The Significance of the Beowulf Poem

There are many characteristics of the Beowulf poem that make it a significant part
of the history of literature. It is a perfect representation of how the people in eighth
century England communicated, what their feelings were, and their culture. "It
gives us vital information about Old English social life and about Old English politics
and about many things that scholars would like to have much more information
on."(Raffel ix) Another characteristic is that the Beowulf poem was passed down
orally. The poem contains aspects of Christianity what form it takes in the story. It
is also sort of a history of how the English language has changed in the many years
from then until now. The poem also contains many mythical references and it
contains a great hero.
Beowulf is considered an artifact by many because "it is the oldest of the English
long poems and may have been composed more than twelve hundred years
ago."(Beowulf 19) It deals with events of the early 6th century and is believed to
have been composed between 700 and 750. "No one knows who composed
Beowulf , or why. A single manuscript (Cotton Vitellius A XV) managed to survive
Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries, and the destruction of their great
libraries; since his name is written on one of the folios, Lawrence Nowell, the
sixteenth-century
scholar,
may
have
been
responsible
for
Beowulf's
preservation."(Raffel ix) An interesting fact that is unique about the poem is that "it
is the sole survivor of what may have been a thriving epic tradition, and it is great
poetry."(Raffel ix)

The poem was composed and performed orally. "Old English bards, or scops, most
likely began by piecing together traditional short songs, called heroic lays; they then
gradually added to that base until the poem grew to its present size. The verse
form is the standard Old English isochronic: each line contains for stresses; there is
a strong caesura in the middle of the lines and the resultant half lines are bound
together by alliteration. Although little

Old English poetry survives, Beowulf's polished verse and reflective, allusive
development suggest that it is part of a rich poetic tradition."(Foster 501)
An aspect of the poem is the role and characteristics of religion in the story.
"Christianity enters into the poem, and the society, but more an Old Testament
variety, stressing justice rather than love. There is controversy about whether the
Christian elements are intrinsic or are interpolations by a tenth century monastic
scribe. In any case, the Christianity does not much resemble that of the High
Middle Ages or of the modern world. Frequently the poem seems a reflection of the
traditional pagan value system from the moral point of view of the new,
incompletely assimilated Christianity."(Foster 502)

In Britannica it says that critics have seen the poem as a Christian allegory, with
Beowulf the champion of goodness and light against the forces of evil and darkness.
His sacrificial death is not seen as tragic but as the fitting end of a good (some
would say "too good") hero's life.

The poem contains words that people today might not recognize or know
because the words have changed over the years.
These are words like
"mead"(Beowulf 34), "mead hall"(Beowulf 34), and "mead bench"(Beowulf 53)
which we know as beer, tavern, and bar respectively. Another word is
"mere"(Beowulf 37), which is a lake. The word "wyrd" mentioned in Britannica is an
old word meaning "fate."

The author was very creative in many of the words and phrases that he used that
were not traditionally used in regular speaking. One instance is using the word
"earth-hall"(Beowulf 60), which is a cave beneath the ground.

Another example is using the word "sea-cloth"(Beowulf 53), which is the sail of a
ship. A couple of others are: "soul-slayer"(Beowulf 28), which means "the Devil"
and "water-monsters"(Beowulf 46) are the beasts of the sea. There are a few
events in the Beowulf poem that mention actual historic incidents. The story tells
about "the raid on the Franks made by Hygelac, the king of the Geats at the time
Beowulf was a young man, in the year 520."(Beowulf 19) This event did in fact
happen in that time in Europe. "The poem also references a time following the
initial invasion of England by Germanic tribes in 449."(Beowulf 19) Britannica says
that the poem was originally untitled, but was later named after the Scandinavian
hero Beowulf, whose exploits and character provide its connecting theme. There is
no evidence of a historical Beowulf, but some characters, sites, and events in the
poem can be historically verified.

The poem contains mythical references in the form of Grendel, Grendel's mother,
and the fire-breathing dragon. All of these are beasts that could not have possibly
existed in the history of human kind. "Grendel is a man-eating who terrorized the
Danes until killed by Beowulf. Grendel lives, with his equally monstrous mother, at
the bottom of a foul lake inhabited by assorted other monsters; he is descended
from Cain (the progenitor of all evil spirits), though his precise genealogy is not
given."(Raffel 99) "Grendel is a representative of the physical evil which was so
present in the lives and imagination of the Anglo-Saxons."(Foster 500) "The

inhuman dragon is a figure of the metaphysical evil which is woven into the fabric of
the universe."(Foster 501) Another reference is Beowulf's strength. Beowulf is said
to have the strength of thirty men.
The poem contains heroism in many parts. It mainly revolves around Beowulf.
"Beowulf was a man of great strength from the land of the Geats, ruled over by
Hygelac."(Foster 500) Beowulf is the hero of the poem because "he rids the people
of Heorot of Grendel's terror and then glory was given to Beowulf."(Beowulf 37)
"Beowulf also saves the people from Grendel's mother"(Beowulf 49) and later in the
poem "Beowulf attacks the Dragon."(Beowulf 62)
The story of Beowulf is one of Europe's greatest epic poems. It is composed of
English history, heroism, and fantasy. It will remain a monument of Old English
forever.
Renaissance- Destroying rainforest for economic gain is like burning a Renaissance painting to cook a
meal.

E. O. Wilson

#### Protestantism is the most popular religion practiced in the United Kingdom.
[1]
For centuries, it has played a primary role in shaping political and religious life
throughout the region. Although a German, Martin Luther, was responsible for the
beginnings of the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th century, the United
Kingdom, and especially England, developed the Reformation further and produced
many of its most notable figures. Protestantism influenced many of England's
monarchs in the 16th and 17th centuries, including Henry VIII, Edward VI, Elizabeth
I, and James I. Violence was commonplace, and persecution was largely dependent
on whether the monarch was Catholic or Protestant. Reformers and early church
leaders were greatly persecuted in the first centuries of the Reformation, but the
non-conformist movement survived. As a result of the Reformation, Protestantism is
the most widely practiced religion in the modern United Kingdom, although
participation in the church has weakened in recent years.
United Kingdom before the Reformation[edit]
Main article: History of Christianity in Britain
Before Protestantism reached England, the Roman Catholic Church was the
established state church. Wales and Ireland were also closely tied to Roman
Catholicism, but Scotland had been dominated by many pagan religions that the
Celts practiced.[2]
Early Reformation[edit]
In Catholic England, the only Bible available was written in Latin Vulgate, a
translation of proper Latin considered holy by the Roman Catholic Church. As a
result, only clergy had access to copies of the Bible. Countrymen were dependent
on their local priests for the reading of scripture because they could not read the
text for themselves. Some believe the Pope arranged this to hide truth from the

common people.[3] Early in the Reformation, one of the fundamental disagreements

between the Roman Church and Protestant leaders was over the distribution of the
Bible in the people's common language.
John Wycliffe helped make the Bible available to all people, regardless of their
wealth or social standing. Wycliffe translated the whole Bible into the English
language because he believed that Englishmen needed to be familiar with the
scriptures on their own terms in order to know Jesus Christ.[4]
In 1526, William Tyndale published the first complete Bible in print. This facilitated
distribution at a lower cost, and soon the Bible was not only readable to English
citizens, but also affordable for most people.[5] Once the common people had
access to the Bible, many more joined the Protestant Church. The revolutionary
growth in biblical reading was a notable event of the Reformation, and England was
one of the first countries where this occurred. Soon, England's foundational
convictions were changing, and new Protestant doctrines were emerging that
challenged the Roman Catholic Church.
Leading reformers and philosophers of the time, such as Wycliffe, helped establish
these doctrines by preaching to large groups of people. Wycliffe, among others,
opposed the Catholic belief of transubstantiation. Some Catholics believe that when
they participate in the Eucharist, the bread and wine transform into the literal body
and blood of Jesus Christ when the priest prays over it. All Protestant leaders
rejected this belief as false.[6]
Many Protestant leaders also disapproved of Catholic monasticism because they
believed it was unnecessary for salvation and harmful to those who practiced it. The
practice of penance and the belief that good works could balance the punishment of
sin or lead to salvation were particularly common among the monks living in
monasteries. Protestants rejected this doctrine, believing that good works alone
could not allow one to enter heaven. Rather, Protestants rely on the doctrines of
sola scriptura and sola fide.
Protestant influence on politicals[edit]
Monarchs[edit]
During the 16th and 17th centuries, nearly all the monarchs and resulting
governments of Scotland, Ireland, and England were defined by either Catholicism
or Protestantism.
Henry VIII was the first monarch to introduce a new state religion to the English. In
1534, he wanted to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon. When Pope Clement VII
refused to consent to the divorce, Henry VIII decided to separate the entire country
of England from the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope had no more authority over
the people of England. This parting of ways opened the door for Protestantism to
enter the country.[7]
Henry VIII established the Church of England after his split with the Pope. However,
England stayed much the same, even with the new state religion. Its doctrines and
practices were, at first, very similar to those of the Catholic Church. The king did not
establish the Church of England as a result of religious differences with Catholicism;

his motives were mainly political, and he persecuted radical Protestants who
threatened his church.[8] The Church of England was Protestant by nature because
it was protesting the Catholic Church.[9] For this reason, the Protestant Reformation
is said to have started in England with this act.[8]
Henry VIII's successor, Edward VI, supported the Reformation, but his belief in
Protestantism was not only political. He was more devout in his faith, and
persecution of Protestant subjects ceased.[2]
Under the next monarch, however, Protestants were persecuted once again. Queen
Mary I was raised Catholic, and she saw it as her duty to purge the evil of
Protestantism from her country.[8] During her reign, reformers of the church, such
as Thomas Hawkes, Hugh Latimer, Nicholas Ridley, Thomas Cranmer, and George
Wishart, were executed for their faith. These executions did not destroy the
Protestant movement. In fact, many joined the church when they saw how
committed these martyrs were to their religion.[10]
The next monarch, Elizabeth I, was a Protestant. Under her rule, the Protestant
Church flourished. Protestants now filled many leadership positions in government.
With this new power, however, came the persecution of many Catholics.[2]
Similarities between the Catholic and Protestant churches steadily decreased during
this time.
The reign of King James I established a definite victory for Protestantism in England.
The King James Bible introduced a new Protestant form of the Bible to church
members throughout the country. This translation was in a language and dialect
specific to the English people and to their Protestant religion. James I fulfilled the
efforts of Protestant reformers who had been supporting the distribution of Bibles in
common language for decades.[2]
Political events[edit]
The English Civil War (16421651) was largely influenced by the Protestant
Reformation. While England struggled between Catholicism and Protestantism,
Scotland was experiencing a significant impact from the Reformation and its ideas.
A strong Presbyterian following had developed, but the Church of Scotland did not
agree with King Charles I's expectations of the Protestant religion. Charles I
threatened to change the Church of Scotland by turning to Ireland, which was a
strong Catholic state.[2]
Oliver Cromwell, an Englishman born in Huntingdon, emerged victorious at the end
of the Civil War. Once he gained control of England, Cromwell established a radical
religious government. He organized the Assembly of Saints, a firm and strict sect of
Protestantism that was very similar to Puritanism. The Assembly remained strong in
England until the reign of Charles II, who ended many of the strict practices of
Puritanism.
When Parliament passed the Act of Toleration of 1689, dissenters received freedom
of worship within England. Catholics were not included in this act of Parliament, but
members of other religions, most notably Protestantism, were officially protected
from persecution based on their faith.[2]

The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which
the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman
Catholic Church. These events were, in part, associated with the wider process of
the European Protestant Reformation, a religious and political movement that
affected the practice of Christianity across all of Europe during this period. Many
factors contributed to the process: the decline of feudalism and the rise of
nationalism, the rise of the common law, the invention of the printing press and
increased circulation of the Bible, the transmission of new knowledge and ideas
among scholars, the upper and middle classes and readers in general. However, the
various phases of the English Reformation, which also covered Wales and Ireland,
were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion
gradually accommodated itself.
Based on Henry VIII's desire for an annulment of his marriage (first requested of
Pope Clement VII in 1527), the English Reformation was at the outset more of a
political affair than a theological dispute. The reality of political differences between
Rome and England allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore.[1]
Until the break with Rome, it was the Pope and general councils of the Church that
decided doctrine. Church law was governed by the code of canon law with final
jurisdiction in Rome. Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had the
final word in the appointment of bishops.
The break with Rome was effected by a series of acts of Parliament passed between
1532 and 1534, among them the 1534 Act of Supremacy which declared that Henry
was the "Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England".[2] (This title was
renounced by Mary I in 1553 in the process of restoring papal jurisdiction; when
Elizabeth I reasserted the royal supremacy in 1559 her title was Supreme Governor.)
[2] Final authority in doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and
the papacy was deprived of revenue and the final say on the appointment of
bishops.
The theology and liturgy of the Church of England became markedly Protestant
during the reign of Henry's son Edward VI largely along lines laid down by
Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Under Mary, the whole process was reversed and the
Church of England was again placed under papal jurisdiction. Soon after, Elizabeth
reintroduced the Protestant faith but in a more moderate manner. The structure and
theology of the church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations.
The violent aspect of these disputes, manifested in the English Civil Wars, ended
when the last Roman Catholic monarch, James II, was deposed, and Parliament
asked William and Mary to rule jointly in conjunction with the English Bill of Rights in
1688 (in the "Glorious Revolution"), from which emerged a church polity with an
established church and a number of non-conformist churches whose members at
first suffered various civil disabilities but which were removed over time. The legacy
of the past Roman Catholic Establishment remained an issue for some time, and still
exists today. A substantial minority remained Roman Catholic in England, and in an
effort to disestablish it from British systems, their church organisation remained
illegal until the 19th century.
John Wycliffe

"Trust wholly in Christ; rely altogether on his sufferings; beware of seeking to be justified in any
other way than by his righteousness."
John Wycliffe left quite an impression on the church: 43 years after his death, officials dug up his
body, burned his remains, and threw the ashes into the river Swift. Still, they couldn't get rid of
him. Wycliffe's teachings, though suppressed, continued to spread. As a later chronicler
observed, "Thus the brook hath conveyed his ashes into Avon; Avon into Severn; Severn into the
narrow seas; and they into the main ocean. And thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his
doctrine which now is dispersed the world over."
Timeline

1302

Unam Sanctam proclaims papal supremacy

1309

Papacy begins "Babylonian" exile in Avignon

1321

Dante completes Divine

1330

John Wycliffe born

1384

John Wycliffe dies

1415

Jan Hus burned at stake

Comedy

"Master of errors"

Wycliffe had been born in the hinterlands, on a sheep farm 200 miles from London. He left for
Oxford University in 1346, but because of periodic eruptions of the Black Death, he was not able
to earn his doctorate until 1372. Nonetheless, by then he was already considered Oxford's
leading philosopher and theologian.

In 1374 he became rector of the parish in Lutterworth, but a year later he was disappointed to
learn he was not granted a position at Lincoln nor the bishopric of Worcestersetbacks that
some have seized upon as motives for his subsequent attacks on the papacy.
In the meantime, Rome had demanded financial support from England, a nation struggling to
raise money to resist a possible French attack. Wycliffe advised his local lord, John of Gaunt, to
tell Parliament not to comply. He argued that the church was already too wealthy and that Christ
called his disciples to poverty, not wealth. If anyone should keep such taxes, it should be local
English authorities.
Such opinions got Wycliffe into trouble, and he was brought to London to answer charges of
heresy. The hearing had hardly gotten underway when recriminations on both sides filled the air.
Soon they erupted into an open brawl, ending the meeting. Three months later, Pope Gregory XI
issued five bulls (church edicts) against Wycliffe, in which Wycliffe was accused on 18 counts
and was called "the master of errors."
At a subsequent hearing before the archbishop at Lambeth Palace, Wycliffe replied, "I am ready
to defend my convictions even unto death. I have followed the Sacred Scriptures and the holy
doctors." He went on to say that the pope and the church were second in authority to Scripture.
This didn't sit well with Rome, but because of Wycliffe's popularity in England and a subsequent
split in the papacy (the Great Schism of 1378, when rival popes were elected), Wycliffe was put
under "house arrest" and left to pastor his Lutterworth parish.
Disputing the church

He deepened his study of Scripture and wrote more about his conflicts with official church
teaching. He wrote against the doctrine of transubstantiation: "The bread while becoming by
virtue of Christ's words the body of Christ does not cease to be bread."
He challenged indulgences: "It is plain to me that our prelates in granting indulgences do
commonly blaspheme the wisdom of God."
He repudiated the confessional: "Private confession was not ordered by Christ and was not
used by the apostles."
He reiterated the biblical teaching on faith: "Trust wholly in Christ; rely altogether on his
sufferings; beware of seeking to be justified in any other way than by his righteousness."
Believing that every Christian should have access to Scripture (only Latin translations were
available at the time), he began translating the Bible into English, with the help of his good
friend John Purvey.

The church bitterly opposed it: "By this translation, the Scriptures have become vulgar, and they
are more available to lay, and even to women who can read, than they were to learned scholars,
who have a high intelligence. So the pearl of the gospel is scattered and trodden underfoot by
swine."
Wycliffe replied, "Englishmen learn Christ's law best in English. Moses heard God's law in his
own tongue; so did Christ's apostles."
Wycliffe died before the translation was complete (and before authorities could convict him of
heresy); his friend Purvey is considered responsible for the version of the "Wycliffe" Bible we
have today. Though Wycliffe's followers (who came to be called "Lollards"referring to the
region of their original strength) were driven underground, they remained a persistent irritant to
English Catholic authorities until the English Reformation made their views the norm.

Martin Luther
Theologian Martin Luther forever changed Christianity when he began the
Protestant Reformation in 16th-century Europe.
Synopsis
Born in Germany in 1483, Martin Luther became one of the most influential figures in Christian
history when he began the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. He called into question
some of the basic tenets of Roman Catholicism, and his followers soon split from the Roman
Catholic Church to begin the Protestant tradition.

Early Life
Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483, in Eisleben, Saxony, in modern southeast
Germany. His parents, Hans and Margarette Luther, were of peasant linage, but Hans had some
success as a miner and ore smelter. In 1484, the family moved to nearby Mansfeld, where Hans
held ore deposits.
Hans Luther knew that mining was a tough business and wanted his promising son to have better
and become a lawyer. At age seven, Martin Luther entered school in Mansfeld. At 14, he went to
north to Magdeburg, where he continued his studies. In 1498, he returned to Eisleben and
enrolled in a school, studying grammar, rhetoric and logic. He later compared this experience to
purgatory and hell.

In 1501, Martin Luther entered the University of Erfurt, where he received a Master of Arts
degree (in grammar, logic, rhetoric and metaphysics). At this time, it seemed he was on his way
to becoming a lawyer. However, in July 1505, Luther had a life-changing experience that set him
on a new course. Caught in a horrific thunderstorm where he feared for his life, Luther cried out
to St. Anne, the patron saint of miners, Save me, St. Anne, and Ill become a monk! The storm
subsided and he was saved. Most historians believe this was not a spontaneous act, but an idea
already formulated in Luthers mind. The decision to become a monk was difficult and greatly
disappointed his father, but he felt he must keep a promise. Luther was also driven by fears of
hell and Gods wrath, and felt that life in a monastery would help him find salvation.

Spiritual Anguish and Enlightenment

The first few years of monastery life were difficult for Martin Luther, as he did not find the
religious enlightenment he was seeking. A mentor told him to focus his life exclusively on Christ
and this would later provide him with the guidance he sought. At age 27, he was given the
opportunity to be a delegate to a church conference in Rome. He came away more disillusioned,
and very discouraged by the immorality and corruption he witnessed there among the Catholic
priests. Upon his return to Germany, he enrolled in the University of Wittenberg in an attempt to
suppress his spiritual turmoil. He excelled in his studies and received a doctorate, becoming a
professor of theology at the university.
Through his studies of scripture, Martin Luther finally gained religious enlightenment.
Beginning in 1513, while preparing lectures, Luther read the first line of Psalm 22, which Christ
wailed in his cry for mercy on the cross, a cry similar to Luthers own disillusionment with God
and religion. Two years later, while preparing a lecture on Pauls Epistle to the Romans, he read,
The just will live by faith. He dwelled on this statement for some time. Finally, he realized the
key to spiritual salvation was not to fear God or be enslaved by religious dogma but to believe
that faith alone would bring salvation. This period marked a major change in his life and set in
motion the Reformation.

Rejection of the Roman Catholic Church

In 1517, Pope Leo X announced a new round of indulgences to help build St. Peters Basilica.
On October 31, 1517, an angry Martin Luther nailed a sheet of paper with 95 theses on the
universitys chapel door. Though he intended these to be discussion points, the Ninety-Five
Theses laid out a devastating critique of the indulgences as corrupting peoples faith. Luther also
sent a copy to Archbishop Albert Albrecht of Mainz, calling on him to end the sale of
indulgences. Aided by the printing press, copies of the Ninety-Five Theses spread throughout
Germany within two weeks and throughout Europe within two months.

The Church eventually moved to stop the act of defiance. In October 1518, at a meeting with
Cardinal Thomas Cajetan in Augsburg, Martin Luther was ordered to recant his Ninety-Five
Theses by the authority of the pope. Luther said he would not recant unless scripture proved him
wrong. He went further, stating that he didnt consider the papacy had the authority to interpret
scripture. The meeting ended in a shouting match and initiated his ultimate excommunication
from the Church.

Throughout 1519, Martin Luther continued to lecture and write in

Wittenberg. In June and July of that year he publicly declared that the
Bible did not give the pope the exclusive right to interpret scripture,
which was a direct attack on the authority of the papacy. Finally, in
1520, the pope had had enough and on June 15 issued an ultimatum
threatening Luther with excommunicationExcommunication
In January 1521, Martin Luther was officially excommunicated from the Roman Catholic
Church. In March, he was summoned before the Diet of Worms, a general assembly of secular
authorities. Again, Luther refused to recant his statements, demanding he be shown any scripture
that would refute his position. There was none. On May 8, 1521, the council released the Edict of
Worms, banning Luthers writings and declaring him a convicted heretic. This made him a
condemned and wanted man. Friends helped him hide out at the Wartburg Castle. While in
seclusion, he translated the New Testament into the German language, to give ordinary people
the opportunity to read Gods word.
Though still under threat of arrest, Martin Luther returned to Wittenberg Castle Church, in
Eisenach, in May 1522. Miraculously, he was able to avoid capture and began organizing a new
church, Lutheranism. He gained many followers and got support from German princes. When a
peasant revolt began in 1524, Luther denounced the peasants and sided with the rulers, whom he
depended on to keep his church growing. Thousands of peasants were killed, but Luthers church
grew over the years. In 1525, he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun who had abandoned
the convent and taken refuge in Wittenberg. Together, over the next several years, they had six
children.

Later Years
From 1533 to his death in 1546, Martin Luther served as the dean of theology at University of
Wittenberg. During this time he suffered from many illnesses, including arthritis, heart problems
and digestive disorders, and the physical pain and emotional strain of being a fugitive might have
been reflected in his writings. Some works contained strident and offensive language against
several segments of society, particularly Jews and to a lesser degree, Muslims, including Luthers

treatise The Jews and their Lies. During a trip to his hometown of Eisleben, he died on February
18, 1546, at age 62.

Legacy
Martin Luther is one of the most influential and controversial figures in the Reformation
movement. His actions fractured the Roman Catholic Church into new sects of Christianity and
set in motion reform within the Church. A prominent theologian, his desire for people to feel
closer to God led him to translate the Bible into the language of the people, radically changing
the relationship between church leaders and their followers.
. On December 10, 1520, Luther publicly burned the letter.

Society of jesus
The Society of Jesus is a religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola.
Designated by him "The Company of Jesus" to indicate its true leader and its soldier
spirit, the title was Latinized into "Societas Jesu" in the Bull of Paul III approving its
formation and the first formula of its Institute ("Regimini militantis ecclesia", 27
Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-century origin, meaning one who used
too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the society
in reproach (1544-52), and was never employed by its founder, though members
and friends of the society in time accepted the name in its good sense. The Society
ranks among religious institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a
body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying
on alms for their support [Bulls of Pius V, "Dum indefessae", 7 July, 1571; Gregory
XIII, "Ascendente Domino", 25 May, 1585].
As has been explained under the title "Ignatius Loyola", the founder began his selfreform, and the enlistment of followers, entirely prepossessed with the idea of the
imitation of Christ, and without any plan for a religious order or purpose of
attending to the needs of the days. Unexpectedly prevented from carrying out
thisidea, he offered his services and those of his followers to the pope, "Christ upon
Earth", who at once employed him in such works as were most pressing at the
moment. It was only after this and just before the first companions broke to go at
the pope's command to various countries, that the resolution to found an order was
taken, and that Ignatius was commissioned to draw up Constitutions. This he did
slowly and methodically; first introducing rules and customs and seeing how they
worked. He did not codify them for the first six years. Then three years were given
to formulating laws the wisdom of which had been proven by experiment. In the
last six years of the Saint's life the Constitutions so composed were finally revised
and put into practice everywhere. This sequence of events explains at once how the
society, though devoted to the following of Christ, as though there were nothing
else in the world to care for, is also excellently adapted to the needs of the day. It
began to attend to them before it began to legislate; and its legislation was the

codification of those measures which had been proved by experience to be apt to

preserve its preliminary religious principle among men actually devoted to the
requirements of the Church in days not unlike our own.
The Society was not founded with the avowed intention of opposing Protestantism.
Neither the papal letters of approbation nor the Constitutions of the order mention
this as the object of the new foundation. When Ignatius began to devote himself to
the service of the Church, he had probably not even heard of the names of
theProtestant Reformers. His early plan was rather
the conversion of Mohammedans, an idea which, a few decades after the final
triumph of the Christians over theMoors in Spain, must have strongly appealed to
the chivalrous Spaniards.
The name "Societas Jesu" had been born by a military order approved and
recommended by Pius II in 1450, the purpose of which was to fight against
theTurks and aid in spreading the Christian faith. The early Jesuits were sent by
Ignatius first to pagan lands or to Catholic countries; to Protestant countries only at
the special request of the pope and to Germany, the cradle-land of the Reformation,
at the urgent solicitation of the imperial ambassador.
From the very beginning the missionary labours of the Jesuits among
the pagans ofIndia, Japan, China, Canada, Central and South America were as
important as their activity in Christian countries. As the object of the society was
the propagation and strengthening of the Catholic faith everywhere, the Jesuits
naturally endeavored to counteract the spread of Protestantism. They became the
main instruments of theCounter-Reformation; the re-conquest of southern and
western Germany andAustria for the Church, and the preservation of
the Catholic faith in France and other countries were due chiefly to their exertions.

Institutes, constitutions, legislation

The official publication which constitutes all the regulations of the Society, its codex
legum, is entitled "Institutum Societas Jesu" of which the latest edition was issued
at Rome and Florence 1869-91 (for full biography see Sommervogel, V, 75-115; IX,
609-611; for commentators see X, 705-710). The Institute contains:
(1) The special Bulls and other pontifical documents approving the Society
andcanonically determining or regulating its various works, and
its ecclesiasticalstanding and relations.
Besides those already mentioned, other important Bulls are those of: Paul III,
"Injunctum nobis", 14 March, 1543; Julius III, "Exposcit debitum", 21 July,
1550;Pius V, "quum reputamus", 17 January, 1565; Pius VII, "Solicitudo omnium
ecclesiarum", 7 August, 1814, Leo XIII, "Dolemus inter alia", 13 July, 1880.

(2) The Examen Generale and Constitutions. The Examen contains subjects to be
explained to postulants and points on which they are to be examined. The
Constitutions are divided into ten parts:
1. admission;
2. dismissal;
3. novitiate;
4. scholastic training;
5. profession and other grades of membership;
6. religious vows and other obligations as observed by the Society;
7. missions and other ministries;
8. congregations, local and general assemblies as a means of union and
uniformity;
9. the general and chief superiors;
10.

the preservation of the spirit of the Society.

Thus far in the Institute all is by Saint Ignatius, who has also added "Declarations"
of various obscure parts. Then come:

Decrees of General Congregations, which have equal authority with the

Constitutions;

Rules, general and particular, etc.;

Formulae or order of business for the congregations;

Ordinations of generals, which have the same authority as rules;

Instructions, some for superiors, others for those engaged in the missions or
other works of the Society;

Industriae, or special counsels for superiors;

The Book of the Spiritual; and

the Ratio Studiorum, which have directive force only.

The Constitutions as drafted by Ignatius and adopted finally by the first

congregation of the Society, 1558, have never been altered. Ill-informed writers
have stated that Lainez, the second general, made considerable changes in
thesaint's conception of the order; but Ignatius' own later recension of
theConstitutions, lately reproduced in facsimile (Rome, 1908), exactly agree with
the text of the Constitutions now in force, and contains no word by Lainez, not even
in the declarations, or glosses added to the text, which are all the work of Ignatius.
The text in use in the Society is a Latin version prepared under the direction of the
third congregation, and subjected to a minute comparison with the Spanish original
preserved in the Society's archives, during the fourth congregation (1581).
These Constitutions were written after long deliberation between Ignatius and his
companions in the founding of the Society, as at first it seemed to them that they
might continue their work without the aid of a special Rule. They were the fruit of
long experience and of serious meditation and prayer. Throughout they are inspired
by an exalted spirit of charity and zeal for souls.
They contain nothing unreasonable. To appreciate them, however, requires
aknowledge of canon law applied to monastic life and also of their history in the
light of the times for which they were framed. Usually those who find fault with
them either have never read them or else have misinterpreted them. Monod, for
instance, in his introduction to Bhmer's essay on the Jesuits ("Les jesuites", Paris,
1910, p. 13, 14) recalls how Michelet mistranslated the words of the Constitutions,
p. VI, c. 5, obligationem ad peccatum, and made it appear that they
require obedience even to the commission of sin, as if the text were obligatio ad
peccandum, where the obvious meaning and purpose of the text is precisely to
show that the transgression of the rules is not in itself sinful. Monod enumerates
such men as Arnauld, Wolf, Lange, Ranke in the first edition of his "History",
Hausser and Droysen, Philippson and Charbonnel, as having repeated the
same error, although it has been refuted frequently since 1824, particularly by
Gieseler, and corrected by Ranke in his second edition.
Whenever the Constitutions enjoin what is already a serious moral obligation, or
superiors, by virtue of their authority, impose a grave obligation, transgression
issinful; but this is true of such transgressions not only in the society but out of it.
Moreover such commands are rarely given by the superiors and only when
the goodof the individual member or the common good imperatively demands it.
The rule throughout is one of love inspired by wisdom, and must be interpreted in
the spirit of charity which animates it. This is especially true of its provisions for the
affectionate relations of members with superiors and with one another, by
themanifestation of conscience, more or less practiced in every religious order, and
bymutual correction when this may be necessary. It also applies to the methods
employed to ascertain the qualification of members for various offices or ministries.
The chief authority is vested in the general congregation, which elects the general,
and could, for certain grave causes, depose him. This body could also (although
there has never yet been an occasion for so doing) add new Constitutions and
abrogate old ones. Usually this congregation is convened on the occasion of the

death of a general, in order to elect a successor, and to make provisions for the
government and welfare of the Society. It may also be called at other times for
grave reasons. It consists of the general, when alive, and his assistants, the
provincials, and two deputies from each province or territorial division of the
societyelected by the superiors and older professed members.
Thus authority in the Society eventually rests on a democratic basis. But as there is
no definite time for calling the general congregation which in fact rarely occurs
except to elect a new general the exercise of authority is usually in the hands of
the general, in whom is vested the fullness of administrative power, and of spiritual
authority. He can do anything within the scope of the Constitutions, and can even
dispense with them for good causes, though he cannot change them. He resides
atRome, and has a council of assistants, five in number at present, one each
for Italy,France, Spain, and the countries of Spanish origin, one
for Germany, Austria,Poland, Belgium, Hungary, Holland, and one for Englishspeaking countries England, Ireland, United States, Canada, and British colonies
(except India). These usually hold office until the death of the general. Should the
general through age or infirmity become incapacitated for governing the Society,
a vicar is chosen by a general congregation to act for him. At his death he names
one so to act until the congregation can meet and elect his successor.
Next to him in order of authority comes the provincials, the heads of the Society,
whether for an entire country, as England, Ireland, Canada, Belgium, Mexico, or,
where these units are too large or too small to make convenient provinces they
may be subdivided or joined together. Thus there are now four provinces in
the United States: California, Maryland-New York, Missouri, New Orleans. In all
there are now twenty-seven provinces. The provincial is appointed by the general,
with ample administrative faculties. He too has a council of "counselors" and an
"admonitor" appointed by the general. Under the provincial come the local
superiors. Of these,rectors of colleges, provosts of professed houses, and masters
of novices are appointed by the general; the rest by the provincial. To enable the
general to make and control so many appointments, a free and ample
correspondence is kept up, and everyone has the right of private communication
with him. No superior, except the general, is named for life.
Usually provincials and rectors of colleges hold office for three years.
Members of the society fall into four classes:

Novices (whether received as lay brothers for the domestic and temporal
services of the order, or as aspirants to the priesthood), who are trained in
the spirit and discipline of the order, prior to making the religious vows.

At the end of two years the novices make simple vows, and, if aspirants to
thepriesthood, become formed scholastics; they remain in this grade as a
rule from two to fifteen years, in which time they will have completed all
their studies, pass (generally) a certain period in teaching, receive
the priesthood, and go through a third year of novitiate or probation (the
tertianship). According to the degree of discipline and virtue, and to the

talents they display (the latter are normally tested by the examination for the
Degree of Doctor ofTheology) they may now become formed coadjutors or
professed members of the order.

Formed coadjutors, whether formed lay brothers or priests,

make vows which, though not solemn, are perpetual on their part; while the
Society, on its side binds itself to them, unless they should commit some
grave offense.

The professed are all priests, who make, besides the three
usual solemn vowsof religion, a fourth, of special obedience to the pope in
the matter of missions, undertaking to go wherever they are sent, without
even requiring money for the journey. They also make certain additional, but
non-essential, simple vows, in the matter of poverty, and the refusal of
external honours. The professed of the four vows constitute the kernel of the
Society; the other grades are regarded as preparatory, or as subsidiary to
this. The chief offices can be held by the professed alone; and though they
may be dismissed, they must be received back, if willing to comply with the
conditions that may be prescribed. Otherwise they enjoy no privileges, and
many posts of importance, such as the government of colleges, may be held
by members of other grades. For special reasons some are occasionally
professed of three vows and they have certain but not all the privileges of the
other professed.

All live in community alike, as regards food, apparel, lodging, recreation, and all are
alike bound by the rules of the Society.
There are no secret Jesuits. Like other orders, the Society can, if it will, make its
friends participators in its prayers, and in the merits of its good works; but it cannot
make them members of the order, unless they live the life of the order. There is
indeed the case of St. Francis Borgia, who made some of the probations in an
unusual way, outside the houses of the order. But this was in order that he might be
able to conclude certain business matters and other affairs of state, and thus
appear the sooner in public as a Jesuit, not that he might remain permanently
outside the common life.

Novitiate and training

Candidates for admission come not only from the colleges conducted by the Society,
but from other schools. Frequently post-graduate or professional students, and
those who have already begun their career in business or professional life, or even
in the priesthood, apply for admission. Usually the candidate applies in person to
the provincial, and if he considers him a likely subject he refers him
for examinationto four of the more experienced fathers. They question him about
the age, health, position, occupation of his parents,
their religion and good character, their dependence on his services; about his own
health, obligations such as debts, or other contractual relations; his studies,

qualifications, moral character, personal motives as well as the external influences

that may have lead him to seek admission. The results of their questioning and of
their own observation they report severally to the provincial, who weighs their
opinions carefully before deciding for or against the applicant. Any notable bodily
or mental defect in the candidate, seriousindebtedness or other obligation, previous
membership in another religious order even for a day, indicating instability
of vocation, unqualifies for admission. Undue influence, particularly if exercised by
members of the order, would occasion stricter scrutiny than usual into the personal
motives of the applicant.
Candidates may enter at any time, but usually there is a fixed day each years for
their admission, toward the close of the summer holidays, in order that all may
begin their training, or probation, together. They spend the first ten days
considering the manner of life they are to adopt, and its difficulties, the rules of the
order, the obedience required of its members. They then make a brief retreat,
meditating on what they have learned about the Society and examining their own
motives and hopes for perserverance in the new mode of life. If all be satisfactory
to them and to the superior or director who has charge of them, they are admitted
as novices, wear the clerical costume (as there is no special Jesuit habit) and begin
in earnest the life of members in the Society. They rise early, make a brief visit to
the chapel, a meditation on some subject selected the night before, assist at Mass,
review their meditation, breakfast, and then prepare for the day's routine. This
consists of manual labor in or out of doors, reading books on spiritual
topics,ecclesiastical history, biography, particularly of men or women distinguished
for zealand enterprise in missionary or educational fields. There is a daily
conference by the master of the novices on some detail of the Institute, notes of
which all are required to make, so as to be ready, when asked, to repeat the salient
points.
Wherever it is possible some are submitted to certain tests of their vocation or
usefulness; to teaching catechism in the village churches; to attendance on the sick
in hospitals; to going about on a pilgrimage or missionary journey without money
or other provision. As soon as possible, all make the spiritual exercises for 30 days.
This is really the chief test of a vocation, as it is also in epitome the main work of
the two years of the novitiate, and for that matter of the entire life of a Jesuit. On
these exercises the Constitutions, the life, and activity of the Society are based, so
they are really the chief factor in forming the character of a Jesuit.
In accordance with the ideals set forth in these exercises, of disinterested
conformity with God's will, and of personal love of Jesus Christ, the novice is trained
diligently in the meditative study of the truths of religion, in the habit of selfknowledge, in the constant scrutiny of his motives and of the actions inspired by
them, in the correction of every form of self-deceit, illusion, plausible pretext, and
in the education of his will, particularly in making choice of what seems best after
careful deliberation and without self-seeking. Deeds, not words, are insisted upon
as proof of genuine service, and a mechanical, emotional, or fanciful piety is not
tolerated. As the novice gradually thus becomes master of his will, he grows more
and more capable of offering to God the reasonable service enjoined by St. Paul,

and seeks to follow the divine will, as manifested in Jesus Christ, by His vicar on
earth, by the bishops appointed to rule His Church, by his more immediate
orreligious superiors, and by the civil powers rightfully exercising authority. This is
what is meant by Jesuit obedience, the characteristic virtue of the order, such a
sincere respect for authority as to accept its decisions and comply with them, not
merely by outward performance but in all sincerity with the conviction that
compliance is best, and that the command expresses for the time the will of God,
as nearly as it can be ascertained.
The noviceship lasts two years. On its completion the novice makes the
usual vowsof religion, the simple vow of chastity in the Society having the force of a
dirimentimpediment to matrimony. During the noviceship but a brief time daily is
devoted to reviewing previous studies. The noviceship over, the scholastic
members, i.e., those who are to become priests in the Society, follow a special
course in classics and mathematics lasting two years, usually in the same house
with the novices. Then, in another house and neighbourhood, three years are given
to the study of philosophy, about five years to teaching in one or other of the
public colleges of the Society, four years to the study
of theology, priestly orders being conferred after the third, and finally, one year
more to another probation or noviceship, intended to help the young priest renew
his spirit of piety and to learn how to utilize to the best of his ability all the learning
and experience he has required. In exceptional cases, as in that of a priest who has
finished his studies before entering the order, allowance is made and the training
periods need not last over ten years, a good part of which is spent in active
ministry.
The object of the order is not limited to practicing any one class of good works,
however laudable (as preaching, chanting office, doing penance, etc.), but to study,
in the manner of the Spiritual, what Christ would have done, if He were living in our
circumstances, and to carry out that ideal. Hence elevation and largeness of aim.
Hence the motto of the Society, "Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam". Hence the selection of
the virtue of obedience as the characteristic of the order, to be ready for any call,
and to keep unity in every variety of work. Hence, by easy sequence, the omission
of office in choir, of a special distinctive habit, of unusual penances. Where
theProtestant reformers aimed at reorganizing the church at large according to their
particular conceptions, Ignatius began with interior self-reform; and after that had
been thoroughly established, then the earnest preaching of self-reform to others.
That done, the church would not, and did not, fail to reform herself.
Many religiousdistinguished themselves as educators before the Jesuits; but the
Society was the first order which enjoined by its very Constitutions devotion to the
cause ofeducation. It was, in this sense, the first "teaching order".
The ministry of the Society consists chiefly in preaching; teaching catechism,
especially to children; administering the sacraments especially penance and
theEucharist; conducting missions in the parishes on the lines of the Spiritual;
directing those who wish to follow those exercises in houses
of retreat, seminaries orconvents; taking care of parishes or collegiate churches;
organizing piousconfraternities, sodalities, unions of prayer, Bona Mors

associations in their own and other parishes; teaching in schools of every grade
academic; seminary,university; writing books, pamphlets, periodical articles; going
on foreign missions among uncivilized peoples.
In liturgical functions the Roman Rite is followed. The proper exercise of all these
functions is provided for by rules carefully framed by the general congregations or
by the generals. All these regulations command the greatest respect on the part of
every member. In practice the superior for the time being is the living rule not
that he can alter or abrogate any rule, but because he must interpret and
determine its application. In this fact and in its consequences, the Society differs
from everyreligious order antecedent to its foundation; to this principally, it owes its
life, activity, and power to adapt its Institutes to modern conditions without need of
change in that instrument or of reform in the body itself.
The story of the foundation of the Society is told in the article Ignatius Loyola.
Briefly, after having inspired his companions Peter Faber, Francis Xavier, James
Lainez, Alonso Salmern, Nicolas Bobadilla, Simon Rodriquez, Claude Le Jay, Jean
Codure, and Paschase Brouet with a desire to dwell in the Holy Land imitating the
life of Christ, they first made vows of poverty and chastity at Montmartre, Paris, on
15 August, 1534, adding a vow to go to the Holy Land after two years. When this
was found to be inpracticable, after waiting another year, they offered their services
to the pope, Paul III. Fully another year was passed by some in university towns
inItaly, by others at Rome, where, after encountering much opposition and slander,
all met together to agree on a mode of life by which they might advance
inevangelical perfection and help others in the same task. The first formula of the
Institute was submitted to the pope and approved of viva voce, 3 September 1539,
and formally, 27 September, 1540.