish the laws of motion and gravity
(covered in Chapter 16) that are still used today. Equilibrium is a special
case of Newtons laws where acceleration of an object is equal to zero (that
is, it isnt experiencing an acceleration), which results in an object being in
a stable or balanced condition. If you lean back in your chair such that its
supported by two legs, you notice that you reach a special point where you
remain somewhat balanced. (But dont try this at home.) However, if you
lean a little bit forward, the chair starts to rock forward and usually winds
up safely back on the front two legs. This simple motion means that equilibrium hasnt been maintained. If you lean too far back, the chair starts to lean
backward and unless you catch yourself, you soon find yourself lying on the
ground. But good news: While youre lying on your back counting the little
birds circling your head, youve actually arrived at a new equilibrium state.
Although you can simplify statics down to three basic equilibrium relationships for two-dimensional problems (and six equations for three-dimensional
problems, though theyre similar in concept), you can investigate a wide variety of problems with these relationships. Flip to Chapters 17 and 18 for more
on equilibrium in two and three dimensions, respectively.
Applying Statics to the Real World

So whats an engineer to do after getting a handle on F.B.D.s, loads, equilibrium, and other statics trappings? Why, put them to use in actual applications, of course!
Real-world statics is where all the conceptual info you read about becomes
much more interesting and much more practical. You can employ statics
concepts to a wide variety of applications; some of the most common ones
include the following:
Trusses: Trusses are systems of simple objects interconnected to create
a single combined system. Theyre commonly used in roof systems and
as bridges that span large distances. In Chapter 19, I explain the basic
assumptions of trusses and then illustrate the method of joints and the
method of sections for analyzing forces within the truss.
Beams and bending members: The majority of objects you work with
in statics have up to three different types of internal forces (axial, shear,
and moment, which I cover in Chapter 20). These internal forces are
what engineers use to design structural members within a building. The
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15
forces sometimes cause a member to deflect (move away from being parallel), creating a bending member. You analyze these bending members
by using shear and moment diagrams, which you can also read about in
Chapter 20.
Frames and machines: Frames and machines, though similar to trusses,
can experience similar behaviors to beams and bending members. In
fact, a large number of structural objects and tools that you use on a
daily basis are actually either a frame or a machine. For example, simple
hand tools such as clamps, pliers, and pulleys are examples of simple
machines. Frames are more general systems of members that you can
use in framing for structures. Chapter 21 gives you the lowdown on
working with frames and machines.
Cable systems: Cable systems are a unique type of structure and can produce some amazing architectural bridges known as suspension bridges.
In Chapter 22, I describe the assumptions behind cable systems and
present the techniques you need to solve cable problems.
Submerged surfaces: Submerged surfaces are objects that are subjected
to fluid pressure, such as dams. Fluids can apply hydrostatic pressure
and pressure from self weight to submerged surfaces, and I describe
both of those in Chapter 23.
A discussion of statics applications wouldnt be complete without talking
about friction, the resistance an object feels along a contact surface as it
moves in a particular direction. The two main types of frictional behavior are
sliding (where the object moves across the surface in response to a force)
and tipping (where the object responds to a force by toppling over rather
than moving across a surface). These friction forces are the source of a large
number of strange behaviors and require you to make assumptions about a
behavior and then use free-body diagrams and the equations of equilibrium
to verify them. Chapter 24 is your headquarters for all things friction.
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Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Setting the Stage for Statics .............................. 7
Chapter 1: Using Statics to Describe the World around You ....................................... 9
Chapter 2: A Quick Mathematics Refresher ................................................................. 17
Chapter 3: Working with Unit Systems and Constants ............................................... 31
Part II: Your Statics Foundation: Vector Basics ............ 39

Chapter 4: Viewing the World through Vectors........................................................... 41
Chapter 5: Using Vectors to Better Define Direction .................................................. 51
Chapter 6: Vector Mathematics and Identities ............................................................ 69
Chapter 7: Turning Multiple Vectors into a Single Vector Resultant ........................ 79
Chapter 8: Breaking Down a Vector into Components ............................................... 95
Part III: Forces and Moments as Vectors .................... 107

Chapter 9: Applying Concentrated Forces and External Point Loads..................... 109
Chapter 10: Spreading It Out: Understanding Distributed Loads ............................ 123
Chapter 11: Finding the Centers of Objects and Regions ......................................... 135
Chapter 12: Special Occasions in the Life of a Force Vector:
Moments and Couples ................................................................................................ 149
Part IV: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words

(Or At Least a Few Equations): Free-Body Diagrams..... 167
Chapter 13: Anatomy of a Free-Body Diagram ........................................................... 169
Chapter 14: The F.B.D.: Knowing What to Draw and How to Draw It ...................... 185
Chapter 15: Simplifying a Free-Body Diagram ............................................................ 199
Part V: A Question of Balance: Equilibrium................ 207

Chapter 16: Mr. Newton Has Entered the Building: The Basics of Equilibrium ..... 209
Chapter 17: Taking a Closer Look at Two-Dimensional Equilibrium:
Scalar Methods ............................................................................................................ 219
Chapter 18: Getting Better Acquainted with Three-Dimensional Equilibrium:
Vector Methods .......................................................................................................... 229
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Part VI: Statics in Action ......................................... 241

Chapter 19: Working with Trusses .............................................................................. 243
Chapter 20: Analyzing Beams and Bending Members............................................... 259
Chapter 21: Working with Frames and Machines ...................................................... 279
Chapter 22: A Different Kind of Axial System: Cable Systems ................................. 293
Chapter 23: Those Darn Dam Problems: Submerged Surfaces ................................ 309
Chapter 24: Incorporating Friction into Your Applications ..................................... 321
Part VII: The Part of Tens ......................................... 339

Chapter 25: Ten Steps to Solving Any Statics Problem............................................. 341
Chapter 26: Ten Tips for Surviving a Statics Exam ................................................... 347
Index ....................................................................... 353
02_598948-ftoc.indd vi
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g Easier!
Making Everythin
s
c
i
m
a
n
y
d
o
m
r
e
Th
Learn to:
Master the concepts and principles
of thermodynamics
Develop the problem-solving skills
used by professional engineers
Ace your thermodynamics course
Michael Pauken, PhD

Senior Mechanical Engineer,
NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
Chapter 1
Thermodynamics in Everyday Life

In This Chapter
Seeing thermodynamics in the world around you
Changing energy from one form to another
Getting energy to do work and move heat for you
Figuring out relationships, reactions, and mixtures (nothing personal)
Inspiring you to save the world from an energy shortage
hermodynamics is as old as the universe itself, and the universe is

simply the largest known thermodynamic system. When the universe
ends in a whimper and the total energy of the universe dissipates to nothingness, so will thermodynamics end.
Broadly speaking, thermodynamics is all about energy: how it gets used and
how it changes from one form to another. In many cases, thermodynamics
involves using heat to provide work, as in the case of your automobile engine,
or doing work to move heat, as in your refrigerator. With thermodynamics, you
can find out how efficient things are at using energy for useful purposes, such
as moving an airplane, generating electricity, or even riding a bicycle.
The word thermodynamics has a Greek heritage. The first part, thermo, conveys
the idea that heat is somehow involved, and the second part, dynamics, makes
you think of things that move. Keep these two ideas in mind as you look at
your world in terms of the basic laws of thermodynamics. This book is written
to help you understand that thermodynamics is about turning heat into power,
a concept that really isnt so complicated after all.
Grasping Thermodynamics
Many thermodynamic systems are at work in the natural world. That sun you
see in the sky is the ultimate energy source for the earth, warming the air, the
ground, and the oceans. Huge masses of air move over the earths surface.
Giant currents of water swirl in the oceans. This movement and swirling
happens because of the transformation of heat into work.
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10
Part I: Covering the Basics in Thermodynamics

Energy takes many different forms it cant be created or destroyed, but it
can change form. This statement is one of the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. Consider how energy changes form in storm clouds:
Storm clouds have motion within them.
Motion between moisture droplets in clouds rubbing against each other
creates friction.
Friction causes a buildup of static charge.
When the charge becomes high enough, the clouds produce lightning.
This electrical surge of energy can then start a fire on the ground, and
before you know it, you have a combustion problem on your hands.
Not only does energy change form, but matter (that is, a material or substance) also changes form in many thermodynamic systems. Storm clouds
are formed by water evaporating into the air. As the water vapor reaches the
colder parts of the atmosphere, it condenses to form clouds. Eventually, the
amount of moisture the clouds contain becomes great enough to collect into
droplets and form liquid water again, so it rains.
One thing people have observed about energy is that it flows in a preferred
direction. This observation is another fundamental law of thermodynamics.
Heat flows from a hot object to a cold object. Wind blows from a region of
high pressure to a region of low pressure. Some forms of energy are developed by forces of nature. Air bubbles move upwards in water against gravity
because buoyancy forces them to rise. Water droplets fall in the atmosphere
because the force of gravity pulls them toward the ground.
Another brilliant observation about energy is that if you have absolutely no
energy at all, you have no temperature. The concept of absolute zero temperature is a fundamental law of thermodynamics.
I cover the changing forms of energy and matter and the fundamental laws
that govern how these changes work in Part I.
Examining Energys Changing Forms

Many clever people have observed the fundamental laws of thermodynamics
in natural systems and applied them to create some wonderful ways of doing
work by harnessing energy. Heat is used to generate steam or heat up air
that moves a piston in a cylinder or spins a turbine. This movement is used
to turn a shaft that can operate a lawn mower; move a car, a truck, a locomotive, or a ship; turn an electric generator; or propel an airplane.
Other clever people have used thermodynamic principles to use work to
move heat from one place to another. Refrigerators and heat pumps remove
heat from one location to produce a desirable cooling or heating effect. The
work required for this cooling shows up on your electric bill every month.
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Chapter 1: Thermodynamics in Everyday Life
11
In Part II, I show you how the fundamental laws of thermodynamics can tell you
how much heat you need to provide to produce work that can be used to move
a car, fly an airplane, or turn an electric generator. You can also use the laws of
thermodynamics to find out how efficient something is at using energy.
Energy is the basis of every thermodynamic process. When you use energy
to do something, it changes form along the way. When you start your car, the
battery causes the starter to turn. The battery is a big, heavy box of chemical
energy. The batterys job is to change chemical energy into electrical energy.
An electric motor rotates (a form of kinetic energy) the engine, and the spark
plugs fire. These sparks ignite fuel via a combustion process wherein the
chemical energy from gasoline is turned into a form of thermal energy called
internal energy. In the few seconds it takes to start your car, energy changes
from chemical to electrical to kinetic to thermal or internal energy.
Kinetic energy
A car battery provides electricity to operate your starter. As the motor turns,
the electrical energy is converted into a form of mechanical energy called
kinetic energy. Kinetic energy involves moving a mass so that it has velocity.
The mass doesnt have to be very large to have kinetic energy even electrons
have kinetic energy but the mass has to be moving. Before you start the car,
nothing in the engine is moving so it has no kinetic energy. After the engine is
started, it has kinetic energy because of its moving pistons and rotating shafts.
If the car is parked while the engine is running, the car as a system has no
kinetic energy until the engine makes the car move.
Potential energy
If you drive your car up a hill and park it there, you change the kinetic energy
of the car into another form of energy called potential energy. Potential
energy is only available with gravity. You must have a mass located at an
elevation above some ground state. Potential energy gets its name from its
potential to be converted into kinetic energy. You see this conversion process when you park on a hill and forget to apply the parking brake. Potential
energy changes back into kinetic energy as your car rolls down the hill.
Internal energy
When you apply the brakes to stop your car, you make energy change form
again. You know the car has kinetic energy because its moving. Stopping the
car changes all this kinetic energy into heat. Brake pads squeeze onto steel
disks or steel drums, creating friction. Friction generates heat sometimes
a lot of heat. When materials heat up, another form of energy called internal
energy increases. Have you ever smelled a burning odor while driving down
05_9781118002919-ch01.indd 11
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12

long hills? That odor indicates that someone used their brakes to slow down,
and the brakes overheated. Do your brakes a favor: Shift into a lower gear
and allow the engine to do the braking for you. When the engine is used as a
brake, the kinetic energy of the moving car compresses the air in the cylinders, and the energy changes into internal energy because the air heats up
from compression. All that internal energy just goes out the tailpipe.
Watching Energy and Work in Action

Until the invention of the steam engine, man had to slug it out against nature
with nature. Horses pulled coaches, mules pulled plows, sails moved ships,
windmills ground grain, and water wheels pressed apples into cider that fermented and made man feel happy for all his labors. The steam engine was able
to replace these natural work sources and move coaches, plows, and ships,
among many other things. For the first time, fire was harnessed to provide
something more than just heat it was used to do work. This use of heat to
accomplish work is what Part III is all about. Over time, many different kinds
of work machines were developed, theories were made, and experiments were
done until a rational system of analyzing heat and work was developed into the
field of thermodynamics.
Engines: Letting energy do work

A heat engine is a machine that can take some source of heat burning gasoline, coal, natural gas, or even the sun and make it do work, usually in the
form of turning a shaft. With a rotating shaft, you can make things move
think of elevators or race cars. Every heat engine uses four basic processes
that interact with the surroundings to accomplish the engines job. These
processes are heat input, heat rejection, work input, and work output.
Take your automobile engine as an example of a heat engine. Here are the
four basic processes that go on under the hood:
1. Work input
Air is compressed in the cylinders. This compression requires work
from the engine itself. Initially, this work comes from the starter. As
you can imagine, this process takes a lot of work, which is why they
dont have those crank handles on the front of cars any more.
2. Heat input
Fuel is burned in the cylinder, where the heat is added to the engine. The
heated air in the cylinder naturally wants to increase in pressure and
expand. The pressure and expansion move the piston down the cylinder.
05_9781118002919-ch01.indd 12
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Chapter 1: Thermodynamics in Everyday Life
13
3. Work output
As the expanding gas in the cylinder pushes the piston, work is output by
the engine. Some of this work compresses the air in adjacent cylinders.
4. Heat rejection
The last process removes heat with the exhaust from the engine.
Refrigeration: Letting work move heat

When Willis Carrier made air conditioners a popular home appliance, he did
more than make people comfortable and give electric utilities a reason for
growth and expansion. He brought thermodynamics into the home. Thermodynamics has been there all along, and you never realized it. Refrigerators,
freezers, air conditioners, and heat pumps are all the same in thermodynamics. Only three basic processes involve energy interacting with the surroundings in what is known as the refrigeration cycle:
1. Heat input
Heat is absorbed from the cold space to keep it cold.
2. Work input
Work is added to the system to pump the heat absorbed from the cold
space out to the hot space.
3. Heat rejection
Heat is rejected to the hot space.
Actually, a fourth process takes place in most refrigeration cycles, but it doesnt
involve a change in energy. Instead of having a work-output process in the cycle
like heat engines do, refrigerators simply utilize a pressure-reducing device in
the system. Energy doesnt change form in such a device.
Getting into Real Gases, Gas Mixtures,

and Combustion Reactions
Using energy to generate electric power, cool your house, fly a jet, or race
cars around the Indianapolis Motor Speedway is the glamorous side of
thermodynamics. But behind the movie stars are a supporting cast and
crew of thermodynamic relationships (this is jargon for mathematical
equations) for real gases, gas mixtures, and combustion reactions that
make it all happen.
05_9781118002919-ch01.indd 13
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14

In Part IV, you discover the difference between a real gas and an ideal gas.
There you see that real gases behave a bit differently than ideal gases. You
also figure out the thermodynamic properties of a mixture of gases, such as
water vapor and air for heating, air conditioning, and ventilating purposes.
Lastly, you calculate how much energy you can get out of fuel in a combustion reaction to power your jet, your race car, or your lawn mower.
If you want to sell jet engines to an aircraft manufacturer, you have to show
that your engine burns fuel efficiently. To build a jet engine, you need to know
how much energy a combustion reaction adds to an engine and how much the
air in the engine heats up as a result of the combustion. To figure out the latter,
you use thermodynamic relationships of real gases to calculate properties
such as temperature, pressure, and energy.
Discovering Old Names and

New Ways of Saving Energy
As you learn about thermodynamics, youll run across a number of names.
Some of the names may be familiar; others may be new to you. For example,
when you get your electric bill, it tells you how many watt-hours of electricity you used last month. If you reheat yesterdays leftover pizza, you set your
oven to 350 degrees Fahrenheit. (Or, if you live outside the U.S., you set
your oven to some temperature in degrees Celsius.) That big rig thats
riding your bumper on the highway burns diesel fuel.
How did these terms watt, Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Diesel become part
of our language? In Part V, you discover that these words (and six more) are
actually the last names of characters bent on figuring out what energy is and
how to harness it for the benefit of mankind (and maybe to line their pockets
with some folding money).
Pioneers in thermodynamics didnt just work in the good old days; there
are modern-day pioneers as well. The worlds demand for energy steadily
increases while energy resources dwindle. Part V shows you ten ways innovative thinkers have improved energy consumption for automobiles, air conditioners, refrigerators, and electric power plants. Making a better future for all
has motivated many people to think of better ways to use energy.
Even Albert Einstein got a patent for making a better air-conditioning system
(see Chapter 18). Maybe youll be inspired to create your own innovation and
make a name for yourself in thermodynamics.
05_9781118002919-ch01.indd 14
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Introduction ................................................................ 1
Part I: Covering the Basics in Thermodynamics .............. 7
Chapter 1: Thermodynamics in Everyday Life ............................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Laying the Foundation of Thermodynamics ............................................. 15
Chapter 3: Working with Phases and Properties of Substances ................................ 39
Chapter 4: Work and Heat Go Together Like Macaroni and Cheese ......................... 57
Part II: Employing the Laws of Thermodynamics .......... 75

Chapter 5: Using the First Law in Closed Systems ...................................................... 77
Chapter 6: Using the First Law in Open Systems ......................................................... 91
Chapter 7: Governing Heat Engines and Refrigerators with the Second Law ......... 111
Chapter 8: Entropy Is the Demise of the Universe .................................................... 123
Chapter 9: Analyzing Systems Using the Second Law of Thermodynamics........... 145
Part III: Planes, Trains, and Automobiles:

Making Heat Work for You ....................................... 165
Chapter 10: Working with Carnot and Brayton Cycles ............................................. 167
Chapter 11: Working with Otto and Diesel Cycles ..................................................... 197
Chapter 12: Working with Rankine Cycles .................................................................. 221
Chapter 13: Cooling Off with Refrigeration Cycles .................................................... 243
Part IV: Handling Thermodynamic Relationships,

Reactions, and Mixtures ........................................... 265
Chapter 14: Understanding the Behavior of Real Gases ........................................... 267
Chapter 15: Mixing Gases That Dont React with Each Other .................................. 277
Chapter 16: Burning Up with Combustion .................................................................. 303

Chapter 17: Ten Famous Names in Thermodynamics .............................................. 327
Chapter 18: Ten More Cycles of Note.......................................................................... 331
Appendix: Thermodynamic Property Tables ................ 341

Index ...................................................................... 351
02_9781118002919-ftoc.indd vii
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Engineering For Dummies

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g Easier!

James H. Allen III, PE, PhD

Predicting Behavior with

echanics of materials is one of the first application-based engineering

Part I: Setting the Stage for Mechanics of Materials

Tying Statics and Mechanics Together

Chapter 1: Predicting Behavior with Mechanics of Materials

Defining Behavior in Mechanics

Part I: Setting the Stage for Mechanics of Materials

Using Stresses to Study Behavior

Studying Behavior through Strains

Chapter 1: Predicting Behavior with Mechanics of Materials

Incorporating the Material

Putting Mechanics to Work

Part I: Setting the Stage for Mechanics of Materials

Part II: Analyzing Stress ............................................ 83

Part III: Investigating Strain .................................... 189

Part IV: Applying Stress and Strain........................... 233

Part V: The Part of Tens ........................................... 343

Index ...................................................................... 355

Galen Duree, Jr., PhD

Illuminating the Properties of Light

Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals

Creating images with the

Harnessing interference and diffraction

Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light

To explain optical interference (interference between light waves), you need

Using Optics to Your Advantage:

Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals

Expanding Your Understanding of Optics

Considering complicated applications

Chapter 1: Introducing Optics, the Science of Light

Adding advanced optics

Paving the Way: Contributions to Optics

Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals

Part II: Geometrical Optics: Working

Part III: Physical Optics: Using the Light Wave ........... 95

Part IV: Optical Instrumentation:

Part V: Hybrids: Exploring More

Part VI: More Than Just Images:

Part VII: The Part of Tens ......................................... 311

Index ...................................................................... 325

Part I: Getting Up to Speed on Optics Fundamentals ....... 7

Chapter 2: Brushing Up on Optics-Related Math and Physics . . . . . .15

Optics For Dummies

Chapter 4: Understanding How to Direct Where Light Goes . . . . . . . .45

Part II: Geometrical Optics: Working

Chapter 6: Imaging with Mirrors: Bouncing Many Rays Around. . . . .69

Chapter 7: Imaging with Refraction: Bending

Optics For Dummies

Part III: Physical Optics: Using the Light Wave ............ 95

Chapter 9: Changing Optical Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Chapter 10: Calculating Reected and Transmitted

Chapter 11: Running Optical Interference:

Chapter 12: Diffraction: Lights Bending around Obstacles . . . . . . . .161

Part IV: Optical Instrumentation:

Optics For Dummies

Chapter 15: Guiding Light From Here to Anywhere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

Part V: Hybrids: Exploring More

Chapter 17: Medical Imaging: Seeing Whats

Chapter 18: Optics Everywhere: Exploring Other

Chapter 19: Astronomical Applications: Using Telescopes. . . . . . . .271

Optics For Dummies