1

WRITING SKILLS: ORGANISING YOUR IDEAS ........................................... 3

INDUCTIVE VS. DEDUCTIVE REASONING ............................................................ 3
The Pyramid ............................................................................................. 5
PRESENTING YOUR IDEAS LOGICALLY ............................................................ 10
Chronology / Sequence .......................................................................... 10
Location .................................................................................................. 10
Order of Importance................................................................................ 10
General to Specific (Deductive) / Specific to General (Inductive) ........... 11
HOW TO ORDER .......................................................................................... 17

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Complete Handbook and CD available from http://www.reportingskills.org/order.htm

Writing Skills: Organising your Ideas

By the end of this module you will understand the principles of professional organisation of
writing and be able to:

Select from a range of ways to organise your main points

Write clear, concise and cohesive paragraphs

Organise those ideas into a report

In this module we will look at an action- focused approach to organising your writing that
saves time and gets results. We will examine the various ways to organise your main points.
We will discuss the concepts of paragraph writing, and you will learn how to organise your
ideas into cohesive and persuasive arguments. We will finish by looking at how to organise
reports effectively.

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There will be the usual reflection questions and practice exercises to help you apply the tools
for organising your ideas. On the way we will discuss some of the implications of organising
our writing professionally. Being action- focused is a big aspect of writing style. As in the
module on Clarity, we will consider the implications of the approach we suggest.
We will end this module by recapping the main points, as well as reminding you that almost
everything here is only suggested. It will always be up to you and your unique knowledge of
the situation that will guide you in selecting how you organise your ideas for your reader.

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

If you are presenting an argument there are two main ways that you can present your ideas.
We will refer to these as Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. Both can be effective. When we
present our ideas inductively, we give specific examples, ideas and evidence and, based on
these, present our conclusions at the end. This can also be described as a scientific argument
developing all our points before presenting our conclusion.
Inductive Reasoning

Heres an example of Inductive Reasoning:

In 2002, the number of women in the district who could read was just 9%. This is poor by
national standards, then estimated to be 14%. Presently that figure is 19%. This means that
there have been significant advances in female literacy, which has more than doubled since
2002.
Our research also indicates that child mortality stands at just 6.1%, compared to 8.4% six
years ago. This represents a decrease of more than 25%. Child mortality in the district was
once among the highest in the nation, and is now below the national average of 7.4% (est.
2006).

Both paragraphs are certainly cohesive and complete, but look at where the conclusions are.
In each case, they come at the end of the paragraph. Both paragraphs start by presenting
facts, which alone may have no significance to the reader. It is following the sequence
specific to general. This forces the reader to process all the information and can make
understanding the key point of each paragraph more challenging.
However, a busy reader will not usually read every word. She will usually scan the document,
especially if it is a long one, trying to get the main ideas. She will certainly read the first
sentence of each paragraph. If the first sentence is just raw data with no explanation, this can
lead to frustration.
Always put yourself in the readers position. What questions does the reader want the writing
to answer? That is what you should deal with first.

Complete Handbook and CD available from http://www.reportingskills.org/order.htm

Deductive Reasoning
The same information could be presented a more professional way. With Deductive
Reasoning, you start out by stating your conclusion, expressed in a Topic Sentence, and then
present the main points. Finally, you give the supporting details. Looking at the examples
again, presented deductively:
There have been significant advances in female literacy. This has more than doubled since
2002. Presently, female literacy stands at 19%. In 2002, the number of women in the district
who could read was just 9%. This was poor by national standards, then estimated to be 14%.
Our research also indicates that child mortality in the district is now below the national
average. Child mortality has fallen by over 25% over the past six years. Once among the
highest in the nation 8.4% compared to an average of 7.4% (est. 2006) it now stands at
just 6.1%.

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The first sentence of each paragraph is its Topic Sentence. It gives the main idea of the
paragraph. We are saying what is most important first, so that the reader can more easily
understand what is to follow. We are saving the reader time the time often wasted hunting
for the main idea. The reader can skim through the text and, by reading the first sentence of
each paragraph, should be able to build up a clear understanding of the whole document. You
are also saving your reader effort the effort of analysing the data herself.
A further point is that in reports and proposals, you will save yourself a lot of effort when you
come to draft a summary or write conclusions. By taking the first topic sentence from each
paragraph, you should be able to build up a concise summary of the entire document. A final
advantage is that we can use well- expressed topic sentences to support our main objective
and persuade our readers.

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The Pyramid
The Deductive Approach is sometimes described as an Inverted Pyramid.
Traditionally, the Inductive approach follows an argument-building route upwards through a
pyramid of logic. Let's refer back to the Education section of our extended assignment on
Children in Nepal.

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In Nepal, there are just 23,885 primary schools for around 2.5 million children. 60% of these
are in urban areas, while 93% of children live in rural areas. This means that childrens
access to education is very limited, especially in remote areas. Despite this, 70% of all
children are enrolled at primary level, which is encouraging. However, while 79% of boys start
primary level, this figure is just 61% for girls, which means that girls are less likely to be
educated than boys, a sign of gender bias. In conclusion, we can see that the education
status of children is poor.
At the base of the pyramid we have our data facts and figures from the field. At the next
level, we have the main points. Finally, the journey ends (at last!) with the writers conclusion.

For the reasons mentioned earlier (and others we will discuss shortly), this is not the most
effective way to present your professional writing. The action-focused alternative would be
something like:

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Overall, the primary education situation of children in Nepal is poor. Access to education is
limited and, although enrolment is reasonable, there is widespread gender bias against girls.
Limited access is shown through the number of schools and their location. The number of
schools is not enough, with a ratio of one primary school per 150 children (23,885 schools for
3.5m primary- age children). Furthermore, most of the schools are concentrated in urban
areas, far from where most children live. Nearly 2/3 of schools (60%) are in urban areas while
the majority of children (93%) live in remote areas.
Even so, enrolment is reasonably high. Despite limited access, 70% of children do enrol at
primary level. However, 1/3 of children still do not begin primary education.
However, we can see widespread gender bias against girls in education. Fewer girls get an
opportunity for schooling, with 79% of boys enrolled compared to just 61% of girls.
Notice how the example you saw follows what, in journalism, is sometimes called the Inverted
Pyramid. Just as newspapers follow the time- and effort-saving approach of giving the most
important points first, professional writers also will regularly use this approach in their
reporting.

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Using the Inverted Pyramid we travel in the opposite direction to the scientific / inductive
argument. We give our conclusions first; next we describe the data; and, finally, we give
supporting evidence, data and examples.
We travel down the pyramid. The different levels of the pyramid are sometimes called the
Ladder of Abstraction. At the top we have the general or abstract ideas, and at the bottom we
have the specifics.

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Lets look at that paragraph visually before we move on.

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Task
Before we close this introduction to approaches to organising writing, note down:
1. The advantages of using the Inverted Pyramid to organise your ideas in writing
2. Any situations where it would not be a good idea
Discussion
Why you Should Use the Inverted Pyramid
There are several reasons to seriously consider adopting this approach.
Its your responsibility. In professional writing, its the writer who is the expert and knows
more than the reader. Its the writer who has gathered the information and analysed it.
Anyone can present information: but the professional writers responsibility is more than this.
Its to:

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Investigate

Understand

Describe

Explain

It helps the reader to decide on action. Your reader has to spend less mental effort on
processing the information and can, consequently, focus on understanding the meaning and
significance of what you are writing.

Its more persuasive. Readers are more likely to agree with your conclusion if it comes at the
beginning rather than at the end. If we present our conclusion first, the following data
strengthens and supports it. However, if we present the data first, our reader will automatically
draw her own conclusions. If your conclusion doesnt confirm what your reader thinks, then
you havent succeeded in presenting your case.
Your reader might not read everything. Professional readers will certainly read the first
paragraph, and the first sentence of each paragraph. If they are very patient, they will read
more perhaps enough of each paragraph until they find the significant point. Usually when I
have found the main point, I will jump to the next paragraph. (This way of reading is
sometimes exploited by writers trying to cover up project shortcomings. Ive seen several
reports where problems have been hidden away deep inside dense paragraphs. Dont do it!)
It gets your readers attention. By starting with the main point, you have already got the
readers attention. If she continues on to the second paragraph, she is likely to read all of
what you have written. (This technique of hooking your reader is especially effective in
project proposal writing. If you can get your readers attention early, and she goes on to the
second page, your proposal is in with a better chance of consideration.)
It helps the reader to follow your argument. By organising your writing in this way, you will
help the reader to follow the rest. If you give the main message first, the reader will have a
clear idea about where it is all leading to.
It shows respect. If your conclusion comes last, you are forcing your reader to read the
whole thing. People from some cultures may feel unsure about this point. Especially where
there is a high Power-Distance between reader and writer, or where it is traditional to show
respect by not getting to the point so directly, some writers may feel uncomfortable about this.
We are showing respect towards the readers time and mental effort by getting to our main
point quickly. However, we do not insist that you apply any of the tools blindly. That is why we
say get to the main point as soon as you can.

Complete Handbook and CD available from http://www.reportingskills.org/order.htm

When to Use a More Traditional Approach

We asked you earlier to also list any situations where it would not be a good idea to be so
direct. Here are the two situations where we think the direct approach may be risky.
Bad News
It helps not to be too direct or blunt when we are giving bad news. For example, we may need
to reject a proposal or job application. Usually, we will give some background and explanation
before we give the main point. (For example, Thank you for your proposal dated . We
discussed this at .. While there were many strengths .. Unfortunately .. etc.) Even so,
lets make sure that the message is still clear. If you are firing someone, dont give so much
complimentary background that the person thinks he is being promoted!
High Power-Distance
Sometimes our readers can get offended when we
are too direct. This is no poor reflection on you as
a writer just that some readers can be very
fussy, especially if they consider themselves
experts or hold a lot of power. We all know that
some bureaucrats expect a lot of respect, and
directness can sometimes offend their
sensibilities.

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I recall a letter I wrote to one ministry. It was
around two pages, and, in my opinion, in the most
formal English I knew. My friend, a local lawyer,
had other ideas. Too direct, he said, and
proceeded to add entire phrases containing words
like grateful, humble and respectfully.

Even so, we still need to make our point clearly and unambiguously. And in both of these
cases, you still need to:

Get to the main message as soon as you possibly can

Present your ideas logically

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Presenting Your Ideas Logically

Dont worry, this isnt particularly complicated well, not too much. There are just a few ways,
and some are used for very specific writing types. We will deal with those first, before coming
back to the two most common Deductive and Inductive. (I know we repeat a lot of ideas in
this module we really want to get this point across. Bear with us!)
Remember that these different ways will all depend on the type of document, purpose in
writing or specific information we have collected.

Chronology / Sequence
Ordering ideas in a time-based sequence can be used for a variety of writing types. Entire
documents or major parts of documents can be ordered in this way. Examples are:

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Narrative sections of training reports (Day 1, Day 2, etc.), programme evaluation and
field visit reports

Minutes of meetings

Instructions, describing processes and training materials

Case studies which describe an end- users experiences from start of the programme
to present situation

Presenting a problem analysis, when we are describing a chain of cause and effect

Narrating a story

Location

There are only few occasions when you will

need to use this way to organise your main
points. Use this way when you are writing about
different geographical locations, organisational
divisions, sections or units. It can be useful for
comparative analysis and some field reports
where several sites are visited for comparison.

Now we have covered Chronology and Location,

lets look at the most common ways you will be
using.

Order of Importance
This really is an underlying principle that should
guide all our planning and presentation of ideas. Dont forget its not whats important to you
that matters, but whats important for your reader. Your reader is going to care about results
and significance a lot more than method. So if you spent six hours walking up a mountain to
conduct a survey, its the surveys conclusions that matter and not its design or the journey.
One thing you definitely will organise using order of importance is your recommendations.
These will very often be presented as a list, either bulleted or numbered. Some tips on
making lists:
Even if you are using bullets, think about the hierarchy of ideas. While a bulleted list indicates
that ideas are of equal importance numbers indicate degree of importance of sequence
the brain doesnt work like that. A reader will always, at some level, assume that the top of the
list is more important than the bottom. So look at your list carefully and make sure that your
most important recommendation comes first.
Avoid long lists. Typically your list should be between three and seven items. After seven, the
short term memory has trouble grasping everything. Thats why most telephone numbers
the variable part, anyway are seven digits and not eight.

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10

If you cant find a clear order of importance, arrange your list from General to Specific. Talk
about education before you talk about schools and teachers, and health before detailing
doctors and hospitals. Thats the Ladder of Abstraction again. You can go both ways, and
we will look at that a bit further in the next section.
Before we do, lets remember that we can organise entire documents using order of
importance. For example, this is how we organise effective proposals.

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If we follow the proposal Mind Map clockwise, we start with the most essential point: the
problem to be addressed. (Within the Challenge / Problem statement also, we follow the
same principle of importance the core problem first, then the effects, and finally the causes.)
Next comes the Programme Description, and this follows the hierarchy of ideas of our Project
Planning Matrix / Logical Framework, from Goal right down to Activities.
The next sections Staffing, Evaluation and Budget are less important than the problem
and its solution, and the part where you describe your organisations ability to deliver the
promised results comes last. After all, we should sell the project need first, the solution
second and ourselves last. (You will have already convinced your reader of your abilities by
this point anyway after all, its your plan.)

Interestingly, reports are typically NOT organised by order of importance. Due to their origins
in scientific reporting, the most common report structure (discussed in the module on
Planning) usually has the most important parts the conclusions and recommendations
last.
Use Order of Importance also for:

Letters

Memos

Invitations

Press Releases

General to Specific (Deductive) / Specific to General (Inductive)

Now we are back where we started this module. As long as you have given your conclusion
first, you can either continue to work down the Ladder of Abstraction, i.e. moving from the
general / abstract towards the more specific / concrete; or you can use the scientific approach
and build your argument upwards. As long as you have made your conclusion / purpose clear
at the very beginning, you are free to choose.

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11

We prefer the Deductive approach for the reasons mentioned earlier its easier to
understand, it saves time, etc. But we do not insist that you turn your writing completely
upside down just because we say so.

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12

"At last there is a clear,

simple toolkit on
report writing skills for
people working in
international development."
Dr. Christine Hogan
Author of 'Facilitating
Multicultural Groups'

Imagine having a process that helps

you plan your research, analyse the
results and have a clear plan and
objective for your report (along with
those conclusions and lessons learned)
before you even type a word? Add to that
the skills of writing - clarity, organisation,
style and editing - and think of the time and
energy that could be put to better use.

What is the Reporting Skills and

Professional Writing Handbook?
It's a self-study programme that is based on the best of 10 years'
experience working with INGOs, NGOs, GOs and IOs over hundreds
of training courses. It's available on CDROM for convenient deskstop
study, and, for larger organisations, the Trainer Edition is supported
by a complete Training Pack.

The end result will be better too - our

clients - from grassroots NGOs through big
INGOs like CARE, Oxfam and Save the
Children, to Government and International
Organisations such as UNICEF, seem to
think so. Over the past 10 years, hundreds
of such organisations have sent thousands
of participants to us in Laos, Thailand,
Nepal and Pakistan to attend (expensive
and intensive) training courses that benefit
just a few.

Along with the CD you get the entire programme as a free PDF
Ebook which can be downloaded right away. With over 230 pages of
explanations and tasks, it's complete.

These same organisations have been

quick to take advantage of our self-study
programme on Reporting Skills and
Professional Writing - enhancing their
staff's writing skills while saving 1000s of
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process.

It's not that difficult! This programme is full of clear explanations and
examples, frequent practical exercises, and an extended case study
to fully apply all the tools presented. This is not just a 'book about
reporting skills' - this practical guide will give you the skills to:

There's no longer any need to take time

away from the office and fly to some distant
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Managers no longer have to wonder how
they can balance this years' training budget
and who will benefit and who will lose out.

Whether you use the Ebook only, or follow the steps using the CD,
you can learn the skills of analysis, planning, drafting and editing
effective reports without having to interrupt your busy schedule.
Reporting skills can be learned, just like any other skill. This
Handbook takes readers through the entire reporting process from
setting objectives, through data gathering and analysis tools, to
planning, drafting, editing and designing the report.

(Continues>>>)

Set evaluation goals - know what you are doing before

you start
Select data gathering methods - select the best way
to get breadth and depth of information efficiently and
economically
Analyse quantitative and qualitative data - really
understand what your data is telling you
Plan the report - put your ideas into a structure that
works
Write more clearly and organise your ideas and
analysis effectively - getting to the point in a powerful,
persuasive style
Edit and design the final result for impact

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ALL THE BEST OF ELD's EXPERIENCE is now available in an easy-to-follow, stress-free self
study programme for just a fraction of the cost of face-to-face training that can fit alongside any development
worker's busy schedule. For as little as 20 you can learn all the skills taught in our Reporting Skills training easily saving 100s on training fees and travel - all in your own time without interrupting your work.
(from Page 1)

Unlike a face-to-face training with ELD, you DON'T NEED to budget: over two hundred pounds as training fee
PLUS travel to an ELD training centre in Thailand, Nepal or Turkey PLUS visa costs PLUS accommodation
PLUS living expenses PLUS ONE WEEK OF YOUR VALUABLE TIME. That's easily more than a thousand
pounds in real cost, if you can actually find a training course. (Very few organisations offer such a specific report
writing training, and some charge up to 1500 per person for training fees alone.)
And, if you are a Human Resources Manager, imagine training ALL your staff for less than 20 each!
There's no longer any need for expensive in-house consultants. With the Trainer Edition, you get a complete
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just ONE participant on a training course.

Whats in the Handbook?

The Handbook is spread over 8 easy-to-follow modules
that cover ALL the steps of the writing process.
Module One - Professional Writing & the Writing
Process (19 pages) is an introduction to the
programme, and clarifies what Professional Writing is
and what makes writing effective. Also introduced is the
Writing Process - Analysis, Planning, Drafting & Editing.
Module Two - Setting Objectives and Data Gathering
Methods (21 pages) covers the preparatory phase of
the investigation: setting objectives, developing the
research plan and selecting the data gathering methods.
The module also looks at evaluation reports, progress
reports and investigations based on Terms of
Reference.
Module Three - Analysing and Interpreting
Information (46 pages) looks at how to interpret
statistics before moving onto the three steps of data analysis. In the extended case study which runs through the
programme, we turn a fact sheet on children's issues into a report structure and finally into a Mind Map of interrelated
issues.
Module Four - Planning the Report (14 pages) covers the planning phase. The tools of SPR (Subject / Purpose /
Reader) analysis and Reader Profiling are practised and the case study analysis is now developed into a clear plan for
the report.
Module Five - Writing Skills - Clarity (30 pages) is the second writing skills component and investigates how to get
your message across and improve the impact of your writing. The module demonstrates how to measure how clear
your writing is and gives you some simple, effective tools for improving the power of your sentences.
Module Six - Writing Skills - Organisation (25 pages) presents the deductive / Inverted Pyramid approach to
organising writing, before looking at the various ways to present the main points. The second half of the module deals
specifically with organising persuasive paragraphs that synthesise both interpretation as well as supporting ideas,
examples and evidence.
Module Seven - Putting it all Together (35 pages) takes the practical work to a new level. The analysis and the plan,
together, with the writing skills are applied to develop an extended report. This module is almost entirely task-based,
walking readers step-by-step through the drafting process.
Module Eight - Finishing Off the Report (41 pages) completes the programme, covering writing the summary,
designing the cover page, page layout, using visuals, writing style and the editing process. The programme ends with
a summary of the main points covered and visual review of the entire programme.

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The CDROM
OM
The CDROM contains all the information and exercises in the
PDF Handbook in a navigable format so you can:

Conveniently browse the Handbook on any PC

Navigate from page to page smoothly

The Trainer Edition

With the Trainer Edition you can conveniently reinforce the
lessons in the Handbook through structured, well-planned
sessions for your staff. For a fraction of the cost of sending your
team on training, you can pass on the benefits of ELD's years' of
experience through this 'workshop-in-a-box'. This is included free
with the 50-user licence.
Conducting structured training will help you increase the impact
of the programme and make sure all staff acquire the skills of
effective reporting.
The Handbook's eight modules are packaged as a 30-hour
training programme which can be delivered in one intensive
course or spread out over a number of weeks.
As well as convenience, the low cost of the Trainer Edition
compares favourably to the expense of sending even one
participant on a 5-day training course.
The pack includes session-by-session notes, tips on
preparation and delivery and course monitoring & evaluation
tools. Any trainer with good people
management skils can facilitate this
straightforward programme. There are
over 250 PowerPoint slides, broken
down into the eight thematic modules of
the programme, providing powerful visual
support to the learning activities and
discussion. Participant handouts are
ready to print, and ordering a Licence +
Training Pack means all your team will
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are supplementary materials - daily
feedback forms, evaluation form, cut-up
tasks and colour graphs for data analysis,
and a model report based on the case
study central to the course.
This training has been successfully
conducted by ELD since 2002, benefiting
1000s of development professionals from
a wide range of organisations,
backgrounds and nationalities. There are
many reports at the ELD website to show
you how the training works in practice. Let
your organisation benefit from our
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15

About ELD
Education, Language and Development Training
Programmes provides practical training and
consultancy services to development
organisations in South and South-East Asia.
Registered as a charity in the United Kingdom,
but based in Kathmandu, Nepal and Bangkok,
Thailand, ELD conducts regular open training
workshops in areas such as Reporting Skills
Project Proposal Writing and PM&E, as well as
a range of in-house assignments which include
training, planning, proposal development,
teambuilding, project close-out and
outplacement. ELD was founded in 2000 'to
enhance the skills of people working in
education, sustainable development and human
rights using the most appropriate technologies
and methodologies'. ELD's objectives are based
on extensive research. Between 1997 and 1999
we explored the communication and project
management challenges faced by projects and
development organisations. Since then we have
continued to develop our programmes and
responses based on our extensive experience
delivering services in South Asia (since 2000)
and South-East Asia (since 2003).

About the Author

Neil Kendrick has directed UK charity Education, Language and Development
Training Programmes since it was founded in 2000, and was responsible for
setting up ELD's Nepal and Thailand operations. An experienced evaluator,
facilitator and trainer specialising in Development Communication, Neil has
worked with development sector participants for more than 10 years. He has
trained thousands of professionals at all levels throughout South and South-East
Asia in Reporting Skills, Professional Writing, Project Planning and Proposal
Writing. Prior to ELD, Neil spent several years with the British Council at Istanbul,
Bangkok, Hong Kong and Kathmandu.
Participants describe his training approach as relaxed and well- informed, and
regularly mention his ability to demystify learning through easy explanation and
examples. That same style has been brought to this Handbook, getting complex
points and sophisticated tools across in a no-nonsense, easy to grasp way.

Whos using the Handbook?

The flexibilty and relevance of this programme is clear from the range of organisations that use it. These include:
Asian Development Bank
ADRA
Asian Institute of Technology
Baptist World Aid
Belgian Technical Cooperation
Bielefeld University
Bioversity International
Birmingham University
Burnet Institute
CABI
Capacity Building Initiative
CARE
CGIAR
Concern Worldwide

Diakonia
European Centre for Development
Policy Management
Family Health International
GTZ
International Institute for
Development Studies
International Atomic Energy Authority
Medecines Sans Frontiers
Overseas Development Institute
PATH
Save the Children UK
Save the Children USA
Swiss Development Coperation

UNAIDS
UNDP
UNECA
UNEP
UNICEF
UNOPS
USAID
WFP
World Agroforestry Centre
World Health Organisation
World Wildlife Fund for Nature
Conservation

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