Xiii Sympozjumkwmik PL

STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
TH
XIII SYMPOSIUM
XIII
SYMPOZJUM
STATECZNOCI
KONSTRUKCJI
ZAKOPANE 17 - 21. 09. 2012
Proceedings of
STABILITY of STRUCTURES
XIII-th SYMPOSIUM
Zakopane 2012
Under the auspices of

the Dean of Mechanical Faculty of Lodz University of Technology
Professor Bogdan Kruszyski
Editors:
Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska
Radosaw J. Mania
Organisers
Department of Strength of Materials, Lodz University of Technology

Theoretical and Applied Mechanics Polish Society, Lodz Branch
Zakopane, September, 17-21, 2012
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTE
Marian Krlak - chairman
Andrzej Garstecki, Ryszard Grdzki, Stefan Joniak, Zbigniew Koakowski, Maria
Koteko, Katarzyna Kowal-Michalska, Vasily Krasowsky (Ukraine), Tomasz Kubiak,
Joseph Loughlan (Great Britain), Martin Macdonald (Great Britain), Krzysztof
Magnucki, Arkadij Manevich (Ukraina), Aleksander Muc, Jan Ravinger (Slovakia),
James Rhodes (Great Britain), Shigeru Shimizu (Japan), Czesaw Szymczak, Lech
Tomski, Marek Trombski, Czesaw Woniak, Jerzy Zielnica
ORGANISING COMMITTE
Zbigniew Koakowski chairman
Tomasz Kubiak v-ce chairman
Radosaw Mania scientific secretary
Jacek Jankowski, Anna Kuniarek, Mariusz Urbaniak, Piotr Wuka
Papers (on the rights of manuscripts) were accepted for publishing by the
Scientific Committee members
ISBN 83-914019-7-9
Publisher:
Katedra Wytrzymaoci Materiaw i Konstrukcji Politechniki dzkiej
ul. Stefanowskiego 1/15, 90-924 d
tel. +48 042 631 22 14,
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XIII SYMPOZJUM
STATECZNOCI KONSTRUKCJI
STABILITY OF STRUCTURES XIIIth SYMPOSIUM
ZAKOPANE, 2012
The Proceedings of
Stability of Structures XIIIth Symposium
are dedicated to our Jubilee Particpants:
Professor Marian Krlak

Professor Arkady Manevich
Professor James Rhodes
Professor Czesaw Szymczak
Professor Lech Tomski
Professor Jerzy Zielnica
to commemorate their 70th birthday
Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012
CONTENTS
Keynote lectures
Krlak M., Mania R.J.,
Local buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled multicell beams
subjected to bending ............................................................................................ 17
Loughlan J., Yidris N.,
The local-flexural-distortional elasto-plastic interactive failure mechanics of
steel thin-walled lipped channel columns ............................................................ 25
Manevich A. I.,
Dynamics of viscoelastic Timoshenko beam on elastic or viscoelastic
foundation ............................................................................................................ 43
Ravinger J.,
Stability and vibration.......................................................................................... 63
Rhodes J., Zaras J., Koteko M., Macdonald M.,
Collaborative research on thin-walled structures by the University of
Strathclyde and the Technical University of Lodz ............................................... 85
Shimizu S.,
Earthquake and tsunami disaster of 11.3.2011 - a brief review ........................... 93
Szymczak C.,
Selected problems of stability of thin-walled columns with bisymmetric open
cross-section ........................................................................................................ 111
Tomski L., Szmidla J., Uzny S.,
Vibrations and the stability of a column subjected to an active and a passive
specific load ......................................................................................................... 129
Zielnica J.,
Stability of plates in elastic-plastic state of stress ................................................ 153
Session papers
Barski M., Muc A., Kdziora P.,
Buckling of multilayered laminated compressed plates with different cut-out
shapes .................................................................................................................. 177
Baejewski P., Marcinowski J.,
Buckling resistance of steel spherical roofs subjected to an external pressure .... 185
Chybinski M., Garstecki A., Rzeszut K.,
Effect of imperfection configuration on equilibrium path in nonlinear stability .. 193
Cicho C., Koczubiej S.,
Geometrically nonlinear analysis of thin-walled structures with open crosssection using FE shell-beam models .................................................................... 195
Czechowski L.,
Dynamic response of viscoplastic thin-walled girders in torsion ......................... 203
Dbski H.,
Experimental investigation of post-buckling behaviour of composite column
with top-hat cross-section .................................................................................... 211
Dbski H., Kubiak T., Teter A.,
Buckling and post-buckling behaviour of channel-section composite columns
with various sequences of plies ............................................................................ 221
Domagalski L., Jdrysiak J.,
Postbuckling problems of thin periodic plates ..................................................... 231
Dyk K., Taczaa M.,
Stability of offshore structures stiffeners under lateral loads ............................... 241
Ferdynus M.,
An influence of global initial deflections on post-critical behaviour of isotropic
square-tube columns with dimples ....................................................................... 251
Fory P.,
Optimal design of uniform stability of shells stiffened by ribs ............................ 257

Gottvald J., Kala Z.,
Analysis of the stability collapse of half-buried storage tank............................... 267
Iwicki P., Krajewski M.,
3D buckling analysis of a truss with horizontal braces ........................................ 275
Iwicki P., Sondej M.,
Buckling analysis of cold formed steel column ................................................... 283
Jankowski J.,
Buckling and vibrations of composite column-beams ......................................... 289
Jasion P., Magnucki K.,
Stability of sandwich cylindrical shell with variable thickness ............................ 295
Jasion P., Magnucki K., Wasilewicz P.,
Global buckling of a sandwich beam-column with physically nonlinear core ..... 301
Kala Z.,
Imperfection sensitive buckling of rectangular frames with elastic bracing
stiffness ................................................................................................................ 309
Karasev .G., Varianichko M.A., Karasev G.G.,
Deformation and buckling of elastic shallow conical shells with different
boundary conditions............................................................................................. 315
Kazmierczak M., Jedrysiak J.,
Stability of thin plates with functionally graded structure.................................... 321
Kdziora P., Muc A., Barski M.,
Buckling of multilayered conical shells with various wall constructions ............. 327
Koakowski Z., Teter A.,
Damping behaviour of thin-walled composite columns under impact in-plane
loading ................................................................................................................. 337
Kopecki H., wich .,
Post-buckling state of rectangular plate stiffened by densely arranged ribs.
Numerical analysis and experimental investigation ............................................. 347

Kopecki T., Mazurek P.,
Experimental numerical analysis of deformation of post-critical states of thinwalled elements of bearing airframe structures .................................................... 355
Kopecki T., Mazurek P., Chodorowska D.,
Numerical representation of bifurcation in the process of determining stress
distributions in post-critical deformation states of aviation load-bearing
structures.............................................................................................................. 363
Kowal-Michalska K., Mania R.J.,
Static and dynamic buckling of FG plate subjected to thermomechanical
loading ................................................................................................................. 373
Krasovsky V.L., Kolesnikov M.V., Schmidt R.,
The Static resonance effect in problems of axial compression of the
cylindrical shells with initial geometrical imperfections ...................................... 383
Krasovsky V.L., Marchenko V.A., Schmidt R.,
Influence of manner of applying axial compression on the behaviour of a
cylindrical shell under local action ...................................................................... 389
Kubiak T., Kowal-Michalska K.,
A new approach to dynamic buckling load estimation for plate structures .......... 397
Kujawa M., Szymczak C.,
Elastic distortional buckling of thin-walled bars of closed quadratic crosssection .................................................................................................................. 407
Lis P., Koteko M.,
Sensitivity analysis of steel box-section girders................................................... 415
Loughlan J., Hussain N.,
Thin plate shear webs with stiffened cut-outs subjected to in-plane shear
displacement loading ........................................................................................... 423
Lykhachova O.V., Volchok D.L., Schmidt R.,
About the influence of the cut length on deformation and stability of the elastic
circular cylindrical shells ..................................................................................... 435
10

Macdonald M., Kulatunga M. P.,
Finite element analysis of cold-formed steel structural members with
perforations subjected to compression loading .................................................... 441
Magnucka-Bladzi E., Zajc K.,
Stability of thin-walled channel beams with orthotropic flanges ......................... 449
Mazurkiewicz L., Damaziak K., Malachowski J., Klasztorny M.,
Baranowski P.,
Numerical stability study of I-beam pillar structure with blast protective panel .. 459
Matoge Y., Shimizu S., Yamasaki Y., Fujita G., Tanaka N.,
Vertical buckling behaviour of hybrid steel girders ............................................. 467
Michalak B.,
On a modelling of stability of annular plates with functionally graded structure
interacting with an elastic heterogeneous subsoil ................................................ 477
Michalak B., Woniak Cz.,
Asymptotic and tolerance 2D-modelling in elastodynamics of certain thinwalled structures .................................................................................................. 487
Miedziska D., Niezgoda T., Jachimowicz J.,
Research on geometry and boundary conditions influence on cylindrical shell
stability ................................................................................................................ 495
Morzuch W.,
Vibrations and dynamic stability of the pendulum with vibrating mounting
point ..................................................................................................................... 501
Morzuch W.,
Vibrations and dynamic stability of mechanical systems described by Mathieu's
and Hill's differential equation ............................................................................. 507
Mrz A.,
The influence of cross-section shape of the car roof rail on the quasi-dynamic
buckling modes .................................................................................................... 513
Muc A., Bana A., Chwa M.,
Free vibrations of carbon nanotubes with defects ................................................ 521
11

Nagyov M., Ravinger J.,
Stability and dynamics of billboard sheet ............................................................ 531
Paczos P.,
Stability and limit load of thin-walled cold-formed channel beams ..................... 539
Pasternak H., Bartholom S.,
Girders with profiled and structured web - ongoing research .............................. 547
Pawlus D.,
The loss of dynamic stability of three-layered, annular plates with thick core .... 561
Psotn M., Ravinger J.,
Stability of concrete shallow shell ....................................................................... 571
Ribeiro P., Akhavan H., Teter A., Warmiski J.,
A review on vibrations and buckling of curvilinear fibre composite laminated
panels ................................................................................................................... 579
Shimizu S., Fukasawa S.,
Seismic behaviour of steel box columns connected with a bar element ............... 589
Stasiewicz P., Magnucki K.,
Analytical and experimental studies of stability of cylindrical shells with an
opening ................................................................................................................ 599
Stawiarski A., Muc A.,
Forced vibration of composite cylindrical panels with delaminations ................. 607
winiarski J., Kowal-Michalska K., Niezgodziski T.,
Influence of foam filling on dynamic response of hemispherical shell subjected
to blast pressure ................................................................................................... 617
Tomski L., Szmidla J., Yatsenko D.,
Optimization of the shape of a column subjected to a load by the follower force
directed towards the positive pole with regard to the condition of permissible
stress of the system .............................................................................................. 625
Tomski L., Uzny S.,
Realisation of a specific load with regard to a constructional solution consisting
of circular elements.............................................................................................. 635
12

Tyapin A. G.,
Soil-structure interaction analysis in the time domain with time-lag springs and
dashpots ............................................................................................................... 645
Ungureanu V., Dubina D.,
Sensitivity to imperfections of perforated pallet rack sections ............................ 655
Urbaniak M., Kubiak T.,
Dynamic buckling of thin-walled beam-columns with channel cross-section
subjected to bending ............................................................................................ 667
Wuka P., Kubiak T.,
Stability of cross-ply composite plate with piezoelectric actuators ..................... 677
Wuka P., Urbaniak M., Kubiak T.,
Dynamic response of thin-walled girders subjected to combined load ................ 687
Woniak Cz., Wgrowska M., Szlachetka O., Witkowska-Dobrev J.,
Free vibrations of an unbounded periodically reinforced elastic layer ................ 693
List of Authors ..................................................................................................... 699
13
14
KEYNOTE LECTURES
15
16
LOCAL BUCKLING AND LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

OF THIN-WALLED MULTICELL BEAMS
SUBJECTED TO BENDING
M. KRLAK, R. J. MANIA
Stefanowskiego 1/15, 90-924 Lodz, Poland
The paper deals with local buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled multicell beam/girder subjected to bending. There are some design hints according the
cross-section stiffening method giving significant increase of local buckling stress
value what is proved by numerical computations. The results of performed analysis
are presented in tables and graphs. The Finite Element software - ANSYS was
applied in modelling and calculations.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled box beams are frequently used in civil engineering and mechanical
structures as large load carrying members. Their cross section takes the form of a plate
girder, often made of segments which are jointed together on the field of location.
At the beginning we consider the box beam it is one cell girder of rectangular crosssection. Its dimensions are given in Fig. 1. The considered beam/girder is subjected to
simple, pure bending with the plane of bending overlapping the vertical plane of beam
symmetry. It is assumed that thickness of all beam walls is constant and equal to t0.
Further, it is assumed that:
the relationship of wall thickness t0 to the width of beam flange b is: b t0 200 ,
the relationship of total beam height h to its width is h b 2 ,
beam is made of steel with Youngs modulus E = 2105 MPa and Poisson ratio
0.3.
Due to bending one flange is compressed whereas the second is stretched with the
stresses of the same absolute magnitude. The webs (side walls) are subjected to in-plane
bending with linearly varying stresses. According to the buckling analysis of plates
subjected to pure in-plane bending [4] they undergo local buckling. For the given above
geometrical and material parameters, the compressed flange of the girder as well as the
webs buckle with critical stress value lower than 20 MPa. Therefore, the load carrying
capacity of such beam/girder is comparatively low and material properties are not fully
exploited. One of methods which lead to increase the capacity of such girders is to
reinforce a compressed flange and a compressed part of webs by adding longitudinal ribs
of appropriate bending stiffness. The largest number of works dealing with the rib
stiffening of thin-walled girders were published in the seventieth of last century - for
example [11],[10],[3]. However, a similar effect as by ribbing can be achieved by
introducing multi-cell design of a bent girder.
17
Fig. 1. One cell - box girder dimensions
The research of buckling and post-buckling states of thin-walled multi-cell

compressed columns and beams under bending has been began in the first years of current
century. The results of theoretical and numerical analyses as well as experimental
investigations concerning local buckling and load carrying capacity of multi-cell columns
were published in many works (for example [8],[6],[7],[5]) and presented at few
conferences. These results were obtained within the framework of the research project No
4T07A02829.
The optimization with respect to local buckling and strength of thin-walled box
girder (one cell) subjected to bending was performed in [2]. winiarski in his PhD Thesis
[12], optimized the thin-walled beams of one-, two- and three-cells rectangular crosssection subjected to bending.
The results of the experimental investigations and numerical computations of local
buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled beam of multi-cell cross section were
given in paper [9]. The local buckling analysis of multi-cell beams of opened crosssections, subjected to pure bending was performed by Baraski in his Master Thesis [1].
According to this short review of published works it is noticeable the lack of
buckling and load carrying capacity analysis concerned thin-walled beam/girders with the
number of cells greater than three, subjected to simple bending.
2. PROBLEM OF INTEREST. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Present work deals with the local buckling and load carrying capacity analysis of
thin-walled multi-cell beam/girders subjected to pure bending. The cross-section is a one
axis symmetrical rectangular profile. The shape of the cross-section beam profile is given
in Fig. 2. Used further in the analysis the cell number parameter n is equal to the number
of cells adjacent to the compressed flange of bent beam.
The numerical analysis will concern beams of total height h 2.5 b and the
number of cell parameter will be assumed equal to n 2, 3, 4 8. The number of cells
having dimensions bn bn , where bn b n ; adjacent to each web in its upper,
compressed part was assumed equal to the number of cells adjacent to the compressed
18

flange of the beam. In the lower part of the web subjected to tension there are no cells
(Fig. 2).
The global number N of all bn bn cells can be calculated from the formula:
N n 2n 1 3n 2 for
n 2,3,4
Beam with n the cell number parameter equal to 1 ( n 1) is not considered. The
critical load of such beam is lower than a simple rectangular box girder (it is rectangular
cross-section with only one cell as in Fig. 1).
In the case of analysed local buckling and load carrying capacity, for easy
comparison of critical stress values for beams of different number of cells (it means
different value of n cell number parameter), in subsequent considerations it was assumed
that all analysed beams:
are made of the same isotropic material (equal E Youngs modulus and Poisson
ratio),
their cross-section area A is equal and identical to the cross-section area of a box
girder of dimensions b 2.5b and walls thickness t0, it is A 7bt0 ,
for a beam with a cell number parameter n, a thickness tn (1) of all beam walls is
the same,
a bending moment acts in the plane of symmetry of beam cross section.
Fig. 2. Multi-cell beam cross section with dimensions description
Equating the cross section area A 7bt0 of a box girder with the area of multi-cell
beam defined by the cell number parameter n, leads to the formula for wall thickness of
multi-cell beam:
19
tn
7n
t0
13n 5
(1)
Then, the formula for cross section area of a beam which cell number parameter is n can
be written as follows:
An
13n 5
btn
n
(2)
From the geometrical relationships the formula for coordinate ycn of the multi-cell beam
cross-section centre of gravity can be derived in the form of:
ycn
n
n
1
0.75 2 3n 3 4 i b
13n 5
2n
i 2
(3)
what gives the location of beam neutral axis as well. It is worth mentioning that due to
location of bn bn cells only in the upper part of a beam cross-section, it is in its
compressed region, the neutral axis position is always above the lowest cell wall
( ycn b , see Fig. 2). Knowing a neutral axis location, the formula for beam cross-section
second moment of inertia, with respect to this neutral axis is as follows:
J zcn J z1n A a 2
(4)
a b ycn
(5)
where it is introduced:
J zcn
3
13 n 1 2 6 n2 i 2
t nb3
n 1
6
,
75
3
n
4
n
n
n
i 1
(6)
In Table 1 some exemplary values of tn t0 , An b,t0 , ycn b and J zcn b,t0 for cell
number parameter n 3,4,..,8 are collected.
Table 1.
Geometrical parameters of multi-cell beams
tn
0.6176t0
0.5957t0
0.5833t0
0.5753t0
0.5698t0
0.5656t0
An
11.333bt3
11.750bt4
12.0bt5
12.166bt6
12.286bt7
12.375bt8
Ycn
0.9877b
0.9495b
0.9258b
0.9098b
0.8983b
0.8895b
Jzcn
4.5405t0b
4.7066t0b
4.6796t0b
20
4.7329t0b
4.7763t0b
4.8102t0b3

3. NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS
For greater number of cells the interaction of different modes of buckling may take
place what is difficult to predict in theoretical considerations. Among the plate elements
(cell walls) there are members subjected to uniform compression and/or in-plane bending
which joining edges influence their resistance to local buckling. This interaction causes
great analytical difficulties. Thus establishing direct analytical formula for critical load for
multi-cell beam/girder subjected to pure bending is not possible. However, it is possible
to approximately evaluate the bending stress magnitude equal to local buckling stress for
most upper cell walls with the assumption that their longitudinal, common edges are
simply supported [1],[3]. In practice only Finite Element Method employment gives the
completely solutions for complex structures as considered multi-cell beam/girder is.
However, the analytical approach is competitive in terms of computation economy.
The numerical calculations of analysed multi-cell bent beam were performed with
the application of FEM and ANSYS software package. It was built a plate parametric
model of a multi-cell beam, where for meshing the shell elements were applied. Despite
the vertical symmetry of the multi-cell beam a full three dimensional model was created.
The boundary conditions were defined in terms of nodes displacements to represent the
simple support of a beam and by coupling of rotational degrees of freedom of nodes in
outside cross-sections. It was to fulfil the classical beam theory assumption of plane crosssections shape. According to material properties the previously given isotropic data were
applied for computations and additionally its characteristic was defined as bilinear with Et
= 2000 MPa and yield limit equal to pl 235 MPa [5]. The HMH equivalent stress
distribution in the discretised model of multi-cell beam under pure bending in the postbuckling state is presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Equivalent stress distribution in discrete model of multi-cell beam
21

At this stage of analysis the numerical computations were focused on local buckling
loads evaluation for different cell number (parameter n value) in the compressed region of
beam cross-section. Further, in the next step, the relationships between stress and strains
in the post-buckling range were analysed. Their graphical representation - in the case of
bending, were presented in the form of a graphs - normalized critical bending moment as
a function of angle of rotation (or slope) (as an example Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Buckling modes in box girder and multi-cell beam of n = 3
5. RESULTS
The critical loads for bent multi-cell beams under consideration were determined in
eigen-buckling linear analysis (Fig. 4). There were multi-cell beam segments of length
5 b modelled to minimize the influence of boundary conditions on the local buckling
mode. The reference box girder (one cell beam) was of width b 300 mm and wall
thickness
t0 1.5 mm. The other analyzed multi-cell beams were of dimensions
calculated with application formula (1) for walls thickness. The results of these
computations are summed up in Table 2.
Table 2. Critical stress value for multi-cell beams
crn
crn cr 0
15.40
40.79
76.08
122.88
180.85
249.81
329.68
420.31
2.646
4.937
7.974
11.736
16.211
21.394
27.275
As its clearly seen from the bottom row of Table 2, the basic advantage of multicell application is a significant increase of critical stress value. For the same amount of
material (equal cross-section area) the local buckling phenomena will occur for many
times greater load than in a box girder. Similar conclusion is valid for nonlinear buckling
and post-buckling analysis when the ultimate load is determined. In practice the number
22

of up to five cells ( n 5) is enough to achieve required results - it is increase the local
buckling load, since for greater number of cells the local buckling stress is greater than
yield limit of construction steel.
For assumed ratio of cross-section dimensions the highest absolute stress value
occurs in the lowest flange of the beam. In the case of equal material properties for
positive and negative direct stress (steel was assumed in calculations) under bending load
the yielding is first single plate wall. In the upper flange and neighbouring cells the yield
stress occur later depend on the hardening slope of material characteristic. This
phenomenon causes numerical difficulties in nonlinear post-buckling analysis. Excessive
distortions of elements which occur above yield limit make the convergence of analysis
even impossible. An example of successful nonlinear computations performed for multicell beam with cell parameter n 3 is presented in Fig. 5. Its ultimate load is almost 80 %
greater than local buckling load. The yield stress in upper part cells is achieved shortly
before the ultimate load therefore the beam behaviour is similar to a beam of fully linear
material properties.
2,0
cell parametr n = 3
M / Mcr
1,6
1,2
0,8
0,4
0,0
0,000
0,001
0,002
0,003
angle of rotation
Fig. 5. Nonlinear analysis - n = 3 three cell beam
6. CONCLUSIONS
The results of carried out numerical analysis for multi-cell beams/girders of equal
cross-section area, made of the same material and exactly in the same way supported
allow one to state the following conclusions:
local buckling stress of walls increases with the increase of parameter n - the
number of cells adjacent to beam upper flange,
the effect of local buckling stress increase is significant - e.g., for cell number
parameter n 3 the growth is of five times,
for some value of parameter n the beam cross-section can undergo yielding before
local buckling of it walls occurs,
23

for multiple number of adjacent cells the thickness of single wall becomes small
and such a design loses practical meaning.
REFERENCES
Baraski T., Buckling of multi-cell beams of opened cross section subjected to bending,
Master Thesis, supervisor R.J. Mania, Lodz University of Technology, 2010.
[2] Gakiewicz T., Krlak M., Kubiak T., Optimization of thin-walled beams subjected to
bending in respect of local stability and strength, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Vol. 11, 2007, pp. 37-48.
[3] Gakiewicz T., The aproximated stability analysis of ribbed box girder walls subjected to
combined bending with tension or compression, Proc. of III Stability of Struc. Symp.,
d, 1979.
[4] Krlak M. (Ed), Post-buckling state and the limit load- carrying capacity of thin-walled
girders with flat walls, PWN, Warszawa - d, 1990 (in Polish).
[5] Krlak M., Kowal- Michalska K., Mania R.J, winiarski J., Stability and load carrying
capacity of multi- celled thin- walled columns of rectangular cross-section, J. of
Theoretical and App. Mechanics, 47, 2, 2009, pp. 435-456.
[6] Krlak M., Kowal-Michalska K., Mania R.J, winiarski J., Experimental tests of stability
and load carrying capacity of compressed thin-walled multi-cell columns of triangular
cross- section, Elsevier, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp.883-887.
[7] Krlak M., Kowal-Michalska K., Mania R.J, winiarski J., The experimental tests of
buckling and load carrying capacity of thin-walled multi-cell column models subjected to
uniform compression, Politechnika Warszawska, Research Works, Mechanics,
Experimental Investigations in Solid Mechanics, Warsaw, 2007, pp. 73-78.
[8] Krlak M., Kowal-Michalska K., Stability and load carrying capacity of multi-cell
columns subjected to compression, Proc. of 4-th Int. Confer. on Coupled Instabilities in
Metal Structures, Rome-Italy, 2004, pp.213-222.
[9] Krlak M., winiarski J., Mania R.J, Kowal-Michalska K., Experimental and numerical
study of stability and ultimate load of thin-walled multi-cell beam, Proc. IV Conf. Thinwalled Vessels and Beams, Pozna-Koobrzeg, 2007, pp 57-64.
[10] Maquoi R., Massonet Ch., Non linear theory of post-buckling resistance of large stiffened
box girders, IABSE Publications, Vol. 31-11, 1971, pp. 91-140.
[11] Massonet Ch., Maquoi R., New theory and tests on the ultimate strength of stiffened box
girders, Proc. Int. Confer on Steel Box Girders Bridges, The Inst. of Civil Eng., Londres,
1973.
[12] winiarski J., Optimization of rectangular multi-cell cross section beam in respect of
buckling and load carrying capacity, PhD Thesis, Lodz University of Technology, 2004.
[1]
24
THE LOCAL-FLEXURAL-DISTORTIONAL ELASTO-PLASTIC

INTERACTIVE FAILURE MECHANICS OF STEEL THINWALLED LIPPED CHANNEL COLUMNS
a, b)
J. LOUGHLAN a), N. YIDRIS

a)
Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering
Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
b)
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
This paper outlines appropriate finite element modelling strategies and solution
procedures for the determination of the local-flexural-distortional elasto-plastic
interactive response of steel thin-walled lipped channel columns subjected to
uniform compressional displacement loading. The modelling procedures are able to
describe the complete loading history of the lipped channel columns from the onset
of local buckling through post-local buckling behaviour leading to local-flexuraldistortional interaction including material yielding and yield propagation. The
interactive failure mechanics of the columns is readily predicted using the
developed finite element simulation procedures. This includes the yield failure
mechanism at ultimate conditions and its location along the column length as well
as the subsequent elasto-plastic unloading of the column. The numerical
simulations take due account of the influence of geometrical imperfections on the
compressive ultimate failures of the columns and the results from the finite element
models are shown to give good agreement with the ultimate loads and failure
mechanisms from experimental tests. As an aid to our understanding, finite element
simulations are presented for the different possible interactions with local buckling
and it is clearly demonstrated that local-flexural-distortional interaction coupled
with the influence of material yielding is the worst case scenario.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled columns can buckle locally with many local buckles along the column
length or they may be more prone to intermediate or global buckling effects such as
distortional buckling or the overall modes of torsional, flexural or torsional-flexural
buckling. Clearly, interaction is possible between the different modes of behaviour and
coupled instabilities can be encountered in design. Local-distortional buckling can occur
or, indeed, the interaction between local buckling and overall flexural behaviour may be
of influence. Coupled local-flexural-distortional buckling is also a possibility and
analysis procedures should be capable of encapsulating all the various possibilities in
order to ensure safe and reliable structural designs. Actual structural behaviour will
depend on many factors including cross-sectional geometry, column length, end support
conditions and column material properties. The influence of geometrical imperfections
will also be of significance and this will be particularly true in the presence of coupled
post-buckling interactions. The considerable flexibility of the finite element method of
analysis makes it ideally suitable for dealing with the complex interactive failure
mechanics of thin-walled compression members and this approach has been employed in
25

this paper. The behaviour of thin-walled columns has received a great deal of attention by
a great many researchers over the years. Many different aspects have been considered
including a substantial volume of work pertaining to coupled mode post-buckling
behaviour. Research in this field of study has led to the inclusion of several new
considerations in the design codes of practice for steel structures and continues today to
be a topical area of interest and the focus of attention of many towards the development
of future advanced structural systems.
The coupled post-local buckling and overall bending interaction behaviour of thinwalled plain channel columns has been investigated by Loughlan and Yidris [1, 2] using
finite element simulation. This work highlights the significance of the global support
conditions at the column ends whereby it is shown that for the pin-ended condition there
is a strong tendency towards an unstable local-global response as a consequence of
neutral axis shift due to local buckling. For the fixed-ended condition it was of particular
interest to note that column deflections took place from the onset of local buckling and
thus, unlike the behaviour of columns with doubly symmetric cross-sections such as box
or I-sections, the fixed-ended singly symmetric plain channel section column is not an
overall bifurcation problem of the locally buckled member.
Lau & Hancock [3] and Kwon & Hancock [4] have studied the distortional buckling
behaviour of thin-walled channel section columns. Explicit analytical expressions were
derived by Lau & Hancock [3] to predict the distortional buckling stress of thin-walled
channel section columns and consideration has been given by Kwon & Hancock [4] to
the post-buckling response of such sections when undergoing local and distortional
deformations.
Loughlan and Yidris [5, 6] have studied the mechanics of post-local buckling and
overall bending interaction in thin-walled I-section compression members using finite
element simulation. In these works, the weakening effects of local buckling have been
shown to result in reduced global elastic Euler buckling loads and the influence of
geometrical imperfections and material nonlinearity have been shown to be of
significance in further reducing the ultimate carrying capability of the columns. In
particular, it has been shown that for longer columns whose local buckling stress is close
to the material yield stress, geometrical imperfections can result in ultimate load levels
which are somewhat less than the elastic local buckling load of the members.
The distortional buckling of cold-formed steel columns is described in
comprehensive detail in the AISI research report by Schafer [7]. The report details design
methods which account for local and distortional interaction and which permit
distortional and Euler interaction.
Schafer [8] considered the local, distortional, and Euler buckling of thin-walled
columns with regard to their treatment in design. At the time of this work the North
American design specifications for cold-formed steel columns ignored local buckling
interaction and did not provide an explicit check for distortional buckling. As a result of
this, Schafer proposed a new method for design that incorporated, explicitly, the local,
distortional and Euler buckling aspects of thin-walled columns.
The work of Yang and Hancock [9] describes experimental tests on high strength
G550 steel lipped channel sections with intermediate stiffeners in the flat flange and web
elements of the section. The compression tests on very thin sections were carried out
corresponding to the fixed-ended boundary condition and clearly demonstrate the
significant interaction between local and distortional buckling. It is noted in this work
26

that some of the long sections failed by both flanges moving out in the distortional mode
and some by both flanges moving inwards in the distortional mode and it would appear
that the failure strength is somewhat lower for the case of the inward moving flanges.
Crisan et al [10, 11] have studied the behaviour of thin-walled cold-formed steel
perforated sections in compression from the experimental viewpoint [10] and with regard
to numerical simulation [11]. These works were devoted to the study of the behaviour of
the compression members of pallet racks with regard to their interactive buckling
characteristics and cross-sections with and without perforations were considered in the
experimental programme. The influence of imperfections on the erosion of the critical
bifurcation load for coupled mode buckling has been investigated by Crisan et al [11] and
a numerical sensitivity analysis was carried out to identify the most severe imperfection
types. Of particular note from these works was the fact that both test and numerical
simulation highlighted the negative influence of interaction between distortional and
overall buckling for the type of rack sections considered and the strong interaction
experienced was found to significantly reduce the compressional load capacity of these
members.
Dinis et al [12] have examined the local-distortional mode interaction behaviour of
cold-formed steel lipped channel columns. This work uses the ABAQUS finite element
code and 4-node shell elements are employed to simulate behaviour. The numerical postbuckling results reported, clearly indicate the evolution of the elastic-plastic column
deformations during loading.
Camotim & Dinis [13] have studied the coupled instabilities with distortional
buckling in cold-formed steel lipped channel columns using the ABAQUS finite element
software. The work investigated the influence of geometrical imperfections on the elastic
post-buckling interactive mechanics of the lipped channel sections and included
local/distortional, distortional/global and local/distortional/global mode interaction.
Santos et al [14, 15] have studied the post-buckling and ultimate strength behaviour
of cold-formed steel fixed-ended lipped channel columns which were susceptible to
local-distortional-global mode interaction. These works involve laboratory testing,
numerical simulations and design considerations [14] and the full experimental
programme has been outlined in detail [15]. The test specimens were designed such that
their critical buckling loads were extremely close thus ensuring a strong localdistortional-global triple mode interaction with the global mode being torsional-flexural
in nature. Of particular interest from this work is the fact that although the test columns
were designed with almost simultaneous buckling modes, the local buckling mode was
found to have virtually no influence on the column post-buckling behaviour and failure
load. In fact no experimental evidence was found of local buckling deformations in any
of the tested column specimens and the column failure mode was found to be a
combination of symmetric distortional and global torsional-flexural deformations with
the latter being predominant.
Rossi et al [16, 17] have examined the combined distortional and overall flexuraltorsional buckling behaviour of cold-formed stainless steel sections dealing with the
experimental [16] and design [17] aspects of the work respectively. The test specimens
were designed such that distortional buckling developed in the sections prior to overall
flexural-torsional buckling. The tests were carried out on press-braked stainless steel
lipped channel columns subjected to end compression and corresponding to the fixedended support boundary condition. From the design viewpoint [17] a critical summary of
27

the European standards and design methods available for calculating the strength of coldformed stainless steel compression members is reported and a new direct strength method
taking into account the two buckling modes and their interaction is proposed and shown
to give reasonable agreement with the ultimate loads obtained from the experimental
tests.
Dinis and Camotim [18] have reported the results of a numerical investigation
dealing with the elastic and elastic-plastic post-buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel
lipped channel columns which are influenced by distortional/flexural-torsional buckling
mode interaction. The columns analysed had pin-ended support conditions and the results
determined were obtained using the finite element code ABAQUS with fine mesh
discretisations using 4-node isoparametric shell elements. This work highlights the
importance of geometrical imperfections and of material yielding on the post-buckling
behaviour of columns under strong distortional/global interaction as a consequence of
near simultaneous buckling stress levels of the individual modes. It is well known that
simultaneous buckling designs are sensitive to geometrical imperfections and also, if the
material yield stress is close to the critical buckling stress, this further degrades the
ultimate carrying capability of the columns.
In this paper, finite element simulation is employed to examine the local-flexuraldistortional post-buckled failure of thin-walled steel lipped channel section columns
giving due consideration to the influence of geometric imperfections and to elasto-plastic
material behaviour. The columns analysed are uniformly compressed and have global
fixed-ended conditions at their supports. The columns studied numerically are those
which were experimentally tested by Adetoro [19] some 24 years ago. The details of
these tests have only recently been made available to the thin-walled structures research
community by Loughlan et al [20] in their initial numerical study of the test programme.
The test data lacked any useful information on geometrical imperfections and the
predicted failure loads from geometrically perfect simulation models were found, in
general, to be higher than the test values. The authors are in the process of developing a
study programme to examine the sensitivity of structures to different types of
imperfections. Assumed imperfection systems can be applied to the finite element grid
using the eigenmode mapping technique and different imperfection states can be chosen
with relative ease. Local, distortional, flexural, torsional-flexural, or indeed imperfection
systems which utilise mode combinations can be employed. Some initial results have
been obtained for the test columns of Adetoro [19] using this approach and these are
detailed in the paper. As an aid to our understanding of the complex interactions of lipped
channel columns, appropriate constraints have been employed in the finite element
simulation procedures which allow us to examine the influence of the different possible
interactions with local buckling in isolation. This was found to be helpful in identifying
the most significant influences on behaviour and although the final failure mode of the
test columns was local-flexural-distortional in nature a strong contribution from localdistortional interaction was clearly evident.
2. FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION
The finite element method is used to simulate the compressional local-flexuraldistortional buckling interaction behaviour of the fixed-ended lipped channel-section
columns. The simulations use the CQUAD4 quadrilateral shell element of the
28

PATRAN/NASTRAN finite element software to discretise the sections and to formulate
the finite element models. The CQUAD4 shell element is readily able to take account of
the coupled interaction of the local bending and membrane stretching of the section walls
which occurs during the post-buckling process.
Suitably refined finite element models with appropriate loading and boundary
conditions were developed to simulate the complete compressional loading history of the
lipped channel-section members. The use of symmetry in the modelling process does, of
course, reduce the size of the structural models and cuts down, considerably, the
computation time involved in solving the appropriate post-buckling equilibrium
equations. Results have been obtained in this work using symmetry for computational
efficiency.
Figure 1 shows the cross-section geometrical details for the lipped channel-section
columns. The columns have a length L, the width and thickness of the web are bw and tw
respectively whilst those of the flanges are b f and tf and those of the lips are b and t as
indicated. It is to be noted that the cross section dimensions b w, bf and b are the midsurface dimensions and not the outside dimensions of the section. The X and Y axes are
shown acting at the section centroid with Y acting in the plane of geometrical symmetry
of the cross-section. The Z axis is the longitudinal axis along the member length.
Fig. 1. Geometric details of the lipped channel-sections
The failure mechanisms witnessed in the tests were noted to be all symmetrically
disposed about the geometrical Y-axis of symmetry of the lipped channel cross-sections
and also, there was no evidence of global flexural-torsional behaviour during the tests of
the fixed-ended columns. Bearing this in mind, consideration is given here in the
modelling process only to the interaction between local and distortional buckling and
overall column bending. It is clear that symmetry conditions can be applied to the finite
element models in this case and that the coupled post-buckling local-flexural-distortional
interaction behaviour can be readily determined in this way.
One symmetrical full length half of the column is therefore modelled in a fine mesh
discretisation of the CQUAD4 shell elements. Firstly, all nodes lying on the axis of
geometrical symmetry at the centre of the web are constrained from movement in the Xdirection and also from rotation about the Z-axis along the member length. For the case
of fixed-ended conditions, the flange nodes are constrained from movement in the X29

direction and the web and lip nodes are prevented from movement in the Y-direction at
each end of the column. In addition, all nodes at the end sections are prevented from
rotation about both, the X-axis and the Y-axis and thus both local plate and global section
rotational restraint is enforced at the column ends. To replicate the conditions as closely
as possible to those of the experimental tests, all the nodes of the cross-section at one end
of the column are constrained from moving in the longitudinal Z-direction whilst all the
nodes at the opposite end cross-section are constrained to move by the same amount
axially in the Z-direction along the column. In this way, pure compressional displacement
loading is applied at one end of the column model and the reactive forces corresponding
to this at the opposite end of the column are thus readily determined using the non-linear
finite element solution procedures in the NASTRAN solver. The end compressional
displacements are applied incrementally and so the complete loading history of the
columns, including the unloading phases of behaviour, is easily obtained. The full
Newton-Raphson Algorithm has been used when performing the postbuckling analyses of
the columns with NASTRAN solution procedure SOL 600. This approach has been
shown to provide good results for most non-linear problems and results in updating the
tangent stiffness matrix at all iterations of the solution process.
Imperfections are introduced into the finite element models using an eigenmode
mapping technique such that selected eigenmodes are mapped onto the finite element
mesh grid corresponding to specified maximum imperfection amplitudes. Local, flexural
and distortional imperfection modes can be chosen separately or in combination with
each mode having its own specified amplitude. The imperfection data available from the
tests consisted of dial gauge readings at a number of locations along the length of the
column members at the web centre line and along the section junctions. Insufficient data
was provided from the tests to describe the out-of-flatness of the local form around the
cross-sections and along the member lengths and thus the imperfection test data was
found to be unhelpful in the finite element analysis. In the absence of imperfection test
data, the eigenmode mapping technique is a useful procedure for investigating the
imperfection sensitivity of structures. It offers flexibility and ease of application and the
influence of different imperfection modes or mode combinations on column behaviour
can be readily ascertained. In the simulations of the test specimens a number of different
imperfection systems have been tried and some results are detailed in the paper for those
of which indicated good correlation with test.
For the case of fixed-ended or uniformly compressed columns, it is clear that the
global displacements and rotations at the column ends are constrained. For fixed-ended
thin-walled columns, the local conditions at the ends of the constituent plate elements of
the section can be simply supported (locally rotationally free) or clamped (locally
rotationally constrained) and the choice of this boundary condition can have a significant
influence on the post-buckled interactive response of a column. This is particularly true
for the case of columns with a singly symmetric cross-section and whose initial buckling
mode is local in nature. It has been shown for the case of fixed-ended plain channel
columns [1, 2] with the locally rotationally constrained condition that overall column
bending is initiated at the onset of local buckling as a result of local amplitude
modulation along the column length. For the locally rotationally free condition, the
amplitude of the local buckles is fairly constant along the column and thus for this case
30

the column remains straight at the point of local buckling and overall column bending
takes place during the post-local buckling phase of behaviour as a result of the loss in
section flexural stiffness due to local buckling coupled with the local form change that
takes place along the column length during post-buckling.
For the case of fixed-ended singly symmetric lipped channel columns whose initial
buckling mode is local in nature and whose constituent plate elements are locally
rotationally constrained at their ends, the initial post-buckling interaction is therefore
local-flexural in nature and with increased loading this leads subsequently to a further
interaction with the distortional mode of buckling. This, of course, assumes the
preclusion of the possibility of torsional-flexural buckling of the columns and this was in
fact the case for the test columns considered. Also, it is found that the initial interaction
with flexural bending is small in comparison to that experienced for the case of plain
channel columns and this is, of course, due to the added stiffness afforded to the section
flanges from the stiffening lips.
As an aid to our understanding of the complex interaction mechanics of the lipped
channel columns we can employ suitable constraints in the finite element simulation
procedures which allow us to examine the influence of the different possible interactions
with local buckling in isolation. We can examine the post-local buckling performance of
the columns in isolation as well as the behaviour of the columns for the isolated
interactions of local-flexural and local-distortional buckling. In order to understand the
influence of the different types of interaction, restraints have to be imposed at the
flange/web and flange/lip junctions of the section along the column length. To simulate
the condition which precludes the effects of column deflections and prevents the
influence of distortional buckling, all nodes lying on the junctions between the flange and
web along the column length are constrained from movement in the Y-direction, Y = 0,
whilst those nodes lying on the junctions along the column length between the flange and
lip are prevented from movement in the X-direction, X = 0, as shown in Figure 2. For
this case, X = 0, Y = 0, it is clear that only local buckling along the column length is
permitted to take place during the compression of the column. Using this model we are
able to determine the complete post-local buckling elasto-plastic failure mechanics of the
columns in the absence of any couplings with other modes of behaviour.
X = 0
X = 0
Y
X
Y = 0
Y = 0
Fig. 2. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit post-local

buckling
31

To examine the influence of the different possible couplings on column behaviour it is a
simple matter of releasing the appropriate constraints detailed in Fig. 2. The influence of
column deflections on the behaviour of a locally buckled column can be determined by
simply maintaining the X constraint at the flange/lip junctions to eliminate the effects of
distortional buckling and releasing the Y constraint at the flange/web junctions to allow
for column bending. The constrained model which permits local-flexural interaction is as
detailed in Fig. 3 and using this we are able to determine the elasto-plastic local-flexural
interaction response of the columns throughout the loading process.
X =
0
X =
0
Y
X
Fig. 3. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit local-flexural

interaction
As mentioned previously there is an immediate interaction between local buckling

and overall column bending from the onset of local buckling for fixed-ended lipped
channel columns whose initial buckling is local in nature and whose constituent plate
elements are locally rotationally constrained at their ends. The column deflections are
Y
X
Y = 0
Y = 0
Fig. 4. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit localdistortional interaction
found to be small during local-flexural interaction but become more effectual when
subsequently interacting with the distortional mode of behaviour leading to localflexural-distortional interaction as the loading progresses. To gain a better knowledge and
understanding of the local-distortional interaction of the columns, in the first instance, we
simply maintain the Y constraints at the flange/web junctions to eliminate column
bending and release the X constraints at the flange/lip junctions to allow the possibility
of deflections in the distortional mode. The constrained model is as shown in Fig. 4 and
32

using this we are able to determine the elasto-plastic local-distortional interaction
behaviour of the columns throughout the complete loading process.
3. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The test programme of Adetoro [19] covered some 20 steel lipped channel section
columns of varying cross sectional dimensions and column lengths. The details of these
tests which took place more than two decades ago have only recently been made
available to researchers by Loughlan et al [20] in their initial numerical study of the test
programme. The details are also reported in this paper for completeness and quick
reference. The test work of Santos et al [15] has dealt with steel fixed-ended lipped
channel columns whereby the test specimens were designed with extremely close
buckling modes such that a strong local-distortional-global triple mode interaction was in
evidence. The test work of Rossi et al [16] examined the behaviour of fixed-ended
stainless steel lipped channel columns with respect to the interaction between distortional
and flexural-torsional buckling and the columns were designed to permit distortional
buckling to develop prior to the occurrence of global flexural-torsional behaviour. The
difference in the test programme of Adetoro [19] is that it examined the behaviour of
steel lipped channel columns for which distortional buckling and coupled mode
interaction was a secondary effect coming into play after the occurrence of local buckling
and after a considerable post-local buckling response. The test columns were loaded in
uniform compression and were tested in accordance with the fixed-ended boundary
condition. Table 1 summarises the geometrical data and gives the ultimate experimental
failure load for each of the 20 test columns. The test programme considered four groups
of five columns. The columns within each group had approximately the same midline
cross-sectional dimensions but had five different lengths ranging from 1.0m to 1.8m in
0.2m increments. The test groups are as detailed in Table 1. The test columns were press
braked from three sheets of 20 SWG mild steel and tensile test coupons were cut from
each of the sheets to determine the material properties of the steel. The average properties
from the tensile tests were found to be, Youngs Modulus E = 193 GPa, Yield Stress y =
209 MPa and Poissons Ratio = 0.3. These values have been used, in general, in the
finite element simulations of the test columns when employing the elastic-perfectly
plastic material model in conjunction with the von Mises failure criteria.
The purpose of the experimental investigation by Adetoro [19] was simply to
determine the influence of local buckling on the compressive strength of the lipped
channel columns for the case of the fixed-ended boundary condition. As mentioned
previously, the experimental tests took place some 24 years ago and at that time the
failure mechanisms associated with the tests were not fully understood by the writer of
this paper who was the project supervisor. It should also be mentioned that in the late
eighties, although distortional buckling was being researched [3], its complex interactions
with other modes of buckling and its influence on structural collapse had yet to be fully
investigated. The observed failure mechanisms from the tests of Adetoro [19] were
found, in general, to be symmetrically disposed about the line of geometric symmetry of
the section through the section web and in general, to be located away from the column
mid-height. A single mechanism along the column length away from the column midheight was found to be the case for almost all of the test columns. The finite element
simulations reported in this paper clearly indicate that post-local-flexural-distortional
33

interaction coupled with material yielding had a significant influence on the failure
process of the test columns and that geometrical imperfections were of some significance.
The imperfection data from the test programme did not provide a suitable picture of the
initial deformed state of the test columns prior to loading. The recorded imperfection data
consisted of a number of dial gauge readings at intervals along the column length at the
centreline of the web and at the flange-web junctions. The format of the data and the
insufficient number of data points was found not to be helpful towards the development
of suitable finite element imperfection models and thus the finite element simulations
were based on assumed imperfection systems which were applied to the models using an
eigenmode mapping technique.
Table 1. Summary of Test Column Dimensions and Experimental Failure Loads
Test
Grou
p
Midline Dimensions
Column
No.
bw (mm)
bf (mm)
bl (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
178.04
178.70
178.54
179.54
178.64
152.24
151.84
151.54
151.54
151.04
127.34
127.34
127.64
127.04
127.04
101.05
100.64
100.58
100.44
100.54
62.70
63.13
62.84
63.04
63.04
56.08
56.87
56.79
56.64
57.04
49.04
49.65
49.61
49.04
49.54
63.04
63.04
63.04
63.04
63.04
12.22
11.80
12.29
11.77
11.87
10.52
10.52
11.02
10.92
10.58
9.72
8.52
9.52
9.02
9.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
12.02
t (mm)
L (mm)
Pult (kN)
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
28.80
31.50
31.36
31.75
31.85
29.80
29.35
30.00
28.10
29.50
29.17
26.74
29.85
30.10
29.80
29.10
32.35
29.80
32.70
29.80
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND SOME COMPARISONS WITH TEST

In this work we are dealing with uniformly compressed lipped channel columns in
the presence of fixed-ended boundary conditions. We are also dealing with column
designs whose buckling modes are not coincident. For the columns analysed, local
buckling is the initial critical mode of response and there is a considerable post-local
buckling reserve, of the order of 2.5-3.5 times initial buckling, before the occurrence of
column failure. As mentioned previously, for the case of fixed-ended singly symmetric
lipped channel columns whose initial buckling mode is local in nature and whose
34

constituent plate elements are locally rotationally constrained at their ends, the initial
post-buckling interaction is local-flexural in nature and with increased loading this leads
subsequently to local-flexural-distortional interaction. For the fixed-ended lipped channel
columns tested by Adetoro [19] it is found that the initial local-flexural interaction is
weak. By comparing the results from the finite element simulations for constrained localdistortional interaction and natural local-flexural-distortional interaction it is clear,
however, that the influence of column flexure is more significantly noticeable in the
vicinity of column collapse. In the absence of any useful imperfection test data this
research work sets out to look at the influence of different proposed geometric
imperfection systems on the behaviour of the test columns. The influence of local,
distortional and flexural imperfection modes are possible, through the use of the
eigenmode mapping technique, as well as different combinations of all three modes.
Some results are presented in the paper and further work needs to be done.
Fig. 5.
The constrained and natural post buckling interactions of column 4
Figure 5 shows the constrained and natural post-buckling interactions of column 4.

There are two sets of four curves detailing the elastic and elasto-plastic responses of the
column respectively. Clearly, the complete elastic solutions will not be possible in
practice as the influence of material yielding is noted to have a significant bearing on the
response of column 4. Using the eigenmode mapping technique, local geometrical
imperfections are introduced into the finite element model for column 4 in the form of the
lowest local buckling mode with a maximum amplitude of wo = 0.5 mm. In the absence
of any useful imperfection test data this imperfection mode and amplitude was found to
give good correlation with the column ultimate load as well as the nature and location of
its failure mechanism. Due to imperfections, the load-end compression curves of Fig. 5
are non-linear from the onset of loading and the critical local buckling load of the perfect
column, Pcr = 8.941 kN, is shown as an indicator.
35

The uppermost elastic curve in Fig. 5 details the compressive response for the
constrained post-local buckling of column 4 in accordance with the kinematic conditions
at the section junctions along the column length as detailed in Fig. 2. It is of note that
there is a continual loss of compressional stiffness as loading progresses and this is due to
the local form change that takes place across the section and along the column length
during loading. In the simulation process this is afforded to the column by the
considerable flexibility of the refined finite element model in being able to accommodate
the most appropriate deformed state with load in accordance with the least strain energy
stored in the structural system. The elastic constrained local-flexural interaction curve,
which has been determined in accordance with the kinematic conditions at the section
junctions along the column length as detailed in Fig. 3, is shown to result in an increased
loss in compressional stiffness at the higher load levels considered. The elastic localdistortional mode of behaviour, which has been determined in accordance with the
kinematic conditions at the section junctions along the column length as detailed in
Fig. 4, is noted to result in a slightly greater loss in compressional stiffness and thus it is
clear that these independent constrained elastic interactions lead to a very similar loadend compressional equilibrium response for column 4 of the test programme. When
allowing for free natural interaction by releasing the constraints at the section junctions
along the column length to enable local-flexural-distortional interaction, it is clear that
there is strong coupling between the distortional and flexural modes of behaviour and this
is illustrated in Figure 5 where a greater loss in compressional stiffness is seen to be
associated with the elastic local-flexural-distortional interaction curve. This is not
surprising since the movement of the flange-lip junctions during distortional deflections
causes a reduction in the section flexural stiffness which encourages column bending and
consequently the compressional stiffness of the column suffers as a result of the localflexural-distortional interaction.
The constrained and natural elastic interaction curves are simply an aid to help us
with a better understanding of the interaction process and of course the natural elastic
response would have a more important role to play for columns manufactured from high
yield materials. For the columns of the test programme it is clear that material yielding
has a significant bearing on column performance and that mode interaction coupled with
material yielding has the most devastating effect. From Fig. 5 we see that there are four
elasto-plastic equilibrium curves, constrained post-local buckling with an ultimate load of
38.33 kN, constrained local-flexural interaction with an ultimate load of 37.67 kN,
constrained local-distortional interaction with an ultimate load of 33.96 kN and natural
local-flexural-distortional interaction with the lowest ultimate load of 32.34 kN which is
to be compared to the test value of 31.75 kN. The constrained post-local buckling and
local-flexural interaction models are noted to have a fairly good elasto-plastic reserve
before failure and a very similar equilibrium response during the loading and unloading
stages of behaviour. The influence of allowing for column bending is noted here to
reduce the constrained post-local buckling ultimate load by the order of 1.7%. The
constrained local-distortional and natural local-flexural-distortional interaction models
are noted to have a fairly low elasto-plastic reserve before failure and to illustrate very
similar equilibrium trends. Failure is seen to occur not far in excess of initial yielding and
the influence of allowing for column bending in the natural model is noted to reduce the
ultimate load from the constrained local-distortional model by the order of 5%. The localflexural-distortional interaction model is seen to be able to predict the test column
36

behaviour fairly well in respect of its ultimate load and the nature and location of its
failure mechanism as indicated in Fig. 5.
Fig. 6. The natural interactive deformations and failure mechanics of column 4
The growth of the natural interactive buckling deformations with applied load and the
development of the associated failure mechanism for test column 4 are illustrated in some
detail in Figure 6. As a result of the local imperfections applied to this column model, the
local deformed state will be in evidence and begin to grow from the onset of loading.
Eight locations are shown on the non-linear equilibrium curve and the deformed state at
each of these locations is as indicated. At point 1, which is just above the critical local
buckling load for the perfect column, it is seen that there are eight buckles along the
column length giving a local buckle node at the centre of the column. The loss in column
axial stiffness through points 1-4 is due to geometric non-linearity as a result of local
form change across the column cross-section and along the column length and it is of
note that the buckle amplitudes appear to become more prominent in the lower half of the
column as the loading progresses towards point 4. The considerable loss in axial stiffness
through points 4-6 is due to a local-flexural-distortional interaction phase of behaviour
which is coupled with the growth of membrane yielding at the section junctions and to
yield propagation across the section. At point 5, it is of note that the tangent axial
stiffness of the column is zero and that there is slight unloading of the column from 5-6
as membrane yielding at the section junctions serves to promote distortional buckling.
The initiation and development of distortional buckling from 5-6 is clearly evident and
this results in membrane yield propagation across the section and thus a plastic
mechanism is triggered at point 6 which leads to elasto-plastic unloading. During the
more severe unloading phase of behaviour through points 6-8, von Mises membrane
yielding becomes more concentrated in the mechanism region and thus a permanent
failure mechanism is formed at point 8. The final failure mechanism from the simulation
process can be seen from Figure 6 to compare favourably with the test failure mechanism
37

with regard to both, its shape across the section and its location along the column length.
As the von Mises membrane yielding becomes more concentrated in the mechanism
region, it is of note that the elastic buckles elsewhere on the column disappear during the
unloading process and this is shown in the final simulation at load point 8 and in the
comparison with the test column failure mode.
Fig. 7. The constrained and natural post buckling interactions of column 8
The elastic and elasto-plastic constrained and natural post-buckling interactions of

test column 8 are shown in Fig. 7. The eigenmode mapping technique for introducing
geometrical imperfections into the simulation process offers great flexibility in the choice
of the imperfection system. Local, global or distortional modes can be employed or any
combination thereof and in the absence of any useful imperfection test data this approach
is helpful to study the influence of different imperfection systems on column behaviour.
The equilibrium curves shown in Fig. 7 are those pertaining to a combined localdistortional imperfection system which utilises the second local mode and the first
distortional mode with maximum amplitudes of 0.75 mm. This was found to give
remarkable correlation with all aspects of the compressional test data for column 8. The
ultimate loads determined from the four elasto-plastic equilibrium curves are 37.27 kN
for constrained post-local buckling, 36.64 kN for constrained local-flexural interaction,
31.45 kN for constrained local-distortional interaction and 29.72 kN, the lowest ultimate
load, for natural local-flexural-distortional interaction. This lowest load is to be compared
to the test value of 30.00 kN. The constrained local-distortional and natural localflexural-distortional interaction models are noted to have a fairly low elasto-plastic
reserve before failure. Material non-linearity is seen to come into play at around 27.3 kN
for these models and failure is seen to occur not far in excess of initial yielding. The
influence of allowing for column bending in the natural model is noted to reduce the
ultimate load from the constrained local-distortional model by the order of 5.5%. The
local-flexural-distortional interaction model is seen to be able to predict the test column
38

behaviour extremely well in respect of its ultimate load and the nature and location of its
failure mechanism as indicated in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
The natural interactive deformations and failure mechanics of column 8
The Growth of the natural interactive buckling deformations with applied load and
the development of the associated failure mechanism for test column 8 are illustrated in
Fig. 8. As a result of the coupled local-distortional imperfection system applied to this
column model, the locally deformed state along the column length will be in evidence
and begin to grow from the onset of loading. Eight locations are shown on the non-linear
equilibrium curve and the deformed state at each of these locations is as indicated. At
point 1, which is just below the critical local buckling load for the perfect column, it is
seen that there are twelve buckles along the column length and that amplitude modulation
is in existence with lighter buckles towards the ends of the column and heavier buckles
over the central region. The loss in column axial stiffness through points 1-4 is due to
geometric non-linearity as a result of local form change across the column cross-section
and along the column length. The loss in axial stiffness from 4-5 is due to local-flexuraldistortional interaction coupled with the growth of membrane yielding at the section
junctions. At point 5, the tangent axial stiffness of the column is noted to be zero and
distortional buckling deflections are clearly evident. The development of distortional
buckling results in membrane yield propagation across the section and thus a plastic
mechanism is triggered just beyond point 5 which then leads to fairly sharp elasto-plastic
unloading towards point 6. During further more gradual unloading through points 6-8,
von Mises membrane yielding becomes more concentrated in the mechanism region and
thus a permanent failure mechanism is formed at point 8. The final failure mechanism
from the simulation process can be seen from Fig. 8 to compare remarkably well with the
test failure mechanism with regard to both, its shape across the section and its location
along the column length. As the von Mises membrane yielding becomes more
concentrated in the mechanism region, it is of note that the elastic buckles elsewhere on
39

the column disappear during the unloading process and this is shown in the final
simulation at load point 8 and in the comparison with the test column failure mode.
Fig. 9. Comparison between simulation and test for column 8
It is to be noted from Figure 8 that the ultimate collapse of column 8 from

simulation corresponds to an end compressional displacement u of the order of 1.25 mm.
Load-end compressional displacement data was recorded for column 8 during the test
well beyond ultimate conditions and the comparison between finite element simulation
and test is shown in Figure 9. It is seen that close correlation exists between finite
element and experiment. There is a good prediction of the ultimate load and of the end
compressional response of the test column during both the loading and unloading phases
of behaviour. The recording of the load-end compressional test displacement data was
stopped at 12 mm of end compression as indicated in Figure 9 whereas the simulation is
noted to unload to a level corresponding to 14 mm of end compression. The simulation
strategies and procedures outlined in the paper are clearly seen to be able to accurately
predict all aspects of the complex local-flexural-distortional interaction behaviour of the
lipped channel test columns including the ultimate load, load-end compressional response
and the failure collapse mechanisms of the specimens.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Through the use of constrained finite element simulation we are able to gain a better
understanding of the effectiveness of different possible interactions. The comparisons
between the constrained elastic and elasto-plastic solutions clearly indicate the
importance of including material non-linearity when modelling the test columns. Using
this approach we are able to determine the most influencing factors affecting behaviour.
40

The base model for comparative purposes is taken as the constrained elasto-plastic postlocal buckling model since this, for obvious reasons, will give the highest ultimate load.
Local-flexural interaction has been shown to reduce this load by a small margin, less than
2%, for the columns considered whilst the reduction associated with local-distortional
interaction was found to be of the order of 14% on average. This clearly indicates the
strong influence of distortional buckling on column behaviour whilst the lowest ultimate
loads have been shown to be those determined from the natural or unconstrained elastoplastic local-flexural-distortional interaction model.
It has been shown that for the case of fixed-ended singly symmetric lipped channel
columns whose initial buckling mode is local in nature and whose constituent plate
elements are locally rotationally constrained at their ends, the initial post-buckling
interaction is local-flexural in nature and with increased loading this leads subsequently
to local-flexural-distortional interaction. For the fixed-ended lipped channel columns
tested by Adetoro [19] it is found that the initial local-flexural interaction is weak and
that the influence of column flexure is more significantly noticeable in the vicinity of
column collapse.
The finite element simulation procedures detailed in the paper have been shown to
be able to accurately predict all aspects of the complex local-flexural-distortional
interaction behaviour of the lipped channel test columns. This includes the prediction of
ultimate load, load-end compressional response, and the nature of the collapse failure
mechanisms across the sections of the specimens and their location along the column
length. In the absence of any useful test data for geometrical imperfections, the
simulations have been based on assumed imperfection systems which have been applied
to the finite element grid using the eigenmode mapping technique. Different imperfection
states can be chosen, local, distortional, flexural, or indeed imperfection systems which
utilise mode combinations. This clearly involves a trial and error procedure and the
approach can be used to study the sensitivity of structures to different types of
imperfections. Some results have been presented which show a good correlation with the
tests of Adetoro [19].
REFERENCES
[1] Loughlan, J. & Yidris, N. The Coupled Post-Local Buckling and Overall Bending
Interaction Mechanics of Thin-Walled Plain Channel Columns, The Fourth International
Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation, Cape Town, South
Africa, 6-8 September, 2010.
[2] Loughlan, J. & Yidris, N. The Influence of End Support Boundary Conditions on the
Local-Overall Interactive Failure Mechanics of Plain Channel Section Columns,
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Timisoara,
Romania, 2011.
[3] Lau, S. C. W. & Hancock, G. J. Distortional Buckling Formulae for Thin Walled Channel
Columns, Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol.
113, No 5, 1987.
[4] Kwon, Y. B. & Hancock, G. J. Post-Buckling Analysis of Thin-Walled Channel Sections
Undergoing Local and Distortional Buckling, Research Report, No. R650, School of Civil
and Mining Engineering, The University of Sydney, Australia, 1992.
[5] Loughlan, J. and Yidris, N., The post-local buckling mechanics and ultimate carrying
capability of uniformly compressed thin-walled I-section struts and columns, Stability of
Structures XII-th Symposium, Zakopane, Poland, 7-11 September 2009
41

[6] Loughlan, J. and Yidris, N., The Mechanics of Post-Local Buckling and Overall Bending
Interaction in Thin-Walled I-Section Compression Members, The Fourth International
Conference on Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation, Cape Town, South
Africa, 6-8 September, 2010.
[7] Schafer, B. W. Distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel Columns, Research Report
RP001, Committee on Specifications for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural
Members, AISI, Revision 2006, August 2000.
[8] Schafer, B.W. Local, Distortional, and Euler Buckling in Thin-walled Columns, ASCE,
Journal of Structural Engineering, 128 (3) 289-299, 2002.
[9] Yang, D. and Hancock, G. J. Developments in Design for Distortional Buckling of ThinWalled Members, Thin-Walled Structures, Advances in Research, Design and
Manufacturing Technology, Edited by J Loughlan, 23-38, Institute of Physics Publishing,
2004.
[10] Crisan, A., Ungureanu, V. & Dubina, D. Behaviour of Thin-Walled Cold-Formed Steel
Perforated Sections in Compression: Part 1 Experimental Investigations, Proceedings of
the 6th International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Timisoara, Romania, 2011.
[11] Crisan, A., Ungureanu, V. & Dubina, D. Behaviour of Thin-Walled Cold-Formed Steel
Perforated Sections in Compression: Part 2 Numerical Investigations, Proceedings of the
6th International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Timisoara, Romania, 2011.
[12] Dinis, P. B., Camotim, D. & Silvestre, N. FEM-based analysis of the localplate/distortional mode interaction in cold-formed steel lipped channel columns,
Computers and Structures, Volume 85, Issue 19-20, pp. 1461-1474, 2007.
[13] Camotim, D. & Dinis, P. B. Coupled Instabilities with Distortional Buckling in ColdFormed Steel Lipped Channel Columns, Stability of Structures XII Symposium, Zakopane,
Poland, 2009.
[14] Santos, E. S., Dinis. P. B., Batista, E. M. & Camotim, D. Local-Distortional-Global Mode
Interactions in Lipped-Channel Columns: Experimental Results, Numerical Simulations
and Design Considerations, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on ThinWalled Structures, Timisoara, Romania, 2011.
[15] Santos, E. S., Batista, E. M. & Camotim, D. Experimental Investigation Concerning
Lipped Channel Columns Undergoing Local-Distortional-Global Buckling Mode
Interaction, Thin-Walled Structures, 54 (2012)19-34.
[16] Rossi, B., Jaspart, J-P. & Rasmussen, K. J. R. Combined Distortional and Overall
Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Sections: Experimental
Investigations, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 354-360, April, 2010.
[17] Rossi, B., Jaspart, J-P. & Rasmussen, K. J. R. Combined Distortional and Overall
Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Sections: Design, Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 361-369, April, 2010.
[18] Dinis, P. B. & Camotim, D. Post-Buckling Behaviour and Strength of Cold-Formed Steel
Lipped Channel Columns Experiencing Distortional/Global Interaction, Computers and
Structures, 89 (2011)422-434.
[19] Adetoro, S. A. An Experimental Investigation of the Behaviour of Thin- Walled Lipped
Channel Compression Members, Cranfield Institute of Technology, College of
Aeronautics, C.M.C.I.T Thesis, 1988.
[20] Loughlan, J., Yidris, N. & Jones, K. The Failure of Thin-Walled Lipped Channel
Compression Members due to Coupled Local-Distortional Interactions and Material
Yielding, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Thin-Walled Structures,
Timisoara, Romania, 2011.
42
DYNAMICS OF VISCOELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM

ON ELASTIC OR VISCOELASTIC FOUNDATION
A. I. MANEVICH
Department of Computational Mechanics and Strength of Materials,
Dniepropetrovsk National University
Gagarin av. 72, 49050 Dniepropetrovsk, Ukraine
Dynamics of Timoshenko beam (TB) made of viscoelastic material and resting on elastic or
viscoelastic foundation is studied on the base of new dimensionless equations. Generalized
dispersion relations for TB on elastic and viscoelastic foundations are derived and
compared with those for classical Euler-Bernoulli and Rayleigh models. The action of a
moving load on TB resting on the linear foundation is investigated, and the effects of shear
deformability of the beam, viscous friction in the foundation and the force velocity on
stationary running waves are studied.
1. INTRODUCTION
The development of high-velocity transport during the last decades has attracted the
increasing interest to refined models of beam structures and their materials. One of such
models is Timoshenko beam model, taking into account the shear deformability. It is well
known that TB model can result in essential corrections to predictions of classical EulerBernoulli (E-B) model in cases of relatively short beams and composite materials with
high shear deformability. But for beams resting on a foundation under concentrated loads
one may expect considerable shear deformability effect even in case of infinite (or semiinfinite) beams due to localization of the stress-strain state in vicinity of the force
application point.
For dynamic loads the special attention should be paid to material models of the
beam and foundation. Oscillations of beams in the vicinity of resonances can be correctly
predicted only with account of the internal friction, i.e., viscoelastic properties of the
material. This relates also to the foundation. Studies on dynamics of TB with account of
the material viscoelasticity (without a foundation) were presented in several works (see,
e.g., [1, 2]), elastic TB on elastic or viscoelastic foundation was considered in [3-8] and
others papers.
In this work the transverse oscillations and waves in viscoelastic Timoshenko beam
resting on elastic or viscoelastic foundation are studied. We use new form of
dimensionless equations for TB including only two generalized parameters for the beam
and two parameters for the foundation. First we study features of dispersion curves for
free waves in TB on the elastic foundation, in particaular, connected with existence of
two spectra of natural frequencies of the TB, and the influence of the internal and
external friction on them. Then the action of a moving load on the TB is investigated. A
stationary running wave is studied and it is shown that the account of the viscous friction
together with the shear deformability results in important dynamical effects.
43

2. THE MODEL AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS
We consider an infinite Timoshenko beam resting on a viscoelastic foundation with
stiffness factor w f and viscous damping f per unit length (Fig. 1) . The material is
assumed to obey the Voigt law. The reactive force from the foundation on the beam is
equal to
q f w f y f
y
t
(1)
Fig. 1. An infinite Timoshenko beam on viscoelastic foundation
The full transverse load on the beam q0 ( x, t ) (apart from the inertia forces) equals
to
q0 ( x, t ) qe q f qe w f y f
y
t
(2)
where qe is the external distributive force applied to the beam.

2.1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Deformations of the Timoshenko beam are described by two independent functions
- the angle of the cross section rotation and the shear angle (at the neutral axis) .
The total slope of the bent axis is
y
,
x
(3)
where y ( x, t ) is the transverse displacement (here both the angles and are counted
off in one direction). The longitudinal displacement of a point on distance z from the
neutral axis and the longitudinal deformations are expressed through the angle :
u z , x z x .
Constitutive relations are assumed according to the Voigt law for normal stresses
x as well as for shear ones in the form
44
x E x k1

E 1 1 x , G k2
G 1 2 ,
t
t
t
t
(4)
Here k1,2 and 1 k1 E , 2 k2 G are the viscosity parameters, E and G are

the elasticity moduli in tension and shear, respectively. Further we assume 1 2 .
The bending moment and the transverse shear force in the cross section are specified by
the expressions:
,
M EJ 1
t x
Q k A k AG 1 ,
t x
(5a, b)
where k is the coefficient depending upon the cross section shape [9], A and J are the
cross section area and the moment of inertia.
The equations of the forces balance for the beam loaded by the load (2) with
account of the rotary inertia are as follows
Q
2 y
y
2
M
A 2 wf y f
qe 0 , J 2 Q
0.
x
t
t
t
x
(6a, b)
These equations with account of the above relations result in two differential
equations of motion in y and :
y
2 y
y
k G A 1 A 2 w f y f
qe 0 ,
t x x
t
t
(7a)
2
y
2
k
GA
1
EJ
1
t2
t x
t x 2
(7b)
After excluding the angle
the following single equation with respect to
displacement y ( x, t ) yields:
(2)
4 y
E
4 y
2 J 4 y
2 y
EJ 1
J 1
1 2 2
A 1 2
4
4
t x
t x t
k G t
t t
k G
J 2
EJ
2
y
1
1 2 wf y f
qe
t k GA t k GA
t x
t
(8)
45

2.2. DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS AND EQUATIONS
Let us introduce dimensionless variables and parameters [1]:
J
x
c
E
y
2
2
, Y
, t , c
, r0
r0
A
r0
r0
(9)
w f r02
f r0 c
q r0
E
c
, , q
, w
,
.
r0
EA
EA
k G
EA
c is the sound velocity in the beam material, r0 is the cross section radius
Here
of gyration,
is the shear deformability parameter, is the dimensionless viscous
parameter. For classical Euler-Bernoulli and Rayleigh models 0 , this corresponds to

infinitely large shear stiffness.
In variables (9) equations (7) take the form
2Y
Y
Y
1
wY
q 0 , (10, a)
2
2
Y
1
1
2 2 0

(10, b)
Excluding from these equations we come to the single equation with respect to
displacement Y ( , ) (corresponding to equation (8)):
(2)
2
4Y
4Y
4Y
4
2 2
4
2
2
2
Y
1 2 2 q wY

(11)
This equation includes only dimensionless parameters , , w and ,

characterizing the shear deformability, internal friction and the foundation stiffnesss,
respectively. If 0 one obtains dimensionless equations for the Rayleigh model,
which differs from the classical Euler-Bernoulli model with account of the rotational
inertia of beam.
Each of equations (10) provides the connection between Y ( , ) and angle . In
particular, for the elastic material equation (10b) yields
Y
2
2
2 2 0
46
(12)

The shear angle is equal to y / x Y / . We can also obtain a
separate equation for . Excluding Y from the set (10) one obtains the equation:
(2)
2
4
4
4
4
2 2
4
2

2
2

q
1 1 2 2 w
1
(13)
Note that the operator on here is the same as the operator on Y in (11), but the
operators on q are different (as well as boundary conditions for Y and ).
3. FREE WAVES IN INFINITE LONG BEAM. DISPERSION RELATIONS
3.1. ELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM ON THE ELASTIC (WINKLER) FOUNDATION
Consider first free waves in infinite long elastic Timoshenko beam on elastic
foundation. Equation (11) at 0 , 0 , q 0 is reduced to
4Y
4Y
4Y 2Y
2
2
w
1
Y 0
4
2 2
4 2
2
2
(14)
Seeking the solution in the form of harmonic waves
Y ( , ) Y0 ei ( k ) ,
(15)
we come to the frequency equation
k 4 1 2 k 2 1 2 2 w 1 2 k 2 0 .
For a given wave number
k roots are:
2
1,2
where
1
1 1 k 2 w
2
D ,
D 1 ( 1)k 2 w 4 w(1 k 2 ) k 4
2
It can be easily shown that
(16)
(17
(18)
D also may be written in following forms:
D 1 ( 1) k 2 w 4 k 2 , D 1 ( 1) k 2 w 4 (k 2 w) (19)
2
It follows from the first expression (19) that always D 0 , and the both roots 1,2
(17) are real. It is also seen from (17), (18) that both they are positive. So 1,2 are real.
47

These two natural frequencies 1 and 2 for a given wave number k determine two
phase velocities for each k : v,1,2 1,2 k . The existence of two branches, or two
spectra, is a principal distinction of the Timoshenko model from the E-B and Rayleigh
models, which was revealed for beam without foundation in early papers ([10, 11] and
others). The sense of two these branches has been cleared up in [11]: the first spectrum of
natural frequencies relates to wave (oscillation) modes for which oscillations of the angle
of rotation of the cross section and shear angle occur in phase. The second spectrum
relates to waves for which these angles oscillate in anti-phase.
For the Rayleigh model ( 0 ) the biquadratic frequency equation (16) reduces to
a quadratic one and gives the known dispersion relation
k4 w
.
k2 1
(20)
For the Euler-Bernoulli model the second terms in equations (14) (and (16))
vanishes, and one has k 4 w .
Consider first the dimensionless dispersion curves
v k for a beam on
Winkler foundation for E-B and Rayleigh models. These curves are constructed in Fig. 2,
and b, respectively, for three values of the foundation stiffness parameter w 0; 0.1
and 0.5.
Fig. 2. Dimensionless dispersion curves
b
and
v k
for a beam on Winkler
foundation in E-B (a) and Rayleigh (b) models at three values of the foundation
stiffness parameter
48

The curves for w 0 relate to beams without foundation. The E-B and Rayleigh
models have similar asymptotics for small wave numbers k (long waves), but different
asymptotics for large k (short waves).
In the E-B model v at k . This means that a perturbation propagates
along the beam with infinitely large velocity (as well as in a E-B beam without
foundation). This is an exhibition of the non-wave character of the classical beam
equation [10]. In the Rayleigh model the phase velocity approaches 1 when k . In
dimensional parameters value v 1 corresponds to the sound velocity, i. e. to the
velocity of longitudinal waves. The wave character of the Rayleigh model is its important
advantage over E-B model.
The elastic foundation principally changes the asymptotics of the beam for small k
(long waves), and does not change it for large k . For the frequency in both the models at
small k the asymptotics is w , for the phase velocity asymptotics is v w / k .
In E-B model the frequency monotonically increases with k ; in the Rayleigh model a
minimum point exists: kmin 1 w 1 , min 2kmin . The Winkler foundation
results in appearance of the non-propagating zone for frequencies which increases with
w ( w in E-B model and min in Rayleigh model).

Let us consider now dispersion curves for Timoshenko beam. The difference
between two frequencies equals (from (17) and (19)):
22 12
1 ( 1) k 2 w1 4 k 2
(21)
Parameter (9) for isotropic materials is close to 3, and the term ( 1) k 2 in

(21) may be assumed positive. An elementary analysis shows that the quantity 22 12
monotonously increases with k in the case 1 w 0 , but in case 1 w 0 it firstly

decreases, then increases. So we will discern two cases:
a) w 1 (weak foundation); b) w 1 (strong foundation).
In Fig. 3a, b, typical dispersion curves k are constructed for Timoshenko
model at 3 in the case of beam without foundation (a) and with weak foundation
w 0.2 (b) (bold curves T(1) and T(2) for the first and second spectrum, respectively),
and for comparison the curves for E-B and Rayleigh models are given.
In the case of weak foundation dispersion curves differ from those for case of
beam without foundation (Fig. 3a) only with lifting their left parts. The elastic
foundation practically does not influence the second spectrum and significantly
influences the first spectrum; as a result, parts of two spectra corresponding to small k ,
become closer with increasing w . The asymptotics at k 0 for the first branch of TB is
similar to that of E-B and Rayleigh model, as well as the non-propagating zone for
w 0 ; for large k discrepancies between three these models become considerable.
49
a)
Fig. 3. Dispersion curves
for Timoshenko beam (
b)
3 ) without foundation (a) and
with weak foundation w 0.2 (bold curves, two spectra) and for E-B and
Rayleigh models (dashed and dotted curves)
a)
b)
Fig. 4. Dispersion curves for frequency k for Timoshenko beam with strong
foundation 10 , w 0.1 (a) and w 0.2 (b) (bold curves, two spectra) and
for E-B and Rayleigh models (thin curves EB, R)
The case of strong foundation is represented in Fig. 4, a, b, for 10 and two

values of the foundation stiffness parameter, corresponding to cases w 1 (a) and
w 1 (b).
These curves (Fig. 4) illustrate an interesting peculiarity of strong foundation
effect. When w 1 , both branches for TB originates from the same point (Fig. 4a), so
50

the two spectra coincide in the limit of long waves. When w 1 , both the branches of
TB have two different portions - the left and the right. One can see that the right part of
the second branch is a continuation of the left portion of the first branch, and inversely. In
other words, both branches exchange with their parts. This peculiarity is underlined by
the fact that curves for E-B and Rayleigh models now approach the second branch of TB
model at k 0 (not the first branch, as they do in case weak foundation). The
observed feature of the Timoshenko beam in case of strong foundation visibly exhibits
itself for large values of the shear deformability parameter , e.g. presented in Fig. 5 for
30 on a larger scale.
Analytically this feature of TB on elastic foundation can be demonstrated easily for
the simplest limit case of long waves k 0 . Putting in (16), (17) k 0 , one has
2
1,2
(k 0)
1
1 w
2
D 1 w ,
D ,
(22)
whence
2
1,2
(k 0)
1
1 w
2
1 w
(23)
It yields for the points of origin ( k 0 ) of dispersion curves:

at w 1 :
1 (k 0) w ,
at w 1 :
1 (k 0)
2 (k 0)
2 (k 0) w .
(24)
(25)
At changing w the first and the second spectra exchange with their limit points
(and with corresponding analytical dependencies on these stiffness). The first branch in
limit k 0 is determined by the smaller of these stiffnesses, the second one - by the
larger one. This demonstrates the equivalence of two branches for TB in certain sense.
Note also that for large k (short waves) the curve for Rayleigh model approaches
the second branch for Timoshenko model;
3.2. VISCOELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM ON THE VISCOELASTIC FOUNDATION
For viscoelastic foundation, seeking the solution of equation (11) for q 0 in the
form of harmonic waves (15) Y ( , ) Y0 ei ( k ) we come to the frequency equation
with complex coefficients:
1 i k 1 1 i k 1 i
1 i 1 k ( w i ) 0
2
Rewrite (26) in the form

51
2 2
(26)
4 ib3 3 b2 2 ib1 b0 0 ,
(27)
where bk ( k 0 3 ) real coefficients:
b0 k 4 w 1 k 2 , b1 w1 k 2 2 k 4 ,
(28)
b2 1 1 k 2 w 1 k 2 2 k 4 , b3 1 (1 )k 2
Table 1. Influence of internal friction ( ) on the complex frequencies for different wave
numbers
k (at 3 , w 0.2 , 0 )
Im(1 )
Re(1 )
0.
0.25
0.5
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
0.4472 (0.4472)
0.4573 (0.4583)
0.6424 (0.7745)
0.4333 (0.4472)
0.4574 (0.4582))
0.6418 (0.7720)
0.4472 (0.4472)
0.4578 ( 0.4581)
0.6400 (0.7644)
0
0
0
0.00184
0.00525
0.0295
0
0.0104
0.0589
Re(2 )
Im(2 )
0.5773
0.8109
1.2058
0.6528
0.8068
1.1923
0.5713
0.7945
1.1509
0
0
0
0.0502
0.0781
0.1788
0.0833
0.1563
0.3578
Table 2. Influence of external friction ( ) on the complex frequencies for different wave
numbers
0.25
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.5
1.0
k (at 3 , w 0.2 , 0 )
Re(1 )
0.5
1
Im(1 )
0.4294 (0.4294)
0.4488 (0.4472))
0.6345 (0.7720))
0.3708 (0.3708)
0.4121 (0.4123)
0.6078 (0.7644)
0.125
0.1069
0.1114
0.25
0.225
0.2272
Re(2 )
Im(2 )
0.5773
0.8036
1.2022
0.5773
0.7893
1.1935
0
0.0181
0.0136
0
0.025
0.0228
If to use the change of variable i p , then (27) becomes an equation in p with

real coefficients. In the case of not too large viscosity parameters , this equation has
two pairs of complex roots (this follows from the fact that for 0 this equation
coincides with equation (16) in with four real roots). Denote these roots as
p1,2 1 i 1 , p3,4 2 i 2
52
(29)

Then we have for i p :
1,2 1 i 1 , 3,4 2 i 2
(30)
Substitution of (30) into (15) gives partial solutions of equation (11)
Y1,2 ( , ) Y0,1 ei ( k
1 i 1 ))
Y0,1 e1 ei ( k
1 )
, Y3,4 ( , ) Y0,2 e 2 ei ( k
2 )
which describe decaying harmonic waves. Real parts j of the complex frequencies
j (30) determine cyclic frequencies of the waves (oscillations), imaginary parts their
damping characteristics.
The influence of the damping parameters , on the complex frequencies is
illustrated in Tables 1, 2 for 3 , w 0.2 ; wave numbers k 0 , k 0.5 and k 1
represent cases of very long, moderately short and very short wavelengths. In the 3 rd
column in the brackets the values of frequency 1 in E-B beam theory are given (i.e., for
0 ; we remind that 2 in this theory is absent).

The internal friction ( ) has slight effect on complex frequencies 1 and 2 in
cases of long waves and pronounced effect - for short waves. The external friction ( )
influences conceivably long waves (small k , the first root). The both damping
parameters slightly change the cyclic frequencies (real parts of j ) and essentially
change the imaginary parts, i.e., the decrease of the amplitudes (in considered ranges).
4. ACTION OF A MOVING LOAD ON TIMOSHENKO BEAM RESTING
ON A LINEAR FOUNDATION. STATIONARY RUNNING WAVES
In 1952 V. L. Biderman [12] has considered the action of a moving force on a
elastic beam resting on Winkler foundation and showed that there exists a regime of
stationary running wave which moves with the force velocity. At certain velocity the
amplitude of the stationary wave under the force tends infinity, this velocity vcr was
called critical. Later R. V. Goldstein showed [13] that the critical velocity coincides
with the minimal phase velocity (point of minimum on the dispersion curve, see, e.g.,
Fig. 3b).
It is obvious that the infinitely large amplitude of the stationary wave at v vcr is a
consequence of too idealized formulation of the problem, namely neglecting of the
internal and external friction.
In the following years there have been carried out works studying the problem of
stationary running wave in beams in more general formulations (other types of movable
load, different models of foundation).
In this work we consider this problem using Timoshenko beam model and taking
into account viscoelastic properties of the beam and the foundation. The TB model is
useful here because of localized stress-strain state in the vicinity of the applied force, the
model of viscoelastic material is necessary near the critical velocity permitting
determination of finite wave amplitudes.
53

4.1. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM. GOVERNING EQUATION
Let a force P moves with a constant velocity v along the infinite Timoshenko
beam, resting on a linear viscoelastic foundation (Fig. 1). The beam is made of
viscoelastic material obeying the Voigt law.
We are seeking a stationary regime (running wave) at which the deformed state
moves with the same speed v . In moving (with this speed) coordinate system
x1 x vt this solution may be written as y f ( x1 ) f ( x vt ) . Passing to the
dimensionless variables (9) and z v ( v* v / c , z x1 / r0 ) we have for this
regime Y f ( z ) f ( v* ) .
We will use the differential equations (11) and (14) (with q 0 ) for the full
dimensionless deflection Y and the bending cross section rotation angle .
Equation (11) for the running wave Y f ( v* ) with account of derivatives
(prime denote differentiation with respect to argument v* )
Y
2Y
Y
2Y
f ( z ) ,
,
f
(
z
)
v* f ( z ) ,
v*2 f ( z ) ,
2
transforms into the ordinary differential equation with respect to f :
( v )2 f VI c5 f V c4 f IV c3 f c2 f c1 f w f 0 .
(31)
c1 w v v , c2 v 2 w w v 2 v2 ,
(32)
where
c3 v3 w v v 2 , c4 1 (1 )v 2 v 4 v 2 ,
c5 2 v (1 ) v3 .
The characteristic equation looks like
( v )2 6 c5 5 c4 4 c3 3 c2 2 c1 w 0
(33)
Solutions of equation (13) for the bending angle (which are necessary for
formulation of boundary conditions) can be written similarly in the form of running wave
v* . Then (13) transforms into equation with respect to similarly to (31)

( v )2 VI c5V c4 IV c3 c2 c1 w 0
(34)
with the same coefficients (32) and the same characteristic equation (33). So solutions for
Y and can be written in a similar form, only with different constants.
Consider first the case of elastic Timoshenko beam on elastic foundation.
54

4.2. ELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM RESTING ON WINKLER FOUNDATION
For 0 and 0 one has c1 c3 c5 0 , equation (31) becomes
c40 f IV c20 f w f 0
(35)
and equation (33) becomes the biquadrate equation
c40 4 c20 2 w 0 ,
(36)
where
c20 v 2 w w v 2 , c40 1 (1 )v 2 v 4
(37)
The equation (36) for not too large velocities v has two pairs of complex conjugate
roots
0
0
1,2
0 i 0 ; 3,4
0 i 0 ,
(38)
where 0 , 0 0 . These roots can be written explicitly as
1 w c2
,
2 c4 2c4
1 w c2
2 c4 2c4
(39)
The general solution for equation (35) should be written separately for the positive
semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ) and negative semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ). For z 0 the
solution which vanishes in infinity can be written as (the bar above denotes the complex
conjugation):
f e
03 z
Ce
04 z
( z 0)
(40,a)
For z 0 the solution which vanishes on infinity has the form
f De
10 z
De
02 z
( z 0)
(40,b)
Solutions of the equation (34) with 0 and 0 can be written similarly as
Ae
03 z
Ae
04 z
( z 0 ),
B e
10 z
Be
02 z
. ( z 0)
(41, a, b)
Functions f and are connected with relationship (12) that for Y f ( v* )
and v*
gives
f (1 v*2 ) .
(42)
Substituting solutions (39)-(41) into (42) we obtain the following relations between
the constants (here and below we drop upper indexes 0):
55
3 C 1 1 v*2 32 A, 1 D 1 1 v*2 12 B
(43)
Solutions (39)-(41) should satisfy the following boundary conditions at z 0 .

1) f 0 f 0 ; 2) 0 0 3) M (0) M (0) , Q (0) Q (0) P (44)
Conditions 3 and 4 with account of expressions (5) (for 0 ) in dimensionless
variables (9) take the form
0

3)

, 4)

P* ( P *
These conditions are rewritten in conditions for f

condition 2):
P
) (45)
EA
and (with account of
3) (0) (0) , 4) f (0) f (0) P

Conditions 1 - 4 result in following equations for four constants:
1) C D D ,
2) A A B B
(46,a,b)
3) 1 B 2 B 3 A 4 A
(46, c)
4) (1 D 2 D) (3C 4C ) P
(46, d)
Writing the complex constants in the algebraic form
C Cx iC y , C Cx iC y , D Dx iDy ,
(47)
we have from (46):
x Dx , Ax Bx
(48, a, b)
0 Bx 0 By 0 Ax 0 Ay
(48, c)
(2 0 Dx 2 0 Dy ) (2 0Cx 2 0Cy ) P
(48, d)
Equations (43) give
x 01 Ax 02 Ay , Cy 02 Ax 01 Ay
(49)
Dx 01 Bx 02 By , Dy 02 Bx 01 By
where
1 (1 v2 )

0 2
0 2
, 2 (1 v2 )
56

0 2
0 2
(50)

From (39) one has

0 2
0 2
w
c4
So
1 (1 v2 )
c4
c4
, 2 (1 v2 )
.
w
w
(51)
Set of equations (48), (49) determines eight constants. It can be easily seen that
Ay By , Ax Bx 0 , Dy C y (together with the relation (48a) this means that the

forward and backward halves of the stationary wave are symmetrical). Then it follows
from equations (49) that 01 Cx 02 C y . So we obtain from (48, d)
Cx
P2
P1
,
C
y
8 0 (1 v2 )
8 0 (1 v2 )
(52)
Thus we have from (39), (40) :
Pe z 2
f ( z)
cos 0 z 10 sin 0 z ,
2
0
4(1 v )
(53)
Pe z 2
f ( z)
cos 0 z 10 sin 0 z
2
0
4(1 v )
(54)
The profiles of the running wave ( f ( z ) and f ( z ) ) are presented in Fig. 5 for
three values of the shear deformability parameter at w 0.01 , v* 0.1 , P* 1 . The
profile of the wave in TB model is more sharp than in the Rayleigh model (and in E-B
model) corresponding to 0 . The maximal deflection (at 0 ) for given v* value
increases with rise of , but this is not true for any v* . In Fig. 6, a, b, the maximal
deflection Ym f (0) is shown as a function of the velocity v* for different values
(a) and as a function of for different v* values (b) (at w 0.01 ).
Maximal deflection tends to infinity at critical velocity which is determined by the
condition that the denominator in (53) tends to 0:
0 (1 v2 ) 0
(55)
This condition with account of (37) and (39) gives the equation
4w(1 v2 )(1 v2 ) w v2 w v2 2 (1 v2 ) 0
57
(56)

which has one real positive root vcr (apart from v 1 ). The critical velocity versus the
foundation stiffness parameter is plotted in Fig. 6, c. The critical velocity rises with
increasing stiffness w for not too large values; for large (approximately > 9)
maximum vcr is achieved at certain w value. For TB model the critical velocity is
considerably less than for E-B model (and Rayleigh model), especially for large w and
values.
Fig. 5. Profile of the running wave for three values of shear deformability parameter
elastic beam, elastic foundation ( w 0.01 ,
a)
Fig. 6. Maximal deflection
v 0.1 , P 1 ).
*
b)
c)
Ym vs. speed of the wave (a); Ym vs. shear flexibility parameter
(b); critical velocity vs. the foundation stiffness parameter
58
w ( w 0.01 , P* 1 ).

4.3. ELASTIC TIMOSHENKO BEAM RESTING ON A VISCOELASTIC FOUNDATION
For 0 but 0 equation (35) again is reduced to equation of 4 th order but
including an odd (first) derivative (with the same c2 , c4 (41) as for elastic foundation):
c40 f IV c20 f v f w f 0
(57)
The characteristic equation
c40 4 c20 2 v w 0 .
(58)
again has two pairs of complex roots which for not too large v are close to roots 10 4
(38), (39) of the corresponding biquadrate equation. Roots of (58) can be found by the
small parameter method. Putting them in the form
0 (1)
( v )
(59)
one has after substitution of (59) in (58) and dropping higher degrees of :
(1)
2 2c4 ( 0 )2 c2
v
2 2c4 ( 0 )2 c2
(60)
With account of (38), (39) we have for the first root 10 0 i 0
1(1) i (1) , (1)
(61)
2 4 wc4 c22
0
0 i 0
and the complex conjugate value for the root 20 0 i 0 . For roots 3,4
(1)
one obtains similarly 3,4
i (1) . So we have following two pairs of roots of (58):
1,2 0 i , 3,4 0 i
(62)
0 (1) , 0 (1)
(63)
General solutions for functions f (equation (57)) and for the positive semiinfinite beam ( z 0 ) and negative semi-infinite beam ( z 0 ) can be written similarly to
(40), (41) (but without the upper index 0)
f e
3 z
Ce
3 z
Ae
Ae
4 z
4 z
( z 0 ) , f De
1 z
B e
( z 0 ),
De
1 z
2 z
Be
2 z
(z 0)
(64a,b)
. ( z 0)
(65a, b)
Boundary conditions (44) yield to the same equations (46), but now instead of (48)
we come to equalities:
59
x Dx , Ax Bx , 0 Bx By 0 Ax Ay
(2 Dx 2 Dy ) (2 Cx 2 Cy ) P
0
(66a, b,c)
(66d)
a)
b)
Fig. 7. Profile of the running wave for three values of foundation viscous friction parameter
; a)
3,
b)
0.2 ( w 0.01 , v* 0.3 , P* 1 ).
Equations (43) give
x 01 Ax 2 Ay , Cy 2 Ax 01 Ay
(67a,b)
Dx 1 Bx 2 By , Dy 2 Bx 1 By
(67c,d)
where 1 , 1 , 2 2 are specified by relations (50) with replacing 0 by and
, respectively.
Equations (66), (67) determine all the constants. The obtained expressions for the
constants are not presented here because of their complexity. Then solution of (64) is
written in the real form as follows
60
f ( z ) 2 e
cos z y sin z , f ( z ) 2 e
D cos
x
z Dy sin z (54)
Some numerical results are represented in Figs. 7, 8. In Fig. 7 profiles of the running
wave are shown for three values of foundation viscous friction parameter ; at
3 (a) and 0.2 (b) (for w 0.01 , v* 0.3 , P* 1 ).

The viscous friction not only significantly decreases the amplitude of the wave, it
changes its shape, making the wave asymmetric. The forward halfwave has the larger
spatial frequency than the backward one. The influence of the friction parameter to a
great extent depends on the shear deformability of the beam. As it is seen from
comparison of the curves in Fig. 7a and 7b, the influence of raises with decreasing
parameter and is the largest for classical E-B beam. Even very small viscous damping
in the foundation has great effect on the stationary running wave.
The velocity of the force also affects on the amplitude and shape of the wave (Fig.
8): the larger v , the less f (0) , and the asymmetry of the wave becomes more
expressing. Note that the amplitude of the first hump of the forward wave simultaneously
rises.
Fig. 8. Profile of the running wave for three velocities
v* (viscoelastic foundation,
w 0.01 , 0.1 , 3 , P* 1 )
These results show that only the simultaneous account of viscous friction in the
foundation and shear deformability of the beam allow to obtain realistic description of
stationary running wave in beams on the linear foundation under moving loads.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this work the transverse oscillations and waves in viscoelastic Timoshenko beam
resting on elastic or viscoelastic foundation have been studied. A new form of
dimensionless equations for TB resting on a linear foundation has been derived which
includes only two generalized parameters for the beam and two parameters for the
foundation.
61

For the case of the elastic foundation it is shown that the foundation stiffness has a
significant effect on the dispersional curves. With rising stiffness two spectra of TB
become more closer, and an exchange of parts of two dispersional curves can occur at
rather large stiffness. Internal friction exerts conceivable effect on the natural frequencies
for short wavelengths, in distinction on the viscosity of foundation, which influences
mostly on long waves.
For TB on a linear foundation under moving force it is shown that the simultaneous
account of viscous friction in the foundation and shear deformability of the beam allows
us to reveal and describe important features of stationary running waves in beams.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Manevich A., Transverse waves in visco-elastic Timoshenko beam. In: Theoretical

Foundations of Civil Engineering. Warsaw, 2009, 17, pp. 217-228 (in Russian).
Manevich A., Kolakowsky Z., Free and forced oscillations of Timoshenko beam made of
viscoelastic material. J. of Theor. Appl. Mech., Warsaw, 2011, V. 49, No. 1, pp. 3-16.
Y.-H. Chen and Y.-H. Huang., Dynamic stiffness of infinite Timoshenko beam on
viscoelastic foundation in moving coordinate. Internat. J. for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 48, 2000, pp. 1-18.
Lee H.P., Dynamic response of a Timoshenko beam subjected to a moving mass. J. Sound
and Vibration, 1996. Vol. 198, No 2, pp. 249-256
. ., .., . .,
( . . ).
, 2000, 12, . 121-127.
Y.H. Chen, Y.H. Huang, C.T. Shih, Response of an infinite Timoshenko beam on a
viscoelastic foundation to a harmonic moving load, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 241,
2001, pp. 809824.
M.H. Kargarnovin, D. Younesian, D.J. Thompson, C.J.C. Jones, Response of beams on
nonlinear viscoelastic foundations to harmonic moving loads, Computers and Structures,
83, 2005, pp. 18651877.
.., .., .., ..,
-,
, . , , , 2009, 8 (24), c.
18-26.
Manevich A. I., Dynamics of Timoshenko beam on elastic foundation. In: Advanced
Problems in Mechanics of Heterogeneous Media and Thin-Walled Structures Ed.: V. I.
Bolshakov, D. Weichert. Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, June 2830, 2010. Dnipropetrovsk,
ENEM, 2010, pp. 221237.
Timoshenko S. P., Vibration problems in engineering, 3rd edition, D. Van Nostrand Co.,
Inc, 1955, 440 p.
Uflyand Ya. S., The propagation of waves at the transverse vibration of bars and plates.
Prikladnaya Matematika i Mekhanika, v. 12, 1948, pp. 287-300 (in Russian).
Trail-Nash R. W., Collar A. R., The effect of shear flexibility and rotatory inertia on the
bending vibrations of beams, Q. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., 1953, V. 6, part 2, pp. 186-222.
. ., . .
. .,: , 1952, 862 .
.., .
, 1965, . 29, 3, . 516525.
62
STABILITY AND VIBRATION

J. RAVINGER
Department of Structural Mechanics, Faculty of Civil Engineering
Slovak University of Technology, Radlinskho 11, 813 68 Bratislava, Slovakia
Von Krmn theory has been used for the description of the post-buckling
behaviour of a thin-walled panel with imperfections and residual stresses. Using
Hamilton's principle in incremental form the problem of the free vibration has been
established. Examples of the buckling of a column, frame and a slender web loaded
in compression emphasizing different types of support are presented. An influence
of the mode of the geometrical imperfection is shown and an approximate solution
taking into account the residual stresses is found.
Theoretical and numerical results are compared with results from the laboratory
experiment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Taking into account the stiffness and inertia forces the dynamic behaviour of the
structures can be followed. The dynamic investigation usually starts with an example of
free vibration. It means to evaluate the natural frequency. The simplest stability problem
of the structures is the buckling of the column. This problem can be established preparing
the equilibrium conditions on the deformed structure. In general, however, for the
evaluation of the stability problems we must evaluate the strains for the deformed
differential element what means to apply geometric non-linear theory.
If we put together the dynamic and stability, we obtain a lot of tasks: dynamic
buckling, dynamic post buckling behaviour, parametric resonance etc. The introduction
example is the vibration of the column loaded in compression but even so the
investigation of this simplest example represents a lot of problems.
Using a not very complicated equipment, we are able to measure the natural
frequency. The comparison of the frequency measured experimentally and evaluated
numerically is the basis of the non-destructive methods for the investigation of the
properties of the structure. Generally, it can be said that in the design of the structure, the
stability effects have to be taken into consideration. These two ideas are the reason for
our following the problem of the combination of vibration and stability.
Leonard Euler was probably the first scientist who solved the stability problems. The
former solutions are supposed to be the linear stability. It means that we suppose an ideal
structure. The differences between theory and reality forced researchers to search for
more accurate models. Especially the slender web as the main part of thin-walled structure
has significant post-buckling reserves and for a description of them it is necessary to
accept a geometric non-linear theory. The problem of the vibration of the non-linear
system is formulated by Bolotin [4]. Burgreen [5] solved the problem of the vibration of
an imperfect column in early 50's. Some valuable results have been achieved by Volmir
63

[15]. The combination of dynamics and stability is still a subject of research all over the
world.
2. DYNAMIC POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF SLENDER WEB
2.1. POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF SLENDER WEB - DISPLACEMENT MODEL
As already mentioned, the slender web is the main constructional element of thinwalled structure. If we assume an ideal slender web and a distribution of the in-plane
stresses are not the function of the out-of plane (the plate) displacements, the problem
leads to eigenvalues and eigenvectors. From the obtained eigenvalues we are able to
evaluate the elastic critical load and the eigenvector characterises the mode of buckling.
The post-buckling behaviour can be assumed as follows (Fig. 1).
y,v
pz
px
x,u
py
z,w
Fig. 1. Notation of the quantities of the slender web

The displacements of the point of the middle surface are
q u , v , wT
(1)
In the post-buckling behaviour of the slender web the plate displacements are much
bigger than in-plane (web) displacements (w u, v) and so the strains are
w,2x
w
u, x
, xx
1 2
v, y
,y
z w, yy
2w w
u, y v, x
w
, x , y , xy
(2)
where z is the coordinate of the thickness. The indexes x, y denote partial

derivations.
For the next investigation, the slender web with initial deformations is assumed. The
initial deformations are the plate types only.
q0 0,0, w0 T
Due to that the initial strains are
64
(3)
w02,x
w
0 ,xx
1 2
0 w0 ,y
z w0 ,yy
2

2w w
2 w
0 ,x 0 ,y 0 ,xy
(4)
The w represents the global displacements and w0 is part related to the initial
displacement.
The linear elastic material has been assumed
x
1
(5)
y D 0 w , where D
1
2
E, are the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, w xw , yw , w
T are the residual
stresses.
The global potential energy of the slender web is
U U i U e
where
Ui
1
2
0 dV
T
(6)
is the potential energy of the internal forces,
U e q q0 T p d
the potential energy of the external forces,
V is the volume of the slender web, is the in-plane surface.

The displacements are assumed as the product of the variational functions and the
displacements parameters
(7)
q B.
The minimum of the global potential energy gives the system of conditional
equation.
K G ( ) f
(8)
where K G is the stiffness matrix as the function of the displacement parameters - nonlinear stiffness matrix, f is the vector of the external load.
2.2.
POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF SLENDER

COMPRESSION - ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
WEB
LOADED
IN
For the simplification we suppose the square rectangular slender web loaded in
compression simple supported all around.
65

We do not need to suppose the external load as the constant along the edge. But we
b
have to define the external force as F tdy . Consequently, the average stress can be
0
F
defined as
. For the approximate solution, we take displacement functions as
b.t
2x
w S x1 S y1 , w0 0 S x1 S y1 , u 1 1 2 S x 2C y 2 3 S x 2 ,
b
ix
iy
2y
.
v 11
, . . . C yi cos
2 C x 2 S y 2 3 S y 2 , where S xi sin
b
b
b
We have divided the variational parameters into: - plate D , in-plane
S 1 ,2 ,3 , 1 , 2 , 3 T .
The in-plane displacements parameters are
16b
02 ,1,1 , ,1,1 T
2 Et 2
(Euler's elastic critical stress), the dimensionless
12 1 2 b 2
load as
, ( cr 4 E ) and the dimensionless parameters of the
4 E cr
displacements function , 0 0 , the result can be arranged into the final

Introducing E
equation
0.34125 2 02 1
cr
(9)
b
F
b.t
cr 4.0 E
=0.3
0.34125 2 02 1
0
1
0
0.01
0.1
0.5
F b
Fig. 2. Post-buckling behaviour of the slender web loaded in compression

66

The parameters and 0 represent the amplitudes of the out of plate
displacements of the slender web. Eq. (9) is arranged in Fig. 2.
It is evident that slender web could be loaded over the level of the elastic critical
load. Due to that we can introduce the post-buckling behaviour.
It has to be noted that the presented example represents an approximate solution.
2.3. THE SYSTEM OF NON-LINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
First, we do the following explanation related to the solution of geometric non-linear
problems.
We use (for example) the Ritz variational method. The functions of the
displacements are sums of the products of the basic functions and the variational
coefficients.
(10)
q B.
These equations could be written in the mode
u ,w 1
(11)
The sign is used as the exponent.

The elongations taking into account non-linear parts have the variational coefficients
in quadrates and can be recorded as
1
(12)
2
Assuming the linear elastic material, the stresses are in quadrates as well.
(13)
E 0 2
The potential energy of the internal forces is a product of the elongations and the
stresses, then, finally, the variational coefficients are up to the fours
u ,x w,x 2 z .wxx 2
1 T
. ( 2 ).( 2 ) 4
(14)
2
The system of conditional equations may be arranged as a partial derivation
according to the variational coefficients
Ui
U
... 3
i
(15)
Finally, we obtain the system of cubic algebraic equations.

A partial approval of our explanation is seen in the example of the post bucking
behaviour of the slender web (Part 2.2, Eq.(9)) where we have got the cubic algebraic
equation.
Note. In the example of the buckling of the column, the cubic terms are eliminated.
This special case is the consequence of the constant normal force along the column.
We shall continue with our formal considerations.
The system of linear algebraic equation can be arranged as a matrix (double
dimensional area). The system of quadratic algebraic equations could be arranged as a
three dimensional matrix. The cubic algebraic equations are a four dimensional matrix.
67

We are not able to imagine the four dimensional matrix, but it could be compiled in the
modern computers.
One of the typical properties of the finite element method is a big number of
parameters (many thousands). To arrange 1000 cubic algebraic equations in computer
memory represents 10004=1*1012 real numbers and this is unreal.
The way how to solve these non-linear systems has been found. The idea is to use
the Newton-Raphson iteration without compilation of the system of non-linear (cubic)
algebraic equations. It will be explained in the following parts.
2.4. THE INCREMENTAL FORMULATION
As it has been already explained in the previous part, we are forced to arrange the
iterative method. It can be prepared from the incremental formulation, and so we must
prepare all the regulars in increments.
Note. We prepare all the rules we for one dimensional problem (beams, columns).
For the solution of the double dimensional problems (webs, plates) all the steps are
similar.
As the first step, must be prepared the increments and variations for the elongations.
If we have the linear function as
du du
f
u,x
dx dx
For the increments
(16)
u u , we get the increments of the function
d ( u u )
du du du du du
u,x
f
dx
dx
dx dx dx dx
f f
(17)
We do the same steps for the non-linear function

2
1 2
dw 1 dw
f

w,x
2
dx 2 dx
(18)
We have for the increment of this function

2
d ( w w )
dw 1 d ( w w ) 1 dw
f

dx
dx
dx 2
2 dx
f f
1 dw
dw dw dw
.
2 dx
dx dx dx
2
w,x .w,x
1 dw dw . dw 1 dw
2 dx
dx dx
2 dx
(19)
1
w,x 2
2
According to these rules the increment of the strain can be arranged as follows
1
2
Then the variation of the increment of the elongation is prepared
,x u,x w,x .w,x w,x 2 z .wxx
68
(20)
,x u,x w,x .w,x w,x .w,x z.wxx
(21)
2.5. THE HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE

In this step, we prepare the rules for the dynamic process. In order to neglect the
inertial forces, we get the static problems.
The Hamilton's principle means: in each time interval, the variation of the kinetic
and potential energy and the variation of the work of the external forces is equal zero.
This rule is valid for the increments as well:
t1
t1
T U dt Wdt 0
t0
where
t0
2 q qdV
1
(22)
is
the
increment
of
the
kinetic
energy,
U . . dV - the increment of the potential energy of the internal

2
forces, W q T .p p dV - the increment of the work of the external forces, t0 ,t1
the time intervals, - the mass density, V - the volume (in our case it is the volume of the
beam/column), p ,p - the external load , the increment of the external load. The dots
mean the time derivation.
We assume the linear elastic material (Eq. (5)). For the increments, we have
D
In the case of the beam type of structures, the volume integration can be changed
into the integration over the cross section and the integration over the length:
A, I - the cross section area, the moment of inertia. The longitudinal axe is situated into
centre of the gravity of the cross section.
We use the Ritz variational method
u BS . S ,
w BD . D
(23)
We have the incremental model and the variational coefficients S a D are

timeless functions.
For the increments of the displacements functions, the independent basic variational
functions can be used. The increments of the variational coefficients are the function of
the time
u BS 1 . S t ,
w BD1 . D t
(24)
Note. In some dynamic process where we can have different boundary condition for
the static behaviour and for the vibration, it is useful to have different basic variational
functions for the displacements and for the increment of the displacements.
69

Finally, Eq. (22) leads to the system of conditional equations. This system could be
arranged into the mode
K M D D K INC D D K INC DS S f INT D f EXT D f EXT D 0

(25)
K M S S K INC S S K INC SD D f INT S f EXT S f EXT S 0
a
where K M D B TD1 AB D1 dx is the mass matrix of the bendig displacements,

0
K INC D K INC DL K INC DG - the incremental stiffness matrix of the bending,

a
K INC DL BTD1 XX EIB D1 XX dx - the linear part,

0
a
1
3
K INC DG B TD1 X EA w,2x w02, x B D1 X dx

2
2
- the non-linear part of the
incremental stiffness matrix of the bending stiffness,

a
K INC DS B TD1 X EA( w, x u, x .w, x .)B S 1 X dx
- the incremental bending-axial
stiffness matrix,
a
f INTD
BTD1XX EI
w, xx w0, xx dx BTD1XEA(u, x 1 w,2xu, x 1 w0,2xu, x 1 w,3x

2
w, xu, x w, x w02, x )dx
- the vector of the bending internal forces,
f EXT D B TD1 p D dx - the increment of the vector of the bending external forces,
0
a
K M S BTS 1 AB S 1dx - the mass matrix of the axial displacements,

0
K INC S BTSX 1 EAB SX 1dx - the incremental stiffness matrix of the axial stiffness.
0
It can be proved that K INC SD K TINC DS

stiffness matrix,
the
incremental
axial-bending
1
1
f INT S BTS 1X EA u, x w,2x w02, x dx - the vector of the axial internal forces,
2
2
f EXT S B TS 1p S dx - the vector of the axial external forces,

0
70

a
fEXT S BTS 1p S dx - the increment of the vector of the axial external forces.
0
It is evident that Eq.(25) represents the system of the differential equations of the
second degree.
The axial and the bending displacement can be collected by

D , D
S
S
The system of conditional equations (Eq. (25)) could be written as
K M K INC f INT f EXT f EXT 0
(26)
where
K
K M M D
K INC DS
K
, K INC INC D
K M S
K INC SD K INC S
f EXT EXT D , f EXT EXT D f INT IND D

f EXT S
f EXT S
f INT S
2.6. THE STATIC BEHAVIOUR
The inertial forces can be neglected for the solution of the static behaviour of the
structure
K M . 0
(27)
Note. In the case of the static behaviour, except the Hamilton's principle, (Eq.(28))
the principle of the minimum of the increment of the global potential energy can be
applied.
The system of the differential equations (Eq. (25)) will be changed into the system
of the linear algebraic equation related to the increments of the displacements
K INC f INT f EXT f EXT 0
(28)
If the problem is not established in the increments, but if it is established in the

displacement parameters, we get the system of the cubic algebraic equations in the mode
f INT f EXT 0
(29)
As previously explained in the introduction Part 2.3, we are not able to compile this
system of cubic algebraic equations. (Note. We are able to arrange this system in some
simple examples only.)
Eq. (28) is the basis for the incremental solution and for the Newton-Raphson
iteration as well.
71

2.7. THE INCREMENTAL SOLUTION
We assume the system in equilibrium represented by the parameters of the
displacements . Then it is valid that
f INT f EXT 0
(30)
We have got the increment of the external load. The increments of the parameters of
the displacements can be obtained from Eq. (28)
1
K INC f EXT
(31)
The displacement parameters of the new stage are
D i D D
(32)
2.8. THE NEWTON-RAPHSON ITERATION

We do not assume any system in equilibrium represented by the parameters of the
displacements i . Then we have the vector of residuum
r i f INT f EXT
(33)
For the correction of the roots (displacement parameters), we assume the constant
level of the external load ( f EXT 0 ) . Then it can be evaluated from Eq. (28)
1
i K INC .r i
(34)
The new approximation of the displacement parameters is
i 1 i i
(35)
Eqs. (33 35) represents the Newton-Raphson iteration.

We have a big amount of parameters. For the finishing the iterative process, it is
necessary to use suitable norms. One of them could be
( i 1 )T . i 1 ( i )T . i
( i 1 )T . i
0.001, (0.0001)
(36)
Using the terminology of the Newton-Raphson iteration, we have
K INC J
(37)
The incremental stiffness matrix is the same as the Jacoby matrix of the NewtonRaphson iteration. The Jacoby matrix characterises the tangent plane to the non-linear
surface and is defined as
J ij
*
K Gnel
ij
i
*
where K Gnel
is the system of non-linear (in our case cubic) algebraic equations.
72
(38)

2.9. THE BIFURCATION POINT
In the case of the non-linear problems, we could have many results represented by
many paths (curves) relationship load versus the displacement parameters. Especially in
the case of the stability problems, we must distinguish stable and unstable paths.
The global potential energy represents the surface. The local minimum of this
surface is the point of stable path of the non-linear solution. From the theory of the
quadratic surfaces for the local minimum, the Jacoby matrix (in our case, the incremental
stiffness matrix) must be positively defined and all the principle minors must be positive
as well
D K INC
det
0 , Dk 0 .
(39)
If any condition of Eq. (39) is not satisfying, the path is unstable. The point between
the stable and unstable paths is called the bifurcation point. In the bifurcation point, we
have
D K INC
det
(40)
2.10. THE VIBRATION OF THE STRUCTURE

The conditional equations have been arranged as a dynamic process. The static
behaviour is taken as a partial problem. From the point of the dynamic, we reduce our
activity in the problem of the vibration. We are able to evaluate the vibration of the
structure in different level of the load including the effects of initial imperfections.
We assume the structure in equilibrium and zero increment of the load
f EXT 0
(41)
The system of conditional equations (Eq.(25) will be reduced

K M K INC 0
(42)
Related to the increments of the displacements parameters, this system represents a

homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficient. The solution has the mode
sin( t )
(43)
where is the circular frequency.

Putting this into Eq. (42), we get
2K M sin(t ) K INC sin(t ) 0
(44)
The non-trivial solution leads to the problem of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
K INC 2 K M
det
0.
(45)
The eigenvalues represent the squares of circular frequencies, and eigenvectors are
the parameters of the modes of the vibration.
73

Note. The incremental stiffness matrix includes the level of the load, the deformation
of the structure and the initial imperfections as well.
3. STABILITY AND VIBRATION
3.1.
VIBRATION OF
COMPRESSION
THE
SIMPLE
SUPPORTED
COLUMN
LOADED
IN
In Part 2.5, we have started the derivation using the Hamilton's principle and
generally prepared the conditional equation for the dynamic process. In Part 2.10., we
have arranged the equations for the evaluation of the vibration.
One simple and interesting example is the vibration of the imperfect column. For the
application of the action of the force, we must suppose one support as the hinge and the
other support as the roller (the sliding support) (Fig 3). (Note. We have drawn the column
in horizontal position.)
w0
E,A,I,
l
z,w
Fig. 3. The simple supported column with initial displacement

We neglect the axial inertial forces and the displacement functions are
w 1 sin
x
l
, w0 0 sin
2x 2
, u x, sin

l 3
l
The parameters of axial displacements are
F 2 2
1 02 , 3
12 02
EA l 2
8l
The equation for the static behaviour can be arranged in the form

F
2 EI
, FEU 2 is Euler's elastic critical force.
F 1 0 , where F
FEU
l
1
The incremental stiffness matrix is K INC
4 EI l
l4
Putting this into Eq.(9.59), we obtain the result
2 02 .1 F
where 02
2 l
l2 2
F.
(46)
4 EI
is the square of the circular frequency of the simple supported column.
Al 4
74

We have obtained a trivial result of the linear relation of the square of the circular
frequency and the internal force. It can be seen that during the free vibration the initial
displacements do not influence the free vibration.
3.2. THE SIMPLE SUPPORTED COLUMN FIXED SUPPORTS
The result represented by Eq.(46) in the case of the level of the load as the elastic
critical load gives the zero frequency. This is out of many situations in the nature. For
example, the miner foreman knocks the columns. The low tone (the low frequency) means
the small force inside the column and the column must be wedged. The high tone (the
high frequency) means the high level of the load and the additional columns must be used.
To improve the obtained result the following must be done (Fig. 4).
w0
N=-F
x
E,A,I,
z,w
Fig. 4. The simple supported column with initial displacement - fixed support
For the displacements and the initial displacements, we take
. 2 , 3 T
w 1 sin(x / l ) , w0 0 sin(x / l ) , u x, sin(2x / l )
But for the increment of the displacement, we assume
w 1 sin(x / l ) , u 3 . sin(2x / l )
Now, we have used different basic variational functions for the displacements and
for the initial displacements:
Finally, the incremental stiffness matrix is:
K INC
4 EI l
l4
2 l
l2 2
F EA
4 l 12
l4 2 2
Then we get the expression for the square of the circular frequency
2 02 .1 F
1 12
where r
2 r 2
I
is the radii of inertia.
A
75
(47)

F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
0.1
0.5
0.5
w0/r=1.
0
w0/r=0.
1
wc
VIBRATION
STATIC
5.0
N=-F
A
0
0.5
B
10.0
B
(w0=0)
wc/r
w0/r=0.
5
w0/r=1.
0
(/0)
2
0.5
1.0
1.5
Fig. 5. The stability and the vibration of the imperfect column

Thus, we have obtained the result close to reality. (Fig. 5) The displacement
parameter 1 is the function of the initial displacement and the level of the load. It
means that the initial displacement enters the problem. If the load limits the level of the
elastic critical load, the displacement and the frequency limit the infinity.
This example represents an advantage of the separation of the basic variational
functions for the displacements and for the increments of the displacements.
3.3. THE INITIAL DISPLACEMENT AS THE SECOND MODE OF BUCKLING
A partial interesting problem is the influence of the mode of the initial displacement.
In the previous part, we have supposed the initial displacement in the same mode as the
first buckling mode (the mode of buckling related to the lowest elastic critical load). Due
to that to obtain the solution by the analytical way was rather simple. The FEM has been
used for the solution of more complicated examples.
Fig. 6 presents the solution of the buckling and the vibration of the column when the
initial displacement has the mode related to the second mode of buckling.
Note. We have solved a lot of examples using the FEM. The obtained results can be
presented in the dimensionless mode.
These results enable us to note some peculiarities. Even the initial displacement has
the same mode as the second mode of the buckling (the mode 2), the collapse mode of
the column is the mode 1. The lowest elastic critical load is the maximum load. The
mode of the vibration is the mode 1 in all cases.
76

F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
F
w0=0.01 w01+0.1
w02
0.5
0.5
wd
1
w01
w02
VIBRATION
w02
STATIC
0
w0=0.05 w01+0.5
wd/r
5.0
(/0)2
w02
0
10.0
w0=0.1 w01+1.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Fig. 6. The stability and the vibration for the imperfect column with the initial
displacement as the second mode of the buckling
Side view
Screw
Manometer
Ball
bearing
Tested beam
Top view
Tested beam
Fig. 7. The scheme of the test set-up

3.4. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
The presented theoretical solutions are pointing to a substantial difference in the
vibration of the beam at the moment when the critical load is achieved. Considering
sliding supports, the frequency should be zero. When supports are fixed, the frequency
limits in infinity. This curiosity has been verified by an experiment.
The equipment for experimental verification of stability and vibration of beams
loaded by pressure is shown in Fig. 7 and 8.
77
Fig. 8. A general view of the test (the static behaviour)

The force (the load) is produced through the screw with a slight gradient (gradient
1.5 mm, average 30 mm), it means the load with the controlled deformation. The hinges
are created by ball bearings in the jaw. The force is measured by manometer. The
deflections are measured by mechanical displacement transducers fixed to the supporting
steel structure. During measuring the frequency, the mechanical transducers are taken out
and the accelerometer is attached.
Before the presentation of results, it is appropriate to make a note for specification
of the mass matrixes due to end bearing (Fig. 9).
0.015m
sin(x/l)
0.06 kg
,A
l
w
Fig. 9. The effects of end-bearing of the beam to the mass matrix
The mass matrix taking into account the effect of the end bearing will be
l
* 0.015
K M A 2 * 0.06 * sin
2
l
where the length of the beam is given in meters.

This effect of the end-bearing is dependent on the mass of the beam and is small
(less than 1.5 %). To verify the dependence between the pressure force and frequency, the
beams made of various types of materials have been analysed.
Steel hollow section profile Jckl 30/15/1.5 mm
In the case of steel, the value of modulus of elasticity and the mass density are
constant. When the exact dimensions of closed sections were measured, small problem
occurred in measuring wall thickness.
78

The dimensions have been specified by measuring the weight of the profile. The
rounded corners were considered in specification of cross-sectional characteristics. For
further evaluation the following values were used
Jckl 29.9 / 14.8 / 1.53, A 121.4 mm 2 , I 4286.0 mm 4 , r 5.94 mm, l 1450 mm
E 210000 MPa , 7850 kg / m3 , Fcr 4225.1 N , 0 144.2 s 1
F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
1.0
Jckl
0.5
Jckl
0.5
(/0)
wc/r
5.0
10.0
0.5
1.0
Fig. 10. The results from the measurements of the steel hollow thin-walled section Jckl
Timber beam 47 / 47 mm , A 2209 mm 2 , I 406640 mm 4 , r 13.57 mm , l 2040 mm
E 10200 MPa , 472 kg / m 3 , Fcr 9836.7 N , 0 147.3 s 1
Timber beam
42 / 32 mm , A 1344 mm 2 , I 114888 mm 4 , r 9.24 mm , l 1650 mm
E 9750 MPa , 454 kg / m 3 , Fcr 4060.8 N , 0 1154.9 s 1
F/Fcr
F/Fcr
1.0
0.5
1.0
Timber
47/47
Timber
42/32
Timber
47/47
Timber
42/32
0.5
(/0)2
wc/r
0
5.0
10.0
0.5
Fig.11. The results from the measurements of the timber beams
79
1.0

Timber beams
The modulus of elasticity of wood is an open question in the analyses of timber
beams. In the presented measurements the critical load is identified at the moment of the
growth the deformation without the growth of the force. Since the cross-sectional
characteristics (the cross section, the moment of inertia) as well as the length of the beam
have been known, using the Euler's elastic critical force, the modulus of elasticity can be
evaluated. By measuring the weight of the profile, the mass density of wood has been
easily and accurately evaluated. Subsequently, the natural circular frequency has been
evaluated and two timber beams investigated.
The presented results confirmed undoubtedly a phenomenon that the frequency of
the beam increases when the pressure force is near the critical level.
3.5. VIBRATION OF THE FRAME
In the examples of the vibration of the columns, the problem could be arranged in
the dimensionless equation. In the case of the frame, we have to use FEM. The obtained
results are arranged into the dimensionless mode.
The geometry of the investigated frame is shown in Fig. 12. When we have an
example where the mode of the vibration is similar to the mode of the buckling, the
relationship between the load and the square of circular frequency is linear and we are not
able to take into consideration the effects of initial displacements. Generally, the
behaviour of the column and the behaviour of the frame are similar. (Fig. 5 alt
A - movable support).
F/Fcr
1.0
w0 0.0433
0.8
w0 0.173
w0 0.433
0.4
w0
w0
r
0.3
0.6
Fcr=14.54*106 N
E=20 GPa, =2500 kg/m3
w0 the fist mode of b.

0.4, rc=0.1155 m
0.3
6.0
m
0.4
0.3
9.0 m
wc/r
0
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.4
Fig. 12. The load versus the displacement for the different values of initial displacements
80
F/Fcr
1.0
w0 0.0433
0.8
w0 0.173
w0 0.433
F
STATIC
w
w0
0.4
Mode of buckling
Fcr=14.54*106 N
Modes of vibration
F*= F/ Fcr
*
2
F =0, 01=4567 s-2
F*=0, 202=15170 s-2
F*=0.6, 2=3121.3 s-
w0
r
VIBRATIO
N
F*=0.95, 2=520.5 s2
Fcr=14.54*106 N
012=4567 s-2
(/0)2
0
0.4
Fig.13.
0.
8
1.0
The influence of the initial displacements on the frame vibration
We have arranged the load conditions to get the mode of the buckling different to
the mode of the vibration. In this case, the relationship between the load and the square of
the circular frequency is non-linear (Fig. 13). Analogously as in the case of the column,
we suppose a different edge condition for the static load and for the vibration. If the point
of the load application is fixed during the vibration process, we can take into
consideration the effects of initial displacements. (We have supposed the same mode of
initial displacements as the mode of buckling is.)
The modes of vibration for a different level of the load are presented as well
(Fig. 13). In this case, we have supposed the frame without the initial imperfections. We
can see that in the case of the higher level of the load (F/Fcr>0.6), the mode of vibration
is similar to the mode of the buckling.
3.6. VIBRATION AND RESIDUAL STRESSES
The residual stresses are typical in the welded steel structures, but we can meet the
residual stresses even in concrete, timbers and many others structures as well. The
question is if the residual stresses have any influence for the circular frequency. The
situation is much different in the beam type structures in comparison to the plate
structures.
The residual stresses have been mentioned in Eq.(5). In the case of the beam
structures, this equation will be reduced
, x E.( , x 0 , x ) w
81

The residual stresses produce the addition in the increment of the potential energy
w dV
u, x .u, x w, x .w, x w, x .w, x z.wxx . w dV
,x
In the case of the beam type of structures, the volume integration can be changed
into the integration over the cross section and the integration over the length.
a
dV u, x u, x .u, x w, x .w, x w, x .w, x z.wxx . w dA dx
V
0A
All the derivations and the variations of the displacements functions are not any
function of the cross section.
a
u u .u w .w w .w dA w z. dA dx
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
,
x
w
xx
w
0
A
A
The residual stresses must be in equilibrium in the given cross section
wdA 0,
z.
wdA 0
... . w dV 0
(48)
It is evident that the residual stresses in the case of the beam structures do not
have any influence on the circular frequency.
Note. In the case of the statically indeterminate structure, Eq (48) is not valid and
the residual stresses could have the influence into the vibration.
There is a much different situation in the case of the plate structures. In this case, the
volume integration is divided into the integration over the thickness and the integration
over the neutral surface. The integration of the residual stresses over the thickness is not
zero and thus,
t/2
t/2
. w dV
. w dz d w dz d 0
V
t / 2
t / 2
Finally, in the case of the plate structures, the residual stresses have an influence
on the circular frequency.
Continuing the example from Part 2.2 we can get the result for the square of the
circular frequency of the square slender web loaded in compression
2 02 . 1 K 3 2 02
where 02
(55)
4 Et 2
is the square of the circular frequency of a simply supported
3b 4 1 2
slender web and K 31 / 8 0.34125 (for =0.3).

2
It is evident that, in comparison to the column, the circular frequency of the slender
web is influenced by the initial displacement even in the case of the moving supports.
82

The influence of the fixed (unmovable) supports can be solved by the use of the
following functions for the increments of the in-plane displacements
u S x 2 .C y 2 . 2 S x 2 .3 , v Cx 2 .S y 2 . 2 S y 2 . 3
The result can be arranged in the form
2 02 .1
21 12 9 2 2 3 1 2 2

0
8
8
(56)
Fig. 14 shows the assumptions for the distribution of the residual stresses in the
square slender web loaded in compression. We suppose the constant residual stresses
through the thickness and then the approximate circular frequency can be expressed by
the equation
2 02 . 1 xw yw K 3 2 02
where xw
(57)
yw
xw
, yw
.
cr
cr
One can see the residual stresses produce shifting of the level of the load.
fy
wy
p
fy
Fig. 14. The distribution of the residual stresses in the slender web
4. CONCLUSION
The presented theory and results prove the influence of the natural frequency on the
level of the load, on the geometrical imperfections and the residual stresses, too. This
knowledge can be used as an inverse idea. Measuring of the natural frequencies can give
us a picture of the stresses and imperfections in a thin-walled structure. It is true that the
relationship of frequencies versus stresses and imperfections represent a high theory, but
this is not a barrier for a further investigation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been supported by Slovak Scientific Grant Agency No. 1/0629/12.
83

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[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
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[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
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Large Strain Elasto-Plasticity. Natural Approach. Inst. Fur Static und Dynamik,
Stutgard. 1976. No 211
Bathe K. J., Ramm E., Wilson E. L., Finite Element Formulation for Large
Deformation Dynamic Analysis. Int. J. Numerical Meth. in Engineering, No. 9,
1975, pp. 353-386.
Baant Z. P., Cedolin L., Stability of Structures: Elastic, Inelastic, Fracture and
Damage Theories. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, 1991.
Bolotin V. V., The Dynamic Stability of Elastic System. CITL. Moscow, 1956 (In
Russian. English translation by Holden Day. San Francisco, 1994.)
Burgreen D., Free Vibration of Pined Column with Constant Distance Between
Pin-ends. J. Appl. Mechan., 18, 1951. 135-139
Crisfield M. A., Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of Solids and Structures.
Wiley&Sons, London, 1996.
Kolakowski Y., Kowal-Michalska K., Selected Problems of Instabilities in
Composite Structures. The Technical University Press, Lodz, Poland, 1999.
Mania R. J., Dynamic Buckling of Thin-Walled Viscoplasic Columns. ThinWalled Structures, 48, No 5, 2011, pp. 581-588.
Ravinger J., Computer Programs - Static, Stability and Dynamics of Civil
Engineering Structures. Alfa, Bratislava, 1990 (In Slovak).
Ravinger J., Vibration of an Imperfect Thin-walled Panel. Part 1: Theory and
Illustrative Examples. Part 2: Numerical Results and Experiment. Thin-Walled
Structures, 19, 1994, pp. 1-36.
Ravinger J., volk J., Parametric Resonance of Geometrically Imperfect Slender
Web. Acta Technica CSAV, 3, 1993, pp. 343-356.
Ravinger J., Girders with Unstiffened Slender Web. J. of Constructional Steel
Research, 3, No2, 1983, pp. 14-22.
Ravinger J., Dynamic Post-buckling Behaviour of Plate Girders. J. of
Constructional Steel Research, 21, 1-3, 1992, pp. 195-204.
Rhodes J., Some Observations on the Post Buckling Behaviour of Thin Plates
and Thin-Walled Members. Thin-Walled structures, 2001, pp. 69-84.
Volmir A.S., Non-Linear Dynamic of Plates and Shells. Nauka. Moscow. 1972
(In Russian).
Zienkiewicz O. C., Taylor R. L., The Finite Element Method. Vol. 2. Solid and
Fluid Mechanics. Dynamics and Non-Linearity. McGraw-Hill, London, 1991.
84
COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH ON THIN-WALLED

STRUCTURES BY THE UNIVERSITY OF STRATHCLYDE AND
THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF LODZ
J. Rhodes
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, Scotland
J. Zaras, M. Kotelko
Department of Strength of Materials and Structures, Technical University of Lodz
Stefanowskiego 1/15, 90-924 d, Poland
M. Macdonald
Department of Mechanical, Electrical and Environmental Engineering, Glasgow
Caledonian University, Glasgow, Scotland
This paper describes the collaborative research carried out into various aspects of
the behaviour of thin-walled structures at the University of Strathclyde and the
Technical University of Lodz over the past 40 years or so. The two Universities
have had links over the past 45 years, and collaboration has been carried out in
many disciplines. The collaboration between the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Strathclyde and the Department of Strength of Materials at Lodz has
been largely concentrated on thin-walled structures, and some aspects of this
collaboration are outlined in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
The link between the University of Strathclyde and the Technical University of
d was initiated in 1967 when Sir Samuel Curran, the Principal of the University of
Strathclyde and Professor Jerzy Werner, the Rector of the Technical University of d
signed an official agreement establishing the academic co-operation between these
Universities.
The forty five years of the co-operation with the University of Strathclyde has also
played a unique role in the history of the relations between the Technical University of
d and other foreign universities. There was a justified opinion that could very well be
the best working academic co-operation between any British and Polish university.
For a number of years the main components of the co-operation were the
collaboration and exchange of staff members between the universities which has involved
approximately 60 university study units and 300 members of staff since its inception.
Joint PhD projects have also been carried out, involving 34 participants from Lodz. A
number of special 5x5 and 3x3 seminars have been carried out over the years, in which
teams of 5 or 3 members from one university visit and give lectures at the other
university. A number of common Symposia and Conferences have been organized as part
85

of the collaboration. The collaboration has also lead to the establishment of English
language courses for the Technical University of d staff members.
It is perhaps true to say, however, that a very large component of the collaboration
has been the establishment of joint scientific and industrial research, which has lead to
the production of joint publications (papers, monographs, books, PhD Theses, industrial
reports).
2. COLLABORATION ON THIN-WALLED STRUCTURES RESEARCH
Collaboration between the Strathclyde University Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering, (formerly the Department of Mechanical Engineering) and the
Technical University of Lodz Department of Strength of Materials and Structures
(formerly Institute of Applied Mechanics) has been largely focused on the joint activity
in the area of Thin-Walled Structures, considering various aspects of the behaviour of
these structures depending on the form and geometry of structures, their materials and
manufacturing , types of loading, expected time of service etc.
The aim of this paper is to present the effects of this joint activity of both
collaborating units in the area of Thin-Walled Structures including their Stability, Postbuckling behaviour, Load-carrying capacity, Impact-crushing behaviour etc.
3. AREAS OF COLLABORATION
There have been various areas of collaboration in the thin-walled structures field. The
initial contact between the two departments arose when Prof A. S. Tooth, from
Strathclyde, visited Lodz in 1971, and inaugurated collaboration between the two units in
the area of pressure vessels. This collaboration continued for a number of years, and
resulted in the evolution of a number of visits between the units, and the organisation of
seminars for Polish engineers and researchers: Modern design of pressure vessels - in
the years 1988 and 1995. It became obvious from the interests of the early visits from the
Lodz researchers that the thin-walled structures field was a common interest for both
units, and this field became the presiding interest. Particular areas within this field are as
follows:3.1. BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF PLATES
It became obvious that the behaviour of thin plates was of interest to both units, and
early seminars at Strathclyde given by visitors from Lodz showed this to be true. The first
joint project carried out in this area was the joint PhD project carried out by Dr J Zaras
from 1980-1983 [1] on rectangular plates under linearly varying compression and shear,
and subsequently reported in the literature [2], [3].
3.2. BEHAVIOUR OF THIN-WALLED COLD-FORMED MEMBERS
A substantial number of collaborative projects have been carried out in this area,
with experimental and theoretical research being undertaken into beams, columns and
beam-columns.
86

The Lady Curran Endowment Fund set up by the wife of Strathclydes first
Principal, granted its first scholarship to Dr J. Zara to continue research at Strathclyde
jointly with the first author in the academic years 1985-86 and 1991-92 in co-operation
with the Faculty Research Committee. This lead to a number of publications in the area
of compression members [5], beams [6] and purlin systems [7]
The examination of members under combined bending and compression has been
the subject of a number of publications carried out jointly by several of the authors of this
paper. A typical diagrammatic set-up for the application of eccentric loading to a
compression member used in these investigations is shown in Figure 1 and a number of
investigations of various aspects of behaviour in carbon steel and stainless steel columns
are reported in Refs [8] - [15].
Fig. 1. Application of eccentric compressive load to cause bending and compression
3.3. PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR, PLASTIC MECHANISMS AND CRUSHING

The behaviour of plates, light gauge steel members and structures in the elastoplastic and plastic range has been of interest to researchers in both departments for some
time. There has been substantial research in each department individually, but there have
also been collaborative ventures in his area. Among these ventures is that related in Ref
87

[16]. This examined the behaviour of closed hat-sections under crushing. Figure 2 shows
a typical hat section before and after crushing.
After crushing
Before crushing
Fig. 2. Closed hat-section before and after crushing
The very large degree of compression involved in the crushing of such members
causes progressive buckling and failure of individual sections occurring progressively,
and the behaviour can be adequately predicted by relatively simple plastic mechanism
analysis.
A number of collaborative projects have been carried out on the application of
plastic mechanism analysis to evaluate the capacity of thin-walled members, for example
[17], [18], [19], [20]
3.4. WEB CRIPPLING IN LIGHT GAUGE STEEL BEAMS
In recent years substantial efforts have been applied to the examination of web
crippling in thin-walled beams subject to local loads and support reactions. Traditionally
web crippling has been considered in design specifications using empirical formulae
derived purely on the basis of testing. This has the fundamental limitation that the
formulae so derived are only directly applicable to the cases tested, and more generally
applicable approaches would be desired.
88

Collaborative efforts to examine web crippling under various conditions have been
carried out using different approaches together with experiment, for example plastic
mechanism analysis [20], finite element analysis combined with experimentation [21],
[22], [23], [24]. Figure 3 shows the type of mesh used in the early finite element
examinations of web crippling behaviour. The models used have been improved and
enhanced to improve the accuracy with which the finite element models portray the
actual web crippling behaviour obtained experimentally and to include the effects of
holes in the region of the localized loads etc.
Fig. 3. Early finite element reproduction of beam subject to web crippling
4. OTHER ASPECTS OF THE COLLABORATION

Some joint publications not mentioned previously include Refs [25] [30] In
addition to the specialist areas mentioned, researchers from both institutions have
collaborated in a variety of different ways.
There have been 5x5 seminars between the two units held at both organizations. A
course for Polish engineers on Analysis, design and application of thin-walled coldformed sections was jointly produced in Lodz in 1990. A substantial number of research
programs on thin-walled structures carried out at the University of Strathclyde have been
highly dependent on the input of researchers from the Technical University of Lodz, and
researchers from that organization have been active over a long period of time in
Research and Development projects for industry carried out at the University of
Strathclyde.
The collaboration is also reflected in the membership of the Editorial Board of the
Journal Thin-Walled Structures, which was originated at the University of Strathclyde.
The first author is Founder-Editor of this Journal, and the three other authors are
members of the Journal Editorial Board. It is also worth of note that the Editor of this
Journal for the past 14 years, Prof J Loughlan, who is also a member of the Scientific
Committee of this conference, carried out his initial research in this field at the University
of Strathclyde, where he obtained his doctorate.
89

A number of conferences have also had the assistance of the collaboration between
the University of Strathclyde and the Technical University of Lodz. In Glasgow, the
Conference Applied Solid Mechanics 2, 1987, had significant participation from the
Technical University of Lodz, as had the Thin-Walled Structures (1) Conference, in
1996. The latter conference was the first in the ICTWS series of conferences, and the
third conference in this series was held in Cracow, in 2001 and was organized by the
Technical University of Lodz, jointly with the University of Strathclyde and Cranfield
University UK.
The present conference, Stability of Structures has had representation from the
University of Strathclyde in attendance since the third conference in the series, and in the
Scientific Committee since the 7th in the series. In the present, and the previous
conference on the series there have been three representatives from the UK on the
Scientific Committee, and all three have strong links to the University of Strathclyde
where they received their introduction to the field of Thin-Walled Structures.
As may be inferred from the references, the research collaboration at the present
time also includes researchers from Glasgow Caledonian University.
REFERENCES
[1]
Zaras J. Buckling and post-buckling of rectangular plates under linearly varying

compression and shear. PhD Thesis, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow 1983.
[2] Zara J., Rhodes J., Krlak M., Buckling and postbuckling of rectangular plates under
linearly varying compression and shear. Part 1 - Theoretical Analysis. Thin-Walled
Structures, vol. 14, no 1, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
[3] Zara J., Rhodes J., Krlak M., Buckling and postbuckling of rectangular plates under
linearly varying compression and shear. Part 2 - Experimental investigation. Thin-Walled
Structures, vol. 14, no 2, Elsevier Applied Science, 1992.
[4] Zara J., Rhodes J., Carefully controlled compression tests on thin-walled cold-formed
sections. Applied Solid Mechanics - 2 Conference, 7-8 April 1987, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, Great Britain.
[5] Rhodes J., Zara J., Development of a roof beam system with cold-formed steel sections. V
Symposium of the Stability of Structures, Cedzyna, 3-7 October 1988, pp. 137-145,
Poland.
[6] Krlak M. (ed.), Monografia: Praca zbiorowa: Stany zakrytyczne i nono graniczna
cienkocienych dwigarw o cianach paskich (Postbuckling and ultimate carrying
capacity of thin- walled girders with flat walls), PWN, Warszawa-d, October 1990
[7] Rhodes J., Zara J., Development and Design Analysis of a New Purlin System.Ninth
International Conference on Cold-formed Steel Sections, 8-9 November, 1988, University
of Missouri - Rolla, USA.
[8] M. Koteko, J. Rhodes, M. Macdonald, Bending interaction of bending and compression in
thin-walled beam-columns with varying moment. XII. Konferencja Problemy rozwoju
maszyn roboczych, Zakopane (1999)225-232
[9] M. Koteko, M. Macdonald, J. Rhodes, Investigation of compression failure of cold
formed carbon steel struts. XIII. Konferencja Problemy rozwoju maszyn roboczych,
Zakopane (2000) 303-308.
[10] M. Koteko, M. Macdonald, J. Rhodes.: Stainless steel columns subject to combined
bending and axial loading. Thin-Walled Structures, 45, str. 893-897, Elsevier 2007
[11] Koteko M., Rhodes J., Macdonald M., McNiff W., Buckling load-capacity of Stainless
Steel columns subject to concentric and eccentric loading. Proc. Of the Third Int.
Conference on Thin-Walled Struct., Elsevier, 2001.
90

[12] Koteko M., Rhodes J., Macdonald M., Koakowski Z.: Comparative study into loadcapacity of lipped channel columns under compression. Proc. of Fourth Int. Conference on
Coupled Instabilities in Metal Structures, CIMS04, Rome, Italy, 27-29 Sept. 2004, 28729.
[13] Koteko M., Macdonald M., Rhodes J., Bending interaction of bending and compression in
thin-walled beam-columns with varying moment. XII Konferencja pt. Problemy rozwoju
maszyn roboczych, Zakopane (1999), ss. 225-232.
[14] Koteko M., Macdonald M., Rhodes J., Investigation of compression failure of cold
formed carbon steel struts. XIII Konferencja pt. Problemy rozwoju maszyn roboczych,
Zakopane (2000), ss. 303-308.
[15] Koteko M., Rhodes J., MacDonald M., Behaviour of cold formed stainless steel stub
columns under bending and axial loading. XI Sympozjum Statecznoci Konstrukcji,
Zakopane - wrzesie, 2006. )
[16] Wong H. F., Rhodes J., Zaras, J, and Ujihashi S., Experimental Investigation of Static
Progressive Crushing of Closed hat Section Members. Plasticity and Impact Mechanics.
Ed N. K. Gupta. New Age International (P) Limited, 1996.
[17] Koteko M., T.H.Lim, Rhodes J., Post-failure behaviour of box-section beams under pure
bending (an experimental study). Thin-Walled Struct., vol. 38 (2000), pp.179-194.
[18] M. Koteko, V. Ungreanu, D. Dubina, M. Macdonald, Plastic strength of thin-walled
plated members - alternative solutions review. Thin-Walled Structures, v.49, Nr 5(May),
Elsevier 2011, pp. 636-644.
[19] M. Koteko, Vynx T., H Lim, Badania zginanych dwigarw cienkociennych o przekroju
trapezowym w warunkach duych ugi: VII. Konferencja Problemy rozwoju maszyn
roboczych, Zakopane (1994).
[20] M. Koteko, M.A. Heiyantuduwa,M. Macdonald,J. Rhodes, Plastic mechanism approach to
web crippling behaviour of cold formed channel section beam. 6th International
Conference on Steel and Aluminium Structures (ICSAS2007), Oxford Brookes University
2007, pp. 816-823.
[21] M. Koteko, M.A. Heiyantuduwa,M. Macdonald,J. Rhodes, Theoretical investigation of
web crippling behaviour of thin-walled lipped channel beam. Proc. of 5 th Int. Conference
on Coupled Instabilities in Metal Structures (CIMS 2008), v.1., University of Sydney,
Australia, 2008, pp. 85-90.
[22] M. Koteko, M.A. Heiyantuduwa, M. Macdonald, J. Rhodes, Web crippling behaviour of
thin-walled lipped channel beams. Mat. XII-go Sympozjum Statecznoci Konstrukcji,
Zakopane 7-11 wrzenia 2009, str. 255-262.
[23] M. Koteko, M.A. Heiyantuduwa, M. Macdonald, Web crippling of thin-walled beams
experimental investigations. Proc. of 27th Danubia Adria Symposium, pp. 127- 128,
Wrocaw 2010.
[24] M. Koteko, M. Macdonald, M. A. Heiyantuduwa Don, J. Rhodes, Web crippling
behaviour of thin-walled lipped channel beams. Thin-Walled Structures, v. 49, Nr 5 (May),
Elsevier 2011, pp. 682-690.
[25] Zara J., Kowal-Michalska K. and Rhodes J., Buckling Strength and Failure Mechanics of
Thin-Walled Structures. Special Issue of Thin-Walled Structures, vol. 41, nos 2-3, 2003.
[26] Koteko M., Rhodes J., Cienkocienne profile zimno formowane we wspczesnej
technice. Rozdzia w ksice pt. Pyty i powoki w przyrodzie, mechanice i biomechanice.
Awrejcewicz J., Andrianov I. (redaktorzy), WNT, Warszawa 2001, ss. 177-198.
[27] Koteko M., Macdonald M., Rhodes J., Stability of stainless steel lipped channel columns
subjected to compression. IX Sympozjum Statecznoci Konstrukcji, Zakopane (2000), ss.
159-166.
[28] Koteko M., Macdonald M., Rhodes J., Load-capacity of combined steel/aluminium
members under bending action experimental study. XVI Konferencja Naukowa pt.
Problemy Rozwoju Maszyn Roboczych, Zakopane 2003.
91

[29] Koteko M., Macdonald M., Rhodes J., Behaviour of stainless steel columns under
combined bending and axial compression loading. X Sympozjum Statecznoci
Konstrukcji, Zakopane, 8-12 wrzenia 2003, pp. 259-266.
[30] Koteko M., Koakowski Z., Rhodes J., Comparative investigation into buckling loads and
load- bearing capacity of thin-walled columns under compression. Int. Colloquium of
IASS Polish Chapter: Lightweight Structures in Civil Engineering, Warsaw, 2005, pp.
206-210.
92
EARTHQUAKE AND TSUNAMI DISASTER OF 11.3.2011

- A BRIEF REVIEW S. SHIMIZU
Department of Civil Engineering, Shinshu University
Wakasato 4-Chome, Nagano 380-8553 JAPAN
A brief review is presented in this paper on the disaster of the earthquake and
Tsunami which attacked Japan in 11 March 2011.
The JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) records, reports published by JSCE
(Japan Society of Civil Engineering) and Japan Bridge Association and so on are
referred as source of this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
In 11 March 2011, Japan faced the unprecedented disaster in its modern history, that
is, the earthquake disaster followed by the tsunami disaster. Due to the seismic tremor and
the following tsunami, not only the structures but also the system of cities were seriously,
and in many cities, almost completely, destroyed.
In this paper, the author tries to introduce a brief review of the earthquake and
tsunami disaster, by using the records and announcements issued by the Japan
Meteorological Agency (JMA), the reports of the investigating committees organized by
Japan Bridge Association, reports of Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI) and
so on, together with the data by JMA, National Research Institute for Earth Science and
Disaster Prevention (NIED).
It should be noted that this paper is aimed to introduce the outlines of the disaster
with above records and reports, and that this is not the author's original research work.
In addition, the earthquake and Tsunami caused a serious nuclear power plant
accident. However, in this paper, no description is given on the nuclear plant accident,
because it is beyond the author's capacity.
2. OUTLINE OF THE EARTHQUAKE
2.1 GENERAL1)2)3)
The earthquake occurred in 14:46, 18.1 seconds (estimated), 11th, March, 2011. The
epicentre is 38 deg 06.2 N-Lat, 142 deg 51.6 E, off of the Sanriku Coast, North-East
(Tohoku) of Japan (see Fig.1), and the Magnitude of this earthquake is estimated as
Mw=9.0. This is the fourth-largest earthquake in the world observed in the human history.
JMA gives the name of this earthquake as The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku
Earthquake, although it is usually called as East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster. In
this paper, the earthquake is denominated as the East Japan Earthquake or very simply
the Earthquake.
93
Sendai
Sendai
Sanriku Coast
Epicentre
Ishinomaki
Tokyo
Nagano
Tokyo
Mt.Fujiyama
Fig.1. Epicentre of the Earthquake

NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, USA) announced that
this earthquake may have shortened one earth day by 1.8 microseconds because of
changing of the Earth mass distribution13).
In Japan, there are over 1000 earthquake observation stations throughout the
country, including 32 under water type seismic meters installed at the sea bottom of the
offshore regions.
The earthquake tremor was first felt at Ishinomaki City near the epicentre at 14:46
40.2 Sec, and JMA issued immediately (8.6 seconds after the first tremor was felt) the
Earthquake Early Warning. With this early warning, it can be provided about 15
seconds before the major tremor comes in Sendai City, the largest city in the North-East
region of Japan, and about 65 seconds in Tokyo. However, due to the seismic tremor,
many structures are damaged, and collapse of buildings causes some victims even if in
Tokyo Metropolitan area. At 14:49, about 3 minutes after the first tremor was felt, JMA
also issued Tsunami Warning. On Tsunami, further description is given later.
The measured maximum JMA scale seismic intensity was 7, the highest value within
JMA 10 categories, at Kurihara City in North-East Japan, and 5+ (4th largest within 10
categories) in Tokyo. The seismic tremor was felt in throughout Japan except South-West
islands.
After the main shock of this earthquake, many aftershocks are observed, and some of
them have the magnitude over 7.0; it is sufficiently large earthquake with itself. In
addition, this earthquake induced the seismic activity in the other regions in Japan outside
the aftershock area. At 03:59, 12 March, M 6.6 earthquake occurred near Nagano, and the
seismic intensity of 6+ (2nd largest within JMA categories) was detected, and at 22:31, 15
March, M 6.4 Earthquake occurred just under Mt. Fujiyama, Japanese famous volcano,
and the seismic intensity of 6+ was again observed.
The tremor of the main shock of the East Japan Earthquake also causes liquefaction
of the ground, and many houses and residents are damaged. The liquefaction disaster due
to this earthquake is not so paid attention rather than the tsunami disaster, because no
fatality is reported by liquefaction. However, the liquefaction is observed in very wide
areas in East Japan, in particular Tokyo Bay shore Area, and it is often said that this is
one of the worst liquefaction disaster in the world.
94

Large Tsunami followed this earthquake, and it attacked whole of Japanese coast, in
particular the East and North-East coast of Japan. The maximum officially measured
height of tsunami was 7.6 m or more, but many tide gauges in the tide stations which
measure the sea level were destroyed by the first attack of the tsunami, and therefore the
actual maximum tsunami height cannot be measured. The JSCE investigating committee
made an on-site survey and found that the maximum run-up height (see Fig. 7) of the
tsunami was approximately 40 m3). The tsunami was transferred across Pacific Ocean, and
the tsunami height of 2m or more was observed in United States, Ecuador and Chile.
2.2 HYPOCENTRAL REGION, SEISMOGRAMS, CHARACTERISTICS
Japan islands consist of 4 major plates
North American
as illustrated in Fig. 2. The East Japan
Plate
Earthquake is a typical interplate type
earthquake, and occurred between the Pacific
Plate and the North American Plate. Under
northern Japan, the Pacific Plate is
subducting under the North American Plate,
Senda
and the hypocenter of the earthquake where
Eurasian Plate
Epicentre
i
rupture is on the interface of these two plates,
Tokyo
24 km deep below the epicenter
(Fig. 3)1).
Pacific
On the offshore area of Northern Japan,
Plate
because the Pacific Plate is subducted under
the North American Plate, the North
Philipino Plate
American Plate is subjected to compression
through the asperity as illustrated in Fig. 4.
Fig. 2 Plates surrounding Japan
When compression strain of the North
American Plate is reached to the ultimate state, the rupture is initiated in the asperity
zone, and the strain is released. With this rupture, the North American Plate slips upward
and offshore-ward, then causes the earthquake and the tsunami. Fig. 5 shows the rupture
zone of earthquake estimated by JMA. In this earthquake, it is considered that the three
surface
Northern
Japan
North American
Plate
epicentre
Pacific
Plate
Hypocentre
subducting
hypocentre
(where rupture initiated)
Fig. 3. Hypocenter and the Rupture Surface
95
Pacific
Plate
rupture surface
interface of plates

North American
Plate
Japan Trench
Pacific
Ocean
North American
Plate
Tsunami
Pacific
Ocean
moves
Compression
Pacific
Earthquak
e
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Rupture
Asperity
Fig. 4. Occurrence of the Earthquake

rupture occurred subsequently. At first, the
location indicated as (1) in the figure ruptured,
followed by the ruptures on the locations (2)
and then (3). The ruptures are continued for
approximately 160 second, and the maximum
slip size is 30 m. In Fig. 5, contours of the slip
size are also plotted. Within these three
ruptures, it is considered that the second
rupture (2) caused the very high tsunami3).
Ishinomaki
4m
8m
12m
20m 16m
(1) 24m
Sendai
According to survey made by The
(2)
Geospatial Information Authority of
7),
Japan (GSI) due to the earthquake, the
ground of North East Japan moves for
hypocentre
ocean-ward
and
downward.
The
maximum movement was observed in Narita Airport
(3)
16m
Ishinomaki City, which is located at a
Tokyo
12m
8m
peninsula east of Sendai City and is the
4m
nearest city to the epicentre, and the
200 km
movement is 5.3m for East, 1.16m for
down.
Fig. 5. Estimated Rupture Zone (by JMA)
Photo 1. Ground subsidence near Ishinomaki City5)
96

This downward ground movement brings inundation damages on the coast area near
the epicentre, even if after the tsunami subsided. Photo 1 shows a small railway station
beside the sea in Onagawa Town adjacent to Ishinomaki City. It can be found that, due to
ground subsidence, the station and its surroundings are covered by water.
In the Fig. 6, seismograms which were recorded with the seismic meters at
Ishinomaki City and the Narita Airport (New Tokyo International Airport) are shown.
The vertical axes of these records denote the ground acceleration for North-South
direction, and the horizontal axes the time in seconds with the origin of 14:46:00. These
seismograms indicate that one of the distinct characteristics of this earthquake is the
duration time. As plotted in the figure, both in Ishinomaki and Narita Airport, seismic
tremor continued for over 3 minutes. This duration time of tremor is extremely long in
contrast with the Kobe Earthquake in 1995 with the duration time of about 15 seconds
and the Niigata Chuetsu earthquake in 2003 with about 20 seconds. The second
characteristic is the peculiarity of the seismogram shapes, in particular measured in
Ishinomaki City. That is, in the seismogram, it is obvious that the large tremor was
observed twice with interval of 50 seconds. On the other hand, at the Narita Airport, one
Gal
600
400
200
0
40
100
160
220
Sec.
-200
-400
Ishinomaki
City
-600
14:48
14:47
14:49
Gal
400
200
0
80
-200
-400
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
Sec.
Narita Airport
14:48
14:49
14:50
Fig. 6. Examples of measured Seismogram (Ground acceleration for NS)
97

major tremor is found after very long preliminary tremor. According to the report of
JSCE3), the first large tremor in Ishinomaki is corresponding with the first rupture (1)
shown in Fig. 5, and the second one with the following rupture (2) in Fig. 5, and the major
tremor observed in Narita Airport is mainly caused by the third rupture (3) in Fig. 5.
These peculiar characteristics of the tremor both the duration time and the shapes
- cause the misjudgement of the JMA Tsunami Warning, which estimates the tsunami
height as too small.
2.3 TSUNAMI WARNING
JMA has introduced a tsunami warning/advisory issuing system which can issue the
tsunami warning/advisory within 2-3 minutes after the first tremor was felt. This system
was established after M 7.3 earthquake in 1993 which occurred on the South West Coast
of Hokkaido Island (Japanese North most island). On the 1993 earthquake, JMA issued
the tsunami warning after 5 minutes of the tremor. However, in this earthquake, the large
tsunami attacked after only 2-3 minutes, and many people failed to evacuate. The JMA
current tsunami warning system was introduced taking this opportunity.
The current system can issue the tsunami warning/advisory 2-3 minutes after the
tremor is sensed, by using the first tremor of the earthquake. In The East Japan
Earthquake, this swiftness brought about unfavourable results.
inundation depth
run-up height
deep water
tsunami height
tsunami height
inundation height
sea level
Fig. 7. Tsunami Height & Run-up Height
The system must issue the tsunami warning with using the first tremor which is
corresponding to the first rupture of the asperity. That is, when the warning is issued,
Photo 2. Example of the Tsunami Prevent Wall
98
Miyako
Osaka
Kamaishi
Fukushima
Ishinomaki
Tokyo
Sanriku Coast
the second tremor corresponding to the second rupture is not measured exactly yet, and at
that stage, the whole aspect of the earthquake is not known. In the result, the system
estimated that the maximum tsunami height (Fig. 7) as 6 m at 14:49. After this event, the
offshore installed GPS ocean wave meter sensed over 6m as the deep water tsunami
height. The tsunami height at the coast is generally over twice of the deep water height.
Therefore, JMA re-issued the tsunami warning of the height of "over 10m" at 15:14.
However, at this stage, very few people in the stricken area can have the news of re-issue
of the warning, because TV / radio cannot be used due to the blackout of the electric
power. In addition, many of the coast area cities, towns and villages are guarded by the
tsunami prevent wall. Therefore, some people felt safe for the 6m tsunami, and missed the
opportunity to evacuate.
Sendai
Onagawa
Kochi
Fig. 8. Sanriku Coast Cities
Photo 3. Tsunami overflows the wall10)
Photo 2 shows an example of a tsunami prevent wall, in Miyako City in Sanriku Coast,
North of Sendai (see Fig. 8), having its height of 10m in maximum. However, in practice,
tsunami height exceeded the wall, and the wall was destroyed by the water pressure of
99

tsunami. Similar damages are reported in many other cities along Sanriku Coast. In some
cities, the urban area is guarded by double wall. Kamaishi City has the Guinness
Recorded tsunami prevent walls; one is build at the coast line, and another one is offshore
- installed, having about 65 m height from the sea bottom. However, in practice, tsunami
overflowed the wall, and the central area of the city was almost completely destroyed
(Photo 3). In this photo, the tsunami prevent wall on the coast line is located along the
white dotted line, but the photo indicates that sea water flows into the urban area.
Tsunami attacked of course not only Sanriku Coast but also other Cities. In Tokyo,
tsunami height of 1.5 m was measured, and in Kochi, about 1 000 km from the epicentre,
it is reported that over 15 houses are flooded due to inundation of tsunami.
In spite of the serious damage due to tsunami, it is estimated that the tsunami prevent
walls functioned effectively. According to the press release of the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism (MLIT) of Japan9), in Kamaishi City, tsunami
height was reduced by 40% (14m to 8m) by the walls and tsunami run-up height becomes
almost half (20m to 10m), and it was provided more 6 minute to evacuate (28 minutes to
34minutes).
3. STRUCTURAL DAMAGES
3.1 GENERAL
With the East Japan Earthquake, in spite of its magnitude, structural damages due to
tremor were very few. Of course some structures are damaged seriously, however, they
are limited. This is caused mainly by following two factors.
(1) The tremor of the earthquake does not have the killer pulse.
So called killer pulse is the component of the tremor which brings serious
damages of structures. In Fig. 9, acceleration response spectra of Kobe Earthquake, 1996
measured in Kobe City and the East Japan Earthquake measured at Ishinomaki City are
plotted. It is obvious that the Kobe Earthquake has the tremor of 1-2 Hz which may affect
the structural behaviour, although the East Japan Earthquake has the high-frequency
component.
(2) Seismic Retrofit works Effective
After the Kobe Earthquake in 1995, the seismic retrofit works are made on many
structures and buildings. In the East Japan Earthquake, the serious damages are observed
mainly in the structures which do not have undergone the seismic retrofit.
In the next section of this chapter, some examples of structures damaged due to the
tremor itself are shown. On the other hand, by the East Japan Earthquake, tsunami
destroyed many buildings, bridges and so on. In the section 3.3, some structures destroyed
by tsunami are introduced. In the earthquake, not only the tsunami disaster, many houses
are damaged by liquefaction in particular in Tokyo Metropolitan and suburban area. The
damage by liquefaction is shown in the section 3.4.
100
cm/sec/sec

6000
4000
Kobe
Ishinomaki
2000
0
0.1
10
100
Hz
Fig. 9. Examples of Acceleration Response Spectra of Kobe and Ishinomaki
3. 2 STRUCTURAL DAMAGES DUE TO TREMOR

Photo 4 shows examples of the damaged structures.
In Photo 4 (a), damages of a steel arch bridge in Ishinomaki City, constructed in
1959 are shown. On the super structure of this bridge, no seismic retrofit work is made. In
this bridge, the upper lateral bracings are damaged as shown in the Photo; two members
(one is out of the photo) are broken due to tensile stress and buckling deformation is
found in some members.
Photo 4 (b) shows the damage of the concrete columns of the Shinkansen High
Speed Train. On these columns, seismic retrofit work is also not made, because these
columns are considered to collapse by bending, but shear collapse occurred on these
columns. However, shear collapse is occurred at the top of these columns.
Similar collapse mode is observed on the concrete columns of the building of the
Department of Civil and Architecture Department of Tohoku University, and the building
is now out of use.
By the earthquake, small components of bridges are also damaged. Photo 4 (c)
shows the damage of fingers of an expansion joint, and Photo 4 (d) is the deformation of a
girder in the intermediate joint of a cantilever bridge. Both photos (c) and (d) are of the
bridges of Metropolitan Expressway in Tokyo and Yokohama (adjacent city to Tokyo).
In addition to above damages, this earthquake brings shaking of many high-rise
buildings which are far away from the epicentre with the long period seismic tremor. In
Osaka City, about 770 km from the epicentre, it is reported that a 55 stories (256m height)
building shook with the period of 10seconds and the amplitude of 2.6m at its top story,
although the ground motion was within 10 cm.
The East Japan Earthquake caused many damage of non-structural components of
buildings, viaducts and so on. In Photo 5, examples of the damages of the non-structural
components are shown.
101
(a) Shinkansen Wire Poles5)
(b) Falling Ceil of Miraikan Building6)
Photo 5. Damages of Nonstructural Components
(a) Upper Lateral Bracings of an Arch Bridge3)
(b) Shinkansen Viaduct Columns3)
(c) Damaged Finger Joint4)
(d) Damage of a Girder at the Joint4)
Photo 4. Damaged Structures
Photo 5 (a) is the damage of the wire poles of the Shinkansen High Speed Train. As
shown in this photo, the poles are snapped at the bottom part.
Photo 5 (b) shows the collapse of the suspended ceiling of a building located at the
Bay Shore area of Tokyo. It is found in this photo that a part of the suspended ceiling is
just falling. In Tokyo, two fatalities are reported due to the collapse of the suspended
102

ceiling of another building neighboring upon the Imperial Palace.
3. 3 STRUCTURAL DAMAGES DUE TO TSUNAMI
One of the distinguished characteristics of this earthquake is that the earthquake
brings very serious tsunami disaster.
Generally, an inter-plate type earthquake causes tsunami. In this earthquake, the first
rupture (Fig. 5) of course caused tsunami. However, it is considered that the tsunami
caused by the first rupture has "normal" height, and the very high tsunami was caused by
the second rupture. The on-site survey carried out by many institutes, academic
organizations and so on indicate that the inundation depth (Fig. 7) was over 10 m in some
cities. Such depth of water flow with debris and wrecks destroyed many houses, buildings
and other structures, and they became new wrecks to destroy the next houses. In Photo 6
and Photo 7, the examples of the tsunami damaged structures are shown.
Photo 6 (a) shows a railway viaduct. This viaduct was subjected to large horizontal
water pressure of tsunami, and the top and the bottom part of the columns are damaged,
and some spans of this viaduct fell down.
(a) Damaged Viaduct5)
(b) Carried away spans of a Truss Bridge3)
(c) Collision of a Ship (barge)3)
(d) A Railway Bridge with Tilting Piers3)
Photo 6. Tsunami Damaged Bridges
A truss bridge in Photo 6 (b) lost two spans due to tsunami. In this bridge, according
to the survey of JSCE and an eyewitness account, the losing two spans moved upward at
first, then carried away. The one of the span of this bridge was found about 140m from
the bridge, and another one was about 600m 3).
103

By this earthquake, many boats, ships and barges are carried into the inland together
with the wrecks. Photo 6 (c) is showing a barge clashes against an access road of a bridge.
Although the photo is not shown, a span of this bridge was carried away by collision of a
large ship (24 000 tons, other than the barge in this photo) which was under building and
on a shipway.
On a railway bridge in Photo 6 (d), the girders were carried away by Tsunami. In
addition, it is found that the piers of this bridge appears in the distance are tilting. The
cause of tilting is not known in detail at this stage, however, according to the report by
JSCE3), no damages due to shear or bending is detected in these piers. Therefore, it is
speculated that tsunami pressure may cause tilting of these piers.
In this earthquake, of course tsunami hits not only bridges but also buildings and the
cities.
Photo 7 (a) shows the ruins of the central of Onagawa town, on a peninsula East of
Ishinomaki. As it is clear in this photo, in many buildings, debris and wrecks remain up to
the higher stories of the buildings. In the right side of this photo, it can be found that a
building turned over, due to water pressure of tsunami. On the top-left of this photo, a
building is found whose walls were broken and only its skeletons were left. In the result,
the central region of this town, including the town office, was almost completely
destroyed, and the function of the administration of the town came to a standstill. Similar
situations -- city offices, fire stations, disaster prevention offices and so on are destroyed - are reported in many other cities.
(a) View of Onagawa Town12)
(b) Damaged buildings14)
Photo 7. Tsunami Damaged Buildings
A building shown in Photo 7 (b) turned over due to tsunami. This building was
supported by piles, but due to tsunami pressure piles were pulled out from the ground.
104

According to the survey by Building Research Institute14), buildings which turned over are
with 4 stories or less, and some of them were turned during on the ebb of tsunami.
Tsunami carries buildings to another place. A building in Photo 7 (c) was a 2 stories
RC made building, but it moved by about 80m, and now it is on the road.
(a) A Ship Carried into Land12)
(b) An airplane hit a building16)
Photo 8. Damages due to Ship and Aircraft
After the Kobe earthquake in 1995, many buildings have been subjected to the
seismic retrofit work. However, the seismic retrofit work is for seismic tremor, and it is
not effective for the tsunami pressure. Photo 7 (d) shows a building which had 3 stories
and has been subjected to retrofit work. In spite of the retrofit work, as it is found in the
photo, the upper part of the building was carried away by tsunami, and columns and walls
of the building were destroyed seriously.
The tsunami carried many object such as ships and even aircraft. Photo 8 (a) shows a
ship drifted into the inland. In the cities near the port, many houses and buildings are
destroyed by the drifting of ships. In Photo 8 (b), an aircraft drifted and stuck into a
building at the Self Defence Air Force Base located between Sendai City and Ishinomaki
City.
The tsunami also hit infrastructure or other important facilities of cities.
Photo 9 (a) is a damaged hospital. This hospital is a 4 stories RC-made building,
having been subjected to the seismic retrofit work. In the photo, the additional bracings
attached through the retrofit work can be found. In this hospital, the trace of tsunami
inundation was found at the ceiling of the top story (about 14m from the ground level).
(a) Damaged Hospital14)

(b) Carried Train12)
Photo 9. Damages of Infrastructures
105

Although the structural components including skeletons of this building suffered no
significant damage, almost all non-structural component of the building was damaged.
When the hospital was hit by tsunami, some inpatients sought refuge to the roof of the
building together with the doctors and nurses, and they were rescued 2 days after the
disaster. However, many other inpatients, doctors and nurses became victims. Ironically
enough, before the disaster, this hospital was designated tsunami evacuation building.
In Photo 9 (b), a train is found which was carried away from the track. The operation
of this train was suspended just after the tremor and was waiting the instruction of the rail
traffic control room. With the news of the tsunami warning, the passengers evacuated to
the designated evacuation place with the driver and the conductor, however, that
evacuation place was also hit by tsunami, and at least one fatality and some passengers
were missing. After the disaster, the reconstruction is under planning, and it is considered
that the settlements and towns near the coast have to move to the inland eminences. In the
reconstruction plan, the railway also must move to the inland by about 500m. At this
stage, the plan is not fixed, and therefore, the railway company cannot start the repair
work.
3.4 DAMAGES BY LIQUEFACTION
On the East Japan Earthquake, attention is not paid on the liquefaction disaster so much
because the tsunami disaster is far much serious, and no victim is reported by the
liquefaction. However, the liquefaction caused by the earthquake is considered to bring
one of the worst liquefaction disaster in the recent world. Liquefaction is observed in the
wide range of the northern Japan, but very serious liquefaction disaster was reported from
the bay shore area of Tokyo. Fig.10 shows the map of the bay shore area of Tokyo. This
area extends in the east of the Central Tokyo, and some facilities such as the Tokyo
Disney Land, the Messe, industrial districts and so on are in this area. The liquefaction
was observed in the hatched zones in this map. Within the bay shore areas in the map of
Narita Airport
Central Tokyo
Urayasu City
Messe
Tokyo Disney Land
Tokyo Bay
Tokyo Port
2000 m
Sendai
Haneda Airport
Liquefacted Area
Tokyo
100 km
Fig. 10. Liquefaction of Tokyo Bay Shore Area 18)
106

Fig. 10, liquefaction disaster in Urayasu City was extremely serious. Urayasu City is one
of the Tokyo Satellite Cities, and liquefaction occurred in the area of 80% of the City.
150
100
Gal
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0
60
120
180
240
300
Sec
Fig.11. Seismogram of Urayasu City (Prepared with Data from NIED19) )
In Fig.11, the seismogram measured in Urayasu City is shown. In the seismogram,

until 180 seconds, the "normal" seismic motion is recorded. However, after 200 seconds,
behaviour of the seismogram changed into the ground motion of simple and lowfrequency ground motion which is similar to the motion of the liquid wave. This
phenomenon is also found in the Fourier spectra plotted in Fig.12. Fig.12 indicates the
Fourier Spectra of the seismic motion until 160 seconds and after 200 seconds of Urayasu
City. Unlike to the "normal" seismic motion, in the spectrum after 200 seconds, period of
4-5 seconds is dominant. This change of the ground motion behaviour may be caused by
the liquefaction.
The characteristics of the liquefaction is that it causes the structure movement
(floating, subsiding, turning over) with very small damage in the structure itself, although,
due to the movement, the structure cannot function any longer.
250.00
Gal*Sec
200.00
Up tp 160 Sec.
After 200 Sec.
150.00
100.00
50.00
0.00
0.10
1.00
Period(Sec.)
10.00
Fig. 12. Fourier Spectra of Tremor at Urayasu
107
100.00

Photo 10 shows some examples of the liquefaction disaster.
In Photo 10 (a), a house is found. This house is a Koban (Police Box) in Urayasu
City. Due to decrease of the ground bearing capacity, this Koban tilted. In the photo, a
policeman is entering the house through the window. In Urayasu City and other Tokyo
Bay Shore region, many houses tilted due to liquefaction, and most of them cannot be
utilized. Therefore, owners of such houses and their family have to change their residents.
Some of them have decided to continue residing in the tilted houses, however, they often
have psychologically bad condition.
When liquefaction occurs, in many cases, water and sand gush out of the ground.
Photo 10 (b) shows the Parking area of Tokyo Disney Land. It is found in this photo that
gushing water and sand cover the ground.
Liquefaction brings structures on and under the ground floating and subsiding. In
Photo 10 (c), a pole subsided into ground, and in Photo 10 (d) a tank installed under
ground floated. Similar phenomena were observed in almost whole bay shore area of
Tokyo and other stricken area.
(a) Tilted Koban (Police Box)11)
b) Parking Area of Disney Land18)
(c) Subsided Pole18)
(d) Floated Tank 17)
Photo 10. Damage due to Liquefaction
108

4. CONCLUSION
The East Japan Earthquake brings serious damages on Japan. The structural
damages are detected due to not only the seismic tremor but also to tsunami and
liquefaction. Thus the re-construction works of the damaged structures are important tasks
in current Japan. However, "the re-construction work" does not mean only re-construction
of the structures.
Unfortunately, it becomes clear that with the only hardware, such as the tsunami
preventing walls, it is insufficient to prevent from the severe disaster. More important
matter is to re-establish the structure (or the system) of cities and communities. This is not
a problem of structural engineering but a problem of urban planning. In practice, some
cities are beginning to consider plans in which the whole city and town near the coast
move to the inland area. Such, or similar plan is also being considered in some Japanese
cities other than the stricken area, because in Japan other large earthquakes with large
tsunami are expected in the other region.
The author hopes that the structural engineering may contribute a part of the reestablishing work.
In this paper, only a part of the earthquake and the tsunami disaster to which Japan
has been faced is introduced.
The contents in this paper are based on many survey reports carried out by the Japan
Society of Civil Engineering, the Building Research Institute of Japan and so on, and on
many observation records by the Japan Meteorological Agency, National Research
Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention and so on.
The author, as Japanese, appreciates very much for the aid, help and sympathy from
all over the world.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, in 2011 disaster and natural
phenomena report, 2011, JMA (in Japanese).
On The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake, Report No.1 No.8, JMA
Announcement, 2011 (in Japanese).
Special Committee on 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, Report of the emergency survey,
JSCE, 2011 (in Japanese)
Survey Report of Bridges Damaged by the East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster, Japan
Bridge Association, 2011.12 (in Japanese)
Railway Journal, Vol.45, No.9, 2011 (in Japanese)
Picture from You Tube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gp-w51cB-Ao)
Diastrophism due to the main shock of 3.11 Earthquake, Geospatial Information Authority
of Japan (GSI) :http://www.gsi.go.jp/chibankansi/ chikakukansi40005.html (in Japanese)
Disaster Prevention System Institute, http://www.bo-sai.co.jp/tunami.htm
Press Release, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation and Tourism, 2011.4.
From NHK TV News.
The Yomiuri Shimbun (Newspaper) http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/photo/ 20110322-9518621-L.jpg.
Newspaper Photo Album of the Great East Japan Earthquake Disasters, The Asahi
Shimbun, 2011.4.
NASA
Home
Page,
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/japanquake/
109

earth20110314.html.
[14] Building Research Institute Incorporated Administrative Agency, Japan: Quick Report of
the Field Survey and Research on The 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku
Earthquake[the Great East Japan Earthquake], Building Research Data No.132 May 2011.
[15] mer AYDAN: Liquefaction-induced damage caused by m 9.0 East Japan Mega
Earthquake on March 11, 2011, Report of the Emergency Survey, JSCE, 2011.4
[16] The Mainichi Shimbun (Newspaper).
[17] Susumu YASUDA, Kenji HARADA, Liquefaction induced Damage in the Reclaimed
Lands along Tokyo Bay, Geotechnical Engineering Magazine, Vol.59-7, 2011, pp.38-41.
[18] Susumu
YASUDA,
Web
Page
of
Tokyo
Denki
University,
http://yasuda.g.dendai.ac.jp/eqindex.html.
[19] Kyoshin Net (K-NET, Strong Motion Seismograph Network), National Research Institute
for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED), http://www.k-net. bosai.go.jp/
110
SELECTED PROBLEMS OF STABILITY OF THIN-WALLED

COLUMNS WITH BISYMMETRIC OPEN CROSS-SECTION
C. SZYMCZAK
Faculty of Ocean Engineering and Ship Technology, Gdansk University of Technology,
Ul. G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
The paper presents selected problems of torsional stability and post-buckling

behaviour of thin-walled columns with bisymmetric open cross-section. A short
review literature related to stability, sensitivity and optimal design with respect to
the critical load of torsional buckling is provided. The torsional buckling and initial
post-buckling behaviour of the columns made of an elastic non-linear material is
investigated. The considerations are based upon the classical theory of thin-walled
beams with non-deformable cross-section. Next, the effect of an initial curvature on
the critical load of torsional buckling of the column made of linear elastic material
is studied. Some numerical examples dealing with I columns and columns with
cruciform cross-section are given.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled columns and beams are widely used in many engineering structures.
In this paper, problems of members with bisymmetric open cross-section within the
classical assumptions of the theory of non-deformable cross-section [1] are considered.
The theory has been confirmed by many investigations, theoretical and experimental, as
sufficiently accurate for engineering applications and it gives grounds for many
national code requirements. As commonly known, torsion of members with bisymmetric
cross- section is independent of bending and thus our attention focused mainly on the
former one. The stability problems of thin-walled members has been explored in-depth
and documented in many books and monographs [1 - 6]. Torsional buckling and initial
post- buckling behaviour for the I-columns with variable flanges is presented in the paper
[7]. It should be added that in this paper, the possibility of crossing by the buckling load
of the columns with variable cross-section the limits described by the loads corresponding
to extreme cross-sections, firstly mentioned in [8] has been confirmed. Moreover, stability
and symmetry properties of the bifurcation point are investigated. Some additional
problems dealing with torsional buckling, initial post-buckling behaviour of axially
compressed I columns and columns with cruciform cross-sections accounting for effects
initial stresses due to welding or hot-rolling are presented in [9]. The results of the
investigations point out that decrease of buckling loads due to the initial stresses is
possible but the bifurcation points are symmetrical and stable and therefore additional
reduction of the critical loads caused by initial geometrical imperfection does not occur
[10]. In paper [11] the effect of elastic restraint in the mid-span cross-section of a simply
supported I column, a column with cruciform cross-section on torsional, the flexural
buckling loads and the initial post-buckling behaviour of columns is considered. It has
been observed that usually the post buckling paths confirm the stability of bifurcations
111

points except for some cases of the restraint stiffnesss related to flexural buckling
when unstable points occur. In practice of designing thin-walled structures, very
important is the problem of sensitivity of the buckling load with respect to geometrical
and mechanical parameters of the structure and restraints imposed on it. The papers
[12, 13] deal with sensitivity analysis of torsional and flexural-torsional buckling load of
I-columns and beams with respect to change of the flange width and restraints
stiffness. Accuracy of approximation of buckling load change obtained with aid of the
sensitivity analysis is discussed, as well. The sensitivity problems concerning statics, free
vibration and stability of thin-walled structures was reviewed in [14].
Apart from the above-mentioned analysis and sensitivity problems, optimization of
the I-cross-section changes along the column axis to achieve the extreme torsional
buckling load is considered [15]. Using the Pontryagins maximum [16] principle it has
been proved that the torsional buckling load of the column with variable cross-section
may exceed the bounds defined by critical loads for columns with constant extreme
cross-sections. The paradoxical phenomenon of the torsional buckling load has also been
confirmed with aid of analysis carried on the base of nonlinear theory of shells [17]. Some
details of the phenomenon and additional references are presented in [18]. Similar
paradoxical behaviour is observed in case of optimal design of the I members undergoing
static loads [19] and optimization of the free vibrations frequencies [20, 21]. Problems
of localization of the torsional buckling mode due to some local imperfection of the
column geometry are discussed in [22].
In this paper some problems dealing with torsional and flexural buckling as well as
post- buckling behaviour of axially compressed columns with bisymmetric cross-section
made of nonlinear material are investigated. Firstly, the strain and stress states are
described within theory of small strain for nonlinear elastic column material and the
total potential energy of the column is described. The theorem of minimum potential
energy is used to derive the governing differential equations. The equations were solved
by means of the perturbation approach. Properties of critical buckling loads and postbuckling behaviour with respect to nonlinearity of member material are discussed. Next,
the effects of the initial curvature on the torsional buckling loads of the axially
compressed columns are considered. Some of the numerical examples given allow
drawing some interesting conclusions related to the effects in question.
2. BUCKLING AND INITIAL POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF I COLUMN
MADE OF NONLINEAR MATERIAL
2.1.STATE OF STRAIN AND STRESS
Let us consider an I-cross-section of a column (Fig. 1) and let the origin of the
orthogonal coordinate axes be placed at its centre of gravity. The position vector of
point r 0 on the cross-section surface may be expressed by the following relation
r 0 xi yj zk
where:
112
(1)
i, j, k the unit vector of axes x, y, z respectively,

x, y, z coordinates of the cross-section point.

w
z
h
x
y, v
Fig. 1.
Torsion of the member with I cross-section; coordinate orthogonal system
Let us assume that when the column buckles, the cross-section moves and rotates
along z axis as a rigid contour. Taking into account the assumptions of the classical
thin-walled beam theory [1]:
a) cross-section of the column is not deformable,
b) shear deformation is negligible,
c) strains are small and elastic,
the position vector r of the same point on the deformed surface can be written as
r y sin i y cos j z wk x
a r
a r
(2)
where:
w, - axial displacement and angle of the cross-section rotation,
a sin i cos j unit vector,
dr
x 0, y h / 2 - first derivative of the vector r at point (0. h/2) with respect
dz
to z .
The vector of displacement u of the point in question may be expressed as
u r r 0 u C i vC j wC k
(3)
Substitution of Eq.(1) and Eq.(2) into Eq.(4) yields, after some algebra, the following
expression on the displacement vector
113
u y sin x1 1 wcos / l i 0.5hcos 1 1 wsin / l j w x h / 2l k

(4)
where:
l
1 w2 h2 2 / 4 .
Only one non-zero component of the strain tensor z may be derived from the relationship
in which the assumption of the small strains is taken into account
z wC 0.5 uC 2 vC 2
(5)
Now using Eqns. (3, 4, 5) the strain z can be expressed in terms of displacements w
and
2
2
(6)
z w / l 2 1 w/ l 0.5 y 2 2 0.5 x 2 1 w/ l 2 1 w
where: x y - sectorial area.

The nonlinear constitutive equation of the elastic column material is assumed as
z f z
(7)
where:
z - normal stress.
The tangent modulus E t at the buckling point cr , cr is
d z
cr
(8)
dz
The normal stress due to bending of the column after the torsional buckling may be
written as expansion of the relation (7) into the Taylors series at the bifurcation point
Et
Et E1 2 E 2 3
(9)
where:
z cr ,
E1 0.5 d 2f/d z2 cr ,
E2 1 / 6 d f/d
3
z3
(10)
cr .
2.2. TOTAL ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION
The total elastic potential energy V of the column of length l after torsional buckling
consists of the potential energy of the stresses, the free torsion energy and the potential
energy of the applied compressive end loads P
l
0A
V d A d 0.5 Gt I d 2 d z P w d z
114
(11)

where:
A cross-section area of the column,
Gt tangent shear modulus of elasticity,
I d - free torsion constant,

- first variation of strain.
In order to describe stability and post-buckling behaviour of the column with
sufficient accuracy instead of the strain (6) one can use its approximation
w 0.5r 2 2
(12)
where:
r 2 x2 y2.
Substituting Eq. (12) into the total potential energy (11) one can express it as a functional
of displacements w, and their derivatives. The Euler conditions of stationary total
potential energy with respect to both displacements, allow us to derive two nonlinear
differential equations that after elimination of the displacement w can be reduced to the
governing nonlinear differential equation depending only on the rotation angle
E t I 1 2 PE1 / E t2 A IV PI 0 / A Gt I d 6 PE1 I 02 / E t A 2 1.5E t I 00 2
E 3PE / E AI 3PE
2 0
1
I I / E A 4
2
1 0
2
t
IV
3E I
(12)
IV
where:
I 0 - polar moment of inertia,
I - warping constant,
I 4 d A - second order warping constant,

A
I 00 r 4 d A - second order polar moment of inertia,

A
I 0 2 r 2 d A - second order warping-polar constant,

A
I 00 I 00 I 02 / A,
I 0 I 0 I 0 I / A.
If the column material is linear Et E, E1 E 2 0 then the equation obtained leads to
those presented in [2].
115

2.3. TORSIONAL BUCKLING LOAD AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
The governing equation (13) is solved by means of the perturbation approach [3].
The angle of cross-section rotation z and the loads P are expressed with aid of the
perturbation parameter s
z s 1 z s 2 2 z s 3 3 z ...,
(14)
P Pcr sP 1 s 2 P 2 ...,
where: Pcr - critical buckling load,

i z - functions which should fulfil the boundary conditions for i = 1, 2, 3....
After substituting Eqs. (14) into Eq. (13) and equating the coefficients of the first
three terms of the power series to zero the system of the linear differential equations is
derived
1 2P
E t I 1 2 Pcr E1 / E t2 A 1
Et I
cr
E1 / E t2
P 1 I 0 / A 1
IV
IV
Pcr I 0 / A Gt I d 1 0,
Pcr I 0 / A Gt I d 2 2 P 1 I E1 / E t A 1IV
IV
E t I 1 2 Pcr E1 / E t2 A 3 Pcr I 0 / A Gt I d 3 2 P 1 I E1 / E t A 2IV
P 1 I 0 / A 2 2 P 2 I E1 / E t A 1IV P 2 I 0 / A 1
1.5 4 Pcr E1 I 0 / A / E t E t I 00 1 1 E1 3Pcr E 2 / E t AI 0

2
3Pcr I 0 I E1 / E t A 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 2 1IV 3E 2 I 2 1 1 2 1 2 1IV

2
(15)
In order to find the solution of the equations for simply supported column (Fig. 2), the
following boundary conditions are assumed
i 0 i l 0, i0 i 0 for i 1,2,3.
(16)
Moreover, after equating the perturbation parameter to the rotation angle in mid span
cross-section s 0 and substituting ( z 0.5l ) into Eq. (14) we arrive at
1 0.5l 1, i 0.5l 0 for i 2,3...
(17)
Using the boundary conditions (16) and (17) in the solution of the first equation (15) we
can obtain
1 z sin z / l , Pcr A / I 0 Gt I d Et I / l 2 / 1 2 / l 2 E1 I / Et I 0
116
(18)

After utilizing the solution (18) and the same boundary conditions, the second equation
(15) gives
(19)
2 z 0, P 1 0.
Substituting Eqs. (18) and (19) into the third equation (15) yields after some algebra
P 2 0.75 / l E t I 00 4 Pcr E1 I 02 / E t A 4 / l
2
3Pcr E 2 / E t AI 0
3Pcr I 0 I E1 / E t / A / 3 3E 2 I / l / 4 / I 0 / A 2 / l E1 I / E t A
2
(20)
Thus the initial post-buckling equilibrium path is determined by relation
P / Pcr 1 P 2 / Pcr 02
(21)
It is easy to show that if the column material is linearly elastic E1 E 2 0 then the
results (18) and (20) correspond to those obtained in [2]. The relation (21) shows that the
critical buckling point is symmetric but stability property of the point depends on the
positive sign of P 2 .
Note, that to calculate the critical buckling load (18) and to determine the coefficient
of the post equilibrium buckling path it is necessary to determine the modules E t , E1 and
E 2 . To do this, the critical stress cr Pcr / A is substituted into the constitutive

equation (7) and after using the relation (10) we arrive at the equation allowing for
determine of the critical strain cr and next the modules sought.
2.4. FLEXURAL BUCKLING LOAD AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
In the similar way the flexural buckling and post-buckling behaviour of an axially
compressed column is investigated. The results of these investigations are as follows. The
critical load of flexural buckling Pcrf and the second derivative of load with respect to the
mid span deflection s v 0 are expressed as
Pcrf 2 Et I x / l 2 , P f 2 4 Et I x 1 6 / l E 2 I xx / Et I x / 8l 4
2
(22)
where: I x - moment of inertia of the cross-section about x axis,
I xx y 4 d A - second moment of inertia of the cross-section.

A
The initial post buckling equilibrium path can be written as
P / Pcrf 1 P f 2 / Pcrf v02
117
(23)

Thus we obtain symmetric and stable bifurcation point of the flexural buckling because
the sign of the coefficient (23) is positive. If material of the column is assumed linear
elastic then the results are compatible with those given in [4].
2t
P
t
0.3 m
2t
0.3 m
E = 70 GPa, n = 12, t = 0.01 m, y250MPa, 0.3

Fig. 2.
Axially compressed simply supported I-column
2.5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

The simply supported column made of aluminium subject to axial end loads is
considered (Fig. 2). The constitutive equation of the column material corresponds to the
Ramberg-Osgood curve
0.002
y
E
(24)
where:
y - conventional yield stress,
n coefficient of aluminium hardening.
1.25
Pcr/Plcr
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
5
Fig. 3.
l [m]
10
Ratio of critical torsional buckling loads related to nonlinear and linear material
The ratio of the elastic modulus to the shear one is assumed to be constant for whole
range, linear and nonlinear, of the column material behaviour. Fig. 3 presents graphs
plotting ratio of the torsional buckling load Pcr to the same load Pcrl for the linear
constitutive equation versus the column length. The post-buckling equilibrium paths
P / Pcr after torsional buckling corresponding to the column length 5 and 10 m are shown
118

in Fig. 4. The same relationships for flexural buckling with respect to x axis are
graphically shown in Fig.5 and Fig. 6, respectively, where v0 stands for the mid-span
displacement of the column.
1.025
P/Pcr
Linear material
l= 5 m
Nonlinear material
l=5 m
l=10 m
1.02
1.015
l= 10 m
1.01
1.005
1
0
Fig. 4.
0.05
0 [m]
0.1
Post-buckling equilibrium paths after torsional buckling
Pcr/Plcr
0.99
5
Fig. 5.
7.5
l [m]
10
Ratio of critical flexural buckling loads related to nonlinear and linear material
1.0005
Linear material
l=5 m
l=10 m
P/Pcr
1
Nonlinear material
l=10 m
l= 5 m
0.9995
0.05 v0 [m]
0
Fig. 6.
0.1
Post-buckling equilibrium paths after flexural buckling
3. BUCKLING AND INITAIL POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF COLUMN WITH

CRUCIFORM CROSS-SECTION
Provided the nonlinear terms are ignored and assumptions E1 Et E,
E2 0, Gt G made, the first of Eqns. (15) allows to determine the critical load of
torsional buckling and the Eqn. (21) the initial post-buckling path for the column made of
119

the linearly elastic material. Note, there some differences between the critical torsional
buckling loads of the axially compressed column with constant I cross-section and with
cruciform (see Fig. 7). Whereas, increase of the I-cross-section dimensions lead to
increase of the critical load then the critical load related to the cruciform cross-section
may decrease as the plate width b increases (Fig. 8). It is evident from the formula for a
simply supported column
Pcr
2
2 E t 3 12G b
2
3 b E l
(25)
where: t plate thickness.
P
2b
t
l
2b
E = 210 GPa, l = 4 m, t = 0.01 m, 0.3

Fig. 7.
Axially compressed simply supported column with cruciform cross-section
8
6
Pcr [MN] 4
2
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
b [m]
Fig. 8.
Critical torsional buckling loads vs. the plate width
To demonstrate the differences between the post-buckling behaviour after torsional

and flexural buckling the post-buckling equilibrium paths for two different values of the
plate width b = 0.15 m and b = 0.2 m are presented in Fig. 9. It is worth pointing out that
with regards to flexural buckling the post-buckling paths are independent of the crosssection dimensions. It does not hold in the case of torsional buckling, where the postbuckling path has the following form
120

2
b
2 1 1.6
P
b
t 2
1 0.75
2 0
Pcr
l 12G b
2E l
1.1
(26)
1.1
torsional buckling
b= 0.2 m
b = 0.1 m
P/Pcr
flexural buckling
b
P/Pcr
1.05
1.05
1
0
Fig. 9.
0.1
0.2
0.1
vl
0.2
Post-buckling equilibrium paths for simply supported column with cruciform crosssection
Similar problem dealing with the effect of nonlinear mid span restraint on torsional
buckling and initial post-buckling behaviour of a thin-walled column subjected to axial
compressive loads is discussed in [23].
4. EFFECT OF INITIAL CURVATURE ON TORSIONAL BUCKLING AND INITIAL
POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
4.1. STATE OF STRAIN AND STRESS
Let us consider a simply supported I column axially compressed with an initial small
curvature u0(z) of its axis in the plane x-z presented in Fig 10. It is assumed that the
column is made of linearly elastic material. The position vector of an arbitrary point on
the cross-section surface of the column can be written as
r 0 x u0 i yj z xu 0 zk
(27)
If the compression loads grow, the column deflection increases until the critical torsional
buckling load is reached. Obviously, it is assumed that the flexural buckling load is higher
than the torsional one. The position vector the same point on deformed cross-section after
torsional buckling has the following form
121

sin
r y
1 u
i y cos
2
u cos
1 u
j z wk x
a r
a r
(28)
where:
a sin i cos j - unit vector,
dr
x 0, y h / 2 - first derivative of the vector r at point (0. h/2) with respect
dz
to z .
After subtracting the Eqn. (27) from Eqn. (28) we arrive at the displacement vector of the
point in question
u r r 0 u C i vC j wC k
u
(29)
w
z
h
y, v
z,w
l/2
u0
P
l/2
x,u
Fig. 10. Displacements of the column cross-section and simply supported I column with
initial curvature in x-z plane
The longitudinal strain may be calculated from the formula (5). The results are very
complex, therefore it is expanded into the Taylor series and the terms necessary to
described the total potential energy with sufficient accuracy are taken into account
z w 0.5 u 2 u0 2 u y sin xu u0 cos 0.5r 2 2
(30)
Note, that if the initial curvature of the column axis vanishes and the torsional buckling
occurs u u0 0 then the relation (30) leads to the formula derived in (2).
122

4.2. TOTAL ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION
The total potential energy V of the column of length l can be written as a sum of the
elastic strain energy Vi and a potential energy Ve of the axial end loads
l
0A
V Vi Ve 0.5 z2 dAdz 0.5G I d 2 dz P wdz
(31)
By substituting Eqn. (30) into Eqn. (31) and integrating over the cross-section area we
have
V 0.5E Aw 2 0.25 u 2 u 0 2
0
l
Aw u 2 u 0 2 u 2 I x sin2 I y u u 0 cos 2
I 2 0.25I 00 4 I 0 w 2 0.5I 0 2 u 2 u 0
dz 0.5GI
(32)
2
d dz P wdz
From the Euler condition of stationary total potential energy (32) with respect to
displacement w the following relation is obtained
2
w 0.5 u 2 u 0 0.5I 0 / A 2
(33)
Substitution of Eqn. (33) into Eqn. (32) enables us to obtain the total potential energy
expressed only by the angle of cross-section rotation and its derivatives. The Euler
condition of stationary total potential energy applied to the modified total potential energy
leads to the governing system of two nonlinear differential equations
EI IV PI 0 / A GI d 1.5EI 00 2 E I x I y u 2 EI y u 0u
EI y u u 0
IV
Pu u 0 Pu 0 E I x I y u 2 0.5EI y u 0 2
(34)
where: I x , I y - moments of inertia of cross-section about x and y axes, respectively.

It is worthwhile pointing out that by ignoring the initial curvature of the column
u 0 0 obtained are the well known equations for the post-buckling behaviour of the
column after torsional buckling (2) and the flexural one (3), respectively.
4.3. EFFECT OF INITIAL CURVATURE OF COLUMN AXIS ON CRITICAL
TORSIONAL BUCKLING
The critical load of torsional buckling of the column with an initial deflection
u 0 z may be determined on the basis of the system of differential equations (34) with aid
of the perturbation approach. The displacements u z , z and the compressed loads P

are expressed by means of a small parameter s
123

u z su1 z s 2 u 2 z s 3u 3 z ...,
z s1 z s 2 2 z s 3 3 z ...,
(35)
P Pcr sP 1 s 2 P 2 ...,
where:
ui z , i z - functions that should fulfil all boundary conditions for i= 1, 2, 3, ....
Before torsional buckling state the rotation angle vanishes 0 and the column prebuckling equilibrium path u(z) is described by the second equation Eqn. (34) that may be
rearranged into form
EI y u IV Pu EI y u 0IV
(36)
Having substituted the solution of the differential equation (36) into the first equation of
the system (34) we arrive at the second equilibrium path after torsional buckling. That
path intersecting with the pre-buckling path determines the bifurcation point of the
torsional buckling sought.
4.4. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Let us consider a simply supported column presented in Fig. 10 with the initial
deflection
u0 u 0 sin z / l
(37)
where:
u 0 - maximum deflection in mid-cross section of the column.
The solution of Eqn. (36) for the initial deflection assumed (37), describing the prebuckling equilibrium path and may be written after some algebra as
u z
u0
1 P /
Pcrf
sin
z
l
(38)
where:
Pcrf
2 EI y
l2
- critical flexural buckling loads about y axis.
After substituting the relation (38) into the first equation of the system (34) and
some rearranging we arrive at the differential equation for the first approximation of the
second equilibrium path 1 z (35) and the torsional buckling load
124
EI1
IV
4
Ix Iy
Iy
z
2
Pcr I 0 / A GI d 1 E u 0 sin2
2
l
l
P
1 Pcr
1 crf
Pcrf
Pcr

1 0
(39)
The critical torsional buckling load Pcr can be estimated from the Eqn. (39) by means of
the Galerkins method by utilizing an approximated mode function
1 z 0 sin
(40)
where: 0 z -angle of rotation of mid cross-section of the column.

The effect of the initial curvature of the column axis on the critical torsional
buckling is studied by means of a numerical example dealing with the simply supported I
column presented in Fig. 11.
P
t
0.2 m
l=8 m
0.4 m
E = 210 GPa, G = 80.77 GPa, t = 0.01 m
Fig. 11. Geometry of simply supported I column - numerical example
Figure 12 shows the influence of mid-span deflection of the column on the critical
torsional buckling load. The relation presents possibility to reduce the critical load due to
initial curvature of the column axis. It should be emphasised that the reduction is not as
drastic as in case of, for example, unsymmetrical point of bifurcation [3] and for other
geometry and mechanical parameters of the column it does not occur. The second
example is related the same simply supported column of length l = 4 m and different the
flange width b = 0.16 0.34 m. The effect of the flange width on the critical load of the
column with the initial curvature is described by the relation [37]. The results of this
investigation are presented in Fig. 13. It is worth pointing out that the reduction of the
critical load is observed only for the flange width smaller than 0.3 m. If the width of
flanges is greater than 0.3 m then the critical load increases.
125
320
315
Pcr
[MN]
310
305
300
0
0.5
1.5
u0 [cm]
Fig. 12. Example 1. Critical torsional buckling load vs. mid-span initial deflection
10
b=34 cm
8
b=32
6
Pcr [MN]
4
b=28
b=24
b=20
b=16
2
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
u0 [cm]
Fig. 13. Example 2. Critical torsional buckling load vs. mid-span initial deflection for
different the flange with b
5. FINAL CONCLUSIONS
The theoretical investigations of the torsional and flexural buckling and the initial
post-buckling behaviour of the axially loaded columns with bisymmetric cross-section are
presented. The columns are made of elastic nonlinear material. In some numerical
examples the Ramberg-Osgood constitutive equation is assumed. Next, the effect of the
column axis curvature on stability behaviour of the column made of linear elastic material
is considered, as well. Based on those theoretical investigations and results of the
numerical examples, the following conclusions are drawn:
- The torsional buckling load of the I column made of nonlinearly elastic material
may be smaller than the load corresponding the linear elastic material only for short
columns. For longer columns the critical load may exceed the load of the column
made of linear elastic material about 25 per cent. Herein the elastic modulus of the
126

linearly elastic material is assumed to be the tangent modulus of the nonlinear one
for the load equals zero. Conversely, the flexural buckling load corresponding to the
nonlinear material of the column is always slightly smaller than that related to the
linear material.
- The bifurcation points of the torsional buckling of the I columns made of
nonlinear or linear elastic materials are symmetrical and stable - that means a
reduction of critical loads due to no geometrical imperfections. On the other hand
the bifurcation points of flexural buckling are also symmetrical but for shorter
columns may be unstable - that means a reduction of the critical load if geometrical
imperfections occur.
- The bifurcation point of the flexural and torsional buckling of the column with
cruciform cross-section made of linear elastic material is symmetrical and stable.
The wider plate of the cross-section the smaller critical load of the torsional
buckling.
- The curvature of the I column axis with narrow shelves of the cross-section may
reduce of the torsional buckling loads but in case of wider shelves it does not occur.
The effect is investigated only for the linear elastic material of the column.
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[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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[10]
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128
VIBRATIONS AND THE STABILITY OF A COLUMN

SUBJECTED TO AN ACTIVE AND A PASSIVE SPECIFIC LOAD
L. TOMSKI, J. SZMIDLA, S. UZNY
Institute of Mechanics and Machine Design Foundations,
Czstochowa University of Technology,
Dbrowskiego 73, 42-200 Czstochowa, Poland
A geometrically linear slender system subjected to an active and a passive specific

load is discussed in the paper. The boundary conditions concerning the specific
load have been derived on the basis of the boundary conditions concerning the
general load (the load present at the ends of the column induced by a longitudinal
and transversal force as well as by concentrated moment). The boundary value
problem of the basic system (the system subjected to the generalised load) has been
formulated using Hamiltons principle. With regards to the specific load, the
column has been investigated for two types of active load: the generalised load by
the force directed towards the positive pole and the load by the follower with
circular contour force directed towards the positive pole. Heads consisting of linear
elements were used to realise the active load while heads consisting of circular
elements were used to realise the passive load by the follower force directed
towards the positive pole. Numerical research concerning the critical load and
characteristic curves was carried out for different values of the parameters of the
considered columns. The accuracy of the assumed mathematical model is confirmed
by experimental research.
1. INTRODUCTION
The specific load, considered in the paper, was formulated and introduced into
literature by Tomski in 1994 (comp. [14]). The specific load is a group load in which two
basic types of loads can be distinguished:
generalised load with the force directed towards the pole (positive or negative)
(comp. [20, 25, 27]),
a load generated by the follower force directed towards the pole (positive or
negative) (comp. [16, 22, 23, 26]).
The introduced two types of the specific load combine in themselves features of the
other loads of slender systems presented before (before 1994). Generalised load with the
force directed towards the positive pole combines in itself features of generalised load
(comp. [5, 8]) and features of the load by a force directed towards the pole (positive
(comp. [3, 4, 6, 12]) or negative (comp. [4, 6])). The load by a follower force directed
towards the pole combines in itself features of the Becks load (non-conservative load)
(comp. [1, 2, 9, 10]) and features of the load by a force directed towards the pole (positive
or negative). The pole is a constant point through which direction of force action is
passing in the considered cases of loading. Specific load is the real load and its realisation
is possible by application of suitably constructed loading heads. The loading heads can be
129

constructed from linear elements (comp. [16, 26, 27]) and circular elements (comp. [20,
22, 23, 25]).
Nomenclature of the active and passive loads was introduced due to possibility of
application of different loading heads at the two ends of the column (comp. [21, 24]). The
active load is the load having an impact on the column for x = l. Passive load is connected
to reaction of a base and has an impact on the column for x = 0.
In the case of the active load, the positive pole (considered in this paper) is located
in non-deflected axis of column above the end of the column while the negative pole is
located in non-deflected axis of column below the end of the column
2. GENERAL AND DETAILED FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
The column loaded by longitudinal force P is taken into account. The systems
loading and supporting this column generate:
shearing force Hi = Hi(P, W(il,t), WI(x,t)x=il)
bending moment Mi = Mi(P, W(il,t), WI(x,t)x=il).
Shearing forces H0 and H1 and bending moments M0 and M1 are homogeneous
functions of the first order (functions of deflection and deflection angle of adequate ends
of the column).
Fig. 1.
Diagram of the column subjected to a load by longitudinal force P, bending

moments M0, M1 and shearing forces H0, H1
Index i takes the values 0 and 1. Index i = 1 corresponds to the active load. Index
i = 0 corresponds to the passive load. Concentrated mass mi is present at the two ends of
the column due to construction of the system.
130

Mechanical energy was formulated for the considered system. Equation of motion
and boundary conditions were determined applying Hamiltons principle. Then this
general formulation of the problem was brought to the active and passive specific load,
i.e. generalised load by force directed towards the positive pole and load by the follower
force directed towards the positive pole. The specific load can be realised through the
systems built of linear and circular elements.
In the second part of this work, free vibrations and stability of two columns
subjected to the active and passive specific load were numerically and partly
experimentally examined.
The first column is subjected to the active generalised load by the force directed
towards the positive pole (linear variant of the construction). A support generates the
passive load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole (circular variant of
the construction). The second column is subjected to load by the follower force directed
towards the positive pole (active load - linear variant of the construction, passive load circular variant of the construction).
3. MECHANICAL ENERGY OF THE SYSTEM. HAMILTONS PRINCIPLE. THE
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Mechanical energy, presented in Fig. 1, is defined according to Bernoulli-Eulers
theory.
Kinetic energy is a sum of energies: of continuous system and bodies with
concentrated masses m0, m1 present at the two ends of the column. The kinetic energy can
be written using equation:
2
1
1
W x, t
T A
dx
2
t
2
0
l
W x, t
.
mi
x il
t
i 0
2
(1)
Potential energy of the system is equal to a sum of elastic strain energy of bending
and potential energy from both the active and passive load, and can be presented as
follows:
l
l
2W x, t
1
1 W x, t
EJ
dx
dx
2
x 2
2 0 x
W x, t
1
i
H iW il , t 1 M i
.
x
i 0 2
x il
(2)
The problem of free vibrations and stability of the considered systems was
formulated on the basis of Hamiltons principle, which in the case of conservative
systems - takes form:
131

t2
T V dt 0 .
(3)
t1
Next, substituting energies given by equations (1) and (2) into relationship (3), the
following equation is obtained:
x l
x l
2
W x, t W x, t
3W x, t
W
x
,
t
EJ
x 2
x
x 3
x
0
x
0
t1
l 4
x l
W x, t
P W x, t W x, t
W
x
,
t
dx
x
x 4
x 0
0
t2
2W x, t
W x, t dx
x 2
H i
2 W il, t W il, t H
1i
i 0
M i W x, t
W il , t
W il, t x x il
H i
M i
W x, t
i
W il, t 1
M i
x il
W x, t
W x, t
x
x il
x il

l
1
W x, t
2W x, t
2W x, t
W
x
,
t
dx
mi
W x, t dt 0
2
2
x x il
t
t
i 0
x il
. (4)
0
On the basis of relationship (4) one can determine:

differential equation of motion:
EJ
4W x, t
x 4
2W x, t
x 2
2W x, t
t 2
0,
(5)
natural boundary conditions:
EJ
1i EJ
2W x, t
x 2
M i 0
(6)
x il
W x, t
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1i P
mi
0.
3
x x il
x
t 2
x il
x il
3
132
(7)

In this paper the systems loaded by conservative forces are considered, therefore the
condition of conservative load was used in the boundary conditions:
1
H i
M i
i
1

W il , t
i 0
W x, t
x il

(8)
W x, t
W x, t
W il , t
W il , t 0.
x
x
x il
x il
The differential equation of motion (5), after separation of variables, can be

presented as follows:
d 4 y x
dx 4
d 2 y x
2 y x 0 ,
dx 2
(9)
while:
W x, t yx cos t , 2
A 2
EJ
, k2
P
.
EJ
(10a-c)
The boundary conditions (given by equations (6) and (7)), after separation of
variables, are modified into form:
y II x
1 y III x
i
x il
x il
yI x
M i* 0 ,
x il
*
i
mi
(11)
2
y x x il 0 ,
A
(12)
where:
M i*
H
Mi
, H i* i .
EJ
EJ
(13a-d)
4. THE COLUMN SUBJECTED TO THE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SPECIFIC LOAD

(COMPLEX DESCRIPTION)
Diagrams of heads realising the specific load are presented in Fig. 2. The column
subjected to the specific generalised load by the force directed towards the positive pole
(active (denotation index 1) and passive (denotation index 0)) was denoted by letter
133

A. The considered load can be realised by loading heads built of linear elements (denoted
by letter l) or circular elements (denoted by letter k).
On the basis of diagrams presented in Fig. 2, transversal force and bending moment
in the case of generalised load by the force directed towards the positive pole are equal
for both the active and passive loads:
heads, loading and receiving load, built of linear elements Al0 (i = 0), Al1 (i = 1):
lCi
1
W x, t
,
H i PW il, t
1i
l Di
x x il lDi
l l
l
W x, t
M i P 1i
lCi Ci Di W il, t Ci
x
l
l
Di
Di
x il
(14a)
(14b)
heads, loading and receiving load, built of circular elements Ak0 (i = 0), Ak1
(i = 1):
l0i ri
1
W x, t
,
H i PW il, t
1i
Ri ri
x x il Ri ri
ri l0i Ri l0i .
l r
W x, t
M i PW il, t 0i i 1i
Ri ri
x x il
Ri ri
(15a)
(15b)
Generalised load by the force directed towards the positive pole is conservative
because condition (8) is fulfilled.
The boundary conditions concerning the generalised load by the force directed
towards the positive pole are obtained substituting equations describing transversal forces
and bending moments (14) and (15) into relationship (6) and (7):
the boundary conditions in the case of the column where loading and receiving
heads are built of linear elements Al0 (i = 0), Al1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
x
EJ
l l
W x, t
l
P 1i
lCi Ci Di W il, t Ci 0 .
x x il
lDi
lDi
x il
3W x, t
lCi lDi
1 W x, t
i
P 1 W il , t
3
x
lDi
x
lDi
x il
x il
1 mi
i
2W x, t
0,
t 2
x il
(16a)
(16b)
134

generalised active load by the force directed towards the positive pole
generalised passive load by the force directed towards the positive pole
active load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
passive load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
Fig. 2. Diagram presented the possible combinations of specific loads: active and passive
135

heads are built of circular elements Ak0 (i = 0), Ak1 (i = 1) :
2W x, t
x 2
x il
EJ
ri l0i Ri l0i 0,
l r
i W x, t
P W il , t 0i i 1
Ri ri
x
Ri ri
x il
W x, t
W x, t
l0i Ri
1
i
EJ
P 1 W il , t
x
Ri ri
x
Ri ri
x il
x il
2W x, t
1 mi
0.
t 2
x il
(17a)
(17b)
After separation of variables, the boundary conditions can be written in the

following form:
heads are built of linear elements (Al0 (i = 0), Al1 (i = 1)) after separation of variables:
y II x
x il
y III x
l l
l
y I x lCi Ci Di 1i yil Ci
x il
l Di
l Di
x il
0 ,
lCi lDi
1
i
1 y il
yI x
x il
l
lDi
Di
2
1 mi
y il 0 ,
A
(18a)
(18b)
heads are built of circular elements (Ak0 (i = 0), Ak1 (i = 1)) after separation of variables:
y II x
x il
ri l0i Ri l0i 0 ,
l r
yil 0i i 1i y I x
il
Ri ri
Ri ri
y III x
x il
l0i Ri
1
i
1 y il
yI x
il
Ri ri
Ri ri
2
1 mi
y il 0 .
A
(19a)
(19b)
In Fig. 2, the column subjected to the specific load (active (denotation index 1 and
passive (denotation index 0)) by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
was denoted by letter B. Two methods of realization of the considered load: in the first
one the loading heads are built of linear elements (denotation by letter l) while in the
136

second one they are built of circular elements (denotation by letter k) are also presented in
Fig. 2.
In the case of load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole,
geometrical boundary conditions are present at two ends of the column in the form of:
column, in which loading heads are built of linear elements Bl0 (i = 0),
Bl1 (i = 1) :
W il, t 1i lCi
W x, t
,
x x il
(20a,b)
column, in which loading heads are built of circular elements Bk0 (i = 0),
Bk1 (i = 1) :
W il, t 1i Ri l0i
W x, t
.
x x il
(21a,b)
Considering the problem, after separation of variables in the boundary conditions

(20) and (21), the function of space and time coordinates W(il,t) should be changed into
function of only space coordinate y(il).
Load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole is conservative due to
presence of linear relationship between bending and bending angle of the column ends
(cop. equation (8)).
After taking into account geometrical conditions (20) and (21) in Hamiltons
principle (3), natural boundary conditions are obtained:
Bl1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
3W x, t
1
1
i
1
EJ

i
x 2
l
lCi
x 3
x il Ci
x il
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1 P
mi
0,
x
t 2
x il
x il
(22)
Bk1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
3W x, t
1
1
i
Mi
1 EJ
2
x
Ri l0i
Ri l0i
x 3
x il
x il
W x, t
2W x, t
H i 1 P
mi
0.
x
t 2
x il
x il
(23)
In the case of application of loading heads built of linear and circular elements,
transversal forces and bending moments at the ends, where the active load and passive
137

load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole are in operation, are as
follows:
H i 1i P
W x, t
, M 0 M1 0 .
x
x il
(24a-d)
After taking into account the relationship (24), natural boundary conditions (22) and
(23) are modified into the form:
Bl1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
1
3W x, t
2W x, t
1i EJ
mi
0,
2
3
2
lCi
x
t
x il
x il
x il
(25)
Bk1 (i = 1) :
EJ
2W x, t
1
3W x, t
2W x, t
i
1
EJ
m
0.
i
3
2
Ri l0i
x 2
t
x il
x il
x il
(26)
After separation of variables, the boundary conditions can be written as follows:

Bl1 (i = 1) :
y II x
x il
1
2
i
1 y III x
mi
y il 0 ,
x il
lCi
A
(27)
Bl1 (i = 1) :
y II x
x il
1
2
i
1 y III x
mi
y il 0 .
x il
Ri l0i
A
(28)
Combinations of loads are present due to possibility of applications of different

forms of specific loads: active ones (for x = l) as well as passive ones (for x = 0) of the
columns considering adequate heads. In Fig. 2 index j corresponds to structural solution
of the used loading heads (j k the heads realising load built of circular elements, j l
the heads realising load built of linear elements). Considering combinations of possible
for realisation specific loads: active and passive ones, nomenclature of the considered
systems (columns) is introduced - comp. Fig. 2.
For example:
- Al1-Bk0 column subjected to the generalised active load by the force directed towards
the positive pole (realisation of the load by linear elements) and subjected to the passive
load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole (realisation of the load by
circular elements),
138

- Bk1-Al0 column subjected to active load by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole (realisation of the load by circular elements) and subjected to the
generalised passive load by the force directed towards the positive pole (realisation of the
load by linear elements).
5. VIBRATIONS AND STABILITY OF COLUMNS SUBJECTED TO THE ACTIVE
AND PASSIVE SPECIFIC LOAD NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Possible combinations of the active and passive loads considering constructions of
the heads realising the specific load are presented in the point four (comp. Fig. 2).
Theoretical, numerical and experimental research into stability and free vibrations of the
columns realising chosen cases of the specific load are shown in the present point of the
paper. Constructional solutions of the heads built of the linear elements Al1, Bl1 (comp.
Fig .2) are taken into account in the case of active generalised load by the force directed
towards the positive pole A or in the case of active load by the follower force directed
towards the positive pole B. In the case of passive load by the follower force directed
towards the positive pole B, the head is built of circular elements Bk0 (constant curvature).
Influence of geometry and physical parameters of the heads on the value of critical load
and the course of natural frequency in relations to external load of the columns was
analysed for the examined systems (columns) Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 on the basis of obtained
equations of motion, boundary conditions and solution to the boundary problem.
5.1. PHYSICAL MODELS, MECHANICAL ENERGY OF THE SYSTEMS, EQUATIONS
OF MOTION, BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Physical models of the considered columns Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 are presented in Fig.
3a,b. In the case of the active heads Al1 and Bl1 column (1) is loaded by the force P
through overrigid beam (2) and rigid element (3) of lC1 in length. Direction of an action of
the active load is passing through the point O1 lying on non-deflected axis of the column.
In the case of the column Al1 - Bk0, the point O1 is placed in the distance lD1 from the end
of the rigid element of lC1 in length. The column (1) and element (3) are rigidly connected
at the loaded end with the body of concentrated mass mk1. Bending angle and
displacement of this end are equal for the column (1) and bolt (3). Load is taken away by
the passive head (reaction of a base) characterised by a curvature radius R0. Direction of
reaction R is passing through the constant point (pole) O0. Element of the passive head Bk0
is the part of infinitive bending rigidity. The length of this part is denoted as l00. There is
also the part of infinitive bending rigidity in the active heads Al1, Bl1, but the length of this
part is included in the element of lC1 in length. In the accepted constructional solution, the
concentrated masses m0, m1 take into account total reduced mass mzr0, mzr1 of the elements
of lC1, l00 in length, respectively. The columns presented in Fig. 3 are models of the real
objects (comp. [15, 21]). Unlike the systems discussed in the point 3, they are built of two
rods (1.1, 1.2) with bending rigidities (EJ)1, (EJ)2 and mass per unit length (A)1, (A)2.
The rods of the column (flat frame) are connected by rigid elements of the active and
passive heads (bodies with masses mk0, mk1). The rods are made of the same material and
139

they have the same cross-section: (EJ)1 = (EJ)2, (A)1= (A)2, (EJ)1 + (EJ)2 = EJ, (A)1,+
(A)2 = A.
The kinetic energy T of the considered system, which physical model is presented in
Fig. 3, is a sum a kinetic energy of the continuous system (the column) and the
concentrated masses m0, m1 at its ends (comp. equation 1):
2
Ai
i 1
Wi x, t
m W1 l , t m W1 0, t
t dxi 21 t 20 t .
0
2
(29)
The components of potential energy of the systems Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 (table 1) are
the combined result of an action of the active load (active head), the passive load being
reaction of the base (passive head) and construction of the heads.
Table 1.
Potential energy of the systems.

Active load
Al1
Passive load
Bl1
Bk0
Elastic strain energy of bending
2
EJ i
i 1
V1
2Wi x, t
x 2 dx .
0
l
(30)
Potential energy of the vertical component of the force P
P
V21 11 P12
2
V20
(31a)
P
01 P 02 .
2
(31b)
Potential energy of the horizontal component of the force P

2
1
V31 PW0 .
2
P W x, t . (32b)
V30 R0 1
2 x
x 0
(32a)
where:
1 2 l Wi x, t
dx,
2 i 1 0 x
2
11 01
x l
l W x, t
12 C1 1
2 x
W0 W1 l , t lC1
W1 x, t
x
x l
(33ac)
2
, 02
l W x, t
00 1
,
2 x
x 0
l W x, t
, 1 C1 1
x
lD1
W W l , t lC1 W1 x, t
0 1
lD1
lD1
lD1
x
140
x l
x l
1
lD1
W1 l , t ,
(34ac)
Fig. 3.
Physical models of the systems: a) Al1 - Bk0, b) a) Bl1 - Bk0
Equations of motion and boundary conditions were determined applying the

Hamiltons principle (comp. eq. 3). Total potential energy V of the two-rod system is a
sum of individual components (comp. table 1):
1
V V1 V2k V3k .
(35)
k 0
Making use of a commutation of integration (in relations to x and t) and computation

of variation in the Hamiltons principle, after integration by parts variation of kinetic
energy (comp. equation (29)) and variation of the total potential energy (comp. equation
(35)), the equations of motion of the considered columns were obtained (comp. equation
(5)):
( EJ )i
4Wi ( x, t ) P 2Wi ( x, t )
2Wi ( x, t )
A
)
0,
i
2
x 4
x 2
t2
i 1, 2 .
(36)
Geometrical boundary conditions in relation to the fixing point of column rods in the
passive head Bk0 (x = 0) and in the active head Al1, Bl1 (x = l) are presented in the table 2.
The conditions (37e), (38) (comp. equations: (20a,b), (21a,b)) were obtained on the basis
of geometrical relationships resulting from the constructions of the heads realising the
active and passive load by the follower force directed towards the pole (comp. [15, 16,
18]).
141

Table 2.
Geometrical boundary conditions of the columns Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0
System
Boundary conditions
W1 ( x, t )
x
W1 (0, t ) W2 (0, t ),
Al1-Bk0
Bl1-Bk0
W1 (0, t ) R0 l00
Bl1-Bk0
W1 (l , t ) lC1
Table 3.
W1 ( x, t )
x
(37a,b)
x 0
W2 ( x, t )
x
x l
(37c,d)
(37e)
x 0
x l
(38)
Natural boundary conditions of the columns Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0.

Boundary conditions
2
R0 l00 ( EJ )i
i 1
Al1-Bk0
Bl1-Bk0
2W1 ( x, t )
m0
t 2
( EJ )i
i 1
3Wi ( x, t )
x 3
2W1 ( x, t )
m1
t 2
x l
x l
x 0
i 1
2Wi ( x, t )
x 2
x 0
(39)
l W ( x, t )
PlC1 1 C1 1
lD1 x
l W ( x, t )
P 1 C1 1
lD1 x
x l
x l
W1 ( x, t )
0, (40a)
lD1
W1 ( x, t )
lD1
(40b)
x l
0.
3Wi ( x, t )
lC1 ( EJ )i
x 3
i 1
2
( EJ )i
0.
2Wi ( x, t )
(
EJ
)
i x 2
i 1
3
Wi ( x, t )
x 3
3
x 0
Bl1-Bk0
x l
W1 ( x, t )
x
System
Al1-Bk0
x 0
W1 ( x, t )
x
W1 (l1, t ) W2 (l2 , t ) ,
W2 ( x, t )
x
x l
2Wi ( x, t )
( EJ )i
x 2
i 1
2
x l
2W1 ( x, t )
m1
t 2
x l
0 (41)
Substitution of appropriate conditions from Table 2 into the Hamiltons principle

makes it possible to obtain remaining boundary conditions necessary to solve the
boundary problem. Adequate relationships are given in table 3. (comp. equations: (16a,b),
(25), (26)).
142

5.2. SOLUTION TO THE BOUNDARY PROBLEM
Equations of motion (36) are taken into account. After separation of variables in
relations to space coordinates xi and time t:
Wi ( x, t ) yi ( x)cos( t ) ,
(42)
they take the form:
yiIV x ki2 yiII x i 2 yi x 0,
i 1, 2 .
(43)
Solutions of equations (43) are equal to:
yi ( xi ) C1i cosh(i x) C2i sinh(i x) C3i cos( i x) C4i sin( i x) ,
(44)
where Cni are constants of integration n 1, 2, 3, 4 and:
i 2 0.5 ki2 0.25 ki4 i 2

i 2
1
2
, i 2 0.5 ki2 0.25 ki4 i 2
( A)i 2
P
, ki2
.
( EJ )i
2( EJ )i
1
2
(45a,b)
(46a,b)
After substituting the solutions (44) into adequate boundary conditions (comp. table
2, table 3) and after previous separation of variables (comp. equation (42)), the system of
eight uniform equations was obtained. Transcendental equation for natural frequency of
the considered columns was obtained as a result of zeroing of characteristic determinant
of the system of equations.
5.3. THE RESULTS OF NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
In the frame of research into the considered systems, numerical computations
concerning stability and free vibrations of the systems Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 subjected to
active and passive specific load were carried out. Range of changes in the values of
critical load and course of changes in natural frequency in relation to external load for the
chosen geometrical and physical parameters of the active and passive heads realising the
chosen cases of the specific load was determined.
143

5.3.1. RESEARCH STAND, CONSTRUCTIONAL SOLUTION TO THE COLUMN
Bl1 - Bk0
Numerically determined the course of changes in natural frequency in relation to
external load P was verified experimentally in the case of the column Bl1 - Bk0 realising
the active and passive load by the follower force directed towards the pole. Original test
stand was designed and built in the Institute of Mechanics and Machine Design
Foundations of Czestochowa University of Technology to carry out experimental research
into free vibrations of the column (comp. [11, 13, 16]). The stand adapted for research
into the considered column is presented in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
Test stand to carry out research into free vibrations of the column (comp. [11, 13,
16])
The test stand is equipped with loading heads 1(1), 1(2). The head 1(2) has got
possibility of transversal movement along slideways 2(1). The head 1(1) can move
horizontally along slideways 2(2) and 2(3), in longitudinal and transversal directions,
adequately. Screw systems, displacement of which generates the load of the tested
systems, are part of the heads 1(1) and 1(2). Loading force is measured by dynamometers
3(1), 3(2). In the plates 4(1), 4(2), 4(3) structures providing required boundary conditions
in relation to fixing and loading of the tested systems were mounted. Method of loading
the column and constructional solution of the active and passive heads are presented in
Fig. 5. (comp. [7, 15, 21]). Construction of the tested column consists of two rods with
bending rigidities (EJ)1, (EJ)2 and mass per unit length (A)1, (A)2, where: (EJ)1 = (EJ)2,
(A)1 = (A)2, (EJ)1 + (EJ)2 = EJ, (A)1 + (A)2 = A.
144
Fig. 5.
Constructional diagram of the system Bl1- Bk0 subjected to the active load and the
passive load by the follower force directed towards the pole (comp. [7, 15, 21])
The passive head consists of enclosure 11 fixed on the plate 4(2) of the test stand.
An outer race 12 is mounted in enclosure 11 while an inner race 13 in element 14. Two
rods of the column 5, fitted to element 14 by forced-in joint, are mounted in mandrel 15.
The head generating active load (comp. [7]) was built of a lever 10, rotationally placed in
ball rolling bearings 17 mounted in 18. Enclosure 18 of the bearings is fixed on the plate
4(3) of the test stand. Component elements of the head receiving active load are as
follows: fork 19, bolt 16 with lC1 in length and cube 20. Rods of the column 5(1), 5(2) are
fastened to the cube 20. The mandrel 21 with mounted rolling bearings 22 is an element
of structural node which connects a beam 10 to the bolt 16. Infinitive rigidity of elements
of the heads 10, 11, 14, 16, 20 and mandrels 15, 21 was assumed. The measurement
system consists of modal hammer 9 (Brel&Kjaer, type 8200 + 2646) and analyser 6
(Brel&Kjaer, type 3560C) connected to computer 7 with installed software for data
processing.
5.3.2. EXPERIMENT RESEARCH (SYSTEM Bl1 - Bk0)
The results of numerical simulations and experimental research for the considered
case of system loading (column Bl1 - Bk0) are presented taking into account the solution to
boundary problem. The results of numerical computations (lines) and experimental
145

research (points) are presented in Fig. 6 considering the geometrical and physical
parameters of the column and heads realising the load (table 4).
Table 4.
(EJ)1
[Nm2]
76.34
Geometrical and physical parameters of the column Bl1 - Bk0
(A)1
[kg/m]
0.315
Fig. 6.
(EJ)2
[Nm2]
76.34
(A)2
[kg/m]
0.315
l
[m]
0.56
lC1
[m]
0.6
R0
[m]
0.058
l00
[m]
0.025
m0
[kg]
0.24
m1
[kg]
0.3
Curves in the plane: load natural frequency of the column Bl1 - Bk0
Considerations were limited to determination of the course of changes in four (M1,

M2, M3, M4) basic natural frequencies corresponding to asymmetrical forms of
vibrations. The form of free vibrations denoted as Mz is characterised by the number of
nods (z-1). Additionally, the course of changes in two additional frequencies (M2 e, M3e)
corresponding to symmetrical forms of vibrations (comp. [16, 18]) was numerically
computed. Presence of these natural frequencies is connected to the systems characterised
by even number of the column rods (comp. (Fig.3, Fig. 5)). The course of changes in the
additional frequencies of the system is independent on the values of concentrated masses
m0, m1 at the ends of the system. The values of the discussed natural frequencies are
identical as in the case of single columns characterised by the following boundary
conditions:
W (0, t ) W (l , t )
W ( x, t )
x
x 0
W ( x, t )
x
x l
0.
The results of numerical and experimental research stay in good agreement.
146
(47ad)

5.3.3. NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS STABILITY AND FREE VIBRATIONS OF
COLUMNS Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0
Additional numerical computations were carried out after analysis of stability
problem and free vibrations of the systems Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0. Taking into account
physical and mathematical models of the considered columns, the results of theoretical
and numerical research into influence of physical and geometrical parameters of the heads
realising the load on the value of the critical load Pc and the course of natural frequencies
in relation to external load P are presented.
Fig. 7a. Change in the critical load parameter *c in relation to the value of parameter R0*
of the system Al1- Bk0
Exemplary results of the changes in the value of critical load are presented in Figs.
7ab in which change in the critical load parameter *c (the critical load regarding the total
flexural rigidity of the column) in relation to function of the radius R0 of the passive head
is determined, where:
c*
Pc l 2
.
EJ
(48)
Numerical computations were carried out for several chosen values of geometrical
parameters of the active head, including the length lC1 of rigid bolt (column Bl1 - Bk0) or
the length lC1, lD1 (column Al1- Bk0). Accepted values of the length describing geometry of
the active and passive heads are related to the length of the column l:
lC* 1
lC1 *
l
R * l00
, lD1 D1 , R0* 0 , l00
.
l
l
l
l
147
(49ad)

Considerations were limited to changes in the value of radius R*0 (0, R*0()),
( = 1, 2..6 system Al1 - Bk0, (= 1, 2..8) - Bl1 - Bk0 ) for which optimal values of the
critical load are obtained.
Fig. 7b. Change in the critical load parameter *c in relation to the value of parameter R0* of
the system Bl1- Bk0
The values of radius R0 (parameter R*0()) of the passive head for which realisation
of considered cases of loading is impossible are marked in Figs. 7ab using asymptotes.
Singular points () in the curves of changes in the critical load are present if the condition
(50a) is fulfilled columns Al1 - Bk0, Bl1 - Bk0 and (50b) column Al1 - Bk0.
*
lC* 1 R0* l00
1 ,
(50a)
*
lC* 1 lD* 1 R0* l00
1 .
(50b)
Computations were carried out for exemplary constant sum of geometrical

parameters of the active head lC1, lD1 (l*C1+ l*D1= 0.5) comp. Fig. 7a considering
generalised active load by the force directed towards the positive pole (column Al1 - Bk0).
It was reveal that determined range of the values of critical load for considered quotients
l*C1/l*D1 is independent on the value l*D1. The value of parameter l*D1 describing distance
to the pole has influence only on the position of the singular point according to the
relationship (50b).
Numerical computations to determine the course of changes in natural frequency in
relation to external load for the chosen values of geometrical parameters of the heads
(passive and active) realising the chosen cases of the specific load were also carried out
for the considered systems.
148
Fig. 8a. Frequency curves in the plane: load parameter * parameter of natural frequency
* in relation to parameter l*D1 the column Al1 - Bk0
Fig. 8b. Frequency curves in the plane: load parameter * parameter of natural frequency
* in relation to parameter R*0 the column Bl1 - Bk0
Character of changes in natural frequency *1 in relation to dimensionless load

parameter was determined (Fig. 8a,b). It is assumed:
149
P l2
,
EJ 1 EJ 2
A 1 A 2 1 l
.
1*
2 4
EJ 1 EJ 2
(51a,b)
The value of critical load for the presented curves of changes in natural frequencies
is determined for *1 = 0. On the basis of changes in curve of natural frequency *1 of the
system Al1 - Bk0 (comp. Fig. 8a) it was confirmed that the value of critical load is
independent on the value of parameter l*D1. To compare the obtained courses of changes
in eigenvalues, computations considering the range of changes in basic natural frequency
in relation to external load were carried out for the constant values of the concentrated
masses m0, m1 at the ends of the systems, whereas:
m0*
m0
m1
.
, m1*
l A 1 A 2
l A 1 A 2
(52a,b)
In the presented diagrams slope of the basic natural frequency *1 for the load
parameter * = 0 can be negative, positive or equal to zero in dependence on the changes
in the values of parameters of the active and passive heads. The change in slope of the
discussed curve of eigenvalues makes it possible to count the considered systems as one
of two types: divergence (d*1 /d*|*=0<0) divergence pseudo-flutter (d*1 /d*|*=0>0)
(comp. [17, 19]).
6. SUMMARY
The problem of vibrations and stability of the columns subjected to active and
passive specific load was solved in the paper. Loads: active and passive by the follower
force directed towards the pole and generalised load by the force directed towards the
pole can be realised in two constructional variants of the active and passive heads. The
heads built of linear elements and the heads built of elements with circular contour
(constant curvature) should be distinguished. Possibilities of technical realisation of the
load for different variants of models of the active and passive heads in the case of specific
load and construction of the heads were presented. The boundary conditions of the
considered columns on the basis of total mechanical energy, shown bending moment and
transversal force at the ends of the system, were determined in the frame of theoretical
research. The numerical simulations, connected to changes in the critical load and
changes in natural frequency in relation to the chosen geometrical and physical
parameters of the heads realising the load, were carried out for the selected cases of load
of the columns. On the basis of performed numerical computations it was stated that such
the values of geometrical parameters of the loading and receiving heads exist for which
maximum of the critical load is obtained. It was found that there are such the values of
parameters of the active and passive head for which the tested systems are of divergence
pseudo-flutter type. In the case of the column subjected to the active load and the passive
load by the follower force directed towards the pole, the results of the conducted
experimental research were additionally presented. Correctness of the built mathematical
150

model considering equation of motion and boundary conditions and correctness of the
carried out numerical simulations was confirmed by the above mentioned results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study has been carried out within the statutory funds of the Czestochowa
University of Technology (BS-1-101-302/99/P) and Research Project No. N N501
117236 awarded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, Warsaw, Poland.
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by a Force and Bending Moment, Vibrations in Physical Systems, 16, 1994, 317-319.
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152
STABILITY OF PLATES IN ELASTIC-PLASTIC

STATE OF STRESS
J. ZIELNICA
Institute of Applied Mechanics, Poznan University of Technology
Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
Elastic-plastic stability problems of single and multilayered plates are presented and
discussed. Two fundamental constitutive relations are used in the formulation of the
stability problems in the elastic-plastic region, namely Nadai-Hencky deformation
theory and the J2 Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory. These theories are
supplemented with the respective plasticity conditions. In nonlinear formulation
most of all the strain energy in the plate is the basis to derive the stability equations.
The resulting stability equations are transcendental. Thus, the equations are solved
with the help of iterative algorithms and computer programs.
1. INTRODUCTION
Stability and strength analysis of plates including geometrical and material
nonlinearities and elastic-plastic deformations is much more complicated than the
respective elastic analysis. Serious problems are encountered in the solution of the
resulting problem equations because these equations are transcendental ones, where the
coefficients of the local stiffnesses depend on the external load acting the plate. Thus,
approximate and numerical methods are involved in numerical procedures in order to
determine buckling loads. If the external loads are simple and proportional ones, the
solution of the elastic-plastic problem is not more difficult when compared to the
analogous elastic problem. However, the degree of complication increases if the external
load is complex, and multi-parametrical, what frequently happens for plate and shell
structures.
When considering the elastic-plastic material properties, it is necessary to consider
two types of problems. The first one is the determination of the point of the first plastic
deformation to occur and the second one is the choice of the stress-strain relations for the
material behaviour in the elastic-plastic state of stress. A law defining the limit of elastic
behaviour under any possible combination of stresses is yield criterion. The law applies
not only to loading from the initial state, but also to reloading of an element unloaded
from a previous plastic state. There is a useful and immediate simplification resulting
from the experimental fact that the yielding is practically unaffected by a uniform
hydrostatic tension or compression. Various criteria have been suggested in the past to
predict the yielding of metals under complex stresses. The two entirely satisfactory and
widely used criteria are those due to Tresca and Huber - Mises. From a series of
experiments on the extrusion of metals, Tresca concluded that yielding occurred when the
maximum shear stress reached a critical value. M.T. Huber and R. von Mises suggested,
from purely theoretical considerations, that yielding occurred when J2 (the second
deviatoric stress) attained a critical value.
153

The following problem in the elastic plastic material properties description is related
with the formulation of stress-strain relations. The simplest form of the potential curve is
represented by the J2 incremental Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory equations. A
particular form of the J2 incremental theory are the Levy-Mises equations that are related
with the total strain increments instead of the plastic strain increments for materials
having no strain-hardening properties. The total strain theory, or Nadai - Hencky
deformation theory holds with the postulate of a one-to-one correspondence between the
stress and the strain. Thus, the components of the total plastic strains are taken to be
proportional to the corresponding deviatoric stresses. This theory gives valuable results
especially in stability analysis of the structures. The incremental plastic flow theory is
commonly used in technological plastic forming processes, and also in strength and
stability engineering problems.
2. STRENGTH AND STABILITY ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC-PLASTIC PLATES
2.1. BASIC FORMULATION
In the elastic-plastic analysis we introduce effective stress and strain, related with
arbitrary coordinate system xyz:
2
2
2
i
3
x y 2 y z 2 z z 2 6 xy2 yz2 zx2 ,

x y y z z z
2
3
2
2
xy
2
yz
2
zx
(1)
For the plane stress, using the principal strain components, we get
2
3
2
12 1 2 22 14 12
(2)
If the strains are expressed by curvatures, we get
2z
3
2
12 1 2 22 12
2z
3
(3)
Introducing the quantity

h/2
h / 2
i 2
z dz
i
(4)
we can omit the integration with respect to variable z in normal direction to the plate
middle surface. If we use equation (3), we obtain
154
3
2 P
i , z2
3 i2
,
4 P
dz
d i
2 P
(5)
Then
3 3
3
8P 2
i1
d
i
(6)
i2
Here i1 are i 2 effective strains in upper and lower layers of the plate, respectively:
i1 i 2
(7)
When the bending neutral line is localized half the plate thickness, we get
i1
i1
i
i d i 2 i i d i
i2
(8)
and expression (6) takes the form of
i1
1 h3
3 1 2
I
D
i
i
i
4 i31
E i31
i1
i d i
(9)
We introduce an expression
4
1 h
I P I
3
3 i1
3 i1
i d i
(10)
Bending moments in the plate are expressed as follows

h
4
1
M 1 1 z dz 1 2
3
2
h
2
z 2 dz, ...
(11)
If integration is performed, we get
1
1
M1 1 2 I P , M 2 2 1 I P , 2M12 12I P
2
2
(12)
Variation of internal forces work is as follows

h
W i i dz
h
155
(13)

The variation of effective strains in (13) can be formulated by the relations
i2
4 2
2 z2
z P , i
P
3
3 i
(14)
If we substitute (14) into (13), we get

h
2
W P
3
h 2
z 2 dz
1
I P P
2
(15)
Thus, total work of the internal forces in the plate is as follows
1
2
I P P dx dy
(16)
If the plate is loaded by the forces perpendicular to plate middle surface, then the work of
the external forces on virtual displacements w is given by
q w dx dy
(17)
Once the work of internal and external forces are compared, we get the variational
equation of equilibrium
1
2
I P P dx dy q w dx dy
A
(18)
This equation can be used to approximate solution of nonlinear elastic and elastic-plastic
problems of beam bending. If Iliushin method [5] is adopted, we take the deflection
function of the rectangular plate in the following form:
a4
f w x, y ,
D
(19)
Here w x, y is a deflection function accepted for the elastic solution. The quadratic form
for nonlinear or elastic-plastic problems is as follows:
a4 2
f P
D
(20)
Where P is a quadratic form of the second derivatives of the deflection

function w x, y :
a4
f w,
D
156
a4
2 f f P
D
(21)

External load is accepted in a similar way:
q qo qx, y
(22)
The following form of the deflection function is taken in the elastic solutions:
wy
a4
qo wx, y
D
(23)
where qo is a constant, and a is a specified plate dimension. Once expressions (21) and
(22) are substituted into (19), we get
I f
P f P Dqo qx, y w w dx dy 0 ,
(24)
or
I f P P dx dy
2
qo f
qx, y w dx dy
(25)
The above formula is a relation between the specified plate load parameter qo and the
specified parameter of deflection function f. We compare relations (23) and (19); in the
elastic stress state is wy=w and qo=f, then we get
I f P P dx dy
2
qx, y w dx dy
(26)
Now, we determine the integral I P I f 2 P :
I P
h3
3 i31
i1
d
i
(27)
We accept a nonlinear relation between effective stress and strain in the form (see [5]):
i E i 1 i
(28)
where i = 0, if i p (elastic region). Quantity p is yield point strain. If relation

(28) is substituted into (25), we get
qo f
P dx dy P dxdy
A
qx, y w dxdy
157
(29)

Taking in mind relation (27), we obtain
qo f 1
qx, y wdxdy
P dxdy
(30)
where
i1
i31
2
i d i
(31)
We consider, as an example, a simply supported rectangular plate of dimensions a, and b

under uniformly distributed transversal pressure qo. We use variational equation (30) in
order to solve the problem. Once dimensionless parameters are introduced:
a
b
x
a
y
,
a
(32)
we accept the deflection functions in the elastic and elastic-plastic regions in the form:
qo a 4
a4
w qo
m cos cos
,
D
D
2
2
fa 4
a4
w f
w f
m cos cos
D
D
2
2
ws
(33)
The quadratic form P is as follows:
m 2 4
64
1 2 2 cos cos a 1 4 cos cos
m 2 4
64
2 2
(34)
If we introduce a dimensionless parameter of the effective strain for arbitrary point on

plate middle surface
i
h
p p
P
32
2
4
3
3ha D 1 2
(35)
and if we express this parameter by a maximum value of the effective stress in the plate
middle surface, we get
o
2 1 2 4
R,
576a 2 1 2 4
3 4 p h 2 1 2
(36)
When equation (30) is multiplied by coefficient from expression o in (36)2, then we get
158
k o 1
P dd
wdd
(37)
Taking in mind the symmetry of external load and plate support, we can limit the solution
to a rectangular plate with 0 1, 0 1 / . If we substitute deflection function
into the above expression we obtain a relation between effective strain and the external
load.
k o 1
1 2
1 1/
Rdd
(38)
Integral in the above equation depends on the function , which represents plastic
deformation. A relation between maximum deflection and effective strain in the plate
central point can be found from relations (33)2 and (36):
wo
4 3h 2 a 2
9 2 D 1 2 4
p o
(39)
If the plate has two opposite edges firmly fixed, and the other edges are simply supported,
the solution procedure is the same as above, but deflection function has to be taken in the
form:
x
y
(40)
wx, y m cos 1 cos
2a
2a
The quadratic form for elastic-plastic solution is of the form (see [5], [15]):
m 2 4
16
3 4 2 1
cos 2
1 cos
4 2
2 4
2
1 cos
cos
4
4
2
cos 2 cos cos 2 ,

2 cos
6
k o 1
6 2 2 4
and
wo f
4
D
cos 2
1 1/
Rdd ,
8 3 p a 2 h 2
o R
(41)
5
8 2 4
2
5
9 D 8 2 4
2
The expressions presented above can be applied for plate with edge lengths ratio not
greater than 2 2.5. For lengthen plates, that are commonly called beam-plate with a
2
159

cylindrical form of bending surface, the above relations for a simple edge support take the
form of
P
wo
m 2 4
R,
4
R 1 cos ,
p h2a 2
R,
k o 1 Rd ,
(42)
4
144a
144a
3
o , with o
f , and k
qo
2
3 2
9
D
3 p h
3 p 3h 2
Here o and wo are values of the parameters in the center of the plate. If all plate edges are
firmly fixed, we get:
11
k o 1
Rd ,
2
wo
2 3h 2 a 2 p
9 2 D
R 21 cos 2 , o
R
,
2
(43)
o , gdzie k
18a
3 2 h 2 p
qo , o
18a
3 2 h 2 p
2.2. ELASTIC-PLASTIC STABILITY ANALYSIS OF PLATES

Two groups of relations must be considered in elastic-plastic stability analysis,
namely: determination of the first yield point and constitutive relations for elastic-plastic
properties of the plate material. Yield point is usually determined using Tresca-St-Venant
or Huber - von Mises yield conditions, and the elastic-plastic material properties under
combined load are determined by the two plasticity theories, namely: deformation NadaiHencky, and Prandtl-Reuss plastic flow theory. Apart of the above, a respective concept
of stability analysis must be adopted. The first one is the concept of the growing load
elaborated by Shanley [18] and the second one is the Engesser-Karman concept of
constant load which assumes that external load is constant during stability loss with
immediate unloading zones to be developed. The second approach is much more difficult
in practical application, because it requires the determination of the boundary between
elastic and plastic zones. However, it was shown that Shanley concept of growing load
gives the results that are much more close to experimental data [19].
The same basic assumptions as in elastic stability analysis are accepted in elasticplastic analysis. Plane stress and K-L (Kirchhoff-Love) theories are widely used. Taking
in mind the presented problems, many authors of scientific investigation papers (see
Zielnica [19], 2001) accept many simplifications. For example, the influence of material
nonlinearities can be related by a local decreasing of stiffnesses for the elements, not
considering the passive processes, accept of geometrical linearity, and so on. However,
the definition of the critical load in elastic-plastic analysis is the same as it is taken in the
elastic stability analysis of plates.
At the beginning we assume that effective strain in the plate does not decrease and
material unloading is not considered (Shanley concept). Also, H-M-H yield condition and
160

deformation theory of plasticity is used in the analysis. Such an analysis allows for the
determination of the so called lower critical load.
Basic equations of the deformation theory of plasticity are as follows:
4
3
(44)
1
1 2
E
, 2
, s , K
, Es i
1 4
1 4
9K
31 2
i
(45)
4
3
1
2
1
3
1
2
1 Es 11 2 2 , 2 Es 1 2 2 2 , 12 Es12 ,
where 1, 2 , 12, and 1, 2 , 12 are stress and strain tensor components in the plate
layer at distance z from the neutral surface. According to the K-L theory, we have:
1 e1 z1, 2 e2 z 2 , 12 2z12
(46)
e1, e2, e12 are strain components at the plate middle surface, and 1, 2 , 12 are curvatures:
2w
x 2
2w
y 2
12
2w
xy
(47)
Nonlinear geometrical relations are as follows

2
e1
u 1 w
u 1 w
u v w w

, e1
, e12
x 2 x
x 2 x
x y x y
(48)
Effective strain and effective stress for plane stress are accepted as:
2 2
2
2
1 22 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 34 12
, i 12 22 1 2 3 12
(49)
3
Variations of stresses are as follows (see [14]):
4
1
4
1 1
E E
1 E s 1 1 2 2 s t 1 i E s 1 1
2 i ,
3
2
i
3 i
2 i
4
1
4
1 1
E E
2 E s 1 2 2 1 s t 2 i E s 1 2
1 i ,
3
2
i
3 i
2 i
(50)
E E
1
12 E s 12 s t 12 i .
3
i
1
1
1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
(51)
3
2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 12 12 1 2 1 2
4
i
Where:
1
9 i
161

Taking in mind (44) and (45), relation (51) can be represented in the form
i
where
j , e j z j , j
i 1 R
(52)
j , j 1 1 2e2 2 12 12 B 1 2 1 2 ,
j , e j 1e1 2e2 12e12 B 1 2 e1 e2 ,
1
,
9K
2
2 Es
(53)
1 2 2 Es Et
4 Es
1
9K
9 i2 K
Variations of the moments developed during stability loss are

h/2
M j
h/2
i zdz, j 1,2, M 12
h / 2
12 zdz
(54)
h / 2
Taking in mind relations (45), (50), (52), we get the following, if integration is performed
according to (54)
M 1
h3 4
1
1
Es Et
j j 1 B 1 2
Es 1 1 2 2
,
2
12 3
2
1 R
i
h3 4
1
1
E E
M 2 Es 1 2 2 1 s 2 t j j 2 B 1 2
,
12 3
2
1 R
i
(55)
Es Et

h3
2
j , j 12 .
Es 12
2
12
1 R
i
3
Stability equation for a rectangular plate loaded by the edge forces

N1 1h, N 2 2h, T12 12h, with the assumptions that normal forces N1, N2 are
positive in compression, has the form of
M12
2 M12
x 2
2 M12 2 M 2
2w
2w
2w
T
0.
1
2
12
xy
xy
y 2
x 2
y 2
(56)
If we substitute (55) into the above equation, we get, after transformations
4w
4w
4w
4w
4 w
D* 1 4 2 3 3 2 2 4
5
x y
x y
xy 3
y 4
x
2w
2w
2w
1 2 2 2 2 12
0,
xy
x
y
162
(57)

where
3
4
1 1 1
3
2
Et
Es
3 1 2 1
1 B 1 2 2
E B 1 2
, 2 31 t 12 1
,
R
E
1 R
s
Et
Es
2
1 2 2 12
B1 B 1 2 2
1 R
E 12 1 B 1 2
E B 1 2 2
3
, 5 1 1 t 2
,
1 R
4 Es
1 R
4 31 t
Es
E h2
D s , 1 1 , 2 2 , 12 12
9
i
i
i
(58)
Stability equation (57) is the fundamental equation which can be used to determine
critical loads for a series of specific cases of rectangular plates of different types, also
sandwich plates, with different boundary conditions, and under various external loads.
If we substitute in this equation Es 3E / 21 and Et / Es 1,0 , this equation can be
adopted for an elastic plate made of incompressible material, with K.
According to Prandtl-Reuss incremental J2 plastic flow theory, which uses plastic
potential, related to flow function F, we get:
ijp
F
ij
(59)
Where is a parameter If we take in mind material incompressibility, then we get strainstress relations for elastic-plastic stress state in the following form:
eij
sij
2
F
1
, m
m
ij
3K
(60)
Moreover, if we accept Huber-Mises yield condition:
1
sij sij k02 0.
2
Here k0 is yield point at pure shear. Then, we get
F ij
F
F skl
skl ijkl m kkl sij
ij skl ij
ij
Using equation (60) we obtain Prandtl-Reuss equations

sij
1
eij
sij , m
m
2
3K
For plane stress equations (63) take an incremental form
163
(61)
(62)
(63)
1
d 1 d 2 1 , d 2 1 d 2 d 1 2 ,
E
E
1
d1 d 12 2 12 , 3K
G
d1
(64)
At unloading =0. Assuming that the work of plastic deformation Wp for a material with
stress-hardening properties does not depend on loading path, and it is exceptionally a
function of effective stress, we get
W p F i , and dW p
F i
d i
i
(65)
On the other hand, the increment of plastic deformation, in relation with (64), can be
written as
p
dWp 1d1p 2 d 2p 12d12
23 i2
(66)
If we compare equations (65) and (66), we get an expression for parameter
3 F ' ( i )
d i
2 i2
(67)
Uniaxial stress state gives
1
1
dW p 1d1p 1
1
E
E
to
(68)
Where Et0 is tangent modulus determined in uniaxial laboratory tension test. Taking that
i 1 in uniaxial stress state, and if relation (66) is generalized for a compound stress
state, from equations (64) and (62), we get
3 1 1 i

2 Et E i
(69)
Using the above relations we develop stress-strain equations for stability problems of
plates:
12
a11 1 a12 2 a13 12 , 2
a31 1 a32 2 a33 12
a21 1 a22 2 a23 12 ,

(70)
Where, aij are stiffnesses for elastic-plastic state of stress [15].

Now, we can determine the moments developed by stability loss according to (54);
the results can be substituted into equation (56). After transformations we obtain again
equation (57) where coefficients j, D* are as follows:
164
a11
, 2
4a11
, 3
a12 2a33 , 4 4a23 , 5 a22 ,

o
D*
1 2
Eh .
9
(71)
Relation (57) presents the stability equation of an elastic rectangular plate, if k=1 is
substituted in Esq. (70) and (71).
Numerical calculations made on the basis of both plasticity theories presented by
Zielnica [2001] show that plastic flow theory gives higher critical loads than deformation
theory. We present an example of stability of elastic-plastic rectangular plate compressed
by normal force N1=1h along side b of the plate. Stability equation (57), after
substitution 1 1, 2 12 0, takes the form of
4w
x 4
4w
x 2y 2
4w
y 4
2w 1
x 2 D*
(72)
Coefficients i in his equation according to deformation theory of plasticity are as

follows:
3
4
1 1 1
t 1 B 2
3 B1 B
, 3 1 2 1 t
,
s 1 R
2 s 1 R
3
5 1 1 t
4 s
B2
Es h 2
Et
*
1 R , D 9 , k E ,
(73)
Es
3
, R s t 4 s
E
1 2
Deflection function is of the form
w wo sin
mx
ny
sin
,
a
b
(74)
When deflection function (74) is substituted into equation (72), we get at n=1, an
expression for critical load.
2
m2
2
a

1* D* k , k 1 2 3 5 2 ,
b
m
b
(75)
Coefficients D, 1, 3, 5 are determined according to (73).

Equation (75) presents the critical load for a free supported plate compressed along axis
x, i.e. in parallel to side a. Parameter m in the deflection function (74) is determined from
the condition of minimum of the critical load.
165

2.3. ELASTIC-PLASTIC STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SANDWICH RECTANGULAR
PLATES
The first known paper on stability of sandwich rectangular plates is written by
Norris (1948) [3], where the author analyzed a compressed plate, and presented a simple
formula for effective elastic modulus of the form:
Eeff
2 EEt
E Et
(76)
Where Et is tangent modulus. The other papers in sequence are based on the assumption
that strains at the moment of stability loss are pure plastic. Assumptions are introduced
about material orthotropy of load resisting faces and core, the bending stiffness is small
and the core remains elastic and resists transversal shear only. Seide and Stowell [3]
investigated stability of a rectangular plate, where curvatures 1, 2 and 12 are
determined with the assumption that transversal sections, plane before deformation are
also plane after deformation, and transversal shear is taken into account.
1 wx
Q1
Q
Q
Q
1
, 2 w y 2 , 12 wx 1 wz 2
d13 x
d 23 y
2
d13 y
d 23 x
(77)
Here w is plate deflection, Q1, Q2, are transversal forces, d13, d23 are shear stifnesses of the
core, x, y are coordinates, subscripts denotes differentiation with respect to a respective
variable. Relations between moments and curvatures during stability loss are as follows:
M1 d111 d12 2 , M 2 d 211 d 22 2 , M12 d3312
(78)
Here d11, d12=d21, d22, d33 are local stiffness coefficients, that can be determined
experimentally during bending and torsion tests. These coefficients are taken to be
d11 d 22 D
Et c t h 2
2 1 2
, d12 d 21 D, d13 d 23 cGe , d 33 1 D, (79)
However, for pure plastic stress state, incompressibility of material is taken into account
and under uniaxial compression, these coefficients are as follows:
d11
1
1
1
Es t c t 2 1 3E o / Es , d12 d 21 d 33 d 22 Es t c t 2 ,
6
2
2
(80)
Equations of equilibrium for sandwich rectangular plate (see Grigoljuk [3]) are taken in
the following form
M1 xx 2M12 xy M 2 yy N1wxx N 2 wyy 2T12wxy 0,

Q1 M 12 y M1 x 0, Q2 M12 x M 2 y 0,
166
(81)

The use of the above equations allows for the determination of deflection function w and
transversal forces Q1, Q2 , which can be approximated by the following functions for
free support of plate edges
mx
ny
mx
ny
sin
, Q1 Q10 cos
sin
,
a
b
a
b
mx
ny
Q2 Q20 sin
cos
.
a
b
w wo sin
(82)
Here wo , Q10, Q20 are parameters, a, and b are sandwich plate main dimensions, m, and
n are numbers of buckling halfwaves of the plate along x, and y directions.
A real contribution into elastic-plastic stability analysis of plate structures has
Bijlaard [3], who introduced the so called method of split rigidities. Under the assumption
that deflection surfaces of homogeneous and sandwich plates are identical, the critical
load can be found from the relation
Pcr Po P1P2 /P1 P2 ,
(83)
Where Po is critical load of load resisting faces working independently, P1 is the critical
load of sandwich plate with a very high shear stiffness of the core, and P2 is critical force
of the sandwich plate assuming that the stiffness of the core is taken into consideration,
and the load resisting faces have very low bending stiffness. Beyond the elastic limit
forces Po and P1 are multiplied by certain coefficient.
Both basic plasticity theories and both yield conditions can be used in the analysis of
elastic-plastic sandwich plates. Also, unloading of the material can be regarded in the
analysis. However, this concept is accompanied by a very compound solution procedu-res
adopted in the numerical analysis. Most of all it is assumed that load resisting faces are
loaded into elastic-plastic state of stress, whereas the core is elastic one and it resists shear
forces only. This causes that all the assumptions, theoretical background, plate
deformation and constitutive relations of elastic-plastic stability problem used in the
analysis of unilayered and homogeneous plates are also valid for sandwich plates.
Grigoljuk [3] obtained the following set of equilibrium equations of an elastic-plastic
sandwich plate, loaded by compressive a edge pressure in one direction
2
b11 xx b33 yy b12 b33 xy Gw wx 0,
c
2
b22 yy b33 xx b12 b33 xy Gw w y 0,
c
2
t
b11wxxxx 2b12 2b33 wxxyy b22w yyyy
6
(84)
c t 2 b
2
11 xxxx
b12 2b33 xyy b22 yyyy b12 2b33 xyy 2twxx 0.
The above set of equation is approximated with the following displacement functions:
167
w wo sin x 1 sin y 2 , o cos x 1 sin y 2 ,
o sin x 1 sin y 2 , 1
2m2
a2
, 2
(85)
2n2
b2
Critical load for sandwich elastic-plastic plate can be fund from the following relation:
cr
t
b1112 2b12 2b33 b2222
121
Gw c t 2
2
b11b3313 b11b22 b12
b11b33 2b12b33 12 2
2ct 1
2Gw
b1112 2b12 2b33 12 b2222
c
b b
2
11 331
(86)
2
2Gw
b11 b33 1 b22 b33 2 4G2w .
c
c
Stiffness coefficients bij in the above equation for elastic-plastic state of stress were
already given in this text.
2.4. ELASTIC-PLASTIC LARGE DEFORMATION STUDY ON SANDWICH STRIP
PLATES WITH METAL FOAM CORE
Numerical and experimental investigations on stability of sandwich beams under
bending are presented here in a concise form. The finite element method model of the
beam-plate is formulated and critical loads are calculated. The analysis is elastic-plastic
one and fundamental plasticity theories with H-M-H plasticity condition are used to
determine the equilibrium paths and critical loads. The experimental tests have been
carried out in the laboratory using especially designed test stand and strength test
machine. The results of these two investigation methods are compared and discussed.
The fundamentals of the theory of sandwich structures are widely described in
literature (see [11, 13]). Stability problems of deformable structures are widely presented
by Volmir in [18]. Local buckling of sandwich structures in the form of wrinkling of faces
on elastic foundation-cores is described in monographs [1, 13]. Jang et al. [6] presented
two families of finite element models of anisotropic, aluminium alloy, open-cell foams
and their predictions of elastic properties and compressive strength by direct comparison
to experimental results. The random foam models were used to establish the elastic
properties and the strength of such foams. The results were evaluated by direct
comparison to measured properties and were also critically compared to corresponding
results from Kelvin cell models. Plastic deformation in regular and random honeycombs
has been studied using a finite element model. Accounting for the gradual plastification of
the cross section, the development of plastic zones near the triple points in regular
hexagonal structures has been analyzed in detail. Theoretical and experimental
investigations of faces wrinkling in sandwich structures are described in the papers [4, 9,
10, and 17]. Analytical models of collapse mechanisms of sandwich beams under
168

transverse force are presented in the papers [15, 16]. Strength and buckling problems of
sandwich beams with metal foam core are analysed and described in the papers [2, 12,
and 20]. Also, a valuable contribution into problems of instabilities in composite
structures is presented in [8].
Fig. 1. Sketch of the considered sandwich beam under pure bending
We consider a simply supported sandwich beam with a metal foam core. The beam of
length L, depth H loaded by two transversal forces F is presented in Fig. 1. Material
properties were taken directly from laboratory experimental tests. The dimensions of the
beams are presented below in the text. In order to analyze the considered beam a finite
element method geometrical model was created, see Fig. 2, and 3. The entire beam was
meshed using plate-shell and 3D solid finite elements, with geometrical and material
nonlinearities included.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.
Frontal (up) and 3-D (below) view of the FEM mesh of the beam
The beam has two planes of symmetry, x-y and x-z, thus, only one quarter of the
beam was analysed. The upper and the lower faces of the beam were modelled using a
thin-shell quadrilateral elastic-plastic finite element with six degrees of freedom at each
node. The core was modelled by a 3D solid finite element. Before calculations the nodes
on contact surfaces between the core and faces were merged.
169
Fig. 3. Boundary conditions and external forces
Fig. 4. Deformed and undeformed mesh of the beam at the final step of load increment
The entire model has 2754 nodes and 2500 finite elements. Bilinear stress-strain
curves with no strain-hardening (elastic perfectly plastic) were taken to describe the
material behaviour in the elastic-plastic state of stress, both for the faces and for the core.
The material constants determined in laboratory tests are as follows: Young modulus and
Poisson ratio for faces Ef=65600MPa, f=0.33, Young modulus and Poisson ratio for core
Ec=1200MPa, c=0.3, yield limit for faces: Rp02=112MPa, yield limit for core:
Rp02=1,6MPa, width of the cross section w=50mm, height of the cross section H=39mm,
face thickness is h=1mm. The nonlinear analysis was performed with 112 load increment
steps of constant value until the maximum deflection value was quite large to reveal the
instabilities in the numerical solution process.
Fig. 5. Vertical deflection uy contours
Fig. 3 shows the applied external load and the boundary conditions of the FEM
model. The undeformed and deformed configurations of the beam mesh at the last step of
load increment are presented in Fig. 4 with actual deflection shown. It can be seen that the
maximum deflection is of the beam height order. Fig. 5 presents the contours of the
170

vertical deflection at the last step of load increment. The maximum deflection at the
central point of the beam is 49.98 mm and it is greater than the beam cross section height
equal to 39 mm. The vertical total force corresponding to the last step of the load
increment was 585.6 N that gives the maximum bending moment equal to 234.24 Nm.
Fig. 6. xx stress contours in 3D
Fig. 7. Equivalent plastic strain contours (x 1.0E-3)

800
700
load force F [N]
600
500
400
300
max.vert. deflection
disp. uy
200
100
0
0
deflection uy [mm]
Fig. 8. Load vs. deflection curve for nonlinear solution
171

We can see, in Fig. 6, the contours of xx normal bending stress component. The
maximum bending stress is equal to 136.1 MPa and it is slightly greater than the yield
limit of the material. A valuable presentation shows the diagram presented in Fig. 7,
where we can see equivalent plastic strain contours. The plastic strains are developed in
the central region of the beam, where the maximum bending moment can be found. The
maximum equivalent plastic strain is 12.3E-3 in this case.
160
Graph 2
Sxx stress
v Mises stress
140
SXX stress [MPa]
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
100
300
200
400
500
600
load force F[N]
Fig. 9. The stresses vs. force F diagram at node 2634 (central section of the beam)
Fig. 8 presents load force F versus maximum deflection curve corresponding with
nonlinear solution related both with geometric and material behaviour. At initial stage of
force F increment one can see the linear equilibrium path, whereas if force F reaches the
value of about 470 MPa the curve starts to be highly nonlinear, approaching
asymptotically to about 600 MPa with large vertical deflection. It is to note that the
deflection was normalized to the difference between the maximum deflection (at the
centre section of the beam), and the deflection of the force F application section. Finally,
Fig. 9 presents nonlinear equilibrium paths for normal stress x and equivalent stress eq at
node 2634 which is localized in the middle cross section of the beam. One can see here
that the maximum equivalent stress eq at the last step of the nonlinear solution is slightly
greater then the yield limit for the beam material.
The numerical FEM calculation and experimental investigations on sandwich beams
with metal foam core lead to the following main conclusions:
1) The load - deflection curves from experimental test and the finite element numerical
solutions are very close each other.
2) Local elastic-plastic buckling-wrinkling of the faces occurs for the beams with a
rigid core.
172

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173
174
SESSION PAPERS
175
176
BUCKLING OF MULTILAYERED LAMINATED COMPRESSED

PLATES WITH DIFFERENT CUT-OUT SHAPES
M. BARSKI, A. MUC, P. KDZIORA
Institute of Machine Design, Cracow University of Technology
ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Krakw, Poland
Buckling analysis of laminated rectangular plates has been performed numerically

through a shear deformation shell theory for different shapes of holes and
orthotropy parameters. In our opinion a new factor should describe the effects of
buckling resistance to a hole dimension - it is called as the buckling concentration
factor.
1. INTRODUCTION
The need for a cut-out in a subcomponent is typically required by practical concerns.
Plates with holes occur widely in engineering applications, with the holes serving access,
inspection, or connection purposes. These holes cause stress concentrations that often
initiate failure at the holes. In some applications, these structural elements are required
primarily to resist buckling, and in other cases they must carry load well into the
postbuckling range in order to yield weight savings. Thus the understanding of their
buckling behaviour is needed for their design. The basic knowledge provides valuable
insight into modelling complex structures with general purpose finite element codes,
which is a step that takes place at a later phase in the design process.
Martin [1] published probably the first paper dealing with the buckling and
postbuckling analysis of square uniaxial compression-loaded composite plates with a
central circular cut-out in 1972. In 1978, Knauss et al. [2] presented an experimental
investigations of the buckling behaviour of rectangular composite plates with a circular
cutouts sizes up to d/W = 0.3. A survey of buckling studies conducted in the Eastern
Europe was presented by Preobrazhenskii [3] in 1981. Nemeth et al. [4, 5] presented an
approximate solution for buckling of rectangular, compression loaded, specially
orthotropic, quasi-isotropic and quasi-orthotropic plates with a centrally located circular
cut-out. Brit [6] presented results of a parametric study of the buckling behaviour of
clamped and simply supported rectangular plates with a circular or elliptical cut-out in
1993.
The main objective of the present study is to describe and characterize several of the
key behavioural characteristics of the buckling problems for rectangular multilayered
composite plates with cutouts and subjected to compressive loads. The analysis deals with
the simply-supported boundary conditions and it is conducted with the use of the finite
element package ANSYS. The main goal is to introduce the buckling concentration factor
that in similar manner as the stress concentration factor identifies buckling phenomena
with respect to the existence of cutouts. The analysis is mainly devoted to the study of
various geometrical and material effects on the buckling loads and modes.
177

2. BUCKLING CONCENTRATION FACTOR
For plates without holes buckling load factor was determined by Whitney, Leissa [7]:
( m / a )2
Px 1 R 2m
T132 ( T22 T12 ) T23

( T11 T12 ) T12( T13 T23 )2
T33
,
T11T22 T122
(1)
where:
T11 A11 A66 2m ,
T22 A66 A22 2m ,
T12 ( A12 A66 ) m ,
T13 B11 ( B12 2B66 ) 2m ,
T23 ( B12 2B66 ) m B22 3m ,
T33 D11 2( D12 2D66 )2m D224m ,
m ( na ) /( mb ),
R Py / Px .
a, b are the panel dimensions in the x and y directions, respectively and m, n denote the
wave numbers. For symmetric laminates the term T 33 is not equal to zero only. For
convenience of the considerations it is possible to introduce buckling coefficient k as
follows:
T33 / D11D22
Px 1 R 2m
(2)
Let us note that the buckling coefficient is the function of two parameters, i.e: the aspect
ratio and buckling mode m and the material ratio D11/D22 which further will be identified
with the orthotropy ratio:
Ex
Ey
(3)
Now, using the above definitions it is possible to introduce the buckling concentration
factor as the ratio of a buckling load for plates with a hole to a buckling load for plates
without a hole, i.e.:
Kb
Px with hole
Px without hole
(4)
one can notice that the above value is the function of the orthotropy ratio , the aspect
ratio and buckling mode m (for a/b>1 n=1) and the geometry of the hole described b*y
the ratio d/b where d means the diameter of the circular hole. For other shapes of holes
the appropriate geometrical parameters are defined in the next section.
178

3. SHAPES OF CUTOUTS
The geometrical representation of a different shape cutouts in the XY-plane is
presented by Abuelfoutouh [8] as simple equations:
x cos wcos n , y c sin wsinn .
(5)
The parameter , which is a positive and real number, controls the size of the cutout. The
integer n and the parameter c determines the shape of cutout. The parameter w is the
bluntness factor which changes the radius of curvature at the corner of the cutout. For
example, for w = 0, i = 1, c =1 the circular shape can be obtained, w = 0.1, n = 3, c =1 the square shape and w = 0.25, n = 2, c =1 - the triangular shape.
w=0.25, c=1.00, n=2, Triangle

w=0.00, c=0.55, n=1, Ellipse
w=0.10, c=1.00, n=3, Square
Fig.1. Graphic representation of x and y coordinates for different cutouts.
4. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

In order to evaluate the buckling concentration factor computer simulations are
carried out using the commercial finite element (FE) package ANSYS. The structure
simulated consists of a 30-layer composite panel loaded in compression (Fig. 2). As it
may be seen, the form of meshes and the number of FE were chosen for specific types of
cutouts. However for all cases considered the identical type of finite elements, i.e.
quadrilateral SHELL181 were used. The elements have 5 degrees of freedom at each
node - transverse shear deformation theory.
179
Fig. 2. Mesh for an elliptic hole 3840 FE (mapped mesh) and for a triangular hole 1900 FE
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Various numerical examples have been solved in order to study the effects of the
cut-out shape, the orthotropy and the geometrical aspect ratio b/a on buckling
concentration factor for axially (R=0) and biaxially loaded plates (R>0). The presented
below results deals with the analysis of three particular shape geometries, i.e.:
a circular hole: =d/2, c=1, w=0, n=1,

an elliptical hole: =0.75d, c=2.25, w=0, n=1,
a triangular hole: d 4 , c=1, w = 0.25, n =2.
3
As it may be noticed from the assumed values of the parameters those values do not cover
different possible shape orientations and sizes and they can be treated only as the
preliminary information and are the beginning of the particular parametric studies in this
area, of course, except of the case of circular openings. The plotted distributions of the
buckling loads are referred to the geometrical ratio d/b that is proportional to the ratio of
the hole dimension in the y direction to the width of the plate b in the y directions. The
considered values of the orthotropy parameter correspond directly to the analyzed
values of the fibre orientations, i.e. >1 to the case of fibres oriented at the parallel
direction to x axis, =1 fibres oriented at 450 and <1fibers oriented at 900 parallel to
the y axis. For all shapes of holes the area occupied by them is identical and equal to the
area of the circular hole, .i.e. d 2 / 4 .
The results of numerical computations are plotted in Fig. 3. They present the
sensitivity of buckling loads to fibre orientations. For isotropic properties (Fig. 3b) the
plate can buckle for very small openings and the buckling loads are almost independent
on the shape of cutouts. The orthotropy enhances plate resistance to buckling (Figs 3a,
3b) even up to the value d/b=0.15.
180

1.05
R=1
1
Kb
0.95
0.9
0.85
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.8
= 17.573
0.75
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
d/b
c) fibres oriented at 0
R = 1.0
Kb
0.96
0.92
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.88
= 1.0
0.84
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
d/b
b) fibres oriented at 45
181
0.2
0.25

1.1
R=1
1
Kb
0.9
0.8
Circular hole
Ellliptical hole
Triangular hole
0.7
= 0.075
0.6
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
d/b
c) fibres oriented at 90
Fig. 3. Distributions of buckling concentration factor for square plates
One can observe unexpected fact of the increase of buckling concentration factor
over 1 (Fig. 3a) that is the result of the change of the buckling mode (it is equal to m+1)
over that for plate without a hole (it is equal to m). The buckling loads are the highest for
the elliptical holes since the elliptical semi-axis is greater at the x direction than at y
direction. The triangular shape of the hole gives almost the identical buckling loads as the
circular. Although for loading and boundary conditions the considered problem possesses
geometrical symmetry with respect to the angle 450 the results are not symmetrical for
fibres oriented at 00 and 900 since the positions of elliptical and triangular cutouts do not
have such symmetry.
Figure 4 shows the buckling modes for different shapes of openings. As it may be
observed they are identical to that for plates without hole. The hole is represented by a
white colour. Those results are strongly affected by the orthotropy factor. However, as it
was mentioned above for some geometrical and material properties the buckling modes
can vary depend on the shape of holes. For a/b>1 the wave number at the y direction is
always equal to 1.
182
Fig.4. Buckling modes for different shapes of holes fibres oriented at 450 (=1)
Buckling analysis of laminated plates has been performed numerically through a
shear deformation shell theory for different shapes of holes and orthotropy parameters. To
describe those results in a concise manner a new factor is proposed that is called as the
buckling concentration factor. The results are strongly affected by the orthotropy
parameter. However, it should be mentioned that a further parametric studies are needed
in this area.
183

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Martin J., Buckling and postbuckling of laminated composite square plates with reinforced
central circular holes, 1972, Ph D Dissertation, Case, Western Reserve Univ.
Knauss J.F., Starnes J.H. Jr., Henneke E.G., The compressive failure of graphite/epoxy
plates with circular holes, Reserch Report VPI-E-78-5, Virginia Pol. Inst. State Univ.,
1978.
Preobrazhenskii I.N., Research pertaining to stability of thin plates with holes, Soviet
Appl. Mechanics, 1981, 16, 557-564.
Nemeth M.P., Buckling behaviour of orthotropic composite plates with centrally located
cutouts, 1983, Ph D Dissertation, Virginia Pol. Inst. State Univ.
Nemeth M.P., Johnson, E.R., Stein E., Kamat M.P., Buckling behaviour of orthotropic
composite plates with centrally located cutouts, Report VPI-E-83-21, 1983, Virginia Pol.
Inst. State Univ.
Britt V.O., Shear and compression buckling analysis for anisotropic panels with centrally
located elliptical cutouts, Proc. AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC 33rd Structures, Structural
Dynamics and Materials Conf., AIAA Paper No 93-1565, La Jolla, Ca., USA, 1993.
Whitney J.M., Leissa A.N., Analysis of heterogeneous anisotropic plates, Journal of
Applied Mechanics, 36, 1969, ss. 261-6.
Abuelfoutouh N. M., Preliminary design of unstiffened composite shells. Proc. Symp. 7th
Technical Conf. ASC; 1993, pp. 693786.
184
BUCKLING RESISTANCE OF STEEL SPHERICAL ROOFS

SUBJECTED TO AN EXTERNAL PRESSURE
P. BAEJEWSKI, J. MARCINOWSKI
Institute of Building Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty,
University of Zielona Gra
Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gra, POLAND
The paper deals with some considerations focused on resistance assessment of

spherical caps subjected to an external pressure. The buckling resistance of such
shells can be determined on the basis of existing design recommendations and
Eurocodes. In this paper provisions of some design recommendations were adopted
and compared with general procedure proposed in EC 1993-1-6. Due to this
eurocode, one can perform the GMNIA analysis using the worst mode of
imperfections. In this very case the first and the second buckling modes obtained as
a result of LBA analysis were exploited. It turned out that the other form of
imperfections was decisive. It was a dimple evoked by pressure applied in limited,
comparatively large area. The buckling resistance obtained by this way was three
times smaller than its counterpart obtained by means of recommended
imperfections in a form of the first or the second buckling modes. It was revealed
that in some circumstances provisions of EDR 5th edition [3] give to high
assessment of buckling resistance.
1. INTRODUCTION
Spherical caps are quite frequently encountered in such engineering structures as
pressure vessels, silos, tanks (compare Fig. 1) and chemical installations. In a case of
external pressure the spherical shells are liable to sudden buckling. This phenomenon is in
many cases decisive as far as designing criteria are concerned.
Fig. 1. The spherical roof above a cylindrical tank
Classical books on shell structures [1] and structural stability [2, 3] give no a chance
to design properly a spherical shell subjected to an action of external pressure. Eurocode
185

EN 1993-1-6 [4] formulate conditions which should be fulfilled to secure the safety of
such structures. Design recommendations [5] generally based on [3] offers rules which are
very attractive to engineers due to their simplicity. In particular the chapter 15 presents
provisions for the assessment of buckling resistance of spherical shells subjected to
external pressure. This load case is probably the most important one from engineering
point of view.
In this paper the spherical shell of specified geometry and boundary conditions is
considered. The buckling resistance was determined first on a basis of [5], then the
general rules of EN 1993-1-6 [4] were adopted. Due to these rules the elastic plastic
buckling resistance was obtained numerically on a basis of assumed different modes of
imperfections and different amplitudes of these imperfections. It turned out that in this
analysed case rules inserted in [5] have given too high assessment of the buckling
resistance.
Fig. 2. The first buckling mode
Fig. 3. The second buckling mode
186

2. BUCKLING RESISTANCE DUE TO RULES INSERTED IN [4]
The buckling resistance of a spherical cap can be calculated according to rules
inserted in the chapter 15 of recommendations (EDR 5th edition) [5]. Let us consider the
spherical roof of following geometrical and material data: R = 14000 mm, r0 = 7000 mm,
= 30o, the thickness t = 18 mm, fy = 235 MPa, Youngs modulus E = 210 103MPa, the
tangent modulus in bilinear material model ET = 21 MPa, Poissons ratio =0.3.
The characteristic value of external pressure, pk = 40 kPa. Adopting a
partial factor f = 1.5, one can obtain the design value of external pressure
pEd f pk 1.5 40 60 kPa .
In reference to the clause 15.3.1 of EDR 5th [5], the relations (15.4) and (15.5)
should be checked at the beginning.
R 14000
777.8
t
18
(1)
The factor Cc is equal to 0.7 for considered boundary conditions (see Table 15.1 in [5]).
Since
E
210 103
(2)
Cc
0.7 31.28
20 f y , k
20 235
r0 7000
0.5
R 14000
and
(3)
1.1
0.039 .
R/t
(4)
Because
r
1.1
R
E
Cc and 0
R
t 20 f y ,k
R/t
(5)
the buckling resistance must be checked.

Let us calculate the elastic critical buckling pressure pRcr
pRcr
t
Cc E 0.294 MPa
2
R
3(1 )
2
The factor Cpl = 0.9 for considered boundary conditions (see Table 15.2 in [5]).
The plastic reference resistance can be obtained from the formula:
187
(6)
2t
0.544 MPa .
R
Now, the relative slenderness can be calculated:
pRpl f y ,k C pl
p Rp l
p Rcr
1.360 .
(7)
(8)
The fabrication quality parameter Q can be taken from the Table 15.3 in [5]. For
class B (high quality) Q = 25.
The characteristic imperfection amplitude can be obtained from the formula:
wk
1
Q
R t 14.31 mm .
(9)
The squash limit relative slenderness 0, the plastic range factor , and the interaction
exponent should be taken as follows: (see Table 15.1 in [5]).
0=0.2, =0.7, = 1.0.
(10)
The elastic imperfection reduction factor should be obtained from the formula (15.11)
from [5]:
0.7
0.2286 .
0.7 5
1 1.9 wk / t
(11)
The plastic limit relative slenderness p should be determined from the formula (15.14)
from [5]:
0.873 .
(12)
Because > p , the buckling strength reduction factor can be calculated from the
formula:
0.124 .
2
(13)
The characteristic buckling pressure is defined as follows:
pRk pRpl 0.0672 MPa ,

and the design buckling resistance
188
(14)
pRd
pRk
0.0611 MPa 61,1 kPa ,
(15)
where the safety factor was adopted as follows
M 1.1 .
pRd obtained in such a way is the buckling resistance of the roof. Due to the fact that
pEd 60 kPa pRd ,
(16)
the roof was designed properly, at least due to recommendations [5].

3. THE NUMERICAL APPROACH RECOMMENDED IN [4]
The same problem was analyzed numerically by means of COSMOS/M system [6]
based on FE method. The procedure described in EN 1993-1-6 [4] was adopted. At the
first step of the procedure LBA (linear buckling analysis) analysis was performed. Two
first buckling modes were shown in Figs. 2 and 3. These two modes were used as
imperfection forms after rescaling them to assumed amplitudes of imperfections. Besides
these two imperfection modes, the other, in the form of large single dimple was
considered as well. The dimple shape was obtained as a result of elastic displacements
evoked by the pressure applied in a rectangular area shown in the Fig. 4. The deformation
mode being result of this loading case was shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4. The pressure applied in a rectangular area
Due to requirements of [4] and [5] the maximum amplitude of imperfection of such
a shape cannot be greater than 22 mm for the Class A (excellent quality), 36 mm for the
Class B (high quality), and 58 mm for the Class C (normal quality) if length of oval
dimple is assumed 3,6 m.
189

Due to rules inserted in [4] GMNIA (geometrical and material nonlinear analysis
with assumed imperfections) analyses were performed for amplitudes from the interval
0.005t to 1.5t.
Fig. 5. The shape of a dimple
The example of equilibrium path obtained as a result of GMNIA analysis was shown
in the Fig. 6. It refers to the imperfection mode in the form of the single dimple and the
imperfection amplitude wk = 0.5t. Node 1 of the mesh was located exactly at the cap
center and the node 198 is the node from the dimple area where the amplitude occurs.
The equivalent stress distribution (due to Huber-Mises-Hencky exertion criterion) in
the stage of the sudden drop of resistance was shown in the Fig. 7.
Results of GMNIA analyses for all three imperfection modes and different imperfection
amplitudes are presented in Fig. 8. One can see that the lowest value of elastic plastic
buckling resistance pRd was obtained for the case of the single dimple and the amplitude
wk = 0.5t.
40
p Rd [kPa]
35
30
Node 198
25
Node 1
20
15
10
u z /t
5
0
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
Fig. 6. Results of GMNIA analysis. The single dimple and wk=0.5t
190
1.75
2.00

The obtained minimum value is equal 37.8 kPa and is much smaller than the value
61.1 kPa which follows from rules presented in [5]. The lowest values of pRd based on
buckling modes were obtained for wk = 0.75t and are equal 135.2 kPa (Mode 1) and
137.6 kPa (Mode 2). Both values are much greater than the value obtained on the basis of
a single dimple.
4. RECAPITULATION
Analyses presented in the paper reveal that in some circumstances commonly used
design recommendations give wrong results. Till these recommendations are in use the
most save way of designing is to follow general rules of EN 1993-1-6 [5] adopting so
called GMNIA approach with imperfection mode in a form of a large single dimple.
Fig. 7. Huber-Mises-Hencky equivalent stress distribution
The buckling pressure resistance obtained in this way guarantee/secure the safety of
externally pressurized spherical caps. The approach presented in the paper should be
strongly recommended in any case of spherical shells subjected to the action of external
pressure.
Fig. 8. The buckling resistance pRd as a function of wk/t
191

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Fluegge W., Powoki. Obliczenia statyczne. (Shells. Static calculations - in Polish),

Arkady, Warszawa, (1972).
Timoshenko S. K., Gere J. M., Teoria statecznoci sprystej, (Theory of elastic stability in Polish), Arkady, Warszawa, (1963).
Volmir A. S., Ustojczivost dieformurijemych sistiem (Stability of deformable systems - in
Russian), Nauka, Moskva, (1992).
EN 1993-1-6. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-6: Strength and stability of
shell structures.
Buckling of Steel Shells. European Design Recommendations 5th Edition. Eds: J. M.
Rotter and H. Schmidt. Published by ECCS, 2008.
COSMOS/M, Finite Element Analysis System, Version 2.5, Structural Research and
Analysis Corporation, Los Angeles, California, 1999.
192
EFFECT OF IMPERFECTION CONFIGURATION ON

EQUILIBRIUM PATH IN NONLINEAR STABILITY
M. CHYBINSKI, A. GARSTECKI, K. RZESZUT
Institute of Structural Engineering, Poznan University of Technology,
Piotrowo 5, 60-965 Pozna, Poland
Equilibrium paths in the structural nonlinear stability reflect the essential
characteristics of a structure; therefore their analysis provides the engineer with a valuable
information. Particularly important are bifurcation points and/or limit points, which often
determine the bearing capacity and failure mechanisms of the structure. Post buckling
equilibrium path carries also information on the safety of the structure in large
deformations, and above all on the sensitivity to initial imperfections. In the literature
there are several studies, where different types of geometric imperfections have been
considered and ways of their introduction into the numerical model. In practical design
initial global geometric imperfections are usually taken into account by introduction of
additional loading. This approach dominates in design codes [3]. In the case of local
sectional imperfections it is often recommended to use the initial geometry perturbed by
anticipated or measured values of imperfections. However, this procedure is not general
since it can be applied only to these structural members for which the imperfections are
known. More general method consists in introduction of properly scaled imperfections in
the form of linear combination of eigenmodes [2]. Special attention should be focused on
these local and global buckling modes, which appear in interactive buckling. They can
result in excessive sensitivity to imperfections and often lead to drastic decrease of the
limit load and to unstable post-buckling behavior. This problem was widely discussed in
literature.
The authors of the present paper in the course of experiments on steel girders with
I section and very thin web discovered a new phenomenon [4], namely the snap-through
of the web, and assigned it also to initial imperfections. The study of this phenomenon is
one of the main issues of the paper. The snap-through form of instability is often observed
in thin shells and it usually leads to the failure of the structure. This behavior can be
excellently illustrated and studied by an example of Mises truss (Fig. 1a). Lately, the
complete equilibrium paths for Mises truss were studied in [1], where many references are
given. Assume that the truss is shallow, the bars are purely elastic and the deformation is
symmetric. Imposing increasing deflection u the value of the force P can be uniquely
computed from equilibrium equation (Fig. 1b). Here P is a function of u. Note that
descending part of the graph represents unstable equilibrium. In case of gravity type of
the force P, for increasing P the snap-through from point A to B is observed and next
stable branch B-C follows. Unloading follows the branch C-B-D. The state P = O is
associated with the displacement u = 2f at point D. This is a typical snap-through as an
irreversible process.
Unexpected and interesting feature of the snap-through of the web observed in
experiments on steel girders was that the process was fully reversible. The measured
193

lateral displacement of the web increased with increasing value of the load P (the path
from 0 to A in Fig. 1c). Then the web jumped to the opposite curvature (jump from A to
B in Fig. 1) and further responded following the branch B-C. During unloading the path
C-B-A-0 was observed. In next loading cycle the same path was followed.
To study this unexpected behavior we introduce a model structure in the form of a
straight bar with ideal hinges at the ends and subjected to axial compression force P. The
bar is infinitely stiff in bending and compression, but it has elastic hinges located within
the length L. This model structure provides good insight into the stability of large
structural systems, because it is possible to formulate and solve problems without and
with initial imperfections accounting for large displacements. Introducing special forms of
geometric imperfections into the model structure we obtain the similar snap-through
behavior as it was observed in experiments. Again the process is fully reversible. We
calculate the levels of the total potential energy to explain the reversible snap-through. In
the paper the stability analyses of members with initial clearances will be discussed, too.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 1. Snap-through: (a) Mises truss, (b) Equilibrium path for Mises truss, (c) experiment
The paper presents the results of experiments on steel girders in real scale, nonlinear
FEM analyses of the girder and theoretical analyses on a model structure. It was proved
that initial geometric imperfections can drastically influence the equilibrium paths.
Moreover, it was demonstrated that special interaction of imperfections can involve the
snap-through. It did not lead to structural failure. However, when it has a cyclic character
fatigue cracks can be initiated. This can appear when variable loads oscillate around the
critical snap-through load level.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
L. Kwasniewski, Complete equilibrium paths for Mises trusses, Int. J. of Non-Linear

Mechanics, 44, 19-26, 2009.
K. Rzeszut, A.Garstecki, Thin-walled structures with slotted connections in stability
problems,. Thin-Walled Structures 49 (2011) 674681.
PN-EN 1090-2:2009. Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures - Part 2:
Technical requirements for steel structures.
Chybiski M., Garsecki A., Rational configuration of ribs and opening in webs of steel
welded girders; Proc. of 57th Conference on Scientific Problems of Civil Engineering 1822 September 2011, Krynica-Rzeszw, 210-211.
194
GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF

THIN-WALLED STRUCTURES WITH OPEN CROSS-SECTION
USING FE SHELL-BEAM MODELS
C. CICHO, S. KOCZUBIEJ
Chair of Applied Computer Science, Kielce University of Technology
Al. Tysiclecia Pastwa Polskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland
In the paper, two FE models for geometrically nonlinear analysis of thin-walled

space structures with open cross-section are presented. The standard FE beam
discretization is enriched with the FE shell discretization of some parts of the
structure. The problem of coupling of the different FE parts of the structure is
solved using the space joint elements or the transition elements.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Finite Element Method (FEM) has created new quality in the development of
methods of thin-walled structures analysis thus stimulating evolution of the thin-walled
theory and ensuring the numerical analysis of large structure systems with great exactness.
In general, two finite element procedures of analysis are possible. In the first case, the
thin-walled structure is treated as the full space shell structure, which is natural
approximation of the real structure but can be laborious and costly. In the second case,
geometrically linear feature of the thin-walled structure is conserved but the thin-walled
beam displacements theory is enriched. Inspiring suggestions, limited however only to the
linear analysis of simple plane frames with I-beam cross-section, could be found in
Szmidt [7] where the FE model is composed of two parts, namely 3D part (shell type) and
1D part (beam type) and the procedure of the joint stiffness matrix computation has been
presented. Later on, such approach was also used in Cicho, Pluciski [2], Szymczak et.
all [5], Wagner, Gruttman [8], Chavan, Wriggers [1] and is derived in the paper.
2. PROBLEM FORMULATION
It is assumed that the translational displacements in the common nodes of the shell
parts and thin-walled beams cross-sections are equal
u ( s ) x u (b) x,
(1)
where u (s ) is displacement vector of the shell finite element nodes and u (b ) is

displacement vector of the thin-walled beam nodes.
The equation (1) has been exploited in preparation of so-called the space joint
element modelled the real welded joint frame structure. Joint frame structure is discretized
with the flat shell elements with degrees of freedom reduced to the thin-walled beam
195

degrees of freedom. The reduction process is realized in two steps, namely in the static
condensation step and the transformation step, Fig. 1. As a result of the static
condensation [6], degrees of freedom of the space joint element are reduced to the
translational degrees of freedom only in the cross-sections, common for the space joint
element and the thin-walled beam element. At last, the translational degrees of freedom
are transformed to the seven degrees of freedom of the proper thin-walled beam element
nodes [4].
Fig. 1. Reduction of the shell dof to the thin-walled beam dof
In the other approach to the FE modelling of the thin-walled structure so-called the
transient elements are used [1, 7]. The transient element joins the node of the thin-walled
beam element with the node of the shell element with the continuity condition of
translational displacements on the walls, common for the shell and thin-walled beams,
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Transient element
In the paper, the FE incremental equilibrium equations, based on the consequent

application of the total Lagrangian approach have been used. The detailed formulas
defining the nonlinear flat shell finite element (quadrilateral, 8-node, isoparametric
Reissner-Mindlin shell element with drilling dof), the nonlinear thin-walled beam
element, the space joint element and the transient element could be found in [4].
It should be stressed that inclusion of the second-order terms of finite rotations to the
displacements field equations of the thin-walled beam theory [3] and consequent
196

exploiting the total Lagrangian approach of analysis turned out to be that the standard
method of calculations of the tangent stiffness matrix and the internal force vector of the
beam element was ineffective. Therefore, the special procedures of computations using
symbolic calculations provided by MATLAB software and PERL programming language,
supporting operations that employ regular expressions have been elaborated.
Fig. 3. An example of the finite formulation for calculation of incremental stiffness matrix
elements
The following steps of the procedure are:

calculate the strain vector components (implemented using the symbolic
computation in MATLAB computing software),
calculate the strain increment vector components (implemented using a symbolic
computation in MATLAB computing software),
analysis of the text file containing strain increment vector, leads to distinguish linear
and quadratic components (implemented using regular expressions and
programming language PERL),
symbolic computation integrand in expressions for stiffness matrix (MATLAB),
integrating the expression for stiffness matrix over the cross-section (MATLAB),
reordering expressions due to the geometric characteristics and removal of
expressions equal to zero associated with zero values of geometric characteristics
(PERL),
substitution formulas for interpolation of displacements and their increment,
integrating over the length of the elements (MATLAB),
search expression grouped in terms corresponding with increments of generalized
displacements (for example D_q1^2 and D_q1*D_q2), which are equal to
components of stiffness matrix k L1,1 and 2 k L1, 2 (PERL).
In Fig. 3 the example of formulae of the incremental stiffness matrix components is

shown. The partly expression is marked kl_k_ij where k is the number of expression
197

and i and j define location of the expression in the matrix. For example, the sum from
kl_1_12 to kl_22_12 is the formula for calculation component k L1, 2 of the matrix.
Calculation of the all partly expressions and their proper summation leads in the end to
the final values of the incremental stiffness matrix. In the same way the initial stress
matrix and the vector of internal forces have been calculated.
5. EXAMPLES
Discretization of spatial structure using 3D shell parts required to determine the
appropriate size of the joints. Tests performed by the authors and confirmed in [5], led to
acceptance of the space joint elements size equal to 1.5 h , where h is the height of the
thin-walled beam cross section.
5.1. EXAMPLE 1. BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF TWO-BEAM FRAME
In the paper [3] linear and initial stress matrices for the thin-walled beam elements
corresponding to rigid-rigid (R-R), rigid-hinge (R-H) and hinge-hinge (H-H) end
boundary conditions have been introduced in order to model different beam connections
in the joint frame. The buckling of two-beam frame, shown in Fig. 4, with two different
types of joint connections has been analyzed. Results of calculations are compared with
the calculations using 1D, 1D/3D and 3D models.
Fig. 4. Example 1. (a) two-beam frame, (b) shell-beam model, (c) types of joints
1D model has been discretized using 122 beam elements ( 861 degrees of freedom).
1D/3D model with joint 1 was discretized with 106 beam elements and 96 shell
elements ( 2730 degrees of freedom), while model with joint 2 had 106 beam elements
and 138 shell elements ( 3414 degrees of freedom). 3D models had 240 and 254 shell
elements ( 4878 and 5058 degrees of freedom) (respectively). In mixed model
198

additionally 17 transient elements for each of the walls were used. Table 1 summarizes
the smallest critical values of the load multiplier. Quite a good results agreement for 1D
models can be noticed, however using of 1D/3D models gives much better results.
Table 1.
Example 1. First and second critical load factors .
Models
1D
1D (R-H) [3]
1D (R-R) [3]
1D (R-R, 0 ) [3]
1D/3D, joint 1
3D, joint 1
1D/3D, joint 2
3D, joint 2
-59.7851
-52.6002
-59.6577
-69.1285
-54.6054
-54.0403
-66.141
-66.8592
65.5796
59.0443
65.4115
80.6036
60.383
60.2474
78.133
78.7279
5.2. EXAMPLE 2. BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF THREE-BEAM FRAME
Fig. 5. Example 2. (a) three-beam frame, (b) shell-beam model
In this example the critical load for spatial three-beam frame was calculated. In Fig. 5
geometric and material data are shown. In order to obtain precise buckling modes, 3D
model was discretized using 4192 shell elements ( 79206 degrees of freedom). 1D/3D
model was discretized with 317 shell elements, 3 46 beam elements and 3 29
transient elements.
199
Fig. 6. Example 2. First buckling mode. (a) 1D/3D FE model, (b) shell FE model.
The results of calculations of the critical load factor are shown in Table 1. In Fig. 6
the first buckling mode is shown. According to the results of calculations, discretization
using only beam elements is subject to significant error, while a good results agreement
for mixed and shell models can be noticed. Deformation of 1D/3D and 3D models is
practically the same.
Table 1.
Example 2. First three critical load factors .
Models
1D
1D/3D
3D
1
353.4203
275.6376
275.1766
513.0119
469.7605
468.1359
756.063
679.745
658.6285
5.3. EXAMPLE 3. LARGE DISPLACEMENTS OF PORTAL FRAME

In this example, geometrically nonlinear analysis of portal frame is considered. The
geometry of the frame and its load are presented in Fig. 7. 1D/3D model is discretized
with 87 beam elements and 136 shell elements ( 6066 degrees of freedom and 630
after static condensation). Also in this example calculations were performed for the mixed
model with 17 transient elements for each of the walls.
200
Fig. 7. Example 2. (a) portal frame, (b) shell-beam model
In Fig. 8 equilibrium path (u z ) for both space joint element and transient elements
models for node w1 is shown.
Fig. 8. Example 3. Equilibrium path (u z ) at node w1
201

6. CONCLUSIONS
Two FE models of thin-walled structures with the open cross-section have been
presented, taking into account the effects of geometrical nonlinearities in the consequent
total Lagrangian approach. Both models are composed of 1D beam parts and 3D shell
parts. In the first model the space joint elements, and in the second model the transition
elements, are used in order to describe deformations state of the real joint frame more
precisely. Examples confirmed good effectiveness and satisfactory agreement of the two
proposed FE analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Chavan K.S., Wriggers P., Consistent coupling of beam and shell models for thermoelastic analysis, Int J Numer Meth Eng 2004 59(14), pp. 1861-1876.
Cicho C., Pluciski P., Shell-beam FE static and buckling analysis for thin-walled space
frames with general open cross-section, in Proceedings of Stability Structures IX-th
Symposium 2000, (in Polish).
Kim M. Y., Chang S. P., Kim S. B., Spatial stability analysis of thin-walled space frames,
Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng., 39(3), 1996, pp. 499-525.
Koczubiej S., Shell-Beam FE Model in Static and Stability Analysis of Thin-Walled
Structures With Open Cross-Section, Ph.D. thesis, Politechnika witokrzyska, Kielce
2011 (in Polish).
Kreja I., Mikulski T., Szymczak C., Application of superelements in static analysis of thinwalled structures, J Civil Eng Manage X(2), 2004, pp. 113-122.
Przemieniecki J. S., Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis, Dover Publications, New York
1985.
Szmidt J. K., Analysis of frames made up of thin-walled elements, Engineering
Transactions 23(3), 1975, pp. 447-472 (in Polish).
Wagner W., Gruttmann F., Modeling of shell-beam transitions in the presence of finite
rotations, CAMES 9(3), 2002, pp. 405-418.
202
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF VISCOPLASTIC

THIN-WALLED GRIDERS IN TORSION
L. CZECHOWSKI
Department of Strength of Materials, Technical University of Lodz
This work deals with analysis of isotropic or orthotropic girders subjected to

transient dynamic loads. Numerical calculations were performed with the finite
element method using ANSYS software. The results of computation were
presented as maximum angle of rotation of the girder in a function of the dynamic
load factor, DLF (the ratio of pulse loading amplitude to static critical load). In
study it has been taken into account apart from the elastic-plastic range of material
with isotropic hardening as well as the strain rate effect described by Perzyna
model.
1. INTRODUCTION
The structural stability problem has been investigated for over a century and is now
very extended. On the other hand, dynamic impulse loading of thin-walled members with
flat walls has been discussed only recently mainly for dynamic buckling of thin-walled
members or plates subjected to compressive or shear pulse loads [1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11,
15]. These papers describe the phenomenon of dynamic buckling and the part of them
shows some criteria for the assessment of the dynamic stability of structural plate
structures. Mania in his works [8, 12, 13] extended the analysis of dynamic buckling of
girders taking into account strain rate effect according to Perzyna model and Stoffel [18]
assumed the application of different constitutive laws in the studies of the circular plate
high strain rate response. However, in the case of torsional loading, only a few
publications concern dynamic loads, even though some papers discuss static loads and
analysis of girders [8].
The stability of thin-walled plate structures subjected to static torsion has been
studied both theoretically and empirically. Some papers exploring dynamic stability under
the influence of a dynamic torsional torque are devoted to thin-walled cylindrical shells
[14, 19, 20, 21], but there are no works dealing with thin-walled girders. Actually, this
field of interest is still developed because the criteria of dynamic stability in torsion
werent established.
In this paper, the author studies a behavior of a structure under pulse loading in
torsion whose duration equals the fundamental natural vibration period of the given
structure. Numerical calculations were conducted to obtain the dynamic response of such
structures under rectangular pulse loading. For computations it was assumed the plate
structure with rectangular cross-section considering the materials in a elastic-plastic range
and strain rate effect. The simulation has been carried out in Ansys code using finite
element method.
203

2. GIRDERS SHAPE AND APPLIED MATERIAL
For purpose of assessment of influence of plate structure response it was focused on
only one shape of column. Namely, the study concerns a rectangular girders composed of
plates of the diagonal 2R and the thickness of wall equals to 1 [mm] or 0.5 [mm] (Fig. 1).
The material properties for elastic range used in the calculations are shown in Table 1.
B
)
Y
t
T( t
2R
Ex
Ey
Z
L = 100 mm
R = 70.5 mm
t = 1 mm or 0.5 mm
Fig. 1. The dimensions of the columns and direction of the moduli
In the further part of work it assumed isotropic material with bilinear curves for a
different yield stress and for different tangential modulus in elasto-plastic range given on
diagrams. For purpose of simulation with viscoplastic material it was considered the
Perzyna model [16, 17] simply described through eq. 1, where p is the strain rate, m
and * mean the constants, o a static yield stress. For the ductile steel, Jones [6]
suggests m 0.2 and * 40.4 and such values have been taken into account in this
work.
Table 1. Materials property for an elastic range
[kg/m3]
0.3
G
[GPa]
80
97.423
0.3
11.818
2000
29.523
0.09
11.818
2000
Material
Ex [GPa]
Ey [GPa]
yx []
mat_1
200
200
mat_2_1
29.523
mat_2_2
97.423
o 1 *

7800
204
(1)

3. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
Discrete models of the considered girders are presented in Fig. 2b, which show the
element mesh and boundary conditions. Along the edges of one end of the girder, zero
values of displacement along all directions were adopted (restraint), while at nodes
situated at the opposite end of the girder, a load corresponding to the torsional moment
was applied, which was implemented by uniform distribution of the forces applied at the
nodes along the free edges within a cylindrical coordinates system adopted for these
nodes. To ensure that the edges of the girder are straight, a transverse plate was mounted
to the model in the plane in which the load was applied, which was several times thicker
than the other girder walls. The pulse loading of torque was rectangular with its duration
equaling to the fundamental natural vibration period of the given structure. The
calculation was conducted for transient analysis with implicit method of the integration
equations.
In numerical simulations, it has taken an eight-node element type shell281 with six
degrees of freedom at each node (Fig. 2a). This element is well-suited both for linear and
particularly for high-rotation or high-strain nonlinear applications.
a)
b)
Fig. 2. Drawing of element type shell281 and numerical model with loading and boundary
conditions
4. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION

The most of the diagrams presents the relationship between the maximum angles of
rotation of the free end of columns obtained in the entire range of the loading as a
function of the torque. It seems that this approach of evaluation of dynamic response can
be the most reliable. With regard to the lack of criterion of dynamic stability of plate
structures in torsion, author assumed that column can endure the maximal value until the
angle of rotation suddenly increases.
Figure 3 presents a sample course of the angle of rotation of a girder as a function of
time of action of the torsional moment at an overload of 1.5 Tcr. The curve of the angle
changes depending on the dynamic loading, and for low moments (below 1Tcr) the highest
205
[ deg]
angle appeared at 0.20.3 Tp of the time of application, while after increasing the
amplitude the maximum value was observed at 0.60.8 Tp.
max
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1.26 ms;

Tdyn = 1.5 Tcr
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
time [ms]
Fig. 3. The course of torsion angle dependent upon the duration of the dynamic torque
equaling 1.5 Tcr
6
b/h= 200; Tp=T=2.5 ms; mat_1
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1 ms; mat_2_1
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1.45 ms; mat_2_2
max
[ deg]
b/h= 100; Tp=T=1.26 ms; mat_1
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 4. The courses of maximal torsion angle dependent upon the dynamic torque for
isotropic and orthotropic material
In Fig. 4, it was observed that the thinner structures carry the greater dynamic
torsional loading with respect to its critical loading (even over two times for the thickness
t = 0.5 [mm] and about 1.4 Tcr for grider with thickness t = 1 [mm]). For moduli along the
x axis that were higher than those along the transverse direction, the structure may bear
the greater dynamic loads (a sharp increase in the angle of rotation appears at 1.7 Tcr).
206

6
no yield limit
t
Re=400 MPa; E/E =10;
4
Re=600 MPa; E/E =10;

t
max
[ deg]
b/h= 200; Tp=T=2.5 ms; steel
Re=800 MPa; E/E =10;
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 5. Course of maximal torsion angle dependent upon the dynamic torque for isotropic
material with bilinear characteristic for different yield stress
5
t
Tp=T=2.5 ms; rate strain effect; m=0.2; g=40.4

3
Tp=T=2.5 ms; no RSE;
max
[ deg]
b/h=200; E/E =10; s 0=400 MPa
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
Time [ms]
Fig. 6. Comparison of curves of maximal torsion angle dependent upon duration of pulse
loading with or without consideration of strain rate effect for Tdyn=1.5 Tcr
Comparing the isotropic material with the composite in which the modulus Ex is smaller
than the modulus Ey, it was noticed that the dynamic torque remain at the same level, even
though in the latter case the angle of rotation is twice as high for the same overload. The
next diagram (Fig. 5) shows the influence of a initial yield stress on the maximal angle of
rotation for column with b/h=200 and E t / E 10 , where E t means tangential modulus
in elastic-plastic range for steel. Obviously, for the greater yield stress of material the
207

structures can endure the greater torque. For steel with Re 400 MPa , the rapid growth of
angle rotation in the column appeared in 1.2 Tcr.
In Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, diagrams show a response difference of column with
consideration of the strain rate effect or without. In the first plot it seems that curves are
alike till the velocities of strain are small (in the initial stage) but for the further courses
diverge [Fig. 6]. Taking into account the viscoplastic material constitutive law (Fig. 8)
indicates that structures can bear significantly the greater loading in torsion as well as
presented in works [8, 12, 13] under other loads (about 80 [%]).
6

t
bilinear curve; E/E =10;
max
[ deg]
strain rate dependent; m=0.2; Perzyna's model;

no strain rate dependent
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 7. Comparison of curves of maximal torsion angle with regard to torque with
consideration or without consideration of strain rate effect
6
s 0=200 MPa
s 0=400 MPa
s 0=500 MPa

t
E =20 GPa; m=0.2; g=40.4
max
[ deg]
s 0=300 MPa
Tdyn/Tcr
Fig. 8. Curves of maximal torsion angle in the function of torsional pulse loading with
consideration of the strain rate effect
208

Looking at the all diagrams it observes similarity between curves for the girders with
consideration of SRE at Re 500 MPa and curves obtained assuming the only elastic
range of material.
5. FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents the results of numerical calculations for girders subjected to
dynamic torsion. Analysis was conducted through the transient application of loading to a
given structure and the determination of its behavior throughout the pulse duration. In the
case of torsion, the criteria for dynamic stability evaluation have not been established in
the literature, so here it was assumed the ultimate dynamic loading ends till the angle of
rotation grows rapidly.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Ari-Gur, J., Simonetta, SR., Dynamic pulse buckling of rectangular composite plates,
Composites Part B, 28B, 1997, pp. 301308.
Biskupski, J., Koakowski, Z., Stability of thin-walled box girders subjected to bounded
torsion, Engineering Machines Problems 3 (3), 1994, pp. 57-72.
Czechowski L., The dynamic stability in the elasto-plastic range of composite rectangular
plate subjected to the combined load /in Polish/, PhD Thesis, odz, 2007.
Czechowski L., Dynamic response of girders subjected to pulse loading in torsion, section
10, pp. 228-242.
Czechowski L., Dynamic stability of rectangular orthotropic plates subjected to combined
in-plane pulse loading in the elasto-plastic range, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Vol.12, 4, 2008, pp. 309-321.
Jones N., Several phenomena in structural impact and structural crashworthiness,
European Journal of Mechanics A/Solids, 2003; 22, 693707.
Jones N., Structural impact, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Krlak, M., Kubiak, T., Koakowski Z., Stability and Load Carrying Capacity of ThinWalled Orthotropic Poles of Regular Polygonal Cross-Section Subject to Combined Load,
Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 4 (39), 2001, pp. 969-988.
Kubiak, T., Criteria for dynamic buckling estimation of thin-walled structures, ThinWalled Structures, 45 (10-11), 2007, pp. 888-892.
Mania, R., Kowal-Michalska, K., Behavior of composite columns of closed cross-section
under in-plane compressive pulse loading, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp. 902905.
Mania R.J., Dynamic buckling of thin-walled columns made of viscoplastic materials,
Scientific Bulletin of Technical Uni. of Lodz, No. 1059, 2010.
Mania R.J., Strain-rate effect in dynamic buckling of thin-walled isotropic columns.
Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering 2008; 12 (3), 189200.
Ma, H.W., Zhang, S.Y., Yang, G.T., Impact torsional buckling of plastic circular
cylindrical shells experimental study, International Journal of Impact Engineering, 22 (5),
1999, pp. 49-64.
Petry, D., Fahlbusch, G., Dynamic buckling of thin isotropic plates subjected to in-plane
impact, Thin-Walled Structures, 38, 2000, pp. 267283.
Perzyna P., Theory of viscoplasticity, Warszawa: PWN; 1966 (in Polish).
Perzyna P.,et al., Viscoplasticity application, Wroclaw, Ossolineum;1971 (in Polish).
209

[17] Stoffel M., Phenomenological and micromechanical viscoplastic laws applied to high
strain rate deformations of plates. Thin-Walled Structures 2009; 47, 3943.
[18] Wang, D.Y., Chen, T.Y., Impact buckling and post-buckling of elasto-viscoplastic
cylindrical shell under torsion, China Ocean Engineering, 11 (1), 1997, pp. 43-52.
[19] Xinsheng, Xu, Jianqing, Ma, Lim, C.W., Zhang, G., Dynamic torsional buckling of
cylindrical shell, Computer and Structures, 88, 2010, pp. 322-330.
[20] Zhang XQ, Han Q, Buckling and post-buckling behaviors of imperfect cylindrical shells
under torsion, Thin-Walled Structures, 45 (12), 2007, pp. 1035-1043.
210
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF POST-BUCKLING

BEHAVIOUR OF COMPOSITE COLUMN WITH TOP-HAT
CROSS-SECTION
H. DBSKI
Department of Machine Design, Technical University of Lublin
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
The object of this study is a thin-walled beam/column made of carbon-epoxy

composite with open cross-section. The material used was a composite of epoxy
matrix reinforced with carbon fiber (system HexPly M12, Hexcel). Laminate
structure formed by autoclaving technique was composed of eight layers of
unidirectional tape prepregs in the quasi-isotropic sequence of plies. Strength
properties of the composite were investigated experimentally and determined in
accordance with ISO standards. The structure was compressed axialy through selfaligning support up to the critical load and above it, which allowed an observation
of the post-buckling deformation of the body. The ABAQUS and the ANSYS
programs were used as numerical tools.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled structures belong to a category of load-carrying structures that have
wide field of applications in contemporary engineering. An example of their applications
can be aircraft structures, for which high stiffness and strength demands are formulated
together with a tendency to minimize the mass of the structure. One of the basic questions
connected to the design of thin-walled structures is a problem of stability loss as well as
load-carrying capacity of the system elements. Recently in the design of thin-walled loadcarrying structures an increase in number of applications of modern constructional
materials - composites in comparison to traditional structural materials could be noticed.
Widely used group of materials are polymeric composites reinforced with glass, carbon or
kevlar fibres. Application of these materials yields from advantageous ratio of their
strength to mass and a resistance to unfavourable working conditions. A lot of papers
concerning questions of stability, as well as load-carrying capacity of thin-walled
structures is available [1-6]. However, a large majority of them applies to classical
structural materials, having isotropic properties. Over a span of a few recent years many
articles describing properties of fibrous composites the laminates were published, but
they considered mainly theoretical models. There is still a lack of comprehensive
information on experimental tests on layered composites reinforced with fibres. This
inspired the author of this article to undertake a study in this subject area.
In this work, results of experimental tests on thin-walled composite columns of tophat cross-section subjected to compressive load are presented. The obtained research
results allow to verify the results given by FE models, as well as by authors own
analytical-numerical (A-N) method based on the Koiter theory [7]. The experiments
211

covered also determination of material properties, used later in worked out numerical
models. Such approach allowed more credible comparison of the prepared composite
profiles behaviour with numerical models, being usually only models of ideal structures.
2. SUBJECT OF RESEARCH
The subject of the research were thin-walled columns of top-hat cross-sections made
of M12/35%/UD134/AS7/300 Hexcels HexPly unidirectional carbon-epoxy composite
prepreg tape. Its matrix was made of epoxy resin (mass density: 1.24 g/cm3; Tg: 128C;
Rm: 64MPa; : 0.4; E: 5.1GPa), whereas the reinforcement was AS7J12K carbon fibres
(mass density: 2.5 g/cm3; Rm: 4830MPa; : 0.269; E: 241GPa). Nominal volume fraction
of reinforcing fibres in the composite was ca 60 %. The composites were produced with
autoclaving technique in the Department of Material Engineering at the Lublin University
of Technology [8-11]. The laminate texture was composed of 8 plies of equal thickness of
0.131 mm sequenced symmetrically [0,90]2s. The dimensions of the thin-walled column,
as well as the composite layout are presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Dimensions of the analysed column and plies layup
The columns were produced with autoclaving technique with the use of vacuum
packet, prepared in a special mould mapping the shape and the dimensions of the
composite profiles. The prepared hermetic packet, providing stable sub-atmospheric
pressure of ca -0.1 MPa was subjected to polymerization process in a laboratoryautoclave, where an overpressure of 0.4 MPa was kept in order to provide required
holding down. In case of the carbon-epoxy composite a temperature of material heating of
135 C was kept for 2 hours, what enabled finishing of the prepreg polymerization process.
In order to eliminate disadvantageous phenomena usually emerging during the composite
production process (excessive increase of thermal stresses inside the material and
restraining of proper relaxation of initial and thermal stresses) a precise heating and
cooling rate of 0.033 K/s was applied.
For the purpose of laminate texture quality check non-destructive testing (NDT)
methods were used together with optical microscopy and computer-assisted micro212

tomography. Each produced profile underwent thorough quality control in respect of flaw
existence, such as porosity or delamination. Thus, every wall of the top-hat profile was
examined with ultrasonic echo method using a phased array technique [12]. This testing
was performed with OmniScan MXU-M ultrasonic defectoscope equipped with Olympus
5L64 A12 head and having wedge-type SA12-OL delay. The following test parameters
were used: frequency 5 MHz, wave-propagation velocity 3100 m/s and amplification of
6-8 dB. In the conducted research for the purpose of quality control of the produced
laminates an A-scan imaging (converted real-time amplitude plot), as well as a C-scan (a
real-time collection of B-scan images coming from many converters). The imaging
method used enabled simultaneous determination of a flaws depth (A-scan), as well as its
location depth and the flaws width in any given direction (C-scan). The above mentioned
procedure allows to localize delaminations or clusters of pores inside the composite body
[13,14]. The performed quality control of the produced profiles did not reveal any
discontinuities in them. An uniform level of reflection of the entrance and of the echo
from the bottom (A-scan), as well as uniform C-scan image was obtained. The B-scan was
eliminated by decreasing the observation range down to values exceeding the B-scan
usability (thin-walled elements) to the advantage of the C-scan module precision. The
results of the measurements are given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Quality assessment of composite profiles with the use of non-destructive ultrasonic
methods (NDT)
Moreover, for the purpose of the laminate quality control microstructural testing
with optical microscopy (NikonMA200, Japan) was employed. It based on computer
image analysis (Image Pro Plus, NIS-Elements) and computer-assisted micro-tomography
(SkyScan 1174 micro-tomograph). In particular, a quality of the profiles fillet radii was
checked, as in these regions are especially prone to inter-layer discontinuities in the form
of delamination. Texture inspection and non-destructive testing confirmed very good
quality of the composite columns, especially in respect of material discontinuities
(internal porosity, delamination). Application of autoclaving composite production
technique enabled receiving structures having high mechanical characteristics confirmed
by performed strength tests and minimal porosity amount <1%, as well as provided
repeatability of the composite fabrication process.
213

In order to determine mechanical properties of the produced laminates strength
testing was performed in accordance with ISO standards. The experiments were done at
room temperature (RT) with Zwicks Z100/SN3A universal testing machine, having the
accuracy class of 1. To the prepared composite samples (columns) VISHAYs EA-1324022-120 strain gauges were sticked. They were connected to the MGCplus (Hottinger)
measurement system in order to measure the columns deformations. A loading bar
velocity was 2 mm/min. Experimentally determined basic mechanical characteristics of
the carbon-epoxy composite were subsequently collected in Table 1. The received values
were exploited in the definition of material model in Finite Elements numerical
calculations.
Table 1.
Mechanical characteristics of carbon-epoxy composite
Tensile strength
FTU [MPa]
0
90
1867.2
25.97
Young
modulus in
tension
ET [GPa]
0
90
Poisson ratio
130.71 6.36 0.32
Shear strength
FSU [MPa]
Shear
modulus
G [GPa]
Compressive
strength
FCU [MPa]
90
45
45
90
0.02
100.15
4.18
1531
214
3. NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS
Discretisation of the thin-walled column model was based on 4-noded reduced
integration shell elements (S4R) in the Abaqus and 8-noded elements (Shell99) in
the Ansys software. Both types of finite elements had 6 degrees of freedom at each node.
A Layup-Ply technique was employed for the purpose of the symmetrical [0,90,0,90] s
laminate modelling - Fig. 3.
Composite Layup
[0,90,0,90]s
Fig. 3.
Discrete model of composite column
214

Boundary conditions of the numerical model representing articulated support of the
columns ends were defined by restraining the kinematic degrees of freedom of the nodes
belonging to the borders of the first and the last cross-section. The load was applied to the
model as uniformly distributed concentrated forces at the top-end of the column Fig. 3.
The properties of composite material were described by definition of orthotropic
material in plane stress state, what allowed to describe the laminate properties in
particular directions, according to fibres arrangement [15,16] Table 1. The numerical
calculations within the framework of FE were performed in two stages. Namely,
simulation of the critical range was lead using linear buckling analysis procedure,
enabling determination of the critical load, as well as the mode of stability loss.
Verification of the obtained results was performed with the A-N method [6], based on the
Koiters general asymptotic theory of conservative systems stability [7]. The post-critical
calculations were performed as non-linear static analysis of the structure with initiated
imperfections havin a dimension of 0.05 of the top-hat profile wall thickness,
corresponding to the first instability mode of the column. The post-critical analysis taking
into account geometrically non-linear problem in Abaqus [17] was done with incrementaliterative Newton-Raphson method, whereas the post-critical equilibrium path was tracked
with the Arc-length procedure (the Ricks Method) in the Ansys program [18]. The range
of the numerical calculations covered also an attempt to estimate a probability of the
composite damage occurence in post-critical state according to the Tsai-Wu criterion
[19]. This needed determination of additional material characteristics, such as: FTU tensile strength along fibres (0-direction) and in the perpendicular - 90-direction, as
well, FCU - compressive strength in both directions and FSU - shear strength of the 45interface. These characteristics were obtained from the performed experiments, see
Table 1.
4. EXPERIMENTS
Stand tests of the top-hat cross-section columns in compression were done with the
Zwick Z100/SN3A 1-accuracy class universal testing machine of the 100 kN load range.
For this purpose the machine was equipped with intentionally designed and fabricated
grips providing that a column was loaded axially Fig. 4. The grips were set coaxially by
fixing them to the machines loading pins. The ball-and-socket joint enabled free rotations
of the grips. Small imperfections of the composite columns ends, as well as possibility to
occur local effects in boundary sections of the columns were compensated with thin softplastic pads. Before each test the loading system was loaded up to 15 % of the expected
critical load in order to provide best alignment of the column placed between the grips.
Next, the grip retainers were removed and the column was completely unloaded. On the
samples surface, in a point of the biggest deflection of the composite profile web (the
middle wall) two strain gauges were sticked along the 0-direction on both sides of the
column. In addition, the deflection was measured with the OptoNCDT 1605 laser sensor
at the point of the biggest deflections of the profile web or its arm (the side wall).
215
Fig. 4. Test stand outfit: self-aligning grips, composite column and laser sensor
During the tests the following variables were registered: the time, the compressive
force, the displacement of the cross-bar, the web deflection (with the laser sensor) and the
strains (with gauges). The sampling frequency of all parameters was 1 Hz. The
experiments were lead in standard conditions at 23 oC and at a steady cross-bar velocity
equal 1 mm/min. The tests were continued until the load reached double critical force.
The tests covered registration of the subcritical, critical and post-critical state. However,
during the tests no symptoms of the structure failure were perceived.
In the conducted experiments for the purpose of critical forces estimation the
following methods were used [20-26]:
a) the vertical-tangent line method (the mean-strains method) denoted as K1,
b) the method of straight lines intersection in the plot of mean strains denoted as K2,
c) the P-w2 method denoted as K3,
d) the inflexion-point method denoted as K4,
e) the Tereszowski method denoted as K5,
f) the Koiter method denoted as K6.
The experimental tests were conducted on 3 specimens with 3 measurements for
each of them.
5. RESULTS
The critical state analysis of the compressed thin-walled column showed a local
mode of stability loss, manifesting itself by taking a shape of 4 half-waves by all walls of
the profile - Fig. 5. For every numerical tool employed in simulations (FEM, A-N
method) a qualitative, as well as a quantitative agreement of the computational results was
obtained.
216
b)
a)
Fig. 5. First buckling mode of composite column: a) Abaqus results; b) Ansys results
The values of critical forces obtained with particular methods were collected in Table 2.
Table 2.
Critical load values for the firs buckling mode
Computational tool
Abaqus (FEM)
Ansys (FEM)
Critical force [N]

Number of halfwaves
PCR/Ab = 6655 [N]
PCR/As = 6565 [N]
Analytical-numerical
method (A-N)
PCR = 6629 [N]
4
Experimental results for the critical state were given below in a form of force vs
testing method plots, obtained from all measurements performed with any particular
method, together with confidence interval Fig. 6.
8000
8000.00
7500
7500.00
7000
7000.00
6500
6500.00
6000
6000.00
5500
5500.00
5000
Method
FEM/Ab
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
PCR [N]
6655.50
6629.10
6503.85
6184.84
6619.88
7102.08
6918.98
6227.82
5000.00
Mes
FEM
A-N
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
K6
Fig. 6. Comparison of critical forces values PCR [N] determined with different methods
217

Non-linear computations enabled deformation mode analysis of the structure in postcritical state, up to a laminates failure load, determined with the Tsai-Wu criterion. The
failure load value for the laminate material was accepted as the one corresponding to a
failure parameter equal to 1 (on the scale of 0 to 1). The failure force values determined
this way with the Abaqus and the Ansys programs were Pf/Ab = 18.6 kN and
Pf/An = 17.1 kN, respectively. One can notice, that these values equal to 280% or 260% of
the respective critical force PCR/Ab or PCR/An. Zones in models, in which critical value of
the failure parameter was reached indicate hazardous regions of the real composite
structure. This means, the regions where the risk of damage of some plies is high. The
post-critical deformation form with Tsai-Wu criterion maps for the upper surface of the
external laminate layer obtained with the Abaqus and the Ansys programs at failure load
are shown in Fig. 7.
b)
a)
Fig. 7. Post-critical deformation: a) Tsai-Wu Abaqus; b) Tsai-Wu Ansys
Figure 8 presents a comparison of post-critical force-displacement equilibrium paths

for the node experiencing maximal deformation amplitude of the wider wall of the top-hat
profile. The plot displays the results obtained with different research methods: FEM
(Abaqus), analytical-numerical (A-N) method, as well as experimental outcomes.
Abaqus
A-N
Experimental results
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0
0.5
1.5
Fig. 8. Post-critical force-displacement equilibrium paths
218
2.5

6. CONCLUSIONS
The paper presents studies on critical, as well as post-critical state of thin-walled
composite columns subjected to axial compression. The performed analysis prooved
qualitative and quantitative agreement of the research results made with different
methods. Analysis of the curves shown in Fig. 8 reveals good agreement of computational
results with those of experiments, both in subcritical and post-critical range. This
confirms the adequacy of the worked out numerical models. The accepted methods of
critical load determination, based on experiments (Fig. 6) allowed to estimate the range of
experimental value of the critical force PCR = 6184 7102 N with maximal difference
among the used methods equal to 13 %. The critical load value determined with
computational methods: FEM (the Abaqus, the Ansys) and analytical-numerical (A-N)
method were located in the middle of the obtained range - Table 2. In the post-critical
range almost identical force-displacement equilibrium paths in case of FEM and
experiment were obtained. Only the A-N method gave slightly different results (ca 10 %),
but the nature of the curve was the same.
The obtained results give wide possibilities of observation and analysis of
deformation states, as well as effort levels up to the failure. This enabled the identification
of damage-prone zones in the laminate and the determination of the failure load level in
relation to the critical load. The analysis of the post-cricital equilibrium path allows to
assess the structures stiffness after the loss of stability in the context of applied ply
sequence. Thus, the obtained results delivered a lot of important information useful in the
process of forming and optimization of the composite texture in the context of its loading
conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
An article written under the ministerial research project no. N N507 241440 The Ministry
of Science and Higher Education.
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220
BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF

CHANNEL-SECTION COMPOSITE COLUMNS WITH VARIOUS
SEQUENCES OF PLIES
H. DBSKI
Department of Machine Design, Lublin University of Technology
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
T. KUBIAK
A. TETER
Department of Applied Mechanics, Lublin University of Technology
Nadbystrzycka 36, 20618 Lublin, Poland
The paper deals with buckling of thin-walled channel-section composite columns

subjected to static compression. It was assumed, that the columns were simply
supported at both ends. For experimental testing three series of specimens were
manufactured with autoclaving technique. The specimens had identical dimensions
but differed about ply sequence. The Hexcels HexPly M12 carbon-epoxy prepreg
was used in order to fabricate the channel-section columns. During the stand tests
minimal critical forces and the corresponding buckling modes were determined
with an application of electrical strain gauges. In addition, post-critical equilibrium
paths for small overloads (150 % of the critical force) were determined. The
experimental results were compared to the ones obtained numerically with the finite
element method (FEM).
1. INTRODUCTION
In design process of complex composite materials an important role plays the plies
arrangements, having a decisive influence on load carrying abilities of particular
components of the stress state. This applies to thin-walled composite structures stability as
well, in which a specific ply sequence can have essential influence on a value of critical
load or a structures stiffness in post-critical state [1].
This article presents experimental results of thin-walled composite columns having
channel-section subjected to compressive load. It was assumed, that the profiles are
simply supported at both ends. The purpose of the conducted research was determination
of the ply sequence influence on critical load value and the mode of stability loss of the
compressed columns. Moreover, an attempt to assess the influence of the ply sequence on
the structures stiffness in post-critical state was made. The obtained experimental results
allowed to verify numerical calculations performed with the finite element method (FEM)
using the Abaqus software.
221

2. SUBJECT AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH
The experiments were performed on thin-walled composite columns channelsection. The columns were made of the M12/35%/UD134/AS7/300 carbon-epoxy
unidirectional prepreg tape (HexPly, Hexcel). The composites matrix was epoxy resin
(mass density: =1.24 g/cm3; mechanical characteristics: Rm=64 MPa; =0.4; E=5.1 GPa),
whereas the reinforcement were the AS7J12K carbon fibres (= 2.5 g/cm3, Rm=4830 MPa;
=0.269; E=241 GPa). Test specimens were manufactured with autoclaving technique,
providing high strength of the fabricated structures, as well as repeatability of the production
process [2]. Three types of 8-ply composite columns were tested. The layups were
symmetrical, as follows: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s, (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s. Each ply
had the same thickness of 0.131 mm. In Fig. 1 the dimensions of the profiles and an
exemplary ply sequence were given.
Fig. 1. Dimensions and exemplary plies arrangement for column under analysis
For the used composite prepregs the following mechanical characteristics were
determined experimentally - Youngs moduli: E1 = 130.71 GPa, E2 = 6.36 GPa,
Kirchhoffs modulus: G12 = 4.18 GPa, Poissons ratio: 12 = 0.32. In destructive tests the
following features were additionally estimated: tensile strength in the 0o direction
(longitudinal): M1=1867.2 MPa and in perpendicular 90o direction M2=2597 MPa;
shearing strength for the 45 direction: 12M=100.15 MPa and compressive strength in
the two perpendicular 0 and 90 directions: cM1=1531 MPa and cM2=214 MPa,
respectively. The experimentally determined strength characteristics of the carbon-epoxy
composite were exploited in the definition of material model in the FEM calculations.
The manufactured composite columns underwent texture quality control of the
laminate with non-destructive testing (NDT) methods and microstructural inspection
considering a localization of possible flaw. The flaw can have a form of delamination or
porosity cluster. They are the most frequently occurring laminate defects and can
seriously deteriorate the material strength. Moreover, they can be sources of failure of the
composite structure. The NDT tests were done with OmniScan MXU-M ultrasonic
defectoscope, equipped with Olympus 5L64 A12 measurement head. The walls of all the
produced profiles were inspected considering flaw identification. The A-scan and the Bscan techniques were used, as they allowed to localize and to dimension the possible flaw
within the material. Additionally, microstructural research was lead with X-ray micro222

tomography (SkyScan 1174 microtomograph) and with optical microscopy (Nikon
MA200). Both techniques employed computer-assisted image analysis (Image Pro Plus,
NIS-Elements). These methods enabled additional analysis of the composite profiles
round corners radii, where a possibility of discontinuity in the form of interlayer
delamination was particularly high. The performed measurement confirmed very good
quality of the manufactured composite profiles, as no internal flaws were detected.
The numerical calculations were performed with the FEM using the Abaqus
software. The scope of the calculations covered critical state analysis linear calculations
with the buckling analysis option, enabling determination of critical loads and the
columns buckling modes. Next stage of computations was a non-linear analysis of a
structure with implemented imperfections related to the first buckling mode. This enabled
observation of post-critical deformation. In non-linear calculations the Newton-Raphson
incremental-iterative method was employed [3]. In the process of the structure
discretization the S4R, i.e. 4-node shell elements with linear shape function and reduced
integration having 6 degrees of freedom at each node were used. A numerical model of
the channel-section composite columns is presented in Fig. 2.
[0,-45,45,90]s
[0,90,0,90]s
[45,-45,90,0]s
Fig. 2. FEM model of the tested composite columns
The scope of numerical simulations covered also an attempt to assess the possibility
of damage occurrence in the composite in post-critical range. An assessment of material
effort, as well as an estimation of the failure load level was done with the Tsai-Wu
criterion [4], using the experimentally determined limit parameters of the composite. In
addition, a assumed FEM model validations was done with the analytical-numerical
(A-N) method [5-7], based on the Koiter theory [8].
223

4. EXPERIMENTS
The experimental tests consisted of axial compression of the composite columns
within a range from 0 up to ca 150 % of the critical load. In order to provide fine axial
loading conditions, special self-aligning grips with spherical bearings were designed and
fabricated. The grips transfered the load exerted with the Zwick Z100/SN3A universal
testing machine to a specimen - Fig. 3. The used machine is in accuracy class 1. Any
imperfections of the columns ends, able to cause unwanted boundary effects, were
compensated by specially prepared soft-plastic pads.
Fig. 3. Stand test with self-aligning grips for compressive loading of composite columns
On the specimens internal and external surfaces in the vicinity of the biggest webs
deflection area Vishays electrical strain gauges were sticked along the loading direction.
The two CEA-06-125UW-350 series gauges had a constant k=2.1350.5 % and electrical
resistance of 350 0.3 %. In addition the deflections were measured with the
optoNCDT 1605 laser dilatometer. All the measurement elements were plugged to the
MGCplus system (Hottinger). During the tests the indications of all sensors were
registered with a frequency of 1 Hz. It is worth underlining, that no symptoms of the
columns failure were noticed during the tests. Before each test the loading setup was preloaded up to 25 % of the expected critical load in order to provide the best possible
alignment of the column and the grips. Next, the retainers were removed and the specimen
was unloaded to 0. All tests were conducted in standard conditions, at 23oC with constant
velocity of the cross-bar equal to 1 mm/min. The experiments were lead in sub-critical
range with registration of parameters needed in determination of critical loads, as well as
in post-critical range. For each of the considered ply sequences three samples were tested
and the measurements were done thrice. Thus, nine measurements were performed for each
layup in order to determine the columns sub- and post-critical characteristics.
224

On the basis of the obtained experimental results the values of critical load were
determined, in accordance with the following merthods [9-18]:
- the mean-strain (P-sr) method denoted as K1 [9,12,17],
- the method of straight-lines intersection in the plot of mean strains denoted as K2 [9,12,17],
- the P-(1- 2)2 method denoted as K3 [11,17],
- the P-(1- 2)-curve inflection point method - denoted as K4 [9].
Preliminary tests showed, that the oldest and the most known Soutwell method [1318] could not be used, because the values of critical forces manifested big error and,
additionally, were not repeatable.
In the mean-strain (P-sr) method (K1) two strain gauges were placed along loading
direction on both sides of a the web near the biggest-deflection area. Next the values of
strains: 1 and 2 were measured with gauges and registered as a function of the compressive
force P. In the end the mean strains were calculated. Construction of the P-sr plot enabled
determination of the critical forces just reading an ordinate of the point, in which vertical
tangent line touched the plot curve. The method of straight-lines intersection in the plot of
mean strains (K2) was similar to the above described K1 method. The only difference was
the way of critical force readout. For the purpose of critical loads determination it was
necessary to approximate both pre- and post buckling state of the sr-P plot with straight
lines. The critical state was determined as an ordinate of intersection point of these straight
lines. In the P-(1- 2)2 (K3) method a plot of force vs square of deflection had to be
constructed. It was a straight line intersecting the load axis at the point of critical force. It is
worth noting, that knowing the indications of gauges sticked to the opposite sides of each
profiles web one could assume that the relation of the deflection w was directly proportional
to the difference of the gauges indications (1-2). In the last method (K4) for the relation
(1- 2)-P the critical force was determined as an intersection-point ordinate of that curve.
5. RESULTS - DISCUSSION
Both prebuckling and critical states research proved, that the lowest values of the
critical loads refered to local modes of stability loss in case of of all the tested composite
columns and the respective buckling modes, as well. Fig. 4 presents the lowest buckling
modes obtained with numerical calculations (FEM) and in experiments.
A collection of mean values of critical loads and their scatters determined
experimentally and comparative values obtained numerically both with the FEM and the
A-N method were presented in Fig. 5.
The results shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 indicate both qualitative and quantitative
convergence of the buckling modes and the critical load values obtained numerically with
the two computational methods and in the experiments. Analysis of the critical loads
obtained for all the tested columns with the FEM and the A-N method leads to a
conclusion, that the results were practically the same the biggest divergences of ca 4.3%
were obtained for the profile with the [0,-45,45,90]s layup. Moreover, on the basis of the
plot in Fig. 4 one can conclude, that numerical results place usually in the middle of the
critical load range determined with particular methods exploiting the experimental data.
The only exception was the [45,-45,90,0]s profile, for which the computational value of
critical force was for 6 % lower than the experimental one.
225

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4. Buckling modes of the composite columns:

(a) [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) [0,90,0,90]s,
(c) [45,-45,90,0]s
a) Pcr [N]
b)
3000
3500
c)
Pcr [N]
Pcr [N]
5500
3500.00
3000.00
3250.00
2750.00
5500.00
5250.00
5000
2500
3000
3000.00
2500.00
2750.00
2250.00
5000.00
4750.00
4500
4500.00
4250.00
2000
2500
4000
2000.00
2500.00
4000.00
3750.00
1750.00
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
4898.90
FEM
4652.49
2500
5147.43
1000.00
4908.08
3000
1250.00
3500.00
4369.70
1500.00
4402.40
K4
2176.65
K3
1992.64
K2
2432.69
2904.22
K1
1000
1500.00
2415.43
2509.96
A-N
1750.00
2274.80
3061.09
FEM
1500
2000.00
3500
2282.30
3069.51
1500
2848.30
2000
2977.20
2250.00
FEM
A-N
K1
K2
K3
K4
3250.00
3000.00
2750.00
2500.00
Fig. 5. The mean values of critical forces obtained expeimentally and their scatters for the
respective series of samples: (a) [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) [0,90,0,90]s, (c) [45,-45,90,0]s
These results allowed to estimate the influence of the composite layup on critical
load values. The smallest values of critical forces were gained in case of the [0,90,0,90]s
profile, whereas the biggest ones - for the [45,-45,90,0]s ply sequence. On the basis of the
performed analyses a columns tendency to have higher critical load for the layups in
which the 0o-plies were located in the vicinity of the mid-plane. No increase in critical
226

load among profiles differing only with the location of the 0o- degrees ply
(i.e.: [0,-45,45,90]s and [45,-45,90,0]s) in comparison to a layup experiencing lower
critical load was ca 48 %.
Post-critical range analysis enabled to assess the deformation and the stiffness of the
structure after the stability loss in relation to the laminates plies arrangements. The
failure loads were determined only in numerical way using FEM because the experimental
tests were lead within the range exceeding ca. 1.5-times. An attempt was made to assess
the failure load value in accordance with the Tsai-Wu criterion [4]. In Fig. 6 the postcritical deformation of the compressed columns corresponding to the failure load value
was presented (the Tsai-Wu-criterion failure parameter equal to 1).
Fig. 6. Post-critical deformation state: (a) [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) [0,90,0,90]s, (c) [45,-45,90,0]s
Zones, where the critical value of the failure parameter was reached indicated the
areas endangered to damage occurrence in the laminates external plies. The values of
failure load determined with the FEM in relation to the critical load were collected in
Table 1.
The obtained FEM results of the destructive forces showed, that the change of the 0plies locations (i.e.: [0,-45,45,90]s and [45,-45,90,0]s) in relation to the system having lower
loading was ca 39 %. This means, the difference in failure load was lower than in critical
loads. Interesting results of the critical and failure loads were obtained for the composites
with [0,-45,45,90]s and [0,90,0,90]s plies sequences. Note, that the critical load in case of the
[0,-45,45,90]s sequence was bigger than the critical force for the [0,90,0,90]s ply sequence.
On contrary, in case of failure loads an opposite tendency was observed. This probably was
a result of multiplication of the 0o- plies number.
Moreover, it should be noted, that among the analysed layups the cross-ply laminate
showed the biggest increase in failure force in relation to critical force ca six times.
Table 1.
Failure load values (FEM)
Composite layup
(a) - [0,-45,45,90]s
(b) - [0,90,0,90]s
(c) - [45,-45,90,0]s
Critical force Pcr [N]
2977.2
2282.3
4402.4
Failure force Pf [N]
10100
13693
14087
227
6000
P[N]
P/Pcr[-]
1.5
4500
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(c)
w[mm] 0
0
0
0.6
1.2
w/h[-]
0
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.8
Fig. 7. Comparison of post-critical equilibrium paths for composite columns with different
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s, (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s. obtained with the
FEM
P/Pcr[-]
P[N]
6000
1.5
4500
1
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(c)
w[mm] 0
0
0
0.6
1.2
1.8
w/h[-]
0
0.6
1.2
1.8
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s, (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s obtained with A-N
method
P[N]
6000
1.5
4500
P/Pcr[-]
3000
0.5
1500
(a)
(a)
(b)
0
0
0.6
1.2
(c)
w[mm]
(b)
(c)
w/h[-]
0
0
1.8
0.6
1.2
1.8
layups: (a) - [0,-45,45,90]s, (b) - [0,90,0,90]s and (c) - [45,-45,90,0]s obtained
experimentally
228

Post-critical equilibrium paths were also determined for the nodes experiencing
maximal amplitudes of displacement in a slightly post-critical state. Figs 7 9 present the
results of experiments, as well as the FEM and the A-N method outcomes in both
dimensional (w-P) and non-dimensional coordinate system (w/h-P/Pcr, where h stands for
the columns wall thickness).
For every tested column high similarity of the computational and the experimental
results was gained. However, in the plots the comparison of equilibrium paths was
emphasized for different composites ply-sequences. The comparison of the nondimensional results obtained with the FEM and the A-N showed that in post-critical state
the plies sequence had no influence on the columns stiffness. Namely, the inclination of
the curves in post-critical state was very similar. A detailed analysis of the results showed
only slightly bigger stiffness of the (c) composite column.
The observations yielding from the dimensional and the non-dimensional plots gained
with computational methods were confirmed experimentally see the similar inclination of
the post-critical state curves in Fig. 9. Moreover, it was noticeable, that the deflections of the
columns (a) and (b) were bigger than those of the (c) column, when the applied load value
was from the post-critical range. The column exhibiting higher critical load deflected less in
relation to those having lower critical load.
4. CONCLUSION
In the article the analysis of the thin-walled channel-section composite columns
subjected to static compression was presented. The obtained results showed both
qualitative and quantitative conformity of buckling modes, as well as values of critical
load found by numerical or analytical-numerical calculations with experimental outcomes.
Moreover, one could notice, that computational results placed usually in the middle of the
critical load range, estimated with particular methods exploiting the experimental results.
The obtained outcomes allowed to estimate the influence of the composites plies
sequence on the value of critical load. On the basis of the composite columns behaviour in
compression a tendency to have higher critical load was observed, in case of the
structures, in which the 0-plies were located in the vicinity of the layups symmetry
plane. The (b) column exhibited the biggest increase in its failure load in relation to the
critical one - even 6 times.
Concerning the stiffness of the considered columns, it was similar for all specimens:
the inclination angle of the curves secant lines was almost the same in post-critical state.
Comparison of the deflections of the considered columns lead to a conclusion, that the
column (c), having bigger critical load for the applied force from the post-critical range,
deformed less than the columns having lower critical loads ((a) and (b)).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
An article written under the ministerial research project no. N N507 241440 The Ministry
of Science and Higher Education.
229

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reinforced with fiber-reinforced plastic sheets, Composite Structures 88, 2009, pp. 481
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plastics channel columns at elevated temperatures, Composite Structures 81, 2007, pp. 84
95.
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buckling of stitched composite laminates, Composites: Part A 38 2007, pp. 20242033.
Turvey G.J. and Zhang Y., A computational and experimental analysis of the buckling,
postbuckling and initial failure of pultruded GRP columns, Computers and Structures 84,
2006, pp.15271537.
230
POSTBUCKLING PROBLEMS
OF THIN PERIODIC PLATES
. DOMAGALSKI, J. JDRYSIAK
Department of Structural Mechanics, Technical University of Lodz
al. Politechniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
The objects under considerations are thin linear-elastic plates with periodic
structure subjected to large deflections. The paper concerns the problem
of periodic plates postbuckling behaviour. The applied mathematical model
describing geometrically nonlinear problems of such plates, proposed
by Domagalski and Jdrysiak (2012), is based on the tolerance averaging technique,
cf. Woniak et al. (eds.) (2010).
1. INTRODUCTION
Plates considered in this paper are made of isotropic materials but as a result
of changing thickness or using two or more materials with different elastic properties their
behaviour is similar to behaviour of anisotropic or orthotropic ones with discontinuities of
geometric or/and material properties, cf. Fig. 1. It leads to governing equations of these
plates, which have non-continuous, highly oscillating, functional coefficients. Exact
solutions to these equations are very difficult to obtain. Therefore, various simplified
approaches, introducing effective plate properties, are proposed. Amongst them there
have to be mentioned models based on the asymptotic homogenization, e.g. homogenized
model of periodic plates proposed by Kohn and Vogelius [7].
Fig. 1. Fragment of a thin periodic plate
In this paper, in order to take into account this effect in model equations,
the tolerance modelling approach is applied, cf. the books edited by Woniak, Michalak
and Jdrysiak [14] and by Woniak et al. [13]. Applications of this method to other
problems of periodic plates are shown in a series of papers, e.g. for vibrations of periodic
231

wavy-type plates by Michalak [9], for periodically stiffened plates by Nagrko and
Woniak [10], for the buckling of periodic thin plates by Jdrysiak [4], for plates with the
inhomogeneity period of an order of the plate thickness by Baron [1], for stability and
vibrations of periodic plates by Jdrysiak [5, 6], for some problems of bending of thin
periodic plates by Domagalski and Jdrysiak [2, 3].
The aims of this contribution are: to present governing equations of the tolerance
model of thin periodic plates subjected to large deflections, which take into account
the effect of the microstructure size, and to apply this model to investigate some problems
of plates subjected to inplane loads beyond their critical values.
2. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
Let Ox1x2x3 be an orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system; subscripts i, j, k, l run
over 1, 2, 3 and , , , run over 1, 2. Denote x=(x1,x2) and z=x3. The undeformed plate
occupies the region {(x,z):(x)/2z(x)/2, x}, with midplane and
the plate thickness (). Let us also denote the partial derivatives with respect to a space
coordinate by =/x.
It is assumed that periodic plates under consideration consist of many small
repetitive elements called periodicity cells. The cell is defined as a plane region
l1/2,l1/2][l2/2,l2/2], where l1, l2 are the cell dimensions along
the x1-, x2-axis. The size of the microstructure of the plate is described by the diameter of
the periodicity cell, given by l=[(l1)2+(l2)2]1/2 and satisfying the condition
max()<<l<<min(L1,L2), (L1 and L2 are characteristic dimensions of the plate along the x1and x2-axis). This diameter is called the microstructure parameter. Hence, the cell can be
treated as a thin plate.
Our considerations are based on the well-known nonlinear theory of thin plates
(cf. Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Krieger [11], and Woniak (ed.) [12]). Let w(x) be
a plate midplane deflection, u0(x) be the in-plane displacements along the x-axes, F(x)
be the stress function, and q(x) be the total loadings in the z-axis; x. Thickness () can
be a periodic function in x and elastic moduli aijkl=aijkl(,z) can be also periodic functions
in x and even functions in z. Let a, a33, a3333 be the non-zero components of the
elastic moduli tensor. Denote ca-a33a33(a3333)-1.
Define the mean plate properties, being periodic functions in x, i.e. shell stiffnesses
b and bending stiffnesses d, in the form:
( x ) / 2
( x) / 2
( x) / 2
( x) / 2
c (x, z)dz, d (x)
b (x)
(x, z ) z 2 dz.
(1)
From the well-known assumptions of the nonlinear thin plate theory, e.g. relations
between the total strains E, membrane strains E0 and curvatures written as:
E E0 z
E0 ( u0 u0 w w), w,
1
2
232
(2)

the constitutive equations for membrane strains formulated as following:
~
E0 b F ,
(3)
~
2
bb , F N , () ( )() , we obtain
for periodic plates the following equations for the deflection w and the stress function F:
where
~
(bF ) 12 (ww ww),
(d w) Fw q.
(4)
These equations have functional, highly oscillating, non-continuous, periodic in x

coefficients.
3. THE TOLERANCE MODELLING APPROACH
3.1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
In the course of modelling, some introductory concepts of the tolerance modelling
technique, such as the averaging operation <>, the slowly-varying (SV) function,
the fluctuation shape (FS) function, are used. These concepts are described in books
edited by Woniak, Michalak and Jdrysiak [14] and by Woniak et al. [13].
3.2. FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS
Following books [13, 14] and using the previously mentioned introductory concepts,
the fundamental modelling assumptions can be formulated.
First of them is the micro-macro decomposition of the basic unknowns, where there
is assumed:
for the out-of-plane deflection:
w(x) W (x) h A (x)V A (x),
A 1,, N ,
for the in-plane displacements:
u0 (x) U 0 (x),
(5)
(6)
for the stress function:

F (x) (x) g K (x) K (x),
233
K 1,, M ,
(7)

and W (), V A (), (), K () SVd2 (, ), U () SVd1 (, )
h (), g () FS (, )
A
2
d
are basic unknowns;
are the known fluctuation shape functions. Functions

K
W(), (), V () and () are called the macrodeflection, the macrostress function,
the fluctuation amplitudes of the deflection and of the stress function, respectively; U0()
are the in-plane macrodisplacements.
The additional assumption is the decomposition of the load q(x) in the form
q(x) q0 (x) q~(x) , where q0 q is the slowly-varying averaged load, and q~ is
the oscillating part, q~ 0 .
4. MODEL EQUATIONS
Applying the modelling procedure described in [13, 14], under denotations
~
~
~
~
~
~
B b , BK b g K , B KL b g K g L ,
A
D d , D
d h A , D AB d h A h B ,
AB
Q q 0 ,
Q A q~h A l 2 ,
G
h A h B l 2 ,
(8)
we arrive at the following system of equations for the macrostress function (),
the fluctuation amplitudes of the stress function K(), the macrodeflection W(),
the fluctuation amplitudes of the deflection VA():
~ eff
AB
( B
) 12 ( W W ) 12 l 2 G
(V BV A ),
B
( D W D
V B ) W Q,
AB B
DA W D ABV B l 2 G
V l 2 Q A ,
~
~L
K ( B LK ) 1 B
; , , , 1, 2; A, B 1, ...,N ; K , L 1, ...,M ,
(9)
eff
L
K
where B
.
B B
( B KL ) 1 B
Equations (9) together with micro-macro decompositions (5)-(7) constitute
the nonlinear tolerance model of thin periodic plates. This model describes the effect
of the microstructure size on the overall plate behaviour by the underlined terms.
For considered plates there have to be formulated boundary conditions only
for the macrodeflection W and the macrostress function . Moreover, the basic unknowns
of
equations
(9)
have
to
satisfy
the
following
conditions:
W (), V A (), (), K () SVd2 (, ) . For comparison we recall the governing equations
of the linear tolerance model of thin periodic plates:
A
D W D
V A Q,
A
D
W D ABV B l 2Q A ,
234
(10)

cf. Jdrysiak [4], Woniak, Michalak and Jdrysiak [14]. It can be observed that in this
model the effect of the microstructure size is taken into account only by the term related
to the oscillating part l 2Q A of the load.
5. EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION
5.1. PROBLEM FORMULATION
The object under consideration is a simply supported rectangular plate with constant
thickness and length dimensions L1 and L2=L1 along the x1- and x2-axis, respectively. It
is also assumed that all edges of the plate are immovable. The plate
is made of two isotropic materials (a matrix M, a rib R), having Youngs modulus EM
and ER and Poissons ratio M and R, periodically distributed along the x1- and x2-axis. A
fragment of considered plate is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Solutions W(), () to the model equations (8) have to satisfy boundary conditions
for the simply supported plate, i.e. W=11W=0 for x1=0, L1; W=22W=0 for x2=0, L2;
22=N11 for x1=0, L1 and 11=N22 for x2=0, L2. Therefore, denoting m=m/L1, n=n/L2,
the above mentioned solutions can be assumed in the form of double sine
or cosine trigonometric series ([8, 11]):
W ( x1 , x2 ) Wmn sin m x1 sin n x2 ,
n
V A ( x1 , x2 ) VmnA sin m x1 sin n x2 ,

n
( x1 , x2 ) mn cos m x1 cos n x2 12 p1 x2 12 p 2 x1 ,
2
(11)
K
K ( x1 , x2 ) mn
cos m x1 cos n x2 ,
n
where constants p1 and p2 represent average membrane forces per unit length in the x1and x2-direction. The transversal average loads Q( x1, x2 ) and Q A( x1, x2 ) can
be expanded into double sine series:
A
Q( x1 , x2 ) Qmn sin m x1 sin n x2 , Q A ( x1 , x2 ) Qmn
sin m x1 sin n x2 . (12)
n
Application of the Galerkin method leads to the following set of nonlinear, coupled
algebraic equations for coefficients of series (11):
235

~
bkleff kl klpqrsW pqWrs 2 2 klAB, pqrsV pqAVrsB ,
p,q,r ,s
A, B p , q , r , s
d mnWmn (m p1 n p 2 )Wmn
2
i , j , k ,l
A
d ABVmnB d mn
Wmn 2
B
B
Wij kl d mn
VmnB q mn 0,
ijkl
mn
mnAB,ijklVijB kl
(12)
B i , j , k ,l
A
2 [G11AB p1 G22AB p 2 ]VmnB 2 qmn
0,
B
where overlined terms represent dimensionless forms of unknown coefficients:
Wmn
Wmn
kl
LL
, VmnA 1 2 VmnA , kl
,
EM 3
(13)
dimensionless load-dependent terms are as follows:

4
A
[qmn , qmn
]
L1
A
[Qmn , Qmn
],
EM 4
L1
p ,
EM 3
(14)
where is dimensionless microstructure parameter =l/L1. The other coefficients

of equations (12) are obtained as a result of applying the Galerkin method and,
in order to limit the length of this paper, will not be presented here.
Some numerical results calculated in the framework of the nonlinear tolerance
models are shown in the next section.
Fig. 2. A basic periodicity cell
5.2. CALCULATIONAL RESULTS

Numerical results are obtained for a square plate (=1), made of two different isotropic
materials.
l/2,l/2][l/2,l/2], cf.
Fig. 2. It is assumed that the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio are given by:
236
E M , M if x [l / 2,l / 2) [l / 2,l / 2)
[l / 2,l / 2) (l / 2, l / 2]
(l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2,l / 2)
E (x), (x)
(l / 2, l / 2] (l / 2, l / 2],
E R , R if x [l / 2,l / 2) [l / 2, l / 2]
[l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2, l / 2]
(l / 2, l / 2] [l / 2, l / 2],
(15)
where is a dimensionless parameter describing distribution of material properties

in the periodicity cell, cf. Fig. 2.
12.0
e=4, =0.2
10.0
e=4, =0.1
e=2, =0.2
8.0
p1
6.0
4.0
e=2, =0.1
2.0
e=1
0.0
0
0.5
1.5
Fig. 3. Relations between uniaxial compression and maximum macrodeflection

of initially flat (solid lines) and deflected due to transversal load (dashed lines) square
plates
The fluctuation shape functions hA and gK are assumed in the similar form:
237
h A g A 13 l 2 [(1 cos
2 Ay1
2 Ay 2
)(1 cos
) 1],
l
l
A 1,...,N ,
(16)
satisfying conditions <hA>=0.

In calculations we assume for the matrix: the Youngs modulus EM, the Poissons
ratio M=0.316. For the rib it is assumed: the Youngs modulus ER=eEM, the Poissons
ratio R=M. Results presented here are obtained for following values of parameters:
dimensionless width of the rib =0.1, 0.2; dimensionless microstructure parameter
=0.05; Youngs modulus ratio e=2.0, 3.0, 4.0.
The deflections of a plate subjected to various combinations of inplane and lateral
loads were calculated for the values of geometrical () and material (e) parameters
of the plates microstructure given above.
1
The minimal values of critical inplane load ( p11
) crit for a plate with periodically
distributed material inhomogeneities are presented in the dimensioneless form, in
Table 1. This loads correspond to a linear stability problems eigenvalues, as the
macrodeflection is assumed as W(x1,x2)=W11sin1x11x2. The critical load values were
calculated using the tolerance modelling technique, as described by Jdrysiak [4].
The value e=1.0 refers to a homogeneous plate.
The graphs in Fig. 3 illustrate the inplane load - center macrodeflection relationships
initially flat (solid lines) and transversally loaded plates (dashed lines).
The dimensionless intensity of the transversal load was assumed as q=5.0.
Table 1.
Minimal values of critical load for a square plate
e=ER/EM
1
( p11
) crit
1.0
3.655
2.0
0.1
4.322
4.0
0.2
4.886
0.1
5.547
0.2
7.069
Following Levy [8], let us define the ratio of elastic effective width to initial width
as the ratio of the actual load carried by the plate to the load the plate would have carried
if the stress had been uniform and equal to the Youngs modulus of the matrix material EM
multiplied by the average edge strain e1. Here, this ratio is calculated from the following
formula:
L02 ~ eff p1
B2222
.
L2
e1
(17)
The graphs in Fig. 4 illustrate the dependence between ratios L02 L2 and e1/e1.crit,
where the value of critical strain corresponds to the case of no transverse load.
The results were calculated for e=ER/EM=1.0, 4.0, =0.1, 0.2. The results calculated
for a homogeneous plate (e=1.0) are identical with those obtained by Levy.
238

1
e1.0
q=0
e4.0, 0.1
e4.0, 0.2
0.8
q=2.25
0.6
0
2
L
L2
q=29.5
0.4
L02 ~ eff p1
B2222
L2
e1
0.2
0
0
e1 e1.crit
Fig. 4. Effect of transversal load on effective width of a square plate loaded by edge
compression
6. REMARKS
Analyzing graphs in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 it can be observed that:

for the transversally unloaded plates, the macrodeflection is equal to zero until
the inplane load does not exceed the critical value;
the bifurcation points correspond to the critical values of the load calculated within
the linear tolerance model;
occurence of the transversal load results in a significant quantitative and qualitative
differences in the calculated deflections and its maximal influence occurs for
the critical values of inplane load;
increasing values of the parameters and e causes: increasing of the critical loads
and the effective width of the plate for q>0 and decreasing of the calculated
deflections.
Furthermore, some general remarks can be formulated:
239
applying the tolerance modelling to the known differential equations of thin periodic
plates with large deflections the averaged equations of the nonlinear tolerance model
are derived.
this technique makes it possible to replace the governing equations with noncontinuous, periodic, highly oscillating coefficients by the system of differential
equations with constant coefficients;
the derived equations of the nonlinear tolerance model involve terms, which take into
account the effect of the microstructure size on the overall behaviour of periodic
plates;
the governing equations of the linear tolerance model take into account the effect
of the microstructure size only by the term dependent of the oscillating part
of the load.
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d 2008.
240
STABILITY OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES STIFFENERS

UNDER LATERAL LOADS
K. DYK
Det Norske Veritas Poland Sp. Z o. o.,
uycka 6E, 90-924 Gdynia, Poland
M. TACZAA
Faculty of Maritime Technology and Transport,
West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin
Al. Piastw 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
The paper presents a comparison of linear and nonlinear methods for the
assessment of ship structures buckling. Typical part of offshore structure was
selected to comparison. The objective of the study is to determine the relationship
between two equivalent methods of calculation. Analysis of the behavior of
stiffened panels is based on the rules and recommended practice of Det Norske
Veritas.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
Stability of structures is one of the most important criteria during design. Buckling
of the structural components may disable the proper functioning of the structure. In the
case of oil rigs buckling can ultimately cause the overall collapse of the structure resulting
in the significant damage or loss of the rig. The problem of stability is subject to intensive
investigation to provide appropriate level of structural safety [1].
The designers and engineers use classification rules defining the dimensions of the
structures employing the criteria of strength and stability. Applying the provisions of Det
Norske Veritas, it is possible to select either of two methods for assessing the stability of
structures.
The first method is based on closed-form formulas employing ratio of the actual
stress to the allowable stress referred to as an utilisation ratio [2] and [3].
The second method is based on solution of von Karman and Marguerre equations.
This method allows for evaluation of stiffened panels and flat plates. The algorithm is
implemented in the PULS computer code enabling analyses of typical parts of structures
[4].
241

1.2. SCOPE OF ANALYSIS
Four models (Fig. 1-3) were analysed. All these models represent the same structure,
the difference between them being the range of the structure covered by the models.
The first model (Fig. 1) is a plate having dimensions of 5600x9000 mm stiffened
longitudinally with bulb plates HP 220x10 (height x web thickness) and transverse girders
T670x200x12x18 mm (web height x flange thickness x web thickness x flange thickness)
which are typical scantling for offshore structures.
Fig. 1. Stiffened panel
The second model (Fig. 2) is a plate stiffened with six longitudinal stiffeners
HP220x10. Span between stiffeners is 800 mm. Plating dimensions are 3000x5600 mm,
thus comprising 1/3 of the first model.
Fig. 2. Stiffened plate
242

The third and fourth (Fig. 3) models are composed of a plate having dimensions
800x3000 stiffened with a single HP220x10 stiffener. Again, this is a part of the previous
models.
Fig. 3. Stiffened plat
Models 3 and 4 are geometrically identical; the difference is the method of solution
of the buckling problem, the geometry and extent being the same. Models 1, 2 and 3 were
calculated using PULS, the fourth one was calculated according to the equations given in
the rules (the first approach).
Plate thickness for all the considered models was naturally the same: 12 mm.
2. METHOD, PROCEDURES CALCULATIONS AND MATERIALS
Calculations were done under the requirement DNV-RP-C201, being the
recommended practice for analysis of buckling of offshore structures. The rules have been
developed by Det Norske Veritas.
2.1 LINEAR ANALYTICAL METHOD
The first method (as described in Chapter 1.1) is based on the formulas given in the
rules. These are equations in which the buckling solution is based on simple models. The
complete stiffened panel including both the stiffeners and girders is idealized using
various models. The effective breadth is taken into account equal to a half of the distance
between stiffeners. In this method the whole panel is not addressed.
The results of calculations using the equations based on possible buckling modes
form an envelope. The interaction equations are considered, depending on which side the
lateral loading is applied. In the case of the loading acting on the plate side the following
equations hold (1-7).
243

N Sd
N ks ,Rd
M1,Sd
N
M st, Rd 1 Sd
NE
u 1
M
N Sd z *
N Sd
N
2 Sd 1,Sd
u 1
N kp , Rd
N Rd
N Sd
M p, Rd 1
N E
M
N Sd z*
N Sd
N
2 Sd 2,Sd
u 1
N ks ,Rd
N Rd
N Sd
M st,Rd 1
N E
M
N Sd z *
N Sd
2,Sd
u 1
N kp , Rd
N Sd
M p, Rd 1
N E
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Where:
u Sd
Rd
(5)
M 1, Sd
qSd l 2
12
(6)
M 2,Sd
qSd l 2
24
(7)
N Sd
N Rd
design axial force
NE
M Sd
M Rd
qSd
Euler buckling strength
design axial resistance

design axial force
design axial resistance
design lateral line load
The equations are valid for the case of transverse loading acting on the flat side of
the panel (without stiffeners). Analogous equations are given for the loading applied to
the other side.
244

2.2 NON-LINEAR DISCRETE METHOD
The second method is based on the nonlinear large deflection plate theory as derived
by Marguerre including initial deflections, following the original formulation by von
Karman [5].
The Rayleigh-Ritz method where the buckling mode is approximated using Fourier
series is used. The principle of the stationary potential energy of the system is employed
to formulate the algebraic non-linear equilibrium equations which are solved using the
incremental perturbation technique.
2.3 CALCULATION PROCEDURES
Computational procedure is based on the two computational methods as described in
Chapter 2 and is composed of two stages. In the first stage models are analysed using the
PULS computer code while in the second models are analysed according to the rule
formulae. All the models are loaded by two types of loading: axial and lateral loading.
The axial loading is realised in the form of the mean compressive stresses applied to the
edges of the plate and stiffener having values 0, 25, 50, 100, 125 and 150 MPa,
respectively. The lateral loading is realized in the form of the pressure acting on the plate
surface - side without stiffeners, incremented from 0 by 0.05 MPa up to the value of
0.12 MPa. Employing the nonlinear methods, the solution is a parabola, while the solution
obtained using the analytical method is given in the form of four curves which are
presented as an envelope of the minimum values.
The model edges were clamped which is the boundary condition automatically
generated by PULS and implicitly applied in the computational formulae. In the nonlinear
analysis the whole breadth of the model is considered without taking into account the
effective breadth, in the analytical method the breadth of the model is reduced to the half
of the distance between stiffeners see (Figure 4).
Fig. 4. Effective width concept
245

2.4 MATERIALS
In all calculations it was used a linear elastic material, because the behaviour of the
structure beyond the yield point is not relevant to the assessment and buckling strength.
The values of Young's modulus is assumed in the calculations in accordance with require
of rules that is 2.06105 N/mm2.
3. RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS
The results of the stability analysis are presented in Figures 5-11, each of them for
various compressive stresses. In each figure four curves are presented corresponding to
models 1-3, as well as a curve for the PULS results - no 5.
Curve 4 - as explained in Chapter 2.3 - is an envelope of solutions of four equations
given in Chapter 2.1.
Curve 5 presents the limit value for the models evaluated in PULS. The limit value
is due to the way of presentation of the nonlinear solution being the absolute value
excluding the material coefficient and for the offshore structures is 0.87.
Rd
fy
(8)
fy = 235 MPa,
M 1.15.
Fig. 5. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship without axial compressed pressure
For allowable design stress Rd and yield stress fy the material coefficient is 1.15.
The rule formulae include safety factor, therefore they refer to the critical value equal to
(8). Utilisation Ratio is defined as below in the equation below (9).
246

design stress
1.0
design resistance stress
(9)
According to equation (9) ratio between design stress in the structures and resistance
of material cannot be higher than factor 1.0 or 0.87 (nonlinear method). Resistance
material is determined by characteristic yield strength and buckling curve which is
connected with dimensions of structures [2].
Curve description:
Stiffened panel with girders calculated by using PULS
Stiffened panel with six stiffeners calculated by using PULS
Stiffened plat with one stiffenre calculated by using PULS
Stiffened plate with one stiffener calculate according to offshore rules
Limit curve equile 0,87, for PULS results.
Fig. 6. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 25 MPa
247
Fig. 7. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 50 MPa
Fig. 8 Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 75 MPa
The results of the present calculations prove the buckling stresses for limited
models. The results prove that the values of the buckling stresses for the small models
using the nonlinear theory are much greater than for the models of the whole panels
according to the same method and the stiffener models according to the closed-form
formulas. For the value of 125 MPa and larger (Figures 10 and 11) utilisation ratio
exceeds the buckling stress for the small models only for the transverse loading greater
than 0.11 MPa, while for the other discussed cases for all the values of the pressure.
248
Fig. 9. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression

100 MPa
Fig. 10. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression 125
MPa
4. CONCLUSIONS
Solution of the problem of stability of stiffened plates according to the von Karman
large deflection theory allows to design a lighter structure comparing to the rule
equations, yet it depends on the range of the model. The results for stiffened plates abject
to combined axial and lateral loading are more conservative. The results obtained
employing nonlinear theory for models including one and six stiffeners are similar.
249

Application of the nonlinear approach may lead designing structures having larger
scantling comparing to the closed-form formulas given in the rules. (Figure 8-11).
Solution of the problem of stability of offshore structures according to the nonlinear
theory calls for application of complex mathematical methods. Solution of the buckling
problem using the nonlinear theory calls for application of a computer code (PULS or
similar).
Fig. 11. Utilisation ratio-lateral pressure relationship with axial average compression
150 MPa
Comparing the results (Figures 5-11) it can be seen that application of the nonlinear
methods is favourable for large models covering the entire panel together with girders.
For the models comprising only using plates and stiffeners the calculated critical stresses
are significantly smaller than using the first method and that therefore assume it is less
safe. For the small models the first method provides more safe results while for the large
models - the second approach.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Byklum E., Steen E., Amdahl J. (2004), A semi-analytical model for global buckling and
postbuckling analysis of stiffened panels, Thin-Walled Structures 42, pp. 701-717.
Det Norske Veritas DNV-RP-C201 Recommended Practice, October 2010, Hovik.
Det Norske Veritas, Platework Theory Manual, September 2004.
Det Norske Veritas, PULS User Manual 2.0.9, January 2009.
Kmiecik M., Wizmur M., Bielewicz E., Nonlinear analysis of membranes and plates (in
Polish), Wydawnictwo Politechniki Gdaskiej, Gdask, 1995.
250
AN INFLUENCE OF GLOBAL INITIAL DEFLECTIONS

ON POST-CRITICAL BEHAVIOUR OF ISOTROPIC
SQUARE-TUBE COLUMNS WITH DIMPLES
M. FERDYNUS
Department of Machine Design, Lublin University of Technology
36 Nadbystrzycka St., Lublin 20-618, Poland
The object of this study is a thin-walled aluminium square tube with dimples
stamped in the profiles corners. The way of constructing a model of the column
with stamped dimples to which an initial deflection, as well as a shape disturbance
in a form of geometrical imperfections were applied, was here described in detail.
The influence of the global initial deflections on post-critical loading path was
examined, in order to tentatively assess the columns sensitivity to a deviation of its
symmetry axis.
1. INTRODUCTION
The following paper was devised to be a numerical study, in which a case of column
with a series of stamped dimples in the profiles corners would be analysed. Introduction
of these disturbances had in target making the column more compliant, such that it could
play a role of energy absorber. This article is a preliminary study on some conception and
precedes a planned experiment. In addition, an influence of global initial deflections on
post-critical form of loading path was considered. The significance of these analyses
conceals in an assessment of the structure sensitivity to any deviation of its axis of
symmetry. Behaviour of the column during failure phase was also shown, even though it
was not the main goal of the paper. By connecting a non-linear post-critical state analysis
of the structure with observation of its failure behaviour an approximate assessment of the
columns load-carrying capacity was enabled. The subject area of stability and loadcarrying capacity of isotropic columns having the form of square tube had been well
recognized by scientists. There were a number of articles devoted to this matter. Among
others Abramowicz [1, 2] studied steel columns in order to use them as energy absorbers.
The works of Langseth and Hopperstad [11, 12] concentrated on columns made of
aluminium. Meng and Wierzbicki [14, 17, 18] analysed failure mechanisms of closed
cross-section columns. However, no articles concerning columns with corners shaped as
described above (with dimples) were found in the open literature. Even though in [13, 15]
the authors studied behaviour of pipe columns with dimples, these flaws were treated as
damage and each column had only one dimple at a time. This allowed presuming, that the
presented study of a thin-walled structure could be considered unique.
251

2. OBJECT OF RESEARCH. A MODEL OF COLUMN WITH DIMPLES
The object of the analysis was a model of the column with square-tube cross-section
68x1 made of aluminium alloy EN AW6060-T6 (E=70000 MPa, =0.33). This material
exhibits linear hardening during plastic flow (Re=175 MPa, Rm=250 MPa, A= 8%). The
columns height was assumed to be six times greater than its average cross-section
dimension l=6x67=402 mm. The analysis of buckling modes of a smooth (without
dimples) column yielded a location of nodal line for the first mode. This allowed placing
the corner dimples properly. The process of modelling of the column with dimples was
realized with the Catia v5 system in the Generative Shape Design module. The model of
the column with a magnified corner dimple was presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. The model of the column made in the Generative Shape Design module of the
Catia v5 system
The dimples shape was defined by the main radius R=30 mm: its bottom transited
into the surface of the columns side wall with a radius r=6 mm. The stamped dimple
penetrated the corner for 6.7 mm in depth, what was 10 % of its width. As it was shown in
Fig. 1, there were four corner dimples made at five height levels at 67 mm - intervals.
The shell model made in the Catia v5 system was fully parameterized. Thus, it was
very easy to modify the location and the geometry of the dimples.
The model of the column was subsequently imported into the ABAQUS system in
order to perform the FEM analyses. These analyses were made in three stages:
1. Analysis of buckling mode of the columns model with dimples; computation of the
critical force.
2. Elaboration of the columns models with some global initial deflection (with
primordial curvature of its symmetry axis; the models differed in a magnitude of
deflection (from 0 to 5 mm every 0.25 mm).
3. Performing static non-linear analysis of many variants of compressed column with
dimples.
In all stages the same boundary conditions, as well as loading conditions were
applied. Due to the fact, that in the planned experiments the real columns would be loaded
through existing grips with articulated support and that the current paper is a pre252

experimental study, a special care was taken about conformity of the real and the
numerical boundary conditions. In the FEM model two reference points RF1 and RF2
were established and by the Coupling type constraints the columns boundaries were
fixed to them in stiff. The reference points were located at h=65 mm from the columns
boundaries, what referred to a distance between a spheres centre and the grips bearing
surface. In the RF1 point the structure was devoid of the three translational degrees of
freedom and the rotational degree of freedom around the Z axis. In the RF2 point, in
which a concentrated load was applied, the boundary conditions were changed only by
enabling translations along the Z axis, in comparison with the RF1.
In Fig 2 the ABAQUS model of the column with the applied boundary and loading
conditions is presented.
Fig. 2.
The ABAQUS model of the column with applied boundary conditions
At the first stage of the analysis special attention was paid to obtain an optimal FEM
mesh, i.e. dense enough in significant areas and generally regular. It was very important to
evade any influence of the mesh quality on simulation results, as at subsequent stages still
the same mesh was used. In Fig. 3 the model of the column with the FEM mesh was
presented. It is well visible those areas, where the mesh was regular, made of the S4R 4node shell elements with reduced integration prevailed in the model. However, in the
vicinity of the dimples the S3 3-node elements appeared, even though the 4-node
elements still dominated there.
Fig. 3. The ABAQUS model of the column after the FEM mesh generation
253

Before performing the analysis it was necessary to add in the input file a routine
enabling introduction of the profiles shape deformation by calling a file with a fill
extension. The final effect of the first stage was finding the critical force, as well as
buckling modes. These data in the form of file were exploited in subsequent stage of
modelling. In Fig. 4 the first and the second buckling mode together with the respective
critical force values were displayed.
m=1
m=2
PCR= 14 163 N
PCR= 15 292 N
Fig. 4. The first and the second buckling mode of the profile and the respective values of
critical forces
The second stage of building the model had in target getting the columns shape
allowing for two kinds of disturbances: small initial deflection of the whole profile and
geometrical imperfections imitating the first buckling mode. The global initial deflection
(corresponding to the primordial curvature of the symmetry axis) of the column was
obtained by the displacement method. Namely, the displacement along the x axis of the
central cross-section of the column was declared. Fig. 5 shows the columns model with
the assumed displacement. A set of models with the initial deflection being a multiple of
0.25 mm within the range of 0 to 5 mm was elaborated.
Fig. 5. The columns model with the declared displacement of the central cross-section
254

The way of getting disturbances of the columns shape with geometrical
imperfection was based (as mentioned above) on adding in the ABAQUS job input file
the routine downloading the geometry definition from the appropriate *.fil file. In the
routine a consecutive mode number, as well as the imperfections magnitude in milimetres
had to be determined. The result of the second stage was the form of the column distorted
by the global deflection and the imperfection. After running the analysis the deformed
column was brought into a particular stress state. For the purpose of obtaining stress-free
form of the structure it was necessary to import the model into the ABAQUS environment
once again. The model had to be read as a Part from an appropriate *.odb database
file.
At the third stage the model had no geometry, but a deformed FEM mesh. In order
to conduct any computations on such a column the whole process of model preparation
had to be started from the beginning, excluding only the FEM mesh generation. The
obtained distorted model of the column with the applied boundary conditions and the load
was shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. The ABAQUS model of the column with distorted FEM mesh, applied load and
boundary conditions
In result of the first and the second stage of modelling a set of 20 models of the
columns differing in the initial deflection was obtained. The columns model was loaded
with an axial force P= 20000 N and subjected to analysis taking into account geometrical,
as well as material nonlinearities. The nature of non-linear analysis required the load to be
applied incrementally. In the first increment the load was equal to 0.05P. In order to get a
non-linear equilibrium path in the widest possible range, in the iterative method a
stabilization option was used by specifying the dissipated energy fraction set to 0.02%
and by using the adaptive stabilization, with max. ratio of stabilization to strain energy
equal to 0.05.
3. RESULTS OF RESEARCH
The results of the performed numerical simulations will be presented during the
conference.
255

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Abramowicz W., Thin-walled structures as impact energy absorbers, Thin-walled

Structures, v.41, Elsevier, 2003, pp.91-109.
Abramowicz W., Jones N., Dynamic Axial Crushing of Square Tubes, Int. J. Impact Eng.,
v.2, 1984, pp. 179208.
Arbocz J., Post-buckling behaviour of structures, Numerical techniques for more
complicated structures, Lecture Notes Is Physics, 228, 1985.
Doyle K.J., Nolinear analisys of thin- walled structures, Springer-Verlag, New York,
Berlin, Heidelberg, 2001.
Hambly E.T., Calladine C. R., Buckling Experiments on damaged Cylindrical Shells,
International Journal of Solids and Structures, 33, (24), 1996, 3539-3548.
Karagiozova, D., Dynamic Buckling of Elastic-Plastic Square Tubes Under Axial ImpactI: Stress Wave Propagation Phenomenon, Int. J. Impact Eng., v.30, 2004, pp. 143166.
Krlak M. (Ed). Post-buckling behaviour and load carrying capacity of thin-walled plate
griders. PWN (Polish Scientific Publishers), Warsaw, Lodz, 1990, pp.553, (in Polish).
Krlak M., Mania R.J. (eds.), Statics, dynamics and stability of structures, Stability of
thin-walled plate structures, v.1., Technical University of Lodz, Series of monographs,
Lodz 2011.
Koiter W.T., Elastic stability and post-buckling behavior, In:Proceedings of the
Symposium on Non-linear Problems, Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin 1963, pp. 257275.
Langseth M., Hopperstad O.S., Hanssen, A.G., Crash Behaviour of Thin-Walled
Aluminium Members, Thin-Walled Structures.,v.32, 1998, pp. 127150.
Langseth M., Hopperstad O.S., Static and Dynamic Axial Crushing of Square Thin-Walled
Aluminium Extrusions, Int. J. Impact Eng., v.18, 1996, pp. 949968.
Lancaster E.R., Palmer S.C., Model Testing of Mechanically Damaged Pipes Containing
Dents and Gouges, ASME PVP v.235, New York 1992, pp. 143-148.
Meng Q., Al Hassani S.T.S., Soden P.D., Axial crushing od square tubes. Int. J. Mech.
Sci., v.25, No 9-10, 1983
Ronalds, B.F., Dowling, P.J., Buckling of Intact and Damaged Offshore Shell Structures
in: Advanced Marine Structures, C.S. Smith and J.D. Clarke. Eds. Elsevier Applied
Science, London, 1987, pp. 201-218.
of thin-walled structure. Basic concepts, columns, beams, and plates, Volume 1, John
Wiley & Sons Inc. New York 1998.
Wierzbicki T., Huang J., Initiation of plastic folding mechanism incrusched box columns.
Thin - walled Struct., v.13, 1991
Wierzbicki T. and Abramowicz W., On the Crushing Mechanics of Thin-Walled
Structures, ASME J. Appl. Mech., v.50, 1983, pp. 727734.
256
OPTIMAL DESIGN OF UNIFORM STABILITY OF

SHELLS STIFFENED BY RIBS
P. FORY
Institute of Applied Mechanics, Cracow University of Technology
Jana Pawa II 37, 31-864 Krakw, Poland
The problem of optimal design of axi-symmetrical shells of uniform stability

stiffened by ribs was discussed in the current paper. The structure was modelled in
ANSYS software and solved by FEM method. The uniform local stability
formulation was successfully verified by linear buckling solution. The optimization
tasks were solved numerically by modified Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm.
1. INTRODUCTION
The optimization of shells against stability is rather complex problem. The papers
devoted to this problem have received considerable attention for several decades. The
relatively narrow problem of shell with a double non-negative curvature is taken into
account in this work. Moreover, the concept of a shell of uniform stability was applied.
The shell of uniform stability is one in which the condition of local stability is satisfied
in the form of equality not only at the dangerous point but at any point of the shell quoted from yczkowski et al. in 2001. Due to the proposed linear theory of stability,
neither nonlinear behaviors, nor geometrical imperfections of the structure, were taken
into account. In the optimization problem of such a shell the value of loading multiplier is
the objective function, whereas equality constraints are the volume of material and the
capacity of a shell. So formulated optimization task of shells however not stiffened
were solved by e.g. Kruelecki and Trzeciak [7], Barski and Kruelecki [1] or Fory and
Trzeciak [4].
The Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is one of the most popular stochastic search
method. This evolutionary computation technique was introduced by Kennedy and
Eberhart [5]. Since that time the increasing interest in this method can be observed. The
modified PSO algorithm (MPSO) was successively applied by Bochenek and Fory [2]
for solving engineering tasks e.g. optimal design of columns against stability constraints
and simple structures against postcritical behavior. A MPSO is adapted to cope with
constrained nonlinear optimization tasks for discrete and continuous design variables. The
examples of design of structural elements can be found in Fory [3].
As a tool to solve analysis task the ANSYS software was used. The model created in
script language gives a possibility to easy extend the task for stiffened or composite
shells. Such problems were very difficult to solve by analytical methods. Applied MPSO
algorithm was coded in C++ language and built to separate executable file. This
application calls an analysis file coded in Ansys Parametric Design Language (APDL) on
the subsequent steps of iteration.
257

2. SHELL OF UNIFORM STABILITY
The considered rotationally symmetrical shell with doubly convex curvatures and
cylindrical reference shell in background are presented in Fig. 1. The geometry of a
reference shell is described by the following symbols: R0 stands for the radius of shell,
L0 means the half of its length and H 0 thickness of its wall. These values are constant.
The geometry of a shell which is looked for in optimization task is described by the
following symbols: the R and H are the radius and wall thickness, R and R are the
radii of the circumferential and meridional curvatures, respectively. The shell is loaded by
external hydrostatic pressure p .
Fig.1. Rotationally symmetrical shell subjected to external pressure
The meridional and circumferential radii are given by the formulas
1 R
2 32
R R 1 R2
(1)
12
(2)
It is more comfortably to introduce the following dimensionless quantities for further

calculations
R
R
R
R
x
H
R
, r , r , k , , h
, 0 (3)
L0
R0
R0
L0
H0
R0
R
258

It is assumed that the shape of meridian is described by the parabola
r r0 1 m 2
r0
(4)
(5)
2
m2
1 m
3
5
where r0 stands for unknown radius in the middle of the shell, and directional coefficient
m m 0 is a design variable in the optimization procedure.
For a shell with a double non-negative curvature Shirshov [8] transformed a problem
of global stability to a problem of local stability of such a structure. First, the sinusoidal
deflection mode was assumed. Next, on the base of linear theory of shell stability and
applying the equations given by Wlassow in 1958, Shirshov obtained formula for the
critical loading parameter q , namely
q1,2 2 DEH
K K z12,2
N 2S z1,2 N z12,2
, qkr minq1 , q2
(6)
where z1, 2 are the roots of quadratic equation
z2
K N K N
K S
z tg
K
K
(7)
(8)
z1,2
N
N K
.
2
S
K
S
(9)
In the above equations the following symbols were introduced: K and K denoting
circumferential and meridional curvatures respectively, N , N , S denoting the
intensity of membrane and shearing forces (due to possible twisting) related to the loading
multiplier q , namely N q N , N q N , S q S , D denotes the shell stiffness, E
- Young modulus, H - thickness of the wall and is a certain free parameter with
respect to which the loading parameter q is minimized.
The minimization of q with respect to leads to two solutions: 1 0 and 2
and finally to very simple formulae for the critical loading multipliers. First one is for a
case when the buckling is determined by the circumferential membrane force. The second
one when the buckling is determined by the meridional membrane force
259
q1kr 2 DEH
q2 kr
(10)
N
K
2 DEH
N
(11)
The critical value of loading multiplier is determined by smaller one value from
(10), (11). In a case of considered shell S 0 , the membrane forces are as follows
N
pR
2
pR
2
2 R
(12)
(13)
Using equations given above (1), (2), (10), (11) and (12), (13) one can obtain the
two equations describing the wall thickness of a shell of uniform stability.
For N critical:
h1
For N critical:
h2
pkr 3 1 2 R0 r
2E
H0 r
pkr 3 1 2 R0
r
2E
H0
r 2 2k 1
(14)
(15)
For a shell of medium length considered in this paper, the critical component of
membrane force is circumferential one, so equation (14) is hold true and qkr q1kr .
3. FORMULATION OF THE OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS
The optimization task is formulated as a nonlinear programming problem. At the
first stage of optimization with given parabolic shape of the meridian, we look for such a
value of parabola directional coefficient and distribution of a wall thickness of the shell,
which lead to the maximal value of the critical loading multiplier
qkr max
(16)
Such an optimization problem is stated under two equality and one inequality
constraints. It is assumed that an optimal shell is made of the same amount of material as
a cylindrical reference shell,
L0
2L0 R0 H 0 2 HR dx
0
the internal capacity of both containers is equal

260
(17)

L0
2L0 R02 2 R 2 dx
(18)
Moreover, the minimal value of the coordinate R which occurs at the interface of
the coat and bottom of a shell is constrained by a lower bound,
RL0 Rmin Radm
(19)
where Radm is an arbitrary chosen value. The measure of the optimal shell profit is
ratio of critical pressure of the optimal shell to the critical pressure of the reference
cylinder, that is the critical value of a loading multiplier,
pkr
pkrcyl
qkr
(20)
where pkrcyl is defined by the following formula, which can be found in

e.g. Wolmir [9]:
cyl
pkr
6E
18 1 2
34
R0
L0
H0
L0
52
(21)
The next stage of the optimization is performed on the optimal shell from first stage
but with additional ribs. The assumed number of ribs equals three and is kept constant.
The ribs are modeled as thin-walled plates. It is assumed that an every rib has a hole of
arbitrary chosen radius value, equals 92 % of the shell radius in the place where the rib is
welded to the coat of shell. The design variables are the position of ribs in the shell, which
are measured from the origin of coordinate system
xi
i 1,2,3
(22)
These design variables are treated as integer ones due to the density of finite element
mesh along the meridian of the shell and have to be in a range xi 0,100 . It is obvious
that the ribs stiffen the shell and the critical value of loading multiplier should be greater.
The objective function is the same as in the first stage of optimization (16). The shape of
meridian is kept constant so the constraints (18) and (19) are automatically fulfilled (it is
assumed that the capacity of shell does not depend on volume of ribs). By contrast, the
amount of material to be kept constant has to be distributed on the coat of the shell and its
ribs
261

L0
i 1
2L0 R0 H 0 2 HR dx Vi
i 1..3
(23)
where Vi is a volume of i-th rib, which constant thickness equals shell thickness where a
rib is welded to a coat of shell and 0.9,1 . The factor can be named as a thinning
coefficient of shell of uniform stability.
4. METHODS OF SOLUTION
The Finite Element Method (FEM) was used to solve the analysis task. The
parametric model of the shell was built in APDL (ANSYS Parametric Design Language)
in ANSYS software. The formula (14) defining the wall thickness of uniform stability was
coded in script language what made it possible to carry out calculations in the first stage
of optimization. The results of analysis are passed to the Modified Particle Swarm
Optimization (MPSO) algorithm.
The PSO algorithm is inspired by social living forms: bee swarms, bird flocks and
fish schools from the world of the nature. Individuals forming a swarm influence each
other and are affected by the environment, simultaneously. A population of particles
which are understood as points in multidimensional space is initialized with random
positions and velocities. They are updated then at each time step while flowing over the
search space. The velocity vector is updated based on its own memory and information
gained by the swarm, for each particle. The position is updated based on the previous
position and velocity vectors of each particle. The update equations of the moving swarm
MPSO algorithm are expressed below
vik 1 w1vik w2i k c1r1ik piki xik c2 r2ik pgk xik c3r3ik pnk i xik
xik 1 xik v ik 1
(24)
(25)
where the following symbols are applied: k - iteration step index, i - particle index, c1 ,
c2 , c3 - fixed coefficients named as acceleration constants or learning factors, r1 , r2 , r3

- uniformly distributed random numbers in range [0,1], w1 - inertia weight, w2 - binary
switching coefficient, x - position vector, v - velocity vector, p i - the best own particle
position found so far, p n - the best particle neighbours leader position found so far, p g the best swarm leader position found so far. The dimension of the position and velocity
vectors equals the number of design variables in the optimization task. The fitness
function evaluates the particle position by calling the FEM analysis procedure. The
MPSO deals with nonlinear programming task with equality and inequality constraints.
The cut-off at the boundary technique was applied for constraints handling. The work
of the particle swarm algorithm is managed by just a few parameters. Nevertheless,
choosing the best value for these is crucial for obtaining a rapid solution and a correct
262

result. It is highly probable that the solution obtained by the MPSO algorithm is a global
optimum.
The optimal shell was solved in linear buckling analysis in ANSYS software to
determine a buckling load (first eigenvalue) and shape of its mode. The eigenvalue
problem is formulated in the following manner,
K iSi 0
(26)
where: K is a stiffness matrix, S is a stress stiffness matrix (built in a static

solution with prestress effects activated), i i-th eigenvalue, i i-th eigenvector of
displacements (mode shape). The pressure is considered as a follower load so the force on
the surface is a function of a pressure value and an orientation of a surface. The calculated
multipliers i are equal buckling loads if a unit load is specified. In this case a value of
critical pressure equals a value of first eigenvalue
pkr 1
(27)
From formulas (20) and (27) it is easy to obtain relation between critical loading
multiplier and first eigenvalue form buckling analysis
qkr
(29)
pkrcyl
5. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The geometrical and material data of the shell are as following: longitudinal
parameter 0.25 , the wall thickness of the reference shell H 0 0.005R0 , the Young
modulus E 2.1e5 [MPa], Poisson ratio 0.3 , the radius of the reference shell
R0 1 [m] and Radm 0.5 [m]. The swarm was constituted by three particles. Every one
particle had one neighbour. The stop criteria of optimization was number of iteration
steps equals 25.
The results of optimization are given in Tab. 1. In both stages of optimization the
active constraint was amount of material, given by formula (17) in first stage or (22) in
second stage. The results confirm these known in literature, e.g. Kruelecki and Trzeciak
[7], in which optimization task was solved by variational method. The value of critical
loading multiplier was verified by buckling analysis in ANSYS. The results are similar
each other, so one can concludes that the value is positively verified.
Figure 2 shows the shape of meridian and distribution of the wall thickness of the
optimal shell obtained in a first stage of optimization. The reference structure is shown in
the background, also (the bottoms are not shown). The wall thickness was multiplied by
30, whereas radius kept original values, for better presentation in a figure. It can be
observed that the wall thickness distribution is a decreasing function. In Fig. 3 the shape
263

of first mode of buckling for optimal shell was presented, corresponding to obtained
critical value of loading multiplier.
Table 1.
The values of the critical loading multipliers, design variables and

constraints for the optimal shells
qkr
Design
variables
Active
constraint
Limit value
of act. const.
Shell not stiffened

Uniform stability Buckling analysis
6.595152
6.634736
m =-0.588637
0.125663
Shell stiffened by ribs

Buckling analysis
8.926179
x1=45, x2=76, x3=14
= 0.926061
0.123775
0.125663
In the second stage of optimization the arrangement of ribs as well as thinning

coefficient of shell are looked for. It was successful to get the increase of critical
multiplier value. The shape of first mode of buckling for optimal shell is presented in Fig.
4. It is supposed to obtain even better results if the number of ribs, the hole radius in rib,
and wall thickness distribution (constant or variable) in every rib would be treated as the
design variables.
Fig.2. The wall thickness distribution and shape of meridian of the optimal shell
without ribs (the coat of shell is shown only)
264

On the basis of the above calculations it was found that for the shell of revolution,
medium long, significantly increase of the critical loading multiplier can be obtained by
determining the optimal shape of the meridian, the optimal distribution of wall thickness
in coat of shell and - which gives a substantial profit - optimal placement of ribs inside the
shell. The results of optimization in formulation of uniform stability was successfully
verified by numerical buckling analysis. The applied Modified Particle Swarm
Optimization algorithm gives global optimal results in nonlinear optimization tasks with
constraints for the continuous and integer type design variables.
Fig.3. The shape of first buckling mode of the optimal shell without ribs
265
Fig.4. The shape of first buckling mode of the optimal shell stiffened by ribs (the
shell fragment was removed to improve readability)
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
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Barski M., Kruelecki J., Optimal design of shells against buckling by means of the
simulated annealing method, Struct Multidisc Optim, 2005, 29, pp. 6172.
Bochenek B., Fory P., Structural optimization for post-buckling behaviour using particle
swarms, Struct Multidisc Optim, 2006, 32, 6, pp. 521-531.
Fory P., A particie swarm optimization applied to optimal design of structural elements,
Czasopismo Techniczne, Mechanika, z. 4-M/2008, 5 (105), 2008, pp. 31-42, ISSN 00114561, ISSN 1897-6328, (in Polish with English summary).
Fory P., Trzeciak P., Optimal design of shells of uniform stability by variational and
hybrid PSO - spline methods, CMM-2011 Computer Methods in Mechanics, Warsaw,
Poland, 912 May 2011, pp.187-188.
Kennedy J., Eberhart R.C., Particle Swarm Optimization, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. On Neural
Networks, Piscataway, NJ, 1995, pp. 1942-1948.
Kruelecki J, Trzeciak P., Optimal design of axially symmetrical shells under compression
using the concept of a shell of uniform stability, Proc. Zbiorniki Cienkocienne, Karw,
1998, pp. 39-42, (in Polish with English summary).
Kruelecki J., Trzeciak P., Optimal design of axially symmetrical shells under hydrostatic
pressure with respect to their stability, Struct. Multidisc. Optim, 2000, 19, 2, pp. 148-154.
Shirshov V.P., Local buckling of shells, Proc. II Vses. Konf. Teorii Plastin i Obol., 1962,
pp. 314-317, (in Russian).
Wolmir A. S., Stability of deformable systems, Publishing House Nauka, Moskwa, 1967
(in Russian).
266
ANALYSIS OF THE STABILITY LOSS OF HALF-BURIED

STORAGE TANK
J. GOTTVALD
VTKOVICE AM Inc.
Rusk 2887/101, 706 02 Ostrava-Vtkovice, Czech Republic
Z. KALA
Department of Structural Mechanics, Brno University of Technology
Veve 331/95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Large cylindrical storage tanks are the most frequent method of storage of
cruel oil and petroleum products. Storage tanks are built from different
materials such as concrete, steel, plastics fibres, and their combination. The
most common material is still steel. Steel storage tanks are very thin shell
structures of shape and design layout which ideally meet requirements.
Each structure, storage tanks including, has imperfections or limitations that
must be taken into account. There are especially two aspects that must be
considered in case of steel storage tanks; the first one is corrosion and the
second one is predisposition to stability problems. The presented paper
deals with failure analysis of half-buried storage tanks due to loss of
stability. In the paper there are described consequences of the collapse of
the storage tank and causes of the failure are discussed and described.
1. INTRODUCTION
Failures of storage tanks are caused mainly by mechanical failure such as loss of
stability; corrosion of the bottom plates, of the courses of shell or the plates on roof;
mistakes during construction; etc. Each accident is of a great cost for the owners who
must bear it. Shutdown of the storage tanks, their cleaning and repairs require significant
financial resources. Therefore it is of principal interest of the storage tanks owners to take
preventive measures to avoid the unplanned downtime due to equipment crash. Nowadays
the systems of inspection and maintenance such as asset integrity management systems
belong to the standard preventive measures [1].
In the area of the thin shell structures to which storage tanks belong the lost of
stability, that leads to the excessive deformation of the shell, is one of the possibilities of
their failure. The area of stability computations, analysis, and experiments is of a great
interest [2-7]. On the basis of scientific knowledge the European technical standard
Eurocode 3 part 1-6 was created [8]; this part is focused on strength and stability of the
shell structures. Additional comments and extensions of this standard were also published
[9].
Not only stability problems cause the failure of the storage tanks. In the everyday
practice the accidents caused by defects of the bottom of the tanks [10] or contrary of the

roof of the tanks [11] can happen. The uneven settlement of foundations, which leads to
excessive deformation of shells of storage tank, is of a main interest [12]. A large number
of accidents is also caused by poor service e.g. there the extensive list of storage tanks
failures could be seen [13].
2. DESCRIPTION OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE STORAGE TANKS
In the Fig. 1 there is presented an aerial photo of the storage tanks terminal. The
storage tanks are designed as the buried ones with uncovered roof. These types of storage
tanks were built in the 70th of the past century; storage tanks were designed in a way so
they were strategically covered and protected against possible attacks. Some storage tanks
of this era were built as fully covered, i.e. the roof was overlaid by soil. This terminal
consists of three types of storage tanks, the two smallest ones are of capacity of 1200
cubic meters. These small tanks have diameter of 12.4 meters and height of 11.2 meters.
The roof of the storage tanks is designed as fixed. In the Fig. 2 the cross-section view of
the model of the storage tank can be seen. As mentioned above the storage tank was
designed as the buried one with uncovered roof, so the steel parts of the storage tanks face
the loads of the stored medium only. The soil pressure is transferred by the reinforcement
of the concrete wall-shell. Fig. 2 also shows the maximal filling surface of the medium.
From the figure 2 it is clear that the storage tank is filled almost to its roof. Presented
paper is focused on the storage tank of 1200 cubic metres that is shown in the Fig. 1 in the
left bottom, see the black arrow. The storage tank is used for storage and distribution of
fuel oil TOLEX and it is in operation since 1974.
Fig. 1. Aerial photo of the storage tanks terminal
Figure 3 shows the steel part of the storage tank. The shell is built of seven courses
of variable thickness. The bottom course is 7 mm thick and has height of 2000 mm in its
greatest dimension. The second course is 6 mm thick and the others are 5 mm thick. Each
268

course height is 2000 mm. The roofs of the storage tanks were made of steel plates which
thickness is 5 mm. The thickness of bottom plates is 4 mm.
Fig. 2. Cross-section view of storage tank model with marks of the structural elements
3. DESCRIPTION OF STORAGE TANK FAILURE

During the usual emptying of the storage tank loud noises have suddenly occurred
sounding like the heavy metal cracking. After careful drawdown of remains of the stored
media and the subsequent inspection of the storage tank the extensive defects of shell and
bottom plates were indicated. The steel shell was buckled all around its circumference,
the buckles directed to the inside of the storage tank. Deformations of courses reached a
depth of about 400 to 500 mm. The largest plastic deformations were at lower courses.
Wall shells were deformed especially at the bottom of the courses. It was most evident on
the construction of the inspection ladder in the storage tank which was deviated from its
vertical direction, see the Figure 4. Sharp edges in the plastic deformations have occurred
in the shell courses all around the circumference. They are also clearly visible due to
cracked and peeled coats, for details see Figures 4 and 5. Circumferential butt weld
between the bottom and second courses extended to the most distorted area. Courses were
exposed to large plastic deformations.
Fig. 3. Model of steel part of storage tank with marks of thicknesses
Fig. 4. Plastic deformations of course shell and inspection leader
In the location of the inspection throat where the throat acts as a stiffening element
against buckling the deformations did not occurred, see Figure 5. Deformations occurred
again behind the border of influence of the stiffening effect of the inspection throat.
270

During the visual inspection it was found that the vertical butt welds cracked already
in some places. These cracks intervened into the shell plates. The cracks were also found
in the fillet-groove weld between annular and bottom plates. Due to the fact that the rest
of storage medium in the form of wax remained in the storage tank it was not possible to
scrutinize the bottom especially the bottom plate welds. However by walk on the steel
bottom plates it could be clearly stated that even the bottom was buckled in several
places.
Fig. 5.
Plastic deformations of course shell location of the inspection throat
During the investigation of accident causes the broken valve for the inlet of air into
the tank which main task is to prevent the negative pressure during the emptying of the
tank was found. The extraction of medium caused great vacuum in the storage tank what
resulted into its destruction. Subsequently the computational model of the storage tank in
the program system ANSYS was created and the stability calculations concerning the
internal pressure loads were made. The capabilities of the solutions of stability problems
by the program ANSYS were described in [14]. Numerical simulations were performed
on the 3D numerical model of storage tank using shell linear elements SHELL 181 and
linear beam elements BEAM 188. Whole storage tank including throats and manholes
was modelled by shall elements while beam elements were used for models of linear
stiffeners at the roof of storage tank. Close attention was paid to expression of the relevant
boundary conditions. On the basis of drawing documentation analysis and visual
inspection of real condition of the storage tank numerical models of all degrees of
freedom in place of the primary external stiffening ring were done. This stiffening ring is
a part of the concrete wall. In the numerical model the bottom of the storage tank was
supported but deformation due to consequences of internal pressure was permit. The
results of the analysis are shown in Fig. 7, there the deformations of internal pressure are
plotted. Due to this load the marginal deformations occurred at the top of the shell, where
the wall is of the smallest shell thickness.
Fig. 6. Deformation of the inspection throat on the roof
Fig. 7. Sample of loss of stability by the internal pressure in the storage tank - results from
program ANSYS
The investigation to find the reasons of buckling of the shell at the bottom courses
was initiated. As the first step the ultrasonic thickness measurement was made. The
courses were randomly checked to find more corroded places. The measurements showed
no abnormalities in the thickness of the courses.
272

Reflections on the adverse effect of the self-weight of the steel structure were
rejected after seeing drawings and structural knowledge of the storage tank. Outside the
connection of roof and steel shell the stiffening ring is welded. The stiffening ring is
inserted to the concrete pocket that is situated in the reinforced concrete wall, see Figure
2. The self-weight of the steel roof is carried by this supported connection.
As the next steps the analyses of the functionality of the drainage system for draining
ground water around the storage tank was done. After revealing of the piping system that
emptied into the main sewage pipe it was found that the main drainage pipe was damaged
at point of connection to the foundation construction of the storage tank. The next
uncovering of pipe showed that the whole part of the pipe is missing. This proved that a
serious mistake was made during the construction of storage tank. Problems with drainage
system have been also identified in cases of other storage tanks of the same structural
system and period of construction. Due to the inspection of another of storage tanks the
water high up to 3 m was discovered.
In the Figure 8 the case of lost stability of the steel shell by the load caused by the
combination of internal vacuum and of pressure of the water column between concrete
wall and steel shell is plotted. When we compare the results described in Figures 7 and 8
we can see differences in positions of the maximal deformations.
Fig. 8.
Lost of stability due to combination of internal vacuum and water column outside the
storage tank - results from program ANSYS
4. CONCLUSIONS
Presented failure of the storage tank was caused by the combination of internal
overpressure and of pressure of the water column between concrete wall and steel shell
plates of the storage tank. The internal overpressure was caused by broken valve for the
inlet of air into the tank. This defect resulted into the large plastic deformations of the
steel shells of storage tank during the extraction of medium. During investigation of the

causes of the buckled shapes the problems with drainage system were discovered. These
problems allowed the formation of the water column between the concrete wall and the
steel shell plates. Combination of the internal vacuum and of the external pressure caused
by water resulted in the destruction of the storage tank.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the
Technology Agency of the Czech Republic within the project TA01020307 and the
financial support of the European Union's "Operational Programme Research and
Development for Innovations", No. CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0097, as an activity of the regional
Centre AdMaS "Advanced Materials, Structures and Technologies".
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[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
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management, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping Vol.87, 2010, pp.88
93.
Jasion P., Stability analysis of shells of revolution under pressure conditions, Thin-Walled
Structures Vol.47, 2009, pp.311317.
Ye L., Lu G., Ong L.S., Buckling of a thin-walled cylindrical shell with foam core under
axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.106111.
Loughlan J., Yidris N., Cunningham P.R., The effects of local buckling and material
yielding on the axial stiffness and failure of uniformly compressed I-section and boxsection struts, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.264279.
Macdonald M., Heiyantuduwa Don M.A., Koteko M., Rhodes J., Web crippling
behaviour of thin-walled lipped channel beams, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011,
pp.682690.
Takano A., Buckling of thin and moderately thick anisotropic cylinders under combined
torsion and axial compression, Thin Walled Structures, Vol. 49, 2011, pp.304316.
Wang J.H., Koizumi A., Buckling of cylindrical shells with longitudinal joints under
external pressure, Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 48, 2010, pp.897904.
EN 1993-1-6:2007: Design of steel structures Strength and stability of shell structures.
Rotter J.M., Schmidt H., (editors) Buckling of steel shells European design
recommendations N125, 5th edition, 2008.
Kim J. S., An D. H., Lee S. Y., Lee B. Y., A failure analysis of fillet joint cracking in an
oil storage tank, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries Vol. 22, 2009,
pp.845849.
Trebua F., imk F., Bocko J., Failure analysis of storage tank, Engineering Failure
Analysis, Vol. 16, 2009, pp.2638.
Cao Q., Zhao Y., Buckling strength of cylindrical steel tanks under harmonic settlement,
Thin-Walled Structures Vol. 48, 2010, pp.391400.
Chang J. I., Lin C. C., A study of storage tank accidents, Journal of Loss Prevention in the
Process Industries Vol. 19, 2006, pp.5159.
Rust W., Schweizerhof K., Finite element limit load analysis of thin-walled structures by
ANSYS (implicit), LS-DYNA (explicit) and in combination, Thin-Walled Structures Vol.
41, 2003, pp.227244.
274
Stability of structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012
3D BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF A TRUSS

WITH HORIZONTAL BRACES
P. IWICKI, M. KRAJEWSKI
Department of Structural Mechanics and Bridges, Gdask University of Technology,
Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdask, Poland
The present research is devoted to the study of out-of-plane buckling of a truss with
horizontal braces. The truss is a model of real roof truss scaled by factor . A linear
buckling and a non-linear analysis with geometric and material non-linearity were
carried out. The truss buckling and limit load for different stiffnesses and number of
braces are found. Numerical analysis is verified by experiment. Threshold bracing
stiffness condition for full bracing of the truss is proposed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Steel trusses have a much greater strength and stiffness in their plane than out of
their plane, and therefore should be braced against lateral deflection and twisting. The
problem of bracing requirements necessary to provide lateral stability of compressed
structural members is present in codes [1], [2]. The simplified design code requirements
allow one to reduce the problem of the truss stability to the analysis of compressed chord
or diagonals that are separated from the other truss elements. The effect of the lower
chord, verticals and diagonals on the truss stability is neglected. Verticals and diagonals
are considered only as vertical supports to the upper truss chord, side bracing of the truss
chords is considered as rigid side-support and normal forces in the truss chords are
assumed to be constant along their length. As a result of above described simplifications
the requirements concerning the number and the stiffness of braces are not precise,
because analysis of the whole structure is not taken into account. The stability of trusses
with elastic bracing was investigated in experimental research [3] or in numerical
analysis [4], where the relation between the truss buckling load and the bracing stiffness
was investigated. The basic problem was devoted to investigating the required bracing
stiffness that ensures that the out-of the truss plane buckling occurs between braces, or is
prevented, so the buckling occurs in the plane of the truss. The full bracing condition was
defined as the bracing stiffness that causes the maximal buckling load of the truss, or
when an increase in bracing stiffness doesnt result in a further increase in the buckling
load. The study was limited to linear buckling analysis. A numerical analysis of 1D truss
model and experimental test of truss stability was presented in paper [5].
In the present research the study [5] is extended to non-linear analysis of 3D model
with geometric and material non-linearity of an imperfect truss. The analyzed truss is a
model of real roof truss scaled by factor . The numerical analysis is verified and
extended by experimental tests of the truss with side braces. The truss top chord full
bracing condition is found for the truss buckling and a non-linear analysis with geometric
and material non-linearity taken into account.
275

2. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
In the present parametric study the truss illustrated in Fig. 1 is considered. The
depth of the truss in the middle is h = 0.44 m, and 0.3 m near the supports. The
compression chords consist of 2L203 rolled profiles. Two compression diagonals near
the supports are made of square cross-sections (15 mm 15 mm 1.5mm). Other
diagonals are made of profile 15 mm 10 mm with thickness 1.5mm. The truss is made
of steel with yield strength of 350 MPa. The connections between the truss chord, the
diagonal and the vertical elements are rigid, so the bottom chord, the diagonals and the
verticals interact together with the truss top chord and partially restrain the top chord
against out-of-plane buckling. The built-up top chord section is battened every 0.37 m to
avoid buckling of individual members. The batten consists of profile 15 mm 10 mm
with thickness 1.5 mm, located between profiles of the truss top chord. The truss is a
model of a real roof truss sized according to code [1] with scale factor (Fig. 2). In the
numerical analysis it is assumed that the load is applied as concentrated forces at three, or
seven top chord joints, depending on the analyzed model of braces. In the case of the
truss with 3 braces the distance between braces was 1.5 m. In the experiment the truss
was loaded by concentrated force in the middle of the span.
Fig. 1. Truss with lateral braces
Fig. 2. Experimental set-up of truss with elastic braces
The main purpose of the investigations was to determine the load-deflection

relationship for different stiffnesses of braces. The truss is simply supported without any
additional torsional restraints that prevent the truss against twisting at the supports
(Fig. 3a,b). Due to this assumption the truss braces provide the stability of the structure.
The lateral bracing was modelled in the form of springs situated in the truss top chord
joints. The springs characteristics were determined using a separate testing procedure. A
detail of the brace attachment to the top truss chord is presented in Fig. 3c.
In the numerical analysis the truss was modelled by shell elements and program [6].
The 4-node shell elements QUAD4 (with 6 degrees of freedom in node) were employed.
In the numerical model there are battens between the truss top chord profiles. It was out
276

of scope of the present analysis to investigate the influence of the battens length on the
truss stability, but it should be stressed that those braces are important in the buckling
resistance of the truss. The battens length was 7 cm. The total amount of finite elements
was about 58 000. The minimum 4 shell elements were used to describe the walls of the
chord cross-sections and 2 elements on the walls of the U-diagonals cross-section
(Fig. 4). The element size on the U diagonals was about 5050 mm2. For the truss top
chord, the elements size was about 5.05.0 mm2 (810 elements are taken along the chord
length). Connections between the truss elements are modelled by rigid links between the
adjacent members.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 3. a), b) Truss details at the supports, c) truss brace and force application set-up detail
Fig. 4. FEM model of the truss
Linear buckling analysis and non-linear static analysis with geometric and material
non-linearity of the imperfect truss model with imperfection in the shape of the buckling
modes, were carried out by means of the program [6]. Two different types of initial
geometric imperfections - shown in Fig. 7a and Fig. 7d - were considered. The magnitude
of the imperfection was according to the code [7] equal to L/500. In the experimental
research a stability of truss braced three braces was investigated.
3. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
3.1. LINEAR BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The relationship between first buckling loads at one top chord joint, due to the
bracing stiffness for trusses with different brace locations is presented in Fig. 5. It is
worth noting that the truss buckling load for the model with 7 braces depends on the
number of battens between the truss top chord profiles. There is a large dispersion in the
truss buckling resistance 4 kN - 7 kN depending on the number of battens between the
profile elements. For the truss with 3 braces and for the truss with 7 braces without
battens at the threshold condition for full bracing the truss buckles between braces
277

Fig. 6e, Fig. 6c. In the case of the truss with 7 braces at the threshold condition for full
bracing the local buckling of the most compressed diagonal occurs (Fig. 6b).
8
Buckling Load [kN]
truss with battens, 7 braces

truss with battens, 3 braces
truss without battens, 7 braces
1
0
100
200
300
400
500
Stiffness of braces [kN/m]
Fig. 5. Comparison between the first buckling load at one top chord joint, with respect to the
stiffness of braces for a different number of braces
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 6. Buckled shape of the truss for: a) 7 braces with stiffness 40kN/m, b) 7 braces with
stiffness 250kN/m, c) 7 braces with stiffness 250kN/m - truss without battens,
d) 3 braces with stiffness 10kN/m e) 3 braces with stiffness 100kN/m
3.2. NON-LINEAR ANALYSIS

For different stiffnesses of braces a non-linear relation between the truss load and
displacement has been obtained. The load at the top of one chord joint increases with an
increase of the bracing stiffness (Fig.7. 9). The truss deformation corresponding to the
278

limit state is presented for the truss with 7 braces in Fig. 8 and for the truss with 3 braces
in Fig. 10. There are three half-waves in the deformation of the truss top chord.
The truss limit load (sum of all concentrated forces) for the two analysed models
and for different stiffness of braces is presented in Fig. 11. In the case of the truss with 3
braces the limit load is constant for braces of higher stiffness than about 200kN/m. This
stiffness may be treated as the threshold condition for full bracing. In the case of the truss
with 7 braces the increase of limit load was obtained in the whole range of the braces
stiffness, but the increase is lower for higher brace stiffnesses.
5
k=10 kN/m
k=40 kN/m
k=80 kN/m
k=200 kN/m
k=500 kN/m
k=1000 kN/m
Load [kN]
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Vertical displacement [mm]
Fig. 7. The truss load at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0.75m from
midspan) of truss with 7 braces for different stiffnesses of braces
a)
b)
Fig. 8. Deformation of the truss (a view from the top) a) before limit load, b) after limit load
for truss with 7 braces of stiffness 200 kN/m
279

7
k=10 kN/m
k=40 kN/m
k=80 kN/m
k=1000 kN/m
Load [kN]
0
0
20
40
60
80
Fig. 9. The truss load at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0,75m from
midspan) of truss with 3 braces for different stiffnesses of braces
a)
b)
Fig. 10. Deformation of the truss (a view from the top) a) before limit load b) after limit
load for truss with 3 braces of stiffness 80 kN/m
35
Limit load [kN]
30
25
20
15
7 braces
3 braces
10
5
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Stiffness of braces [kN/m]
Fig. 11. Relation between the limit load of the truss and the braces stiffness
280

4. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
For braces of stiffnesses k = 10 kN/m the relation between the truss load due to the
truss displacements determined in the numerical analysis and in experiment are presented
in Fig. 11. In this research the truss was loaded only in the midspan. Due to the fact that
the results found in the numerical analysis and in the experiment are different, additional
imperfection in a shape of two half-waves was taken into account (Fig. 12). One can
conclude that the limit truss load is about 5kN for the truss with imperfection
corresponding to the first buckling load (a torsional deformation of the truss) and 7.5 kN
for the imperfection of two half-waves, while the truss limit load obtained in the
experiment was equal 6.5 kN. The differences confirm that the numerical model is not
precise. The possible explanation of these discrepancies may be explained by different
performance of the springs. In the numerical model it was assumed that the braces are
modelled as horizontal springs while in the deformed model at the limit state (Fig. 13), it
is shown that the springs are bent. This effect may result in some rotational stiffness that
was not taken into account in the numerical model. Explanation of this problem will be a
subject of future research.
8
Load [kN]
Nonlinear analysis -imperfection I

Nonlinear analysis -imperfection II
Experiment
0
0
50
100
150
200
Fig. 12. The truss loading at one top chord joint vs. the vertical displacement (at 0.75m from
the mid-span) of truss with 3 braces k = 10kN/m
Fig. 13. Deformation at the limit state of the truss obtained in experiment
281

5. CONCLUSIONS
The results of the performed numerical analyses and experiment provide a basis for
drawing some conclusions regarding the effect of bracing stiffness on the critical
buckling and limit load.
The critical buckling load of the truss depends on the stiffness and spacing of
braces.
In an examined truss the threshold condition for full bracing corresponds to an outof-plane buckling of truss between braces. At a certain number of braces, local buckling
in truss plane may occur. In such a case a further increase in bracing stiffness or the
number of braces is not necessary, because it does not improve the stability of the
structure.
The truss buckling and limit load are comparable for the truss with 3 braces.
In the case of the truss with 7 braces the limit load is about 60-70% of the buckling
truss load.
The battens between the truss top chord profiles are important in the buckling
resistance of the structure. The differences between the buckling resistances due to
battens are up to about 45%.
The experiment and the numerical results are not coincidental. The discrepancies
may be caused by different performance of the springs. The problem will be a subject of
planed research in the future.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
PN-90/B-03200: Konstrukcje stalowe. Obliczenia statyczne i projektowanie. Warszawa:

PKN 1990.
Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures. Part1.1: General rules and rules for buildings.
ENV 1993-1-1, CEN, Brussels 1992.
Koodziej J., Jankowska-Sandberg J., Badania dowiadczalne zwichrzenia sprystego
kratownicy stalowej z uwzgldnieniem podatnoci ste bocznych. LII Konferencja
Naukowa Komitetu Inynierii Ldowej i Wodnej PAN i Komitetu Nauki PZITB, Krynica
2006, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Gdaskiej, nr 601, Budownictwo Ldowe, 58, 2006,
123-129.
Iwicki, P., Sensitivity analysis of critical forces of trusses with side bracing, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, 66, 923-930, 2010.
Iwicki P., Krajewski M., Analiza numeryczna i badania dowiadczalne kratownicy ze
steniami, LVII Konferencja Naukowa Komitetu Inynierii Ldowej i Wodnej PAN i
Komitetu Nauki PZITB, Krynica 2011, Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Rzeszowskiej,
Budownictwo i Inynieria rodowiska. 58, 2011, s. 233-240, 57.
Femap with NX Nastran, Version 10.1.1. Siemens Product Lifecyde Management
Software Inc. 2009.
PN-B-06200: Konstrukcje stalowe budowlane - Warunki wykonania i odbioru,
wymagania podstawowe. Warszawa: PKN 1997. 2002.
282
BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF COLD FORMED STEEL COLUMN

P. IWICKI, M. SONDEJ
Department of Structural Mechanics and Bridges, Gdask University of Technology,
Narutowicza 11/12, 80-952 Gdask, Poland
The paper is devoted to cold-formed thin-walled columns with open cross-section,

widely used in cylindrical metal silos. A linear buckling and a geometric non-linear
analysis were carried out for a single vertical column supported by an elastic
foundation simulating corrugated sheets of silo wall. The relations between
buckling and limit load of the column and the foundation stiffness are found. The
column joints are taken into account.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, a significant growth in application of cold-formed steel relative to
the traditional heavier hot-rolled steel structural members has been observed. Significant
developments continue to take place in the design of cold-formed steel structural
members and connections [1], [2], [3]. The research on cold-formed compression
members has concentrated on the behaviour of cold formed plain and lipped channel
columns, the different effects of local buckling and on the behaviour of fixed-ended and
pin-ended channels [1]. The compression members are often restrained by other structural
elements as wall sheets. Such situation takes place for example in metal silos that are
built of thin-walled corrugated curved sheets strengthened by vertical columns distributed
around the silo circumference. In such silos, horizontally corrugated wall sheets carry
horizontal tensile forces caused by horizontal wall pressure of a bulk solid and vertical
columns carry compressive forces caused by wall friction stress from a bulk solid.
Sufficient buckling strength of vertical columns is of a major importance for
dimensioning because it is the most frequent failure mode in these structures [4], [5]. In
the design practice it is necessary to use a simple model instead of analysis of the whole
3D silos. The Eurocode 3 [6] gives a simplified formula to calculate the buckling strength
of vertical columns around the silo circumference.
The aim of the present research is to perform a 3D buckling analysis of a column
supported by an elastic foundation simulating corrugated sheets. The columns are often
divided into parts that are screwed during erection. The buckling strength of column
depends on many different factors such as: type of joints in the connection, boundary
conditions, stiffness of the foundation and distance between column and corrugated
sheets joints. Influence of the foundation stiffness and type of connection between parts
of the column on the column buckling resistance is investigated. First, a simplified
buckling analysis was performed with a single vertical column supported by an elastic
spring simulating corrugated sheets. The column was modelled by 1D element. Later, a
geometric non-linear FE analysis was carried out with the commercial finite element code
Abaqus [7]. The column was modelled by shell elements. A threshold condition for full
283

bracing requirements of the column was found. The condition may be used for predicting
a necessary stiffness of braces that allow to obtain maximal buckling load of a column.
Similar condition for bracing requirements of traditional columns with discrete braces
was proposed in [8].
Fig. 1.
Simplified model of silo column resting on an elastic foundation provided by

corrugated sheets present in Eurocode [6]
2. BUCKLING FORMULA FOR VERTICAL COLUMNS BY EUROCODE 3 [6]

Buckling resistance of thin walled column present in Eurocode [6] can be derived
analytically. Let us consider a steel vertical column supported by an elastic foundation
(Fig. 1). The equilibrium equation can be written as:
EJy IV Ny II Ky 0
(1)
where N the normal force in the column cross-section, EJ the column bending
stiffness, K the foundation stiffness (representing wall sheets) and y the column
horizontal displacement. Assuming that the buckled column has a sinusoidal form, after
minimizing the critical force about number of half-waves one obtain the formula:
N 2 EJ K
(2)
and the foundation stiffness K equals:
Dy
48EJ
48EJ
EJ
6 3 6 3
3
3
l
ds
ds
2d s
(3)
3. PARAMETRIC STUDY OF A COLUMN

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
As the parametric study consider the column presented in Fig. 2. A finite element
analysis was carried out with a single column with a side spring simulating horizontally
corrugated sheets. The cold-formed column connection was included in the analysis. The
284

column was modelled by shell elements and program ABQUS [7]. The 4-node shell
elements S4R (with 6 degrees of freedom in node) were employed. Two models of
foundation are analyzed. In the first model there is one spring in the column joints. In the
second model there are continuous elastic foundations along the column. The total
amount of finite elements was 1624. The element size was about 10 180 mm2. For the
column joints, the elements size was about 10 10 mm2. A linear buckling analysis of
the perfect column is conducted with connections between the column parts modelled by
rigid links between the adjacent members. In the column non-linear finite element
analysis (with both geometric and material non-linearity) the screw in the middle of the
connection plates was modelled as rigid link and the surface contact allowing separation
between plates was applied. The column was loaded by vertical force situated at the line
where the springs representing corrugated sheets are applied. The 1D model of column
with hinge at the connection was also analysed. The purpose of the analysis was devoted
to investigation of a safe lower limit of necessary stiffness of foundation that allow
maximum buckling resistance of the column.
58
14
[mm]
85
P
2 [m]
2 [m]
Fig. 2. Silo column with connection detail
3.2. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL SIMULATION

At first the column with one side brace in the middle of the span was analysed. The
joint between the column parts in linear buckling analysis was rigid. The normal force in
the column, corresponding to the buckling and the limit load, due to the brace stiffness is
presented in Fig. 3.
The normal force corresponding to the limit the buckling load of the column
increases with an increase of the brace stiffness. At some magnitude of brace stiffness the
load reaches a maximal magnitude, and a further increase of its stiffness does not cause
any further change in the buckling and the limit load. The maximal value of the buckling
load is about 15% higher than the maximal limit load. The full bracing condition defined
as the brace stiffness necessary to obtain the maximal buckling load or limit load of the
column, or when an increase in brace stiffness does not cause any further increase of the
buckling resistance was about 276 kN/m (1D - model), 243 kN/m (3D shell model) in the
linear buckling analysis and 400 kN/m in the case of non-linear analysis. Similar stiffness
of elastic foundation for existing silo [4] is about 100 kN/m what is much lower than the
full bracing condition.
Next the column with screwed parts in the middle was analysed. The plate thickness
at the column joint was under consideration. Results of the geometrically non-linear
285

analysis (GNA) for different plate thickness are compared with linear buckling analysis
(Fig. 3). The influence of the mesh on the results of the linear buckling analysis and nonlinear static analysis was also investigated (Table.1).
Fig. 3. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling vs.
stiffness of the spring for the column with one brace in the middle for different
thickness of the plate at the column joints
Table 1.
Mesh influence on the results of the buckling and non-linear analysis.
a)
10x10 and 10x180
total
number of
elements
1624
60.4
61.1
b)
10x10
9104
59.46
59.4
1.56%
2.78%
c)
5x5
38832
59.7
59.45
-0.40%
-0.08%
mesh
type:
element size
[mm x mm]
mesh a)
critical load [kN]
mesh convergence
LBA
NANG
LBA
mesh b)
NANG
mesh c)
The influence of the connecting plate thickness is not significant for the column
with brace of stiffness higher than 200 kN/m. For the column with brace of lower
stiffness the influence of the connecting plate thickness is responsible for the changes of
the limit load about 20% (for brace stiffness 100 kN/m). The limit and the buckling load
are similar for the brace stiffness higher than 400 kN/m. For lower stiffness of the brace
the column buckling and limit load depends on the plate stiffness at the connection
(Fig. 4).
286

The column buckling and limit load (with geometric non-linearity) in the case of
continuous elastic foundation along the column is presented in Fig. 5. The limit loads for
the 3D column model are lower than the buckling loads of the column 1D model. At the
column foundation stiffness of 1600 kN/m a local buckling of the cross section occurs.
The relation between the column load and the displacement for different stiffness of the
foundation in the case of non linear analysis with only geometric non-linearity, and with
both geometric and material non-linearity is presented in Fig. 6.
Fig. 4. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling and
limit load vs. stiffness of foundation for the column with continuous bracing for
different thickness of the plate at the column joints.
Fig. 5. Relationship of the column normal forces, corresponding to the first buckling and
limit load vs. stiffness of foundation for the column with continuous bracing and plate
thickness in the joint equal to 5 mm
4. CONCLUSIONS
The effect of bracing stiffness on the critical and limit load of the cold-formed
column was investigated. The results of numerical analysis allow to draw some
conclusions regarding the effect of bracing stiffness on the critical and limit load.
287

The column limit load was lower than the buckling load for whole range of
foundation stiffness.
The threshold bracing stiffness was obtained both in the case of the column with one
elastic spring and in the case of continuous foundation. The threshold stiffness is
much higher than the foundation stiffness provided by corrugated wall in the real
silos.
For low stiffness of foundation the connection details in the column may influence
on the magnitude of the column limit load.
Fig. 6. Relationship of the column normal forces from limit load analysis (with geometric
non-linearity NGA, and with geometric and material non-linearity NMGA) vs.
vertical column displacement for the column with different stiffness of continuous
elastic foundation
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Hancock G.J., Cold-formed steel structures, Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59,
2003, 473487.
Schafer B.W., Review: The Direct Strength Method of cold-formed steel member design,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 59, 2003, 473487.
Magnucka-Blandzi E. , .Magnucki K., Buckling and optimal design of cold-formed thinwalled beams: Review of selected problems, Thin-Walled Structures 49 (2011) 554561.
Wjcik M., Iwicki P., Tejchman J.: 3D buckling analysis of a cylindrical metal bin
composed of corrugated sheets strengthened by vertical stiffeners, Thin-Walled Structures,
49, 2011, 947-963.
Iwicki P., Wjcik M., Tejchman J., Failure of cylindrical steel silos composed of
corrugated sheets and columns and repair methods using a sensitivity analysis,
Engineering Failure Analysis. 18, 2011, 2064-2083.
EN1993-4-1. Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 41: Silos. Brussels: CEN, 2007.
Abaqus, Theory Manual, Version 6.8, Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorensen Inc, 2008.
Yura J.A., Winters bracing approach revised. Engineering Structures, 1996, 18, 10, pp.
821- 825.
288
BUCKLING AND VIBRATIONS OF COMPOSITE

COLUMN-BEAMS
J. JANKOWSKI
Department of Strength of Material and Structures,
Technical University of Lodz, Stefanowskiego 1/15, Lodz, Poland
This paper attends to analyse the modes for static buckling and vibrations of
column-beams with rectangular and trapezoidal cross-sections with the help of the
finite elements method. In the case of forced vibrations as well as in static buckling,
the bending or eccentric compression loadings are investigated.
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper deals with static buckling, natural free and forced vibrations for beams
with rectangular trapezoidal cross-sections, subjected to eccentric compression or pure
bending, using ANSYS 12.1 FEM program [1]. In order to determine dynamic critical
load, the Budiansky-Hutchinson [2] criterion was used. Many works describe behaviour
of steel and composite columns and column-beams with closed and open cross-sections
with respect to buckling modes and their interactions in aspect of dynamic buckling
under axial compression, but the world subject literature does not presents generally the
dynamic buckling of bent or eccentrically compressed thin-walled structures. In work [3]
Kubiak investigated rectangular girder subjected to pure bending, using the finite
elements method (FEM) and analytical-numerical method.
2. NUMERICAL MODELS
In both numerical models, the multi-layered shell finite element (SHELL99) was
used (see Fig. 1) to include composite material properties only with one layer of lamina.
Fig. 1. SHELL99 element geometry [1]
This element has 4 nodes and 6 degrees of freedom at each node. The numerical
models (Fig. 2.1, 2.2) of two beams were prepared as one half of the analyzed column
taking in mind symmetry condition assumed at the half length of column. Thickness of
all walls is identical and equals 1 mm (Table 1). Load distribution at the ends of beams
289

causes pure bending to be developed (only bending moment is applied) or eccentric
compression (combined load composed of bending moment and compressive force). In
case of eccentric compression, there is uniformly distributed force applied to each node.
The nodes that belong to the plate under tension are not loaded, but nodes at the edges
that belong to the compressed plate (bottom plate) are loaded with 1 N. For rectangular
beam, in case of eccentric compression, it gives moment value of 2.34 Nm and
compression force of 60 N. For trapezoidal beam the bending moment equals 0.034 Nm
and axial force is 1.36 N. For pure bending, bending moments are specified at 4.64 Nm
for rectangular beam and 1.45 Nm for trapezoidal beam. These values are reference
values used in static buckling and forced vibrations analysis. The columns is investigated
as simply supported at the loaded ends in plane of neutral axis, but top and bottom edges
can move in z direction (z axis is parallel to neutral axis) and all loaded edges
belonging to top and bottom plates, remain straight. The applied load is assumed as a
dynamic pulse. The shape of this pulse is a rectangle and pulse duration corresponds to
the period of natural fundamental flexural vibrations of analyzed beams. The structures
are modeled using the assumption of constant total mass of rectangular beam. It means
that trapezoidal beam is made in the way that its mass is equal to the mass of rectangular
beam.
a)
b)
Fig. 2.1. Numerical model and boundary conditions (half model): a) pure bending, b)
eccentric compression
a)
b)
Fig. 2.2. Numerical model and boundary conditions (half model) for two cases of load: a)
pure bending, b) eccentric compression
Table 1. Dimensions of beam-columns
Type of section
trapezoidal
rectangular
a [mm]
300
300
b1 [mm]
150
100
290
b2 [mm]
112
100
b3 [mm]
27
100
[deg]
15
0

where: a total length, b1 width of bottom plate, b2 width of inclined or vertical
plates, b3 width of top plate, - angle of inclination (inclined or vertical plates).
Table 2. Mechanical properties of composite material (1 compression direction)
E1 [GPa]
76
E2 [GPa]
5.5
G12 [GPa]
2.1
12 [-]
0.34
[kg/m3]
7800
3. 3. RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
Calculations, obtained with the finite element method, were conducted for static
buckling (the critical static loads) and frequencies of natural vibrations, for two cases of
the load.
3.1. STATIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The modes of buckling are shown for pure bending in figures 3 and 5 and for the
eccentric compression in figures 4 and 6. The figures show first three modes of buckling.
Static critical moments were calculated for two types of load (Tables 3a, 3b).
Fig. 3. Buckling modes (half model) - for pure bending case: modes 1-3 (numbering from
left to right)
Fig.4. Buckling modes (half model) - for eccentric compression case: 1-3 modes
(numbering from left to right)
291
Fig.5. Buckling modes (half model) - for pure bending case:

modes 1-3 (numbering from left to right)
Fig.6. Buckling modes (half model) - for eccentric compression case: modes 1-3 (numbering
from left to right)
Table 3a. Critical static moments for rectangular beam
Critical buckling
moment
[Nm]
107.7
54.2
Number of
half-waves
3
3
Case of load
pure bending
ecc. compr.
Table 3b. Critical static moments for trapezoidal beam

Number of half-waves
1
1
Mcr
[Nm]
221.8
19.2
Case of load
pure bending
eccentric compression
3.2. VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Analysis of vibrations was conducted for first three modes obtained for natural and
forced vibrations. In Figs. 7 and 8, the modes of natural vibrations are shown for
rectangular and trapezoidal beams. Frequencies for each mode are shown in Table 4.1
and 4.2 for rectangular and trapezoidal cross sections, respectively.
292
Fig.7. Modes of natural vibrations (half model) for rectangular beam

Table 4.1.
Natural frequencies for rectangular beam

Number of halfwaves
1
1
1
f [Hz]
45.4
64.7
64.8
Fig.8. Modes of natural vibrations (half model) for trapezoidal beam

Table 4.2.
Natural frequencies for trapezoidal beam

Number of halfwaves
1
1
1
f [Hz]
33.8
52.5
57.2
Next, frequencies of forced vibrations were calculated for the beams (Fig. 9).
Moreover, in the case of trapezoidal one, the second mode of buckling was included.
293
f [Hz]
90
80
kw -pure bending-m=1
70
kw -excentric
compression-imp=0.1
tr-pure bending, m=1
60
50
tr-excentric compr
40
tr-pure bending-m=3
30
tr-excentric comprm=3
20
10
0
M/Mcr [-]
0,5
Fig.9. Frequencies of forced vibrations vs. moment ratio: M/Mcr
4. CONCLUSIONS
For the second mode of buckling, in case of eccentric compression, the frequency
decreases, but it does not reach value equal to zero. In the case of pure bending, the
frequency increases. Comparing the modes of vibrations and buckling, one can conclude
that all the modes for appropriate numbers of modes are different except first modes for
trapezoidal beam.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
ANSYS Theory Reference, 12th Edition, www.ansys.com.

Kubiak T., Criteria of dynamic buckling estimation of thin-walled structures, Thin-Walled
Structures, 45, 2007, 888-892.
Kubiak T., Dynamic response of girders subjected to pure pulse bending loading, Acta
Mech. et Autom., Vol. 8, No. 4 (2008), 57-61.
294
STABILITY OF SANDWICH CYLINDRICAL SHELL

WITH VARIABLE THICKNESS
P. JASION, K. MAGNUCKI
Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Pozna, Poland
The present work shows the results of the stability analysis of sandwich cylindrical
shells with a variable thickness. The outer face of the shell has a cylindrical shape
whereas the inner one is a shell of revolution with positive or negative Gaussian
curvature. The shell is subjected to the uniform external pressure or to the axial
compression. The buckling shapes are presented and the plots showing the relation
between the critical load and the curvature of the inner face are given. The results
are compared to these obtained for the classical sandwich cylindrical shell of
constant thickness.
1. INTRODUCTION
The work is devoted to the elastic stability of sandwich cylindrical shells. Such
shells are used as a main part of tanks for transport of liquid nitrogen. Sandwich
cylindrical shells of constant thickness are described e.g. in monograph by Grigolk and
ulkov [4]. Stability problems were investigated by Karam and Gibson [7], Kardomateas
and Simitses [8] and Ohga et al. [9] among others. Elastic-plastic stability of
unsymmetrical sandwich cylinders is investigated by Jaskua and Zielnica [5]. Multiobjective optimization of a cylindrical shell under combined load was described by
Ostwald [10]. Belica et al. [2] analyse dynamic stability of sandwich cylinders
When designing thin walled structures the problem of increasing the buckling load
appears. For single layered shell it can be done by introducing meridional curvature, see
papers by Bachut [3], Magnucki and Jasion [5]. Increasing of buckling resistance of shell
of revolution by optimizing its meridional shape and thickness is discussed by Barski and
Kruelecki [1]. As to the three layered shells the value of critical load may be increased
by changing thicknesses of particular layers or material properties. Here the possibility of
increasing the buckling load by introducing the meridional curvature to the inner face is
investigated. The influence of geometry of the shell on the buckling shape is also
discussed.
2. SHELL'S GEOMETRY DESCRIPTION
The shell considered in the paper is a three layer shell with a variable thickness.
Upper and lower faces are of constant thickness. The outer face is a cylindrical shell
whereas the inner face is the shell with positive or negative Gaussian curvature. As a
result the thickness of the core filling the space between faces is variable. As a reference
structure the cylindrical sandwich shell of constant thickness has been chosen with the
295

following parameters: the length L = 1800, 3600, 5400 mm, the radius of the outer layer
Rc = 900 mm, the core thickness tcc = 18 mm and the face thickness tf = 1 mm. The family
of shells considered in the analyses has been obtained by introducing the meridional
curvature to the inner face of a reference cylindrical shell. The following conditions have
been assumed: the capacity of the sandwich shell that is the capacity of the inner face is
constant Vs = const. and the volume of the core is constant Vc = const. The latter condition
keeps the mass of all shells within the family constant. As a result of the above conditions
when the positive Gaussian curvature is introduced to the inner face, K > 0, the thickness
of the core in the mid-length of the shell decreases, tc0 < tcc, whereas the thickness of the
core near the edges increases, tc1 > tcc,. For negative Gaussian curvature, K > 0, the effect
is opposite. The idea is explain in Fig. 1. An angle parameter 0 has been additionally
introduced.
Fig. 1. Geometry of a sandwich cylindrical shell with a variable thickness
The radius of the inner face equals:
Rs =
L
.
2 sin( 0 / 2)
(1)
The capacity of the inner face is given by:

1
1
Vs = 2R s Rs2 5 + cos0 sin 0 Rs e0 0 + sin0 + e02sin 0
2 2
2
6
(2)
where e0 is the distance between the axis of revolution and the centre of the meridional
radius of curvature Rs:
e0 = t f + tc0 + Rs Rc , for K > 0
and
e0 = Rs + Rc t f + tc0 , for K < 0.
(3)
Volume of the core equals:
Vcore = Vc Vs ,
where Vc is the volume of the outer face (cylindrical shell) given by Vc = Rc2 L .
296
(4)

The parameters of selected shells considered in the paper are given in Table 1. The
values of the tc0 have been assumed and the other parameters have been determined from
equations (1) and (2) assuming that Vs = const. and Vc = const.
Table 1.
tc0 [mm]
0 [rad]
Rs [mm]
tc1 [mm]
Dimensions of selected shells

Rc = 900 mm, L = 1800 mm, tcc = 18 mm
positive Gaussian curvature
cylinder
negative Gaussian curvature
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
0,080221 0,053431 0,026691
0
0,026643 0,053238 0,079786
22444,0
33692,3
67440,5
67562,0
33814,4
22566,3
30,1
26,0
22,0
18
14,0
10,0
6,0
3. DESCRIPTION OF FE MODEL
All analyses have been carried out in the ANSYS code. Shell elements have been
used to model the outer and inner faces. The core of the shell has been modelled with the
use of solid elements. The faces have been offset from the core about half of the
thickness. Between all layers the bonding conditions have been imposed. Two load cases
have been considered. The first one was a uniform external pressure which includes an
axial force coming from the closures of the shell. The second case was the axial
compression. The shell was supported around the edges. The displacements in the radial
and circumferential direction were blocked. The FE model (quarter of a shell) as well as
the loads used in the analyses are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Load cases a); the FE model b)
A half of the shell has been modelled with symmetry conditions in the mid-length of
the shell. Since the preliminary analyses showed the buckling shape to be axisymmetrical
for axial compression the main analyses for this load case have been performed on quarter
models only with two symmetry planes.
The properties of materials used in the analyses were the following: for the outer and
inner layer the structural steel has been chosen with Young's modulus Ef = 2105 MPa
and Poisson's ratio f = 0.3; for the core two different materials were used. The properties
297

of the first one were Ec = 50 MPa and c = 0.3, which corresponds to the polyurethane
foam and the properties of the second one were Ec = 800 MPa and c = 0.3, which are
typical for a closed cell aluminium foam.
4. RESULTS OF ANALYSES
As a result of the analyses the buckling loads and buckling shapes have been
obtained. The dependency between the buckling load and the geometry of the shell is
shown in figures. The results corresponding to the reference cylindrical shells are also
presented for comparison reason.
4.1. EXTERNAL PRESSURE
Results of the analyses are shown in Fig. 3. For shells with positive Gaussian
curvature the critical load decreases when the curvature increases for both cores:
Ec = 50 MPa and Ec = 800 MPa. For shells with negative Gaussian curvature and
Ec = 800 MPa the buckling load increases when the curvature increases. When
Ec = 50 MPa the critical load increases initially and then drops down.
Fig. 3. Results of the analyses external pressure; critical loads a), b);
buckling shapes c), d)
298

In most cases considered the global buckling occurred in the shape of one
longitudinal half-wave and several circumferential waves (Fig. 3d). The shell buckled
locally when the Gaussian curvature had negative value and the tc1 parameter was small
- the drop in Fig. 3a. The local buckling shape had the form of short circumferential
waves located near the edges of the shell.
4.2. AXIAL COMPRESSION
The typical buckling shape for the compressed cylindrical shell can be of two kinds.
First possibility is axisymmetrical deformation in the shape of short longitudinal waves.
The second possibility is a combination of longitudinal half-waves and circumferential
waves. For shells considered in the present work the first possibility occurred.
From the plot showing the dependency of the buckling load from the curvature of
the inner face it can be seen that the highest value of critical load corresponds to the
cylindrical shell. Gaussian curvature, either positive or negative, decreases the value of
critical load (see Fig. 4a).
Fig. 4. Results of the analyses axial compression; critical loads a);

buckling shapes b), c), d)
The buckling shape of the compressed cylinder with the variable thickness is
axisymmetrical like for the cylinder of constant thickness. The waves however
concentrate in the region where the thickness had the smallest value; the bigger the
difference between tc0 and tc1 the shorter the region of deformation. The examples of
buckling shapes are shown in Fig. 4b-d.
299

5. CONCLUSIONS
The present work is devoted to the analysis of the elastic stability of sandwich shells.
It aims to explore the influence of meridional curvature and the shell thickness on the
buckling load and the buckling shape. The results show that by introducing the meridional
curvature to the inner face of the sandwich shell one may increase the value of the critical
load when the shell is loaded with uniform external pressure. It is true for shells with
negative Gaussian curvature for which Ec = 800 MPa and some shells with Ec = 50 MPa.
Introducing the positive Gaussian curvature does not increase the buckling load the
higher the curvature the smaller thickness in the mid-length which leads to decreasing the
buckling load. Similar effect appears for shells with negative Gaussian curvature for
which the thickness near the edges is small local buckling appears (see Fig. 3c).
As to the cylindrical shells with variable thickness under axial compression no gain
in buckling load is observed (see Fig. 4a). However the buckling shape may be controlled
by introducing the positive or negative curvature. The region of deformation is shorter
and the buckling load is lower when the curvature is bigger. For K > 0 shells buckle in the
mid-length and for K < 0 at the edges. The buckling shape for all analysed shell was
axisymmetrical as shown in Fig. 4b-d. The possibility of control the buckling shape may
be significant when such structures are used as energy absorbers. That subject should be
further explored in a non-linear post-critical analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Barski M., Kruelecki J., Optimal design of shells against buckling by means of the simulated annealing method. Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization 2005, 29(1), pp.6172.
Belica T., Malinowski M., Magnucki K., Dynamic stability of an isotropic metal foam cylindrical shell subjected to external pressure and axial compression, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Transactions ASME, 2011, 78(4), art. no. 041003.
Bachut J., Buckling of externally pressurised barrelled shells: a comparison of experiment
and theory. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, 2002, 79, pp.507-517.
Grigolk .I., ulkov P.P., Critical loads of cylindrical and conical sandwich shells. Zapadno-Cibirskoje Kninoe Izdatelstvo, Novosibirsk, 1966 (in Russian).
Jasion P., Magnucki K., Elastic buckling of barrelled shell under external pressure, ThinWalled Structures 2007, 45(4), pp.393-399.
Jaskula L., Zielnica J., Large displacement stability analysis of elasticplastic unsymmetrical sandwich cylindrical shells Thin-Walled Structures 2011, 49(5), pp.611-617.
Karam G.N., Gibson L.J., Elastic buckling of cylindrical shells with elastic cores-I. Analysis International Journal of Solids and Structures 1995, 32(8-9), pp.1259-1283.
Kardomateas G.A., Simitses G.J., Buckling of long sandwich cylindrical shells under external pressure Journal of Applied Mechanics, Transactions ASME 2005, 72(4), pp.493499.
Ohga M., Wijenayaka A.S., Croll J.G.A., Lower bound buckling strength of axially loaded
sandwich cylindrical shell under lateral pressure Thin-Walled Structures 2006, 44(7),
pp.800-807.
Ostwald, M. Multicriteria optimization of cylindrical sandwich shells under combined
loads, Structural Optimization 1996, 12(2-3), pp.159-166.
300
GLOBAL BUCKLING OF A SANDWICH BEAM-COLUMN

WITH PHYSICALLY NONLINEAR CORE
P. JASION, K. MAGNUCKI, P. WASILEWICZ
Piotrowo 3, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
Subject of the paper is a sandwich beam-column with a metal foam core under axial
compression. Two analytical models of the beam-column are presented. The first
model - a classical model includes linear mechanical properties of the core, and the
second one includes nonlinear mechanical properties of the core. Solutions of these
two models are presented and critical loads are determined. Two numerical FEM
models of the beam-column and numerical calculations are presented. Experimental
tests for the sandwich beam-columns with metal foam core are described.
Analytical, numerical FEM, and experimental critical loads are compared. The
influence of the mechanical properties of the core on the critical load is discussed.
Results of the investigations are presented in figures.
1. INTRODUCTION
The bases of the theory of sandwich structures were formulated by C. Libove and
S.B. Butdorf, and E. Reissner in the mid of 20th century. Reviews of selected problems
concerning sandwich structures were presented by Hohe and Becker [5], Noor et al [12],
and Vinson [14].
Typical three-layered panels usually contain honeycomb cores. Extensive
investigations during the last decade were devoted to sandwich structures with metal foam
cores. Manufacturing, mechanical properties and applications of metal foams were
described by Ashby et al [1], and Banhart [2]. Size effects in metallic foam core sandwich
beams were presented by Kesler and Gibson [6], and also by Rakow and Waas [13].
Modeling of sandwich structures was described by Carrera [4], Lotoing et al [7], and
Magnucka-Blandzi [9]. Strength and buckling problems of sandwich beams or plates with
metal foam cores were presented for example by Jasion et al [8], Magnucka-Blandzi and
Magnucki [10].
Fig. 1. Scheme of the three-layered beam-column
301

The subject of the investigation is an axially compressed three-layered beam-column
with metal foam core (Fig.1). Length of the beam is L , and depth h 2t f t c .
2. ANALYTICAL MODELS OF THE THREE-LAYERED BEAM
2.1. FIRST MODEL CLASSICAL MODEL [8, 11]
Deformation of a flat cross section of the three-layered beam is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Scheme of the deformation of the flat cross section of the beam [11]
Determining the bending moment M b x and the shearing force Qx for threelayered beam with elastic core one obtains the following governing equations [11]:
11
d 2w
dx
12
M x
d
b3 ,
dx
btc
2bt c Gc x Qx
where:
1
1
1
Ec , 12 E f C1 f E c , C 2 f
3 6 x1 4 x12 x1 ,
12
12
6
uf
tf
1 x1 x1 , x1
, x
, t f , t c thicknesses of the faces and core,
tc
tc
11 2 E f C2 f
C1 f
(1)
b width of the beam, E f , E c , G c elastic modulus of the faces and core.

The assumed deflection shape of the beam is as follows
wx wa sin
x
L
(2)
Thus, the bending moment and transverse force are in the following forms
M b x F0 wa sin
x
L
Q x
302
dM b
w
x
.
F0 a cos
dx
L
L
(3)

Substitution of these expressions into equations (1) gives the critical axial force
3
bt
F0,CR 11 c ,
L 1 f 0
where
t
f 0 c 1 c 12 .
Ec
L
(4)
2.1. SECOND MODEL PHYSICALLY NONLINEAR CORE

Mechanical properties of the metal foam core are decidedly smaller than the
properties of the metal faces of the three-layered beam. Stress-strain diagrams for a) - the
aluminium alloy faces, and b) - the aluminium foam core are shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3.
Stress-strain diagrams: a) the aluminium alloy, b) the aluminium foam
The assumption - the buckling of the beam-column occurs for linear elastic faces,
therefore, for the faces the stress-strain relationship is the Hookes law
x f E f x f .
(5)
However, the metal foam core is a nonlinear material; therefore, the stress-strain
relationship is formulated in the following form
xc
xc
Ec
c
1 kc x ,
E c
or
xc
Ec
c
1 1 4k c x ,
2k c
(6)
where: k c dimensionless parameter.

The bases of the theory of inelastic buckling of homogeneous columns were described by
Baant and Cedolin [3]. The stress-strain relationship for the metal foam core during
buckling is shown in Fig. 4.
303
Fig. 4. Stress-strain diagram of the metal foam core during buckling
Deformations of a flat cross section of the three layers beam before and during buckling
are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Scheme of the deformation of the flat cross section of the three-layered beam
Determining the bending moment M b x and the shearing force Qx for the threelayered beam with nonlinear core one obtains the following governing equations:
~11
d 2w
dx
~12
M x
d
b3 ,
dx
bt c
bt c Gc Gt x Qx ,
where:
Et
E c Et ~
E Et ~
~
, 12 E f C1 f c
, C1 f 1 x1 4 x 02 x1 ,
24
12
Et
E c Et
1
3 6 x1 4 x12 12 x 02 x1 , x 0
, Gt
,
12
21 c
4 4 E f x1 E c Et
~
~11 2E f C 2 f
~
C2 f
(7)
d c
x
c
- tangent modulus of the metal foam (Fig. 4).
d xc 1 2k c xc E c
304

By substituting expressions for the deflection shape (2), the bending moment and the
shearing force (3) into eqs. (7), one obtains the compressive axial force for the critical
state
2
2 ~
3
~12
~
tc
11bt c
cs
. (8)
f 0 2 1 c
F0

~ , where
E c Et
L 1 f0
L
Strains of the layers of the beam-column under axial compression for the prebuckling state are identical ( x f xc ), thus
x f
Ef
xc
Ec
c
1 kc x .
E c
(9)
The compressive axial force
F0 p b 2 x1 x f xc bt c .
(10)
Substitution of the expression (9) and tangent modulus E t gives
F0 p b
x1
2k c
Ec
Ec
Ec
E 11 E x E
t
1 f
t
bt c .
(11)
Equating expressions (8) and (11), one obtains the critical axial force, thus
F0c s F0 p b F0,CR .
(12)
Below the results of numerical calculations realized for an example three-layered

beam with the following parameters are presented: L 900 mm , b 50 mm , t f 1 mm ,
t c 18 mm , E f 65600 MPa , f 0.33 , Ec 216 MPa , k c 104.1 , c 0.3 .

Values of the critical axial forces are as follows:
Lc
a) the first model - linear core, the formula (4), F0,Anal
6.70 kN ,
CR
Nc
6.62 kN .
b) the second model - nonlinear core, the formula (11), F0,Anal
CR
The graphic solution of the eq. (12) is shown in Fig. 6.
305
Fig. 6. Graphs of two functions two axial forces (8) and (11)
3. NUMERICAL FEM MODELS OF THE THREE-LAYERED BEAM

The numerical models of the beam have been elaborated in the ABAQUS code. Due to
symmetry of the problem only quarter of the beams has been modelled with proper
boundary conditions. Thin shell elements S4R have been used to model the faces of the
beam whereas for the core the solid C3D8R elements have been used.
To determine the critical load of the axially compressed beam with the linear core
(the first model) the eigenvalue analyses has been performed. The second model, which
includes nonlinear properties of the core, has been analysed with the use of nonlinear
procedure based on acr-length method. Small imperfections have been introduced to
initiate the collapse. Values of the critical axial forces are the following:
Lc
a) the firs model - linear core, F0,FEM
6.70 kN ,
CR
Nc
6.59 kN .
b) the second model - nonlinear core, F0,FEM
CR
The obtained values are very similar to these given by the analytical solution. The
equilibrium path for the nonlinear analysis is shown in Fig. 7c.
4. EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The beams were tested on the universal testing machine Zwick Z100/TL3S. The test stand
is shown in Fig. 7a. Steel elements have been glued to both end of the beam to provide a
proper support conditions (see Fig. 7b).
The obtained results are given in Fig. 7c in the form of curves showing relation
between the axial load and the shortening of the beam. For both beams tested the critical
Nc
6.58 kN . No local deformations have been observed
load had the value about F0,Exp
CR
on the faces of the beams.
306
Fig. 7. Test stand for buckling investigation buckled beam a); support b); results c)
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the problem of global stability of the axially compressed three-layered
beam-column has been investigated. The analytical model describing this phenomenon
has been presented in which the non-liner physical properties of the core were assumed.
The calculations have been carried out for the beam made of aluminium (see Table 1).
Table 1.
Comparison of results obtained with different models and methods

Critical load [kN]
Analytical
FEM
Experiment
First model linear core
6,70
6,70
Second model nonlinear core
6,62
6,59
6,58
307

The results obtained from the proposed model are compared with these from FE
analysis and experiments. For both models presented in the paper, the classical model and
the one with physical nonlinearities, results are very close to each other.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland
Grant No. 0807/B/T02/2010/38.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
Ashby M.F., Evans A.G., Fleck N.A., Gibson L.J., Hutchinson J.W., Wadley H.N.G.,
Metal foams: A design guide, Butterworth Heinrmann, Boston, Oxford, Johannesburg,
Melbourne, New Delhi 2000.
Banhart J., Manufacture, characterisation and application of cellular metals and metal
foams, Progress in Materials Science, 46, 2001, pp. 559632.
Baant Z., Cedolin L., Stability of structures. Elastic, inelastic, fracture and damage
theories, Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, 1991.
Carrera E., Historical review of Zig-Zag theories for multilayered plates and shells.
Applied Mechanics Reviews, 56(3), 2003, pp. 287308.
Hohe J., Becker W., Effective stress-strain relation for two-dimensional cellular sandwich
cores: Homogenization, material models, and properties. Applied Mechanics Reviews,
55(1), 2002, pp. 6187.
Kesler O, Gibson LJ., Size effects in metallic foam core sandwich beams, Materials
Science and Engineering A 326, 2002, pp. 228234.
Lotoing L, Drapier S, Vautrin A., First applications of a novel unified model for global
and local buckling of sandwich columns, European Journal of Mech. A/Solids, 21, 2002,
pp. 683701.
Jasion P., Magnucka-Blandzi E., Szyc W., Wasilewicz P., Magnucki K., Global and local
buckling of a sandwich beam-rectangular plate with metal foam core, Thin-Walled
Structures. The 6th Intl Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Editors: D. Dubina, V.
Ungureanu, Timisoara, Romania, 2011, pp. 707714.
Magnucka-Blandzi E., Mathematical modelling of a rectangular sandwich plate with a
metal foam core, Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 49(2), 2011, pp. 439
455.
Magnucka-Blandzi E, Magnucki K., Effective design of a sandwich beam with a metal
foam core, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp. 432438.
Magnucki K., Strength and buckling of sandwich beams-columns. Modelowanie
Inynierskie, 42, 2011, pp. 249-258 (in Polish).
Noor A.K., Burton W.S., Bert C.W., Computational models for sandwich panels and
shells, Applied Mechanics Reviews, 49(3), 1996, pp. 155199.
Rakow JF, Waas AM, Size effects and the shear response of aluminium foam, Mechanics
of Materials, 37, 2005, pp. 6982.
Vinson J.R., Sandwich structures, Applied Mechanics Reviews, 54(3), 2001, pp. 201214.
308
IMPERFECTION SENSITIVE BUCKLING OF RECTANGULAR

FRAMES WITH ELASTIC BRACING STIFFNESS
Z. KALA
Department of Structural Mechanics, Brno University of Technology
Veve 95, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic
The effect of initial random imperfections on the random load carrying

capacity of rectangular frame is studied. The load carrying capacity is
calculated by means of geometrically nonlinear FEM solution. The height
of the columns and bracing elastic stiffness are non-random parameters,
taking into consideration the condition that the non-dimensional slenderness
of columns is constant. Design load carrying capacity is calculated acc. to
EN1990 as 0.1 percentile. Results show that the safety of design according
to EUROCODE 3 is misaligned. The Sobol variance based sensitivity
analysis of random load carrying capacity is used to identify the dominant
input random imperfections and their higher order interaction effects.
1. INTRODUCTION
With regard to the ultimate limit states of structures, the load carrying capacity is
frequently considered to be one of the important output variables of numerical models. A
slender steel structure contains initial imperfections which considerably influence the load
carrying capacity of a structure. The variance of the load carrying capacity of a structure
is influenced by the variance of input imperfections. One of the important tasks of the
sensitivity analysis is the identification of input random imperfections, the effect of which
on the variance of load carrying capacity is dominant [1], [2].
The frame structure is characterized by the fact that members influence each other
mutually [Kala]. The imperfection interaction effects can have a significant influence on
the overall performance of the frames [2]. For the load carrying capacity problems, it is
therefore necessary, as well, to study the influence of interactions amongst imperfections
of a steel frame structure. This can be analyzed using the so-called global sensitivity
analysis [6]. Sobol variance-based methods [7] were applied in the paper presented. The
imperfections which interact and may thus generate extreme values of load carrying
capacity have been identified.
The sensitivity analysis is an important element for ensuring the safety and reliability
of steel structures. The results of sensitivity and statistical analyses can be applied for
optimization of control activities in production process with the aim to lower the
variability of quantities studied. The variance of input imperfections is influenced by
production quality, which should be monitored in all countries of the European Union.
The basic indicators of production quality include the yield strength, tensile strength and
ductility, which have been under long term statistical evaluation, see, e.g., [3, 5].
309
Fig. 1. The geometry of symmetric steel plane rectangular frame
2. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF FRAME WITH ELASTIC BRACING STIFFNESS

The frame presented in Fig. 1 represents a typical stability problem of a system
consisting of several members. Elastic bracing stiffness K and column system length h are
the parameters determining whether a frame with sway column or no-sway column is
concerned. Let us consider the perfect frame from Fig. 1 with constant value of
nondimensional slenderness = 0.9 of columns (buckling length Lcr =7.703 m). Since
is constant, hence the design buckling resistance (design load carrying capacity) of
compression column calculated according to EUROCODE 3 is constant. The first critical
load is Fcr1 = 968.1 kN.
Fig. 2.
The geometry of symmetric steel plane rectangular frame
Let us consider the stiffness K and system length h to be the parameters of the
analysis. Let us select the stiffness K, and calculate the system length h so that = 0.9.
The result is shown by the function presented in Fig. 2. Stiffness K must lie within the
interval K 0; 350 kNm-1. When selecting K>350 kNm-1, so h cannot be calculated so
that = 0.9. For K>350 kNm-1, <0.9.
310

-1
When K=350 kNm and h=10m, then the first critical load and the second critical
load coincide Fcr1= Fcr2=968.14 kN. It means that the sway (anti-symmetric) buckling
mode and non-sway (symmetric) buckling modes coincide. The design buckling
resistance calculated according EUROCODE 3 is constant, because buckling length of
columns Lcr =7.703 m is constant.
Let us consider all the pairs K and h so that were constant. If is constant, then
Fcr1 is constant, too; nevertheless, Fcr2 decreases with increasing value of h, see Fig. 3.
Eight constant values of Fcr1 for eight values of are presented in Fig. 3. The length of
horizontal line determines the interval I of h. For =0.9, it is, e.g., h 3.45; 10 m ,
and the length of interval I 0.9 of h is I0.9 =10-3.45=6.55, see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. Out of the
interval h 3.45; 10 m , the pairs K and h cannot be found so that it would hold that
=0.9.
Fig. 3. The example of deformation of the sway frame with columns under compression
It is evident from Fig. 3 that the size of interval I is growing with increasing
slenderness. It holds for the upper limit of each of these intervals that Fcr1= Fcr2. For the
lower limit of each of these intervals, it holds that K=0. When applying the
nondimensional slenderness , we get more general results. Approximately, it holds that
I const . The dependence between h vs. K is valid for each value of the form of
which is nearly like that in Fig. 2, see [4].
There exist pairs K and h for each value . The values of the inevitable initial
crookedness of bar members (bow imperfections) and out-of-plumb inclinations of the
columns (sway imperfections) depend on the column system length h [2] above all. The
consideration of geometrical nonlinearity is inevitable for load carrying capacity analysis
[4].
311

3. INPUT RANDOM IMPERFECTIONS
The statistic analysis of random sway imperfections was carried out in [1]. The
statistic characteristics of random bow imperfections were published in [2].
Experimentally obtained cross-section geometry and material characteristics of steel
products made by a dominant Czech producer (see [3], [5]) were utilized for the solved
problem. For non-measured quantities (e.g., Youngs modulus), the study was based on
data obtained from technical literature [8]. All the input statistical characteristics are
given synoptically in Tab. 1. All input random variables are statistically independent.
Table 1.
Input random quantities
Cross beam
Right Column
h1
b1
tw1
tf1
fy1
E1
e1
h0
b0
tw0
tf0
fy0
E0
h2
b2
tw2
tf2
fy2
E2
e2
Meaning
Left Column
Symbol
Cross-sectional height
Cross-sectional width
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Bow imperfections
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Yield strength
Young`s modulus
Bow imperfections
System imperfection
System imperfection
Probability
distribution
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Gauss
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Histogram
Gauss
Gauss
Gauss
Gauss
Mean
Value
220.2 mm
111.5 mm
6.22 mm
9.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
0
270.2 mm
136.9 mm
6.96 mm
10.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
220.2 mm
111.5 mm
6.22 mm
9.13 mm
297.3 MPa
210 GPa
0
0
0
Standard
deviation
0.973 mm
1.086 mm
0.23 mm
0.422 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.76533 h
1.194 mm
1.332 mm
0.258 mm
0.468 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.973 mm
1.086 mm
0.23 mm
0.422 mm
16.8 MPa
10.5 GPa
0.76533 h
See [1]
See [1]
4. GEOMETRICAL NONLINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The elastic structural analysis, using linear stress/strain laws, applied to the geometry
of the deformed structure, was used. The geometrical nonlinear solution was elaborated
and programmed by the author of the present paper. The frame geometry was meshed by
beam elements [4]. The load carrying capacity was solved by the nonlinear Euler
incremental method and combined with the Newton-Raphson method. Nonlinear solution
is described in detail in [4].
312

5. STATISTICAL AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSES
EN1990 enables the evaluation of the design load carrying capacity Nb,0.1 using
statistical analysis of the random load carrying capacity. The random variability of the
load carrying capacity is due to the random variability of initial imperfections. LHS
method was used to simulate a real experiment. The output is the random load carrying
capacity. The statistical analysis was evaluated using 400 thousand simulation runs. The
design load carrying capacity Nb,0.1 for d = 3.8 is, in practice, obtained as 0.1 percentile
(Kala et al. 2009; Kala et al. 2010; Kala 2011a). Nb,0.1 was evaluated from the basic
probability definition in a manner described in (Kala 2009). The design buckling
resistance of a compression column Nb,Rd of EUROCODE 3 is verified by means of
statistical analysis according to standard EN 1990, see Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Load carrying capacity for 0.9 .
One of the most perfect methods of sensitivity analysis is the Sobol sensitivity
analysis (Sobol [7], Saltelli et al. [6]). In our study, the sensitivity analysis of load
carrying capacity (random output Y) to input imperfections (random inputs Xi from
Table 1) was evaluated, see Fig. 5. The first-order and second-order sensitivity indices
were calculated. The one sensitivity index was evaluated for 500 2 simulation runs
analogously as, e.g., in [4].
Fig. 5. Sensitivity analysis for 0.9
313

6. CONCLUSION
The comparison of Nb,0.1 and Nb,Rd points out the misalignment of reliability of steel
frames designed according to EUROCODE 3, see Fig. 4. The optimum reliability is stated
for Nb,0.1 = Nb,Rd, however, it occurs only for K=0 and/or K=350kNm-1, see Fig. 4. It is
important to note that the influence of residual stresses was neglected. By taking the
influence of residual stresses into consideration, the load carrying capacity would
decrease; nevertheless, the misalignment of Nb,0.1 is remaining. The Sobol sensitivity
analysis is appropriate for the study of causes of the misalignment of reliability of steel
frames. Sensitivity analysis results of the frame with 0.9 proves a totally different
effect of imperfections of frames with sway columns (K=0) and non-sway columns
(K=350kNm-1) on the load carrying capacity. If K=0, thus the effect of system
imperfections and is dominant. If K=350kNm-1, so the bow imperfections e1, e2
influence the load carrying capacity in a dominant way, the interaction effect between e1,
e2 being 35 %. The sum of the second and higher order sensitivity indices for K=0 is
approximately 50 %, see left part of Fig. 5. With regard to the system reliability,
imperfections e1, e2, , that interact and which may thus generate extreme values of
load carrying capacity were identified.
The author gratefully acknowledges the partial support provided by the Technology
Agency of the R within the project TAR TA01020307, and the Czech Ministry of
Education, Youth and Sports within the Research Project MSM0021630519.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Kala Z., Sensitivity analysis of stability problems of steel plane frames, Thin Walled
Structures, 49(5), 2011, pp. 645-651.
Kala Z., Sensitivity analysis of steel plane frames with initial imperfections, Engineering
Structures, 33(8), 2011, pp. 23422349.
Kala Z., Melcher, J., Puklick L., Material and geometrical characteristics of structural
steels based on statistical analysis of metallurgical products, Journal of Civil Engineering
and Management, 15(3), 2009, pp. 299307.
Kala Z., Geometrically non-linear finite element reliability analysis of steel plane frames
with initial imperfections, Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 18(1), 2012, pp.
8190.
Melcher J., Kala Z., Holick M., Fajkus M., Rozlvka L., Design characteristics of
structural steels based on statistical analysis of metallurgical products, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 60 (2004), pp. 795808.
Saltelli A., Chan K., Scott E.M., Sensitivity analysis, New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics, 2004.
Sobol I., Sensitivity estimates for nonlinear mathematical models, Matematicheskoe
Modelirovanie 2, pp. 112118, 1990. (in Russian, translated in English in Sobol 1993)
Guedes Soares C., Uncertainty modelling in plate buckling, Journal Structural Safety,
1988, (5), pp. 1734.
314
DEFORMATION AND BUCKLING OF ELASTIC SHALLOW

CONICAL SHELLS WITH DIFFERENT BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
.G. KARASEV, M.A. VARIANICHKO, G.G. KARASEV
The Prydneprovsk State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Chernyshevsky str., 24-a, 49600, Dniepropetrovsk, Ukraine
In present work one can find the analysis of numerical linear (bifurcation) and
nonlinear solution of the buckling problem of elastic shallow conical shells
undergoing transversal external compression. This problem is studied for different
boundary conditions. There is find out that for cases of fixed encastre support
(clamped) and fixed hinge support the dangerous load for large geometry
parameters range is buckling load of linear problem. In opposite, for the case of
moveable support the nonlinear solution is determinant in large geometry
parameters range.
1. THE AIM OF THE WORK

The buckling of elastic shallow closed conical shells undergoing external pressure
with low slope angles () (Fig. 1) occurs by axisymmetric deformation until the shell
snap through to the form, which is almost closed to the mirrored initial form. With the
increase of mechanism is changed and buckling occurs with the appearance of nonaxisymmetric dents. Buckling pressure limit load
, leading to snap, needs
geometrically nonlinear solution. The research of such solution is a difficult problem
itself. From the other side, critical buckling pressure
is defined by simple
bifurcation linear solution. So our interest is in definition of slope angle ( *) which
corresponds to the change of the dangerous buckling model
Fig. 1. Solution scheme of she closed shallow conical shell with external pressure
In paper [1] there was defined the angle * for fixed encastre support and fixed
hinge support of the discussed shells. There was established that for the large range of
thickness parameter R/h (from R/h = 240 for encastre support and from R/h = 300 for the
hinge to R/h = 2000) as well as in large range of angles (= 220) the dangerous load
(lowest between critical
and limit
values) is critical one
.
It is obvious that moveable shell edges will enlarge the nonlinear solution domain.
315

The aim of present work is to establish the influence of edge movability on the areas
of linear or nonlinear solution of buckling model application to the solution of the
buckling problem of elastic conical shallow cylindrical shells undergoing transversal
external pressure.
2. PROBLEM DEFINITION
Numerical research is carried out by solution of constructions with relative
thickness parameter R/h = 250-1000 and slope angle = 0.5-15. The thickness of the
shell in every case is h = 4 mm. Shell material is steel with following characteristics:
Young modulus = 200 GP; Poisson ratio = 0.3; yield strength 02 = 800 P.
The load is applied as a uniformly distributed on the surface of the cone external
transversal compression with intensity . The boundary conditions of the lower shell
edge corresponded to 4 different cases: fixed encastre support, moveable encastre
support, fixed hinge support and moveable hinge support. During the research there was
established:
1) limit pressure value
(nonlinear static solution of axisymmetric pre- and
postcritical deformation and buckling);
2) critical pressure
and buckling modes. In particular number of waves in
circumference direction (linear buckling problem).
3. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH
The solution is carried out in ANSYS. The shell model mesh was created by
SHELL 181 element from the standard ANSYS element library intended for shells of
middle and small thickness. It has four nodes each having six degrees of freedom: three
displacements in X, Y, Z directions of nodal coordinate system and three rotations about
these axes. This element could be used for linear and non-linear problems of shell
deformations with large displacements and angles of rotation. Geometric model is
constructed by the rotation of the slope line around the symmetry axe of the cone.
Finite element mesh is constructed with standard options. During the first
approximation of the element size we fixed the number of elements (N~ 600). Next, mesh is
densified until the difference between two solutions with is not greater than 0.7%
(dependence of critical load from number of elements is stable). So in final solutions in
function of R/h and value N=38006900 were assumed.
We do not represent all data array because of the large shell class. As an example in
tables 1 and 2 we represented solution result for shells with parameters R/h = 250
(R = 1.0 m) and R/h = 1000 (R= 4.0 m) respectively.
Tables are limited by the most interested area of changing angle . In this research
the following notations were used: f.e.- fixed encastre support; m.e.- moveable encastre
support; f.h. - fixed hinge support; m.h.- moveable hinge support.
In Tables 1 and 2 it is shown the increase of limit and critical pressure values by
increasing of angle for all studied boundary conditions. A dangerous load for shells
with R/h = 250 is a limit pressure (
) from all data array for small values of angle . A
316

dangerous load for shells with R/h = 1000 is a critical pressure (
) already for = 0.5
in case of fixed encastre support, because an angle * = 0.45 when buckling model
changes.
To visualize the dangerous load mechanism one plotted in Fig. 2 the dependences
,
- for shells with R/h = 250. Here, for
: 1 - moveable hinge support; 6 moveable encastre support; 7 - fixed hinge support, 8 -fixed encastre support. For
:2moveable hinge support; 3 - moveable encastre support; 4 - fixed hinge support, 5 - fixed
encastre support.
Table 1.
,
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
10
15
, P
1.649
3.257
5.050
6.916
8.881
11.20
13.80
15.99
18.63
21.45
55.07
96.61
Table 2.
,
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Critical and limit load pressure values for shells with R/h = 250
, P
0.677
1.701
3.027
4.353
5.937
7.915
9.798
11.69
13.95
16.55
46.07
84.76
,
P
0.616
1.839
2.777
3.779
5.170
6.292
7.594
8.959
10.61
12.30
31.68
56.96
, P
0.572
1.947
4.294
7.440
11.16
16.13
21.94
27.97
35.24
42.34
168.9
365.8
,
P
0.129
0.682
1.767
3.286
4.769
6.837
9.107
11.42
14.02
17.41
61.57
138.2
, P
0.229
0.882
2.067
3.639
5.747
8.319
10.70
14.60
17.69
22.20
96.56
218.9
,
P
0.112
0.391
0.774
1.273
1.907
2.700
3.443
4.253
5.687
7.028
26.24
57.16
Critical and limit load pressure values for shells with R/h = 1000
, P
0.027
0.063
0.109
0.162
0.223
0.291
0.365
0.444
0.534
0.622
,
P
2.048
4.667
5.622
7.196
9.428
11.07
12.97
14.97
17.38
19.97
45.10
79.82
,
P
0.028
0.059
0.097
0.142
0.188
0.244
0.301
0.363
0.432
0.501
, P
0.017
0.046
0.085
0.133
0.186
0.249
0.316
0.393
0.472
0.558
,
P
0.009
0.035
0.061
0.093
0.127
0.168
0.210
0.259
0.310
0.364
, P
0.029
0.110
0.245
0.397
0.591
0.841
1.125
1.404
1.721
2.097
,
P
0.014
0.046
0.098
0.167
0.244
0.352
0.481
0.619
0.780
0.951
, P
0.014
0.059
0.134
0.242
0.386
0.514
0.665
0.864
1.086
1.329
,
P
0.005
0.018
0.039
0.067
0.104
0.148
0.200
0.257
0.321
0.402
From the analysis of table data and Fig. 2 we can separate two effects that influence
and
values: 1) effect connected with replacement of hinge support by encastre
support; 2) effect of replacement of fixed support by moveable support.
In the Fig. 3a, 3b for shells with R/h = 250 () and 1000 (b), we represented
dependences of angle from relation of limit and bifurcation value for moveable and
fixed encastre support to the corresponding load values of hinge support. Here relations
;
;
;
are represented by curves 1, 2, 3, 4,
respectively. As far as in one coordinate domain we unified different ratios for different
317

boundary conditions we use for notation symbol . Because of the relatively big
values of limit value for shells with R/h = 1000 and >5 and because of the difficulties
related with their definition, we limited this area by =(0-5).
Fig.2. Typical dependences for shells with R/h = 250 for every
Fig.3. Dependences of bifurcation load and limit load ration from which correspond to the
effect of replacement of hinge support by encastre support (, b) and fixed support by
moveable one (c, d) for shells with R/h=250 (, c) and R/h=1000 (b, d)
318

Influence of the edge mobility on the values of
and
are represented on the
fig. 3 c, d (c shells with R/h = 250; d - with R/h = 1000).
Here curves: 5, 6, 7, 8 correspond to relations:

;
;
. For the coordinate axes we use .

Analysis of dependences of the Fig. 3 - a, b, shows that the replacement of hinge
support by encastre support leads to increase of
and
values (all curves
are plotted higher =1). At the same time the character of curves is the same for
different R/h. Limit values increases faster than critical. From the other side increasing of
and
values is also characteristic for the moveable support. The influence of
encastre support decreases with the growth of angle . In the area of small (<2) one
noted the sharp increase of
as far as decrease. This is unusual for
. Even more,
for the case of moveable support for shells with R/h = 250 one note sharp decrease of the
encastre support effect for limit load, conditioned by low value of
.This fact could be
explained by increase of transversal pliability of the shell for = 0.5, due to the edge
mobility.
The moveable edge replacement by the fixed one (Fig. 3c, d) leads to the decrease
of the limit load. This decrease is very important and in some cases achieves 70%.
Bifurcation load is not so sensible. Even more, in some areas of low for the case of
encastre support the mobility of the edge contribute to the growth of critical load. This is
related to the buckling modes, which are axysimmetrical in this case. This modes in
comparison with non-axisymmetrical with periodical dents are more energy-consuming
because of membrane stresses domination.
In general the solution results, as in paper [1], show that for the fixed support the
area of parameters of elastic closed conical shells where limit load is a dangerous load is
relatively small. But the possible displacement of the edge for hinge support, as well as,
for encastre support enlarges this domain.
In the Fig. 4 we represented dependences of the angle to the bifurcation
pressure/limit pressure ratio value with same edge conditions for R/h = 250 () and
R/h = 1000 (b). These dependences allow to define the area of the applicability of linear
or nonlinear models for different boundary conditions. On this graphs: 1, 2, 3, 4
correspond to ratios:
;
;
.
Fig.4. Dependences
for shells with R/h = 250 () and R/h = 1000 (b)
319

From graphs one can see that for all cases of edge fixation these curves are of the
same character. It is evident that abscises on the level

=1 correspond to the
boundary angle * when the buckling model changes. For <* limit pressure is
and nonlinear model is dangerous. Otherwise the dangerous pressure should
be established by bifurcation solution. On same pictures one can establish the influence
of the edge mobility on the mechanism of the shell buckling. The possible displacement
of the shell edge leads to the important enlargement of the shell geometry (in particular
increasing of slope angle ) which needs to be solved within the nonlinear approach. For
shell with R/h = 250, for example, due to the mobility of the edge parameter * growth
from 1.8 to 5.4 for encastre support and from 2.7 to 14.8 for the hinge support. The
last interval includes almost all shallow shells. For shells with R/h = 1000 these intervals
are respectively for the encastre support * =0.45 and 1.5, for the hinge support *
=0.7 and 4.1.
5. CONCLUSION
By the way of numerical experiment for the closed elastic shallow conical shells
undergoing transversal external pressure with different boundary conditions in the range
of thickness ratio R/h= 250-1000, there was studied the influence of the edge mobility on
the buckling load. It is found out that possible edge displacement leads to the decrease of
critical
and limit load
.
It is also established that the edge mobility influence more the limit pressure
value.
There is established the limit value of the slope angle * which corresponds to the
change of the dangerous buckling model (for <*), the model should be geometrically
nonlinear, otherwise it should be linear bifurcation. This limit value * mostly depends
on thickness ratio R/h and increase sharply for low R/h values [1].
Edge mobility leads to the growth of the * parameter, which practically do not
depend on R/h. In the discussed range of thickness this parameter for the case of encastre
support is ~3, and for the hinge support ~5.7. So for relatively thick shells with R/h~100200 for the case of hinge support in almost all area of shallow shells the solution model
should be based on geometrically nonlinear approach.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research was sponsored by the Fund of Humboldt grant 3.4 - Fokoop UKR/1070297.
REFERENCES
[1]
., .

, Theoretical Foundations of Civil Engineering, Polish-UkrainianLithuanian Transactions, Warsaw 2011, 19, pp. 99 104.
320
STABILITY OF THIN PLATES WITH FUNCTIONALLY

GRADED STRUCTURE
M. KAMIERCZAK, J. JDRYSIAK
Department of Structural Mechanics, Technical University of Lodz
al. Politechniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
This note presents the problem of stability of thin plates with functionally graded
structure. To describe this problem the tolerance modelling is applied, cf. Woniak,
Michalak and Jdrysiak (eds.) [12] and Woniak et al. (eds.) [13]. The tolerance
averaging technique leads from the equation with non-continuous, toleranceperiodic, highly oscillating coefficients to the system of differential equations with
slowly-varying coefficients.
1. INTRODUCTION
The main objects under consideration are thin plates with a functionally graded
macrostructure in planes parallel to the plate midplane interacting with a heterogeneous
Winklers foundation. However, it is assumed that the microstructure is tolerance-periodic
in these planes, cf. Fig. 1. Plates of this kind are consisted of many small elements, where
adjacent elements are almost identical but distant one can be very different.
x2
l2
d
x1
L2
l1
z=x3
L1
Fig. 1.
A tolerance-periodic plate interacting with heterogeneous Winklers foundation
Every element is treated as a thin plate. In various problems of these plates the effect of
the microstructure cannot be neglected.
321

To describe plates of this kind there are used partial differential equations with
highly oscillating, tolerance-periodic, non-continuous coefficients. They cannot be a
proper tool to investigate special problems of such plates. Hence, there are proposed
various averaging techniques, which make it possible to pass from the above equations to
equations with smooth, slowly-varying coefficients.
Functionally graded structures are usually described by averaging approaches, which
are developed for macroscopically homogeneous structures, e.g. periodic. Some of these
are discussed by Suresh and Mortensen [10]. It can be mentioned these models, which are
based on the asymptotic homogenization, cf. Bensoussan, Lions and Papanicolau [1].
Unfortunately, governing equations of them neglect the effect of the microstructure size.
The formulation of the proposed macroscopic models for analysis of functionally
graded structures is based on the tolerance averaging technique, cf. Woniak, Michalak
and Jdrysiak (eds.) [12] and Woniak et al. (eds.) [13]. Some applications of this method
to the modelling of stability of various elastic periodic composites are given in series of
publications, e.g. Jdrysiak [3-4], Michalak [8], Tomczyk [11], Domagalski and Jdrysiak
[2]. The tolerance modelling was also adopted to functionally graded structures, e.g. for
transversally tolerance-periodic plates by Jdrysiak [5], Jdrysiak and Michalak [6],
Kamierczak and Jdrysiak [7] and for longitudinally functionally graded plates and
structures by Michalak [9].
In this paper governing equations of the tolerance model of stability of thin plates
with functionally graded structure are derived.
2. MODELLING FOUNDATIONS
Denote by Ox1x2x3 the orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system. Setting x=(x1,x2) and
z=x3 it is assumed that the undeformed plate occupies the region
{(x, z) : d (x)/2 z d (x)/2, x } , where is the midplane and d() is the plate
thickness. Let be derivatives of x, and also . The basic cell on Ox1x2 is
denoted by l1 / 2, l1 / 2 l2 / 2, l2 / 2 , where l1, l2 are cell length dimensions along the
x1-, x2-axis, respectively. The diameter of cell is denoted by l [(l1)2 (l2 )2 ]1/2 . It is
called the microstructure parameter and satisfies condition dmax<<l<<min(L1,L2).
Thickness d() can be a tolerance-periodic function in x and also elastic moduli
aijlm=aijlm(,z) can be tolerance-periodic functions in x and even functions in z. Denote by
w(x,t) ( x , t (t0, t1) ) a plate deflection and by p total loadings in the z-axis direction.
We also assume that properties of a Winklers foundation are described by a toleranceperiodic function in x - a Winklers coefficient k. Introduce also the plate bending
stiffnesses d defined as:
d d / 2 z2c dz
d /2
being tolerance-periodic in x. Moreover, the plate is subjected to in-plane forces n .

From the Kirchhoff-type plates theory assumptions applied to functionally graded
plates, the fourth order partial differential equation for deflection w(x,t) is derived:
322

(d w) (nw) kw p.
(1)
Coefficients of the above equation are highly oscillating, non-continuous, toleranceperiodic functions in x.
3. MODELLING CONCEPTS AND ASSUMTIONS
Averaged equations of functionally graded plates can be obtained by applying the
tolerance averaging technique, cf. Woniak et al. (eds.) [13], Woniak, Michalak and
Jdrysiak (eds.) [12]. In this books basic concepts of the tolerance modelling procedure
are defined and explained, e.g. an averaging operator, a tolerance-periodic function, a
slowly-varying function, a highly oscillating function. Below some of them are reminded.
Let (x) x , {x : (x) } , be a cell at x . The known
averaging operator for an arbitrary integrable function f is defined by
f (x) l11l2 f ( y1, y2 )dy1dy2, x .
(2)
(x)
If function f is tolerance-periodic in x, then averaged value by (2) is a slowly-varying

function in x.
Following the aforementioned books let us denote a set of tolerance-periodic
functions by TP (, ) , a set of slowly-varying functions by SV (, ) , a set of highly
oscillating functions by HO (, ) , where 0 and is a tolerance parameter. Let a
highly oscillating function h(), h HO2 (, ) , defined on , have continuous gradient
1h and have a piecewise continuous and bounded gradient 2h. Function h() is called the
fluctuation shape function of the 2-nd kind. It depends on l as a parameter and satisfies
conditions: mhO(l2-m) for m=0,1,2, 0hh, and <h>(x)0 for every x , where is
a positive, constant function.
4. TOLERANCE MODELLING
In the tolerance modelling three fundamental modelling assumptions are introduced.
The first of them concerns the micro-macro decomposition:
w(x, t) U (x, t) h A(x)Q A(x, t),
A 1,, N , x ,
(3)
where:
U(,t) a kinematic unknown called the macrodeflection;
QA(,t) kinematic unknowns called the fluctuation amplitudes;
hA() the known fluctuation shape functions.
The second assumption is the tolerance averaging approximation, i.e. it is assumed
that terms of an order of O() are negligibly small, e.g. for f TP2 (, ) ,
F SV2 (, ) , h A FS2 (, ) , these terms can be neglected in formulas:

323

f (x) f (x) O(),
fF (x) f (x)F (x) O() ,
(4)
f (h AF ) (x) fh A (x)F (x) O().
The third modelling assumption is the in-plane forces restriction, in which in-plane
forces n (, =1, 2) in the midplane are assumed to be tolerance-periodic functions in x,
which can be decomposed as n N n~ , with N SV2 (,) as the averaged part
( N n); and n~ TP2 (,) as the fluctuating part ( n~ 0 ). Moreover, terms
with the fluctuating part of in-plane forces n~ are neglected as small comparing to the
terms involving the averaged part N (cf. Jdrysiak and Michalak [6]).
5. MODEL EQUATIONS
Using micro-macro decomposition (3) in equation (1), making some manipulations
and introducing denotations:
D d ,
A d
A
D
h ,
D AB d h A h B ,
K k ,
K A l 2 kh A ,
K AB l 4 kh Ah B ,
AB l 2 h Ah B ,
H
P p ,
P A l 2 phA ,
(5)
we arrive at the system of equations:

A Q A ) ( N U ) KU l 2 K AQ A P ,
( D U D

ABQ B l 2 K AU l 4 K ABQ B l 2 P A.
DA U D ABQ B l 2 NH
(6)
Equations (6) with micro-macro decomposition (3) and specified fluctuation shape
function hA, A=1,,N, stand the tolerance model of stability for thin functionally graded
plates resting on a Winklers foundation. This is a system of N+1 partial and ordinary
differential equations, with slowly-varying functions in x. These model equations involve
terms, being underlined, with the microstructure parameter l. Hence, the tolerance model
makes it possible to analyse the effect of the microstructure size on stability problems of
these plates under consideration. It can be observed that boundary conditions have to
formulate only for macrodeflection U.
In order to evaluate and compare results obtained in the framework of the above
model a simplified model, called the asymptotic model is introduced. Governing
equations of this model can be derived by using the formal asymptotic procedure, cf.
Woniak et al. [13], Jdrysiak [5], Kamierczak and Jdrysiak [7]. However, these
equations can be also obtained from equations (6) by neglecting the underlined terms and
they take the following form:
324

A Q A ) ( N U ) KU P ,
( D U D
DA U D ABQ B 0.
(7)
It can be observed that equations (7)2 stand a system of algebraic equations from
which the fluctuation amplitudes QA, A=1,,N, can be calculated:
Q B (D AB)1 DAU.
(8)
After substituting the amplitudes obtained by (8) into equation (7)1 and introducing
so called effective stiffness
eff
A ( D AB )1 D B
D
D D
we have only one differential equations for macrodeflection U:

eff
(D
U ) ( NU ) KU P.
(9)
Equation (9) together with equations (8) and micro-macro decomposition (3)
describe the asymptotic model of stability for thin functionally graded plates resting on a
Winklers foundation. The above equation neglects the effect of the microstructure size on
stability problems of these plates.
6. REMARKS
Using the tolerance modelling to the known differential equation of Kirchhoff-type
plates with a tolerance-periodic microstructure resting on a heterogeneous Winklers
foundation the averaged model equations are derived. Hence, instead of the governing
equation with non-continuous, tolerance-periodic coefficients the system of differential
equations with slowly-varying coefficients is obtained. These equations make it possible
to analyse the effect of the microstructure size on stability problems of the plates under
consideration.
Some other aspects of these problems and also some applications of the proposed
tolerance model will be shown separately.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This contribution is supported by the National Science Centre of Poland under grant No.
2011/01/N/ST8/07758.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
Bensoussan A., Lions J.L., Papanicolau G., Asymptotic analysis for periodic structures,
North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1978.
Domagalski , Jdrysiak J., On the elastostatics of thin periodic plates with large
deflections, Mechanica, DOI:10.1007/s11012-012-9546-1, 2012.
325

[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Jdrysiak J., Dispersion models of thin periodic plates. Theory and applications, Wyd. P,
d, (in Polish), 2001.
Jdrysiak J., The tolerance averaging model of dynamic stability of thin plates with
one-directional periodic structure, Thin Walled Structures, 45, 2007, 855-860.
Jdrysiak J., Thermomechanics of laminates, plates and shells with functionally graded
properties, Wyd. P, d, (in Polish), 2010.
Jdrysiak J, Michalak B., On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin Walled Structures, 49, 2011, 627-635.
Kamierczak M, Jdrysiak J., Tolerance modelling of vibrations of thin functionally
graded plates, Thin Walled Structures, 49, 2011, 1295-1303.
Michalak B., Dynamics and stability of wavy-type plates, Wyd. P, d, (in Polish),
2001.
Michalak B., Thermomechanics of solids with a certain inhomogeneous microstructure,
Wyd. P, d, (in Polish), 2011.
Suresh S., Mortensen A., Fundamentals of functionally graded materials, The University
Press, Cambridge, 1998.
Tomczyk B., A non-asymptotic model for the stability analysis of thin biperiodic
cylindrical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, 941-944.
Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J. (eds), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures. Tolerance Averaging Approach, Wyd. P, d, 2008.
Woniak Cz. et al. (eds), Mathematical modelling and analysis in continuum mechanics of
microstructured media, Publishing House of Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice,
2010.
326
BUCKLING OF MULTILAYERED CONICAL SHELLS WITH

VARIOUS WALL CONSTRUCTIONS
P. KDZIORA, A. MUC, M. BARSKI
ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Krakw, Poland
An analytical approach, based on the Rayleigh-Ritz method, is proposed to obtain

the linear buckling response of multilayered conical shells subjected to axial
compression load. Various shell wall construction is considered, i.e. polymeric
composite (Fibre Reinforced Plastics - FRP) with or without piezoelectric (PZT)
layers and ceramic composites (functionally graded materials - FGM). Parametric
study is performed by finding the effect of fibre orientations, voltages on PZT
layers and properties of FG materials on the critical buckling load of the conical
shells.
1. INTRODUCTION
Conical shells are used in many engineering applications such as pressure vessels
(tanks), closures of cylindrical pressure vessel (bottoms), elements of rockets (missiles) or
spacecrafts. Composite materials are increasingly used in the construction of these
structures.
The construction of the conical shell wall can be different. It can be made: (i)
sandwich with facings made of composite or isotropic materials, (ii) heterogeneous
material (usually a ceramic matrix composite - so called functionally graded material FGM), whose properties vary along the wall thickness, (iii) multilayered polymer of
composite with piezoelectric (PZT) layers or locally placed on the outer surface of the
PZT sensors and/or actuators. Free vibration and buckling of conical shells have an
important role in the safety assessment (estimation) of structures.
As the well known and fundamental works in the area of the analysis of free
vibration and buckling of truncated conical shells, should be reported the papers:
Niordson [1], Seide [2], Singer [3, 4], Tani, Yamaki [5] and chapters in books of Leissa
[6] and Volmir [7]. Studies on stability analysis and free vibrations of conical shells made
of laminated composites with polymer matrix have been conducted by Sofiyev [8], Reddy
[9] and Liang [10].
Stability analysis and free vibrations of truncated conical shells made of ceramic
materials (FGM) are presented by Sofiyev [11, 12], Ootao and Tanigawa [13]. It is worth
to mention also the broad analysis of the sandwich conical shell behaviour in the elasticplastic range carried out by Zielnica [14].
The aim of this paper is to present: 1) a general formulation of the issues of static of
conical shell having various building (construction) of the shell wall, 2) to determine the
critical loads in terms of loss of stability, 3) to discuss the results of numerical examples.
The analysis is conducted for conical shells subjected to axial compression.
327

2. VARIANTS OF THE SHELL WALL CONSTRUCTION
Consider a circular conical shell as shown in Fig. 1, which is assumed to be thin,
laminated and composed of N layers of orthotropic composite materials. A set of
curvilinear coordinates (S - longitudinal, - circumferential and z - normal to S) is located
on the shell mid-surface. t is the thickness of the conical shell, RA and RB indicate the radii
of the cone at its small and large ends, respectively. L=sB-sA is the length and is the
semi-vertex angle of the conical shell.
Fig. 1. Conical shell
For multilayered structures varying shell wall construction it is possible to achieve

the increase the shell resistance against buckling. The simplest method is based on the use
of the FRP materials where the variations of fibre orientations in each individual layers
may increase or reduce the critical buckling loads. However, the use of PZT actuators
also allows us to control actively the buckling of composite (FRP) structures behaviour. If
the shell wall is made of composite (ceramic) functionally graded materials the material
non-homogenity in the thickness (z) direction changes also the buckling resistance. In the
latter case, the variation of the material properties can be expressed in the following form:
pz pt pb F z pb
(1)
where: p - denotes a generic material property like modulus, pt - the corresponding

properties of the top face of the plate, pb - the corresponding properties of the bottom face
of the plate, F(z) - a function. Here, we assume that moduli E and G, the coefficient vary
according to Eq (1) where the function F(z) is defined in the following way:
q
z 1
F z f z t / 2,t / 2 for FGM
t 2
(2)
f is a variation coefficient varying 0f1 and q is the positive power index law. They are
called as functionally gradient materials and distribute.
328

Muc, Nogowczyk [15] presented a formulation useful to unify the description of
wall sandwich rectangular plates and cylindrical shells, including also thermal buckling
analysis. Now, we extend such a formulation to the buckling analysis of multilayered
conical shell.
3. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
Modelling of composite structures having different form of the wall constructions is
very similar to that for conventional orthotropic composite layered structures, however,
there is one difference reflected in the constitutive laws in the form of the
electromechanical coupling. It affects also the additional complexities in the FE
formulation. The constitutive model for the 3-D orthotropic lamina with embedded
piezoelectric sensors/actuators (S/A(s)) is established in the local coordinate system. In
the matrix form it is given by:
C e
C
E
D
e
(3)
11 C11
C
22 12
33 C13

23 0

31 0
0
12
D1 0

D2 0
D3 e31
C12
C22
C13
C23 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C23
C33
C44
e24
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C55
0
e15
0
C66
0
e15
0
11
0
0
0
e24
22
e32
e33
e31 11
e32 22
e33 33

0 23

0 31
0 12

0 E1

0 E2
33 E3
(4)
The symbols not having the bar over them have the standard mechanical interpretation,
i.e. stresses [], a stiffness matrix [C] and strains []. For non-homogeneous (FGM)
materials all components of the [C] matrix are represented in the form given by Eq (2).
[D] is the vector of electric displacements, [e] is the matrix of piezoelectric coefficients,
[] is the permittivity matrix and [E] is the applied electric field in three coordinate
directions. The electric field is defined as the gradient of the electric potential el, i.e:
E grad
el
(5)
There are several different models representing the input electric potential for such a
piezoelectric layer. However, the assumed 2D simplification results in the further
requirements with respect to the electric potential distribution along the z coordinate.
Usually, it is assumed that the function can be written in the following form: (see Wang et
al. [16]):
329

2
2
t PZT 1 2 z t PZT h a x,y 2 z t PZT h Ve

2
t PZT
t PZT

el
2
2
t PZT 2z t PZT h
s x, y
1
t PZT

2
t
t
z t PZT
2
2
(6)
t
t
t PZT z
2
2
where the symbol s(a)(x,y) denotes in-plane electric field induced by the deformation of
the sensor (actuator) layers, respectively, on the mid-surface of piezoelectric layer - see
Fig. 1. They are unknown variables and are derived from the fundamental system of
differential equations.
The above constitutive relations are then transformed to the global coordinate
system using the transformation matrix, which is given by:
T 0
T
0 T
11
(7)
22
where
c 2 s 2
2
c2
s
T11 0 0
0
0
0
0
sc sc
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 c s
0 s c
0 0 0
2sc
2sc
0
,
0
0
2
c s 2
c 2
T22 s 2
0
s2
c
0 ,
1
(8)
Here, is the fibre orientation of the individual lamina and c=cos(), s=sin(), whereas
the explicit form of the transformation matrix [T 11] has the classical form used in the
analysis of multilayered laminates.
4. STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS
For most practical problems piezoelectric materials are located on plated or shell
laminated multilayered structures, so that the analysis is reduced to 2D one. For 2-D
analysis, we normally employ a kinematical hypothesis to model plate/shell deformations.
Assuming the validity the first order transverse shear hypotheses the 3-D components of
displacements may be expressed in the following way:
U1 S ,,z uS , z1 S ,,U 2 S ,,z vS , z 2 S ,,U 3 S ,,z wS ,
(9)
Considering only the geometrically linear theory of shells relationship between

deformation and strains can be represented in the following form:
330
11
1 U1 1 H1
1 H1
H U 2 H1 U1
U2
U 3 , 12 2
H1 S H 2
H 3 z
H1 S H 2 H 2 H1
z
H A 1
R
, H 3 1, 1,2
(10)
where: R - radius of curvature, A - the Lame parameter. The subscripts 1, 2, 3 are

subjected to so-called cyclic symmetry. For conical shells R1 approaches infinity and the
second radius R2 =s tg, the Lame parameters A1=1 and A2=s sin. The subscripts 1, 2
refer to S and , respectively, whereas 3 - z. The strain components can be expressed as
follows:
ij ( S ,,z ) ij ( S , ) zij ( S , ), i3( S ,,z ) i3 ( S , ),
i,j 1,2
(11)
Components are called as the membrane strains and represent the parameters of the
change of curvature.
5. FUNDAMENTAL RELATIONS
Let us consider governing equations describing deformations of composite
multilayered structures with various shell wall constructions. Both for 3-D or 2-D
(shells/plates) structures the derivation of fundamental relations starts from the variational
Hamiltons principle that can be written in the following form:
t2
G K Wel Wnc WPZT dt 0
(12)
t1
where the kinetic energy K is given by:
1
U
2
U d

(13)
the strain energy Wel can be expressed as follows:
Wel
1
T d
2
(14)
and the resultants due to piezoelectric effects
WPZT
1
DT E d
2
331
(15)

The work done by the body forces, surface forces, damping elements and the
concentrated forces are clubbed together in the term Wnc. In the present analysis it is
assumed that the truncated conical shell is subjected to external pressure having the
following forms:
N so 0.5SP1tg ,
N o SP2tg , N so 0, M so M o M so 0
(16)
When P1=P2=P, external pressure turns into uniform hydrostatic pressure. When P1=0,
P2=P, external pressure turns into uniform lateral pressure. When P1=-2Pctg/S, P2=0,
external loading turns into in-plane compressive axial force. In the case of external
compression the work Wnc takes the following form:
Wnc
1
dw
N s0
d
2
dS
(17)
The terms written in the square brackets represent tensors of displacements U, strains
and stresses , respectively. The dot over the symbol U means the differentiation with
respect to physical time t. denotes the space occupied by the analyzed structure. The
relation takes into account the kinetic energy, although the analysis is conducted in the
static range only. However, using the above formula the fundamental relations describing
free vibrations can be also derived.
6. METHOD OF THE SOLUTION
Usually, three different approaches can be used in the buckling analysis of the shell
structures: (i) numerical analysis with the use of the finite element method, (ii) the
Rayleigh-Ritz method using the expansion of displacement components in infinite series,
(iii) the Galerkin method applying Donnels shallow shell equations and expending the
normal deflections with the aid of the series proposed by Agamirov [17]. Each of the
above-mentioned methods has advantages and disadvantages, however, we do not intend
to dwell on them now. In the present analysis the second methods is used in the analysis
of simply-supported shells. In addition, the approximate solutions for displacement
components are assumed in the series forms:
u
v
w
u ,v ,w Cmn
sinS m cos n,Cmn
cos S m sinn,Cmn
sinS m sinn,
m ,n1
s , Cmn cos Sm sinn,Cmn sinSm cos n ,

s
m ,n1
S m m
S sA
sB s A
(18)
where: sB, sA - the top, bottom coordinate of the cone shows in Fig. 1.
Inserting the expansion (18) into the functional (10) (K=0) and performing the
s
u
v
w
variation with respect to the unknowns coefficient Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn
,Cmn the buckling
332

analysis is reduced to the solutions of the eigenvalue problems with respect to the abovementioned vector of coefficients. The integration with respect to thickness z and
coordinator S and can be performed in an analytical way, of course, the load Ns should
be selected with respect to the integer wave numbers m and n to find the critical buckling
load.
7. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
In the numerical analysis each layer of shell is assumed to be made of composite
material having the following material properties: E1=210[GPa], E2=E1/40, G12=0.6E2,
12=0.25. The piezoelectric properties are following: Ep=12[GPa], p=0.3, e31=-4.1[C/m2],
e33=14.1[C/m2]. The analyzed structure has the following geometrical parameters:
t/RA=0.01, RA/L=10, =15. The critical buckling load is presented in the dimensionless
form:
Pcr
PL2
t 3 E2
(19)
The validity of the derived relations was verified with the existing analytical solutions for
cylindrical shell (Khdeir et al. [18]) where the cone angle is set to zero. The agreement
seems to be very good; however, due to the lack of place we do not present those results.
Fig. 2. Variations of buckling loads with fibre orientations for conical shells made of FRP
Effect of fibre orientation on critical buckling load of conical shells is shown in

Fig. 2. The angle-ply laminated conical shells with [+/-]S lay-up are considered for
analysis. Fibre orientation is defined with respect to S-axis (Fig. 1) and alternates
between 0 and 90. For comparison purposes, the axisymmetric (n=0 in Eq. (18)) and
non-axisymmetric (n>0 in Eq. (18)) buckling loads are plotted in Fig. 2. It can be seen
that non-axisymmteric buckling load is less than the axisymmteric one for all fiber angles
except at 0 and from 85 to 90 where both axisymmetric and non-axisymmetric buckling
loads are almost the same. So one can say that non-axisymmetric buckling load is
representative of critical buckling load in this case. The curve corresponding to non333

axisymmetric buckling modes shown in Fig. 2, indicates a rapid drop in the buckling
strength of angle-ply conical shells as the fibre angle () varies from 0 up to 45 (about
77% reduction). Then one can observe a relatively constant period where h alternates
between 45 and 90 with a minimum around 55 and maximum around 70. However, it
should be pointed out that the values of fibre orientations have not to be the positions of
global maximum or minimum since the specific (angle-ply) stacking sequence is
considered herein.
The next example illustrates the results for conical shells made of FGM. In this case
it is assumed that the shell is made of isotropic material having the Young modulus equal
to E1. In addition, the influence of material properties on buckling loads are analysed for
axisymmetric buckling mode only, i.e. n=0 in Eq. (18). In Fig. 2 the non-homogeneity
coefficient is taken into account as f=1 and f=-1 (see Eq. (2)) and the results are compared
with homogeneous solution for f=0. Different values of the power coefficient q are also
considered. As it may be observed the positive non-homogenity coefficient improves the
buckling shell resistance, whereas the negative reduces it. For f>0 as the power law
coefficient q increases the buckling load also increases. However, the percent changes of
the values Pcr is up to 6% comparing with homogeneous solutions.
Fig. 3. Variations of buckling loads with material properties for conical shells made of FRP
In the analysed example, the conical shell is covered by piezoelectric layers

(actuators) symmetrically with respect to the shell mid-surface z=0. Such a structure is
called as the bimorph shell. Similarly as in the previous examples the core shell structure
is made of isotropic materials and the axisymmetric buckling modes are studied only.
Identical electric potentials equal to Ve (in volts) (see Eq. (6)) are applied on the outer
terminals of the upper and lower piezoactuator, respectively. In a bimorph shell
configuration such it is impossible to obtain stress stiffening because, when the
piezoelectric patches are energized the shell freely expands (or contracts). Hence, no
residual stresses whatsoever arise. The situation is very similar to a bimorph shell
constituted of two materials symmetrically disposed about its mid plane with different
coefficients of thermal expansion. As the temperature increases (or decreases) the shell
expands (or contracts) and no thermal residual stresses are observed. If both ends of the
shell are axially constrained (see Eq. (18)) application of suitable voltages to the
piezoelectric patches makes them expand. However, the ends of the shell cannot move
334

and, therefore, a nonzero compressive axial force arises. As the voltages increase the
compressive force increases until it reaches the critical load and the shell buckles.
Conversely, if the voltage applies are such that the patches contract a non-zero tensile
axial force arises - see Fig. 4. The similar problem was discussed in the works [19, 20].
Fig. 4. Variations of buckling loads with voltages for bimorph conical shells
7. CONCLUSIONS
Buckling analysis of laminated conical shells has been performed through a shear
deformation shell theory for different construction of the shell-wall. The principle of
minimum potential energy along with the Rayleigh-Ritz method has been used to obtain
the governing equation and to find the solution for buckling problem. Both nonaxisymmetric and axisymmetric formulation have been derived and solved for conical
shell and the lowest buckling load has been selected as critical buckling load. The
following conclusion can be drawn from parametric studies presented in the numerical
results: (i) the critical buckling load decreases with increasing fibre orientation of angleply thin and short conical shells made of FRP, (ii) for conical shells made of FGM when
the materials properties of the layers vary linear and parabolic in the thickness direction,
the lowest effect of the non-homogeneity on the critical parameters is in linear
distribution, (iii) for bimorph conical voltages the growth of the actuation can enhance
(positive voltages) or reduce (negative) buckling loads. The same strategy can be
extended to the case of various plated and shell constructions as well as to the free
vibration analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Niordson F.I.N., Buckling of conical shells subjected to uniform external lateral pressure,
Transactions of the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, 10, 1947, pp. 1-21.
Seide P., On the buckling of truncated conical shells under uniform hydrostatic pressure,
Proc. IUTAM, Symp.Theory of Thin Elastic Shells, 1959, 363-388.
Singer J., Buckling of circular conical shells under axisymmetrical external pressure, J.
Mech. Eng. Sci., 3, 1961, pp. 330-339.
Singer, J., Fershst-Scher, R., Buckling of orthotropic conical shells under external
pressure, J. Aero. Quart., 1964, pp. 151-168.
335

[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
Tani J., Yamaki N., Buckling of truncated conical shells under hydrostatic pressure,
Reports of the Institute of High Speed Mechanics, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, 2,
1969, pp. 235-261.
Leissa A.W., Vibration of shells, NASA, SP-288, 1973.
Volmir A.S., Stability of elastic systems, Nauka, Moscow, 1967 English Translation:
Foreign Tech. Division, Air Force Systems Command. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio, AD628508.
Sofiyev A.H., Torsional buckling of cross-ply laminated orthotropic composite cylindrical
shells subject to dynamic loading, Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids., 22, 2003, pp. 943-951.
Reddy J.N., Mechanics of laminated composite plates and shells: theory and analysis,
second ed. CRC Press, 2004.
Liang S., Chen H.L., Chen T., Michael Yu., Wang M.Y., The natural vibration of a
symmetric cross-ply laminated composite conical-plate shell, Compos. Struct., 80, 2007,
pp. 265-278.
Sofiyev A.H., The buckling of functionally graded truncated conical shells under dynamic
axial loading, J. Sound Vib., 305, 2007, pp. 808-826.
Sofiyev A.H., Karaca Z., The vibration and buckling of laminated non-homogeneous
orthotropic conical shells subjected to external pressure, European Journal of Mechanics
A/Solids, 28 (2009), pp. 317-328.
Ootao Y., Tanigawa Y., Three-dimensional solution for transient thermal stresses of an
orthotropic functionally graded rectangular plate, Compos. Struct., 80, 2007, pp. 10-20.
Jaskula L., Zielnica J., Large displacement stability analysis of elasticplastic
unsymmetrical sandwich cylindrical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, 49, 2011, pp. 611617.
Muc A., Nogowczyk R., Influence of 2-D approximations on buckling loads for sandwich
structures having FRP faces, ICEE/16, 2008.
Wang Q., Quek S.T., Liu X., Analysis of piezoelectric coupled circular plate, Smart Mater.
Struct., 10, 2001, pp. 229-239.
Agamirov V.L., Dynamic problems of nonlinear shells theory, Nauka, Moscow (in
Russian), 1990.
Khdeir A.A., Reddy J.N., Frederick D., A study of bending, vibration and buckling of
cross-ply circular cylindrical shells with various shell theories, Int. J. Eng. Sci., 27, 1989,
pp. 1337-1351.
Muc A., Kdziora P., Optimal shapes of PZT actuators for laminated structures subjected
to displacement or eigenfrequency constraints, Compos. Struct., 94, 2012, pp. 1224-1235.
Muc A., Kdziora P., Optimal Design of smart laminated composite structures, Materials
and Manufacturing Processes, 25, 2010, pp. 272-280.
336
DAMPING BEHAVIOUR OF THIN-WALLED COMPOSITE

COLUMNS UNDER IMPACT IN-PLANE LOADING
Z. KOAKOWSKI
A. TETER
In this paper the analysis of the damping behaviour of thin-walled composite columns
with open stiffened cross-sections subjected to in-plane pulse loading is described.
The pulse loading of a rectangular shape is concerned. The discussed problem of the
dynamic interactive buckling is solved by the analytical-numerical method (ANM)
using the Koiters perturbations method. A critical value of the dynamic load factors is
determined according to the Budiansky-Hutchinsons criterion for different value of
the viscous damping ratio. The detailed calculations confirm that small damping does
not affect the dynamic response of the thin-walled composite columns under the
impact in-plane loading.
1. INTRODUCTION
Damping of the fiber-reinforced lamina is a very important parameter in the design
of composite structures. Energy dissipation mechanisms in this structure can be divided
into two classes: those associated with the material damping, and those associated with
additional sources of dissipation such as friction at joints [1]. In metal structures usually
dominates the latter, but with the fibre-reinforced laminate structures the situations is
different. The inherent material damping contributes significantly to the overall damping.
Composites have a material damping capacity ratio 10-100 times higher than metals. But
it is often too low for many applications, for example in dynamic buckling. In recent
years, viscoelastic damping materials in composites have been used to increase the
damping of composite structures with little reduction in stiffness and strength [2-4].
There are several mechanisms of dissipative behaviour in this type of composite
material: viscoelastic behaviour of matrix and/or fibres, thermoelastic damping due to
cyclic heat flow, Coulomb friction due to slip in the fibre-matrix interface, dissipation
caused by damage in the composite and so on [2]. Several analytical approaches are
available in the form of micromechanical [5-6], macromechanical [7] and structural
models/theories as a result of investigations carried out for both static and dynamic
performance of composites [8-10]. There are conducted experimental [8,11-14] research
and FEM calculations additionally [4,15-16]. A review of the available publications on
composite material damping one can find in paper [2] with regard to different aspects
such as mechanisms of damping, methods of predicting the damping and damping
models/theories.
337

2. DAMPING MODELLING IN LINEAR SYSTEM
The mechanical structures explicitly are described by the mass (denote as m), the
stiffness (denote as k) and the energy dissipation phenomena. Many different effects
contribute to the damping simultaneously and even complex models describe only the
aspects of the observed structural response. Therefore, this study follows the most common
procedure for the use of a viscous damping with damping forces proportional to the velocity.
In the case of the viscous single degree of freedom linear system, one gets [17]:
d 2z
dt
dz
k z 0
dt
(1)
dz
2z 0
dt
(2)
or
d 2z
dt
2 h
where: k / m is the eigenfrequency, c or h the viscous damping ratio and z the

displacement. Between parameters describing damping the relation is as follows:
(3)
2 h c / m
Many scientists [2] apply the hysteretic damping model to the description of damping,
where the dissipative force is proportional to the displacement z:
d 2z
2 (1 j ) z 0
(4)
dt
where: is the hysteretic loss factor, which is defined through the complex Young's
2
modulus E E ' jE' ' :
E' '
(5)
E'
where: j 1 . The viscous damping ratio h is related to the hysteretic loss factor :
(6)
2h
Solving Eq. (4) can lead to many problems, while the differential equation (2) is
easily to calculate. Thus, hysteretic damping should be applied only for steady state
harmonic excitation. What is important, while using Eq. (2) the hysteretic damping model
can be substituted by an equivalent viscous damping mechanism.
Loss factor can be determined experimentaly using the half-power bandwidth
method [13,17]. One has to measure frequency bandwidth, between points on the
response curve, where the amplitude of response of these points is 1 / 2 times the
maximum amplitude. The bandwidth for small damping corresponds to the frequencies:
1 n (1 ) and 2 n (1 ) .
Loss factor of this method is defined as:
338
2 1
.
n
(7)
The specific damping capacity (SDC) of a material is defined as the ratio
D
U
(8)
of the dissipated energy D per cycle of vibration and the maximum stored energy U per
cycle [8-10,17]. It is possible to derive the relation between parameters describing models
of damping above:
4 h 2 .
(9)
In experimental studies the concept of a logarithmic decrement is used to describe

damping properties of mechanical system. There are two definition of the decrement [17]:
ln
an
at
ln
a n1
at 0.5T
or
T ln
an
a
ln t
a n2
at T
(10)
where: an= at and an+1= at+0.5T are absolute values of two successive extreme deflections,
an+2=at+T - deflections after the vibration period T. The relationship is as follows:
T 2 .
(11)
Finally, the relation between all parameters describing damping can be defined as:
T 2 0.5 2 h .
(12)
For the multiple degree of freedom system the Rayleigh damping model is used
[4,11,15-16]. In this case equations of the motions have the form:
d 2z
dt
dz
Kz 0
dt
(13)
where: M, D, K are the mass, viscous damping and stiffness matrices respectively, z is the
displacement vector. In order to avoid an explicit expression of the damping matrix D a
linear composition of M and K is introduced instead:
D M K
(14)
where: two constant parameters and control the damping. This approach has no real
physical meaning and is chosen for mathematical convenience. Despite this disadvantage,
it is a frequently applied method of introducing the dissipative properties into an analysis on
the structural level. For example, in ANSYS [18] its general form is
339
D M K
n mat
k K k c K D
k 1
n ele
Dl
(15)
l 1
where: k is constant stiffness material multiplier, c - variable stiffness matrix multiplier,

expressed as c 2h / / , D - frequency-dependent damping matrix, Dl - element
damping matrix.
After transformation from original coordinates of z to generalized coordinates of
using transformation operator obtained by the eigenvectors i of the generalized
eigenproblem:
K i i2 M i .
(16)
The coupled set of differential equations (13) yields a single equation for every degree of
freedom i:
d 2i
dt
2 i hi
di
i2 i 0 .
dt
(17)
The damping formulation (14) leads to:
2 i hi i2
(18)
for the i-th eigenmode. Using this approach, damping of two eigenmodes can be specified
exactly by the free parameters and . Subsequently, the damping ratios hi of all other
modes are given by this relation (18).
The prismatic thin-walled columns with open cross-sections (Fig. 1), subjected to
axial compression, are considered. The detailed analysis of the calculations was
conducted for the composite columns with the following dimensions: b1=100 mm, b2=50
mm, b3=15 mm, bs=15 mm, h=12hlay=1.5 mm and four various lengths: l = 2500, 2000,
1500 and 1000 mm. Each column is made of a twelve-layer composite with the symmetric
plies alignment [45/-45/04]S [19-21]. Each layer of the thickness hlay=0.125 mm is
characterized by the following mechanical properties: E1 = 140 GPa, E2 = 10.3 GPa,
G12 = 5.15 GPa, 12 = 0.29, 1600 kg/m3 [22].
For the thin-walled structures with initial deflections and the viscous damping, the
non-linear Lagranges equations of motion for this case of an interaction of N eigenmodes
can be defined as [19-21, 23-28]:
d 2 r
dt 2
2 r hr
d r
r2 1
dt
*
r r2 a rpq p q
r 0 for r=1,.N (19)
r
340

where: r - dimensionless amplitude of the r-th buckling mode (maximum deflection
referred to the thickness of the first plate), r , r , r* - critical stress, circular
frequency of free vibrations and dimensionless amplitude of the initial deflection
corresponding to the r-th buckling mode and hr - the damping ratios corresponding to the
r-th frequency. The last part in the equation (19) results from including the non-linear
model of the thin-walled structures and the amplitude of imperfections. In the case of one
mode buckling, the linear equation of motion (19) has the form:
d 2 r
dt
d r
r2 1
dt
r
2r hr
r 0
(20)
The third part of the equation (20) compared with Eq. (2) was modified by taking into
account the influence of the compressing load on the frequency of free vibration of the
real construction.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. Open cross-sections of columns with a central intermediate stiffener [19-21]

a) C-shape with outside stiffeners,
b) C-shape with inside stiffeners
Table 1. Critical stresses for the column shown in Fig. 1 [19-21]
Example 1 (Fig. 1a)
Example 2 (Fig. 1b)
[mm]
2500
2000
1500
1000
[MPa]
52.25
79.54
129.08
143.95
[MPa]
29.36
42.11
66.90
109.24
[MPa]
131.97
127.08
138.74
208.16
[MPa]
119.04
112.83
136.74
210.21
[MPa]
50.93
74.58
104.99
107.73
[MPa]
42.24
62.50
103.51
180.40
[MPa]
106.37
112.25
135.71
219.32
[MPa]
189.15
175.77
174.22
242.19
The expressions for the postbuckling coefficients a rpq are to be found in papers [2728]. In the equations of motion (19), inertia forces of the pre-buckling state and second
order approximation have been neglected [23]. The initial conditions have been assumed
in the following form:
r (t 0) 0 ;
r ,t (t 0) 0
341
(21)

The static problem of interactive buckling of thin-walled multilayer columns (i.e. for
r , tt 0 in Eqs. (19)) has been solved with the method presented in paper [28]. The
frequencies of free vibrations have been determined analogously as in paper [29]. The
problem of interactive dynamic buckling (Eqs. (19)) has been solved by means of the
Runge-Kutta numerical method modified by Hairer and Wanner [30].
Table 2. Circular frequency of free vibration of the columns shown in Fig. 1 [19-21]
Example 1 (Fig. 1a)
Example 2 (Fig. 1.b)
[mm]
2500
[rad/s]
227
[rad/s]
170
[rad/s]
1082
[rad/s]
1027
[rad/s]
224
[rad/s]
204
[rad/s]
971
[rad/s]
1295
2000
350
254
1327
1305
339
310
1247
1561
1500
594
428
1849
1835
536
532
1828
2072
1000
942
820
3396
3412
814
1054
3485
3662
Values of the critical stresses and the circular frequencies of free vibrations
corresponding to the buckling modes under analysis for different column lengths l are
presented in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. In these tables, the following index symbols
were introduced: 1 - flexural-distortional mode for m = 1; 2 - flexural-torsional-distortional
mode for m = 1; 3 - flexural-distortional mode for m = 3; 4 - flexural-torsional-distortional
mode for m = 3, where m is the m-th harmonic mode.
Further on, the analysis of dynamic interactive buckling of the columns under
consideration was conducted. Analysis was limited to the interaction of four buckling modes
(i.e. N = 4). Solving the set of equations (19) one receives the amplitudes of the buckling mode
(i.e. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ) as a function of time and amplitude of the load pulse. A detailed
analysis was conducted for a rectangular pulse load:
for 0 t t 0
(22)
0 for t t 0
where: t0 is a duration of the pulse load, and D is an amplitude of the dynamic load. The
duration t0 equal to the period of fundamental flexural free vibrations T1 2 / 1 . The
computation time is equal to 1.5t0 . The level of imperfections was assumed as:
1* 2* l /(3000h)
3* 4* l /(6000h)
(23)
The dynamic buckling is possible only when the geometric imperfections are not
equal to zero. When the displacement growth is assessed with time for different amplitude
of load, buckling occurs when the dynamic load reaches a critical value associated with a
maximum acceptable deformation or strain, stress, the magnitudes of which are defined
arbitrarily. So it appears to be no perfect criterion as yet for dynamic buckling. Therefore,
this study follows the most widely used the Budiansky-Hutchinsons criterion [20-21, 2526]. In order to find a critical value of the dynamic load factors: D / min cr , one has
to find out which of the displacements growth is the highest for certain force amplitude
342
D min (where: min min(1; 2 ; 3; 4 ) ). The value of D / min cr depends on

the step of calculations and restrictions imposed on deflections. In order to find the
critical value of dynamic load factor one should draw the graph of deflection amplitude as
a function of dynamic load. Values of the critical dynamic load factors: D / min cr
for different column lengths l are presented in Fig. 2. Five cases of the parameter of
damping were considered:
I the viscous damping ratio hr for r=1,,N, when N=4 in Eqs. (19) is equal to 0,
so there are not damping;
II the viscous damping ratio hr is equal to 2% for all modes;
III the viscous damping ratio hr is equal to 0.5% for the global modes (1 and 2)
and 3% for the next ones (3 and 4);
IV the viscous damping ratio hr is equal to 10% for the global modes (1 and 2)
and 2.5% for the next ones (3 and 4);
V the viscous damping ratio hr is bigger from 20% for all modes.
In the presented case of the material damping, it is assumed that the viscous
parameter of damping hr for the carbon-epoxy, composite plate element amounted to
0.5% for frequencies lower than 2000 Hz and 1.5% for frequencies from 2500 Hz to 4000
Hz and 3% for frequencies higher than 5000 Hz [14]. The behaviour of the viscous model
and the hysteretic one is different. The hysteretic model leaded to a frequency
independent damping. In this case, for the carbon-epoxy composite plate the loss factor
is less than 1% [14] so the viscous parameter of damping hr is less than 0.5% (Eq. 6). It
can be shown [31-33] that for low damping the frequency increase if the material damping
is very weak. The joints damping is weak for composite structures as well. For the glassepoxy composite beam the viscous parameter of damping hr is less than 1% for all fibre
orientation and frequency less than 1200 Hz [8,11-12]. In the case of Kevlar fibre-epoxy
composite beam the viscous parameter of damping hr is less than 2% for all fibre
orientation and frequency less than 1200 Hz [7,9-10]. Dissertations above allows to
accept two cases for further analysis: Case II where damping is frequency independent
and Case III where damping is the function of frequency. If the damping is high, the
relationship between the loss factor and the natural frequency is hyperbolic [34]:
ao
(24)
where: ao and are constant. In this model, the loss factor for glass-epoxy composite
beam is lower than 20% (h=10%) for global mode and lower than 5% (h=2.5%) for the
local ones [34], what was described in Case IV.
The last case (Case V) regards the composite structures with viscoelastic layer
[3-4]. For the 3M ISD-112 damping material the viscous parameter of damping hr is
greater from 25% for the frequency less than 2000 Hz [4].
The small damping (Case II and Case III) doesnt affect the value of critical
dynamic load factor for all columns. In this case, the value of D / min cr grew less
than 5%, compared to the column without damping (Case I). It is possible to reduce
343

differences in received results by narrowing the step of calculations. So it is possible to
say that one can get the same results for all cases with or without small damping.
2.11
2500
1.9
1.69
1.62
1.62
2.34
2000
1.97
1.72
1.66
l [mm]
V
IV
1.6
1.55
1.49
1.49
1500
III
1.8
II
1.42
I
1.66
1.59
1.59
1000
1.92
1.52
(a)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
[ ]
min cr
1.67
1.28
1.28
2500
1.37
1.28
1.59
1.34
1.24
1.24
2000
V
IV
1.19
1.26
l [mm]
1.05
1.05
1500
III
1.12
II
1.05
1.95
1000
1.55
1.55
1.55
(b)
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.68
[ ]
2.0
min cr
Fig. 2. The critical values of the dynamic load factors (D/min)cr determined from the
Budiansky-Hutchinsons criterion for columns shown in Fig. 1:
(a) Example 1 (Fig. 1a), (b) Example 2 (Fig. 1b)
If damping is greater (Case IV), the value of D / min cr grew more than 10%
but less than 25%, compared to the column without damping. The growth is so low that
damping has secondary meaning for the phenomenon of the dynamic buckling. Only if
damping is very strong (Case V), the value of D / min cr grew more than the 25%
but less than 45% and it should be taken into account in calculating the critical value of
the dynamic load factors: D / min cr .
4. CONCLUSION
In this paper the analysis of the damping behaviour of thin-walled composite
columns with open stiffened cross-sections subjected to in-plane pulse loading was
described. The detailed calculations confirmed that small damping didnt affect the
344

dynamic response of the columns. The influence on the value of the dynamic load factors
was observed only in case of composite with one or more layers made of the viscoelastic
damping materials.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication is partially supported by the research work carried out within the
project subsidized over the years 2009-2012 from the state funds designated for scientific
research (MNiSW NN 501 113636). The co-author Zbigniew Koakowski is thankful for
the support.
The present paper was partially supported by Structural Funds in the Operational
Programme - Innovative Economy (IE OP) financed from the European Regional
Development Fund Project "Modern material technologies in aerospace industry",
Nr POIG.01.01.02-00-015/08-00. The co-author Andrzej Teter is thankful for the support.
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346
POST-BUCKLING STATE OF RECTANGULAR PLATE

STIFFENED BY DENSELY ARRANGED RIBS.
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION
H. KOPECKI, . WICH
Department of Aircraft and Aircraft Engines, Rzeszw University of Technology
Powstacw Warszawy 8, 35-021 Rzeszw, Poland
The paper presents the results of comparative experimental examinations and

numerical analyses of rectangular plates subjected to shear treated as a skin of halfmonocoque aircraft structure. There were considered: the plate without stiffeners 2
mm thick and structure with 0.7 mm thickness, stiffened by 15 integral ribs. The
purpose of examinations was constituted to show relationship between base
indicators about significant practical importance:
- relation of the mass to maximum effective stress in pre-buckling state,
- shape of the structures deformation and stress distribution in post buckling
state.
Numerical analyses were taken using finite element method, whereas experimental
investigation - by DIC method.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the air technology half-monocoque model of aircraft bearing structure is
extensively applied. This kind of construction solution consist framework and the skin,
distinguishes by it, that the skin function is limited to take over shear stress only. It is
result of the trend for minimizing the mass of structure, with respect to remain required
life and reliability what in fact leads to state that skin elements locally lose the stability in
range of operational loadings. This kind of deformation state isnt remaining without
influence for reducing stiffness of structure, in particular torsional stiffness.
Aspiring to attain the best relation between mass and durability of discussed
structures is forcing designers to search newer and newer solutions. One of the
possibilities to reach that purpose is applying composite materials towards which we
observe continuous increase in interest.
On the other hand, intensive development of mechanical processing of metals
creates an opportunity for conventional materials, like duralumin, to still remains one of
the basic constructional materials and an increase of mentioned rate can still be seen in
shaping of structure elements. Special attention is concentrate on the possibility of
producing modular integral sub-structures for which assembly operations are limited to
the minimum. Example of these kinds of solutions is justifying the possibility to increase
the critical loading, as well as chance to shape the form of deformation in post-buckling
state [5, 6].
347

Contemporary investigations [3,4] proves that applying of integral elements has also
influence for the overhead costs of structure, makes decrease in production costs, even
about 60%.
2. SUBJECT OF INVESTIGATION
The main subject of examination was the skin element of air bearing structure in the
form of the rectangular plate, stiffened with ribs. The plate was subjected to the
numerical analysis and experimental studies, for circumstance of the stability loss and
post-buckling state. As a reference structure the plate without stiffeners was
accepted. Both plates possessed identical measurements of 220x300 mm, at what
thickness of the smooth plate was 2 mm, while alternative structure was executed as the
plate about 0.7 mm thickness integrally stiffened by fifteen stringers about 2.5 mm width
and 8 mm height. Material of both plates constitutes polycarbonate about known physical
characteristics. Masses of the plate without stiffeners was 208 grams, while the mass of
the stiffened structure - 184 grams, i.e. it was lighter from the smooth plate about 11.5%.
Fig.1. Dimensions and iso view of stffened plate
3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
The plates were connected to the in stiff steel frame by means of screw joints, with
control of clamp force during assembly Accepted method of the fastening was interpreted
Fig.2 Way of the loading and operated forces on the plate
348

as a fixing. Assembled structure was placed in the working area of ZWICK Z050 strength
testing machine, which ensures the possibility of control both with the force level and
displacement one. Attachment of the frame assured blocking of all degrees of freedom of
lower node except from the possibility of the rotation with regard to the perpendicular
axis to the surface. This node was treated as the constant support. Top node, which was
place of force introduction on structure, possessed also the possibility to move upwards
and down. Method of attachment and loading led to pure shear stress state on plate edges.
3.1. IDENTIFICATION OF DISPLACEMENTS FIELDS
In order to record changes in fields of displacement as the function of the plates
loading the method of Digital Image Correlation was applied. The DIC is an opticalnumerical method relying on default tracing of structure deformation during
examinations. Properly prepared object is photographed, by two digital cameras. The
images are divided on, so called, strain grid. First photograph becomes the referential
stage, with respect to which co-ordinates of three-dimensional reference system are
calculated. Base form of results presentation is contour plots of displacement fields.
Connection with testing machine makes possibility to assign for every stage of the
examination suitable level of force, what provide opportunity to make plots of
displacements in the function force level, for the arbitrary chosen point from the surface
area of the tested plate. Figure 3 presents DIC scanner ARAMIS used in experiment and
maximal deflection field recorded during tests of smooth plate.
Fig.3. The plate on the research stand and example deflection from ARAMIS
4. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF POST-BUCKLING STATES

Simultaneously with experimental examinations numerical analyses were carried
out for both of considered structures. Analyses were made with use of the commercial
FEM code ABAQUS, utilizing non-linear solution procedures.
In the face of the fact, that during the experiment plastic deformations of structure
were not observed, a linear elastic characteristic of the material was accepted.
349

4.1. NUMERICAL MODELS
Steel frame, in which plates were fixed was modeled by means of threedimensional, two node beam elements B31, with six degree of freedom in each node.
Articulated connection of the frame elements were modeled using three-dimensional link
elements CONN3D2 of the HINGE type. In order to represent the montage in handles of
the strength test machine lower node of the frame was fixed, however to the top node
concentrated force was applied, leaving the possibility of movement in direction of force
working.
Plates and ribs were modeled using three-dimensional, four nodes shell elements
S4R with six degree of freedom in each node and reduced number of integration points
on the surface of the element. This type of element is recommended in cases of big
deformation analyses and ensures the possibility of thickness change during increase of
deformation. In considered problem, five integration points were applied through the
thickness of the element. In the purpose of compensation influence of reduced integration
points number Hourglass control was also applied.
Connection of the frame to plate was being realized through the fixed combination
of the TIE constraint of the ABAQUS program library, making the assumption that any
slip between these elements does not occur. In the identical way ribs were being linked to
the surface of the plate. Geometry of models together with the division into finite
elements mesh is presented on the figure 4.
Fig.4.
Numerical models of plates with FEM mesh
4.2. LINEAR ANALYSIS OF THE STABILITY

In the first order the linear analysis of the plate stability were made. Relative
deflections of the plate surface in conditions of arising compression critical force (Pcr) are
presented in Fig. 5. In the case of tension Pcr values are identical, treat the opposite sign.
For the proposed solution, that means, plate stiffened by integral ribs, linear analyses are
showing significant increase of critical force, being 72% in comparing with the smooth
plate.
350
a)
Fig.5.
b)
Shape of deformation obtained in linear analyses

Results for: a) smooth plate, b) stiffened plate
4.3. NON-LINEAR ANALYSES - PRELIMINARY IMPERFECTION

Non-linear stability analyses of the plate without stiffeners are possible exclusively
after introducing initial geometric imperfection, assumed in the form of the plate
preliminary deflection in neutral state. So state were obtained through applying the
IMPERFECTION command added to the ABAQUS input file, adjusting initial geometry
to suitably rescaled forms of buckling obtained on the way of the linear analyses of
stability. Non-linear analyses were carried out applying the modified Riks method taking
advantage Newton-Raphson procedure, belonging to family of arc-length method. In this
method the value of the loading, represents the extra variable, and so it is necessary to
accept another parameter to control of the solution. In the ABAQUS environment it is a
length of the arch along static equilibrium path.
5. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
As the referential solution, results of experimental studies were acepted executed by
means of the scanner ARAMIS. In bringing back to the plate without stiffeners
comparing of balance paths made for the point lying in the geometric center of the plate
surface, and displacement of upper connection node, are presented on Fig. 6. From
comparing the shapes both of paths it is possible to conclude, that in the range of
compression force for the interval 0 to 3kN we observe almost perfect conformity of both
results. Small diversity of deflection values in some range of loading is probably
consequence of initial geometric imperfection which came from assembly of plate with
frame. Figure 7 presents comparing of the experimental and numerical analyses effects of
maximal principal stress distribution on plates surface. Good agremeent both of stability
paths and stress levels, in qualitative as well as quantitative conformity, leads to the
conclusion that accepted numerical model of plate and frame is suitable for nonlinear
analyses.
351
a)
b)
Fig.6.
Comparison of balance paths for smooth plate

a) deflection of point in geometrical center of plate,
b) diagonal displacement of frames upper node
Fig.7.
Maximal principal stress distribution. Force level

Results from:
a) ARAMIS,
b) FEM
Comparison of deflections patterns obtained by numerical and experimental

analyses of stiffened plate presents Fig. 8. Small diffenences in shape of deformation
between results are consequences of manufacturing errors, which were not included into
numerical model.
Good agreement in deformation of examined plates compared to experimental
results gives the possibility to assume that stress fields obtained by FEM analyses are
correct. Figure 9 shows comparison of H-M-H stress distribution over the surface of
tested structures. Stiffened plate was characterized by about 20% higher level of stresses
in relation to smooth plate, but it is still about 75% lower than yield stress value for
considering material. On the other hand gradients of stresses throught stiffened plate
seems to be much lower, what could have significant meaning for fatique life of structure.
352
Fig.8.
Deflection of stiffened plate. Results from: a) ARAMIS, b) FEM
Fig.9.
H-M-H stress fields. Results for: a) smooth plate, b) stiffened plate
6. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of experimental examinations and numerical analyses it is possible to
conclude, that DIC method as the tool of experimental verification of numerical analyses
results allows for effective specifying of numerical model, in particular during
formulating of geometry non-linear problems. More far-away examinations of presented
issue will be droved to determining of failure load of considered structures, both on the
experimental way and numerical analysis. Intentional is appearing examination of the
other form of stiffening variations and of the local changes rigidities in the form of cutout. Also intentional is appearing taking of fatigue examinations, justifying proposing of
geometry changes of skin aircraft structures.
353

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
ABAQUS/CAE Users Manual, Dassault Systems, 2010.

Kopecki H., wich ., Zacharzewski J., Analiza porwnawcza wynikw oblicze
numerycznych oraz bada dowiadczalnych metod cyfrowej korelacji obrazu pasma
pytowego z wykrojami, Journal of Aeronautica Integra, Rzeszow 2011, vol.10, pp.35-38.
Munroe J., Wilkins K., Gruber M., Integral airframe structures (IAS)-validated feasibility
study of integrally stiffened metallic fuselage panels for reducing manufacturing costs,
NASA/CR-2000-209337, 2000.
Metschan S., Validated feasibility study of integrally stiffened metallic fuselage panels for
reducing manufacturing costs, cost assessment of manufacturing/design concept,
NASA/CR-2000-209343, 2000.
Quinn D., Murphy A., McEwan W., Lemaitre F., Stiffened panel stability behavior and
performance
gains
with
plate
prismatic
sub-stiffening,
Thin-Walled
Structures,2009,vol.47, pp. 1457-1468.
Quinn D., Murphy A., McEwan W., Lemaitre F., Non-prismatic sub-stiffening for
stiffened panel plates - Stability behavior and performance gains, Thin-Walled Structures,
2010, vol.48, pp. 401-413.
354
EXPERIMENTAL-NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
OF DEFORMATION OF POST-CRITICAL STATES
OF THIN-WALLED ELEMENTS OF BEARING AIRFRAME
STRUCTURES
T. KOPECKI, P. MAZUREK
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aviation, Rzeszw University of
Technology, Al. Powstacw Warszawy 12, 35-959 Rzeszw, Poland
The study presents the results of studies of thin-walled systems subjected to shear,
constituting the forming models of parts of air cover bearing structures. It presents
the results of experimental and non-linear numerical analysis in terms of the finite
elements method of a number of variants of superstructures. The methods of
verifying the results of numerical calculations have been developed, as well as a set
of efficient numerical procedures, allowing to obtain reliable results of calculations,
has been set.
1. INTRODUCTION
Loss of stability of thin shells, subjected to various types of loads, is a phenomenon
commonly found in construction of semi-monocoque airplane structures. Fragments of
the coverings of the aircraft often lose stability during exploitation. This phenomenon in
case of metal structures is permitted, as long as it has a resilient nature and occurs locally
in the area of the shell, restricted by elements of the skeleton.
Constant phases of the design process of aircraft structures, therefore, should be the
analysis, allowing for the determination of the distribution of stress in advanced postbuckling states of deformation which, in case of the semi-monocoque structure, due to
impact forces, are of cyclical character. This causes the appearance in the material of the
coating of fatigue effects, and therefore knowledge of the stress field is necessary not
only because of the identification of areas of concentration, but also provides the basis for
determining the fatigue life of the structures analyzed.
Additional problems can be brought by all kinds of patterns, i.e. service cut-outs and
inspection openings, which cause local reduction of construction stiffness. They cause
changes in the nature of loss of stability, in comparison to areas without this kind of
singularity, as well as the emergence of strong local stress concentration.
In case of composite structures used in aviation, in accordance with the applicable
standards, the loss of stability of shells is generally not acceptable. This follows from the
fear, that during the number of load cycles and related advanced states of deformation,
the damage may occur to the structure of the material, manifested by the delamination of
the composite components.
The presented studies are part of a comprehensive program, under which the
analysis of the impact of cyclical post-buckling states of deformation on the fatigue life
of coatings, which are made of isotropic materials, and the condition of the internal
structure of composite materials, are expected.
355

The basic numerical tools, widely used in the design processes, are programs based
on finite elements method. But while in case of linear analysis, the present state of
advancement of commercial software, most of the results can be regarded as credible, the
more nonlinear procedure used for determining the deformation of advanced post-critical
states, still bring many problems. These problems arise from the limited reliability of
numerical procedures defining the equilibrium states of the structures, corresponding to
the successive points of equilibrium path. As a result, despite the apparently correct
mapping of the structure stiffness, it often comes to obtaining the results burdened by
significant errors.
To confirm the reliability of the results of nonlinear numerical FEM analysis it is
necessary to carry out experimental verifications. In particular, it seems to be reasonable
to use a relatively inexpensive experiment which uses a model material.
The convergence of a deformation obtained by the numerical results and the
experiment allows the recognition of the reliability of the results of calculations. Based
on the principle of uniqueness of solutions, according to which a particular form of
deformation corresponds to the one and only one form of distribution of stresses, the
effective stress distributions in the deformed shell may also be found reliable.
In order to achieve these comparisons, it is necessary to make possible the precise
measurements of the geometry of the deformed body. During the presented studies a
scanner ATOS of German company GOM Optical Measuring Techniques has been used,
the principle of which uses the method of moir projection.
Fig. 1. Geometry of the test system
2. SCOPE AND FIELD OF STUDY

The presented studies have been aimed to develop an effective methodology for
determining the distribution of stresses in the shells experiencing post-critical
deformation, including the selection of appropriate numerical methods and parameters
controlling the courses of algorithms in nonlinear finite elements method analyses.
The subject of the research presented in this study were thin regimes of shape and
dimensions shown in Fig. 1, subjected to shear, which constitute mapping parts of semimonocoque cover designs. The regimes of different diameter wheel patterns, imitating
the service cut-outs have also been analyzed.
356

2. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
According to the assumptions, the predicted test cycle includes several stages,
which require the use of appropriate research devices.
Basic research device, used in case of static experiments, consisted of a frame of
large margin stiffness, inclusive of the mounting and loading system (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Research device for experiments with static 3D scanner ATOS
The tested system was mounted in a special frame, made of rigid steel beams, which
were pivotally connected at the corners. The load in the form of forces carried out using
the gravity method, using the links passed through the roller system (Fig. 3). In the
various phases of the experiment strain, using an optical scanner, was measured.
Fig. 3. Scheme of fixing and application of the load
The experiment was carried out by using three variants of the model: the system
devoid of holes, the system with a central circular hole with a diameter of 35 mm and the
system equipped with a hole reinforcing ring with a width of 5 mm and thickness of 4
mm. In all cases investigated bodies have been forcibly charged to a peak of 900 N.
Models are made of polycarbonate, of a trade name Macrolon which is an isotropic
material: E = 2150 MPa, = 0.4. The loss of stability occurred in relatively low load
357

values, due to the nature of the distribution of stress field forming the tension
field. Figure 4 presents the experimentally obtained distributions of displacements in the
form of color contours generated using GOM Inspect Software cooperating with the
Scanner 3D ATOS.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 4. Distributions of displacement normal to the surface of the element, obtained from the
experiment: a: a basic model, b: a model with a hole without amplification, c: a model
with the ring reinforcing hole
In all cases advanced post-critical deformations had a similar nature, with the main
fold extending along the diagonal model. In case of the model with the strengthening of
the opening folds a shift toward to the corner has been seen, which resulted from the local
rigidity. For all cases, the representative equilibrium paths have been made, which were
adopted by the relationship between the maximum displacement in the perpendicular
direction to the plane of non-deformed model and the value of loading force (Fig. 9).
In further phases of research, taking into account the determination of the fatigue
life of thin shells experiencing post-critical cyclic deformation, the device shall be
equipped with numerically controlled actuator of the Zwick Company (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. Research device of the fatigue test
3. NONLINEAR NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Numerical calculations were performed using the software MSC Patran - MSC
MARC. The tested bodies were mapped using about approx. 5,000 thin-shell elements. In
358

case of the model system around 2000 fixing thick-shell elements were used. A
combination of a continuous attachment between the system and the model test system
was applied. This simplification resulted from the pursuit of achieving the small size of
the task and the fact that in case of use of the type of MPC bonds, used to map of the
discrete wiring, in the nonlinear numerical procedures numerous errors occur, which lead
to distorted results or even making it impossible to obtain a solution. After a series of
numerical tests it was found, that the best qualitative and quantitative results of the
calculation allows for a combination of secant prediction method and hyperspheric
Crisfield correction strategy. The appropriate values of parameters for nonlinear process
control have been selected. The Figure 6 shows the numerical models of examined
systems with visualized mesh.
Fig. 6. Numerical models of systems analyzed
Fig. 7 shows the numerically obtained distributions of deformation, and Fig. 8

shows effective stress distributions by the Huber-Mises-Hencky hypothesis in the
analyzed models.
Fig. 7. Distribution of displacements in the direction normal to the plane of the nondeformed model
Fig. 8. Distributions of effective stress, according to Huber-Mises-Hencky hypothesis
359

Figure 9 presents a summary of representative equilibrium paths obtained from
experimental research and non-linear numerical analysis.
360
Fig. 9. Comparisons of representative equilibrium paths
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Using the principle of uniqueness of solutions requires a sufficiently accurate
numerical representation of advanced states of deformation of the investigated
structures. The basic criterion for assessing the accuracy is the overall similarity obtained
through numerical and experimental displacement distributions at the assumed maximum
load. Furthermore, it is necessary to obtain a satisfactory convergence of the equilibrium
paths. In case of systems with many degrees of freedom, the equilibrium path, which is a
relationship between a set of state parameters and the control parameter associated with
the load, is a subset of the multi-dimensional state space. For practical reasons, dictated
by the limited possibilities of measurement, as well as the desire for the effective
visualization of results, the criterion of similarity of the processes of deformation was
considered the compatibility of representative equilibrium paths, representing the
relationship between the geometric representative value, and the control parameter,
constituting the measure of the load.
According to accepted criteria, the basis for assessing the reliability of the results of
nonlinear numerical analysis was the similarity of displacements distributions presented
in Figures 4 and 7. Given the virtually identical nature of the deformation and the
displacement of very similar values in the corresponding areas of both types of models, it
is considered that the adopted predictive method and corrective strategy constitute an
effective combination for this type of problem. Additional confirmation of the reliability
of the results is the satisfactory convergence of representative equilibrium paths obtained
experimentally and numerically, for each of the analyzed structures.
Therefore, also effective stress distributions shown in Fig. 8 were considered
reliable. As expected, in all cases, the stress concentration zones were located at the
corners of systems and it was there that the fatigue damage should occur. It should be
emphasized that the strengthening of corners regions to eliminate stress concentration,
seems possible and even relatively easy, from the design point of view. Assuming
sufficient strengthening of the structures corners important is the distribution of stresses
in the central regions of models. In all cases, elevated stress values occur along the
361

borders of the folds, which result from the effects of bending in the shell. In addition, the
stress concentration zones occur in areas of the holes, but in the case of the hole with
reinforcement, gradients, and reduced maximum stress value are much smaller than the
hole unfortified.
From these observations, the essential recommendations relating to the construction
of such load-bearing structures emerge, according to which it seems appropriate to apply
suitable reinforcement both in the corner zones and in cut-out zones. The resulting
distributions of stress can be the basis for further analysis of a fatigue crack. These
analyzes must include the use of appropriate software, for example, MSC Fatique and
adequate model experiments.
The proposed research program is therefore a combination of experiments of a static
and fatigue character, as well as various types of numerical analyzes, using modern
software based on finite elements method.
REFERENCES
[1]
Arborcz J., Post-buckling behavior of structures, Numerical techniques for more

complicated structures, Lecture Notes in Physics, 228, 1985.
[2] Bathe K.J., Finite element procedures, Prentice Hall, 1996.
[3] Doyle J.F., Nonlinear analysis of thin-walled structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg New York, 2001.
[4] Crisfield M.A., Non-linear finite element analysis of solid and structures, J. Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1997.
[5] Felippa C.A., Crivelli L.A., Haugen B., A survey of the core-congruential formulation for
nonlinear finite element, Arch. of Comput. Meth. In Enging. 1, 1994.
[6] Felippa C.A., Procedures for computer analysis of large nonlinear Structural System in
Large Engineering Systems, ed. by A. Wexler, Pergamon Press, London, 1976.
[7] Kopecki T., Stages of advanced deformity in the design of thin-walled regimes, Publishing
House of the Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow, 2010.
[8] Kopecki H., Problems in the analysis of load-bearing structures stress states in the light of
experimental methods using the mode mechanics methods, in Polish], Rzeszw University
of Technology Scientific Papers , No. 78, Rzeszow, 1991.
[9] Laerman K.H., The principle of integrated photo-elasticity applied to the experimental
analysis of plates with nonlinear deformation, Proc 7 th Conf on experimental stress
analysis, Haifa, 1982.
[10] Lynch C., A finite element study of the post buckling behavior of a state typical aircraft
fuselage panel, PhD. Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2000.
[11] Marcinowski J., Nonlinear stability of elastic shells, Publishing House of Wroclaw
University of Technology, Wroclaw, 1999 (in Polish).
[12] Rakowski, G., Kacprzyk Z., The finite elements method in mechanics of structures, in
Polish, Publishing House of Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, 1993.
362
NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION OF BIFURCATION IN THE

PROCESS OF DETERMINING STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN
POST-CRITICAL DEFORMATION STATES OF AVIATION
LOAD-BEARING STRUCTURES
T. KOPECKI, P. MAZUREK
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aviation, Rzeszw University of
Technology, Al. Powstacw Warszawy 12, 35-959 Rzeszw, Poland
D. CHODOROWSKA
State Higher Vocational School in Krosno,
ul. Wyspiaskiego 20, 38-400 Krosno, Poland
The study presents the results of research on the problem of obtaining credible
results of nonlinear FEM analyses of thin-walled load-bearing structures subjected
to post-critical loads. The similarity of numerical simulations results and actual
stress distributions state depends on the correct numerical reproduction of
bifurcations that occur during advanced deformations process.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modern aviation structures are characterised by widespread application of thin-shell
load-bearing systems. The strict requirements with regard to the levels of transferred
loads and the need to minimise a structure mass often become causes for accepting
physical phenomena that in case of other structures are considered as inadmissible. An
example of such phenomenon is the loss of stability of shells that are parts of loadbearing structures, within the range of admissible loads.
Thus, an important stage in design work on an aircraft load-bearing structure is to
determine stress distribution in the post-critical deformation state. One of the tools used
to achieve this aim is nonlinear finite elements method analysis. The assessment of the
reliability of the results thus obtained is based on the solution uniqueness rule, according
to which a specific deformation form can correspond to one and only one stress state. In
order to apply this rule it is required to obtain numerical models displacements
distribution fully corresponding to actual deformations of the analysed structure.
An element deciding about a structures deformation state is the effect of a rapid
change of the structures shape occurring when the critical load levels are crossed. From
the numerical point of view, this phenomenon is interpreted as a change of the relation
between state parameters corresponding to particular degrees of freedom of the system
and the control parameter related to the load. This relation, defined as the equilibrium
path, in case of an occurrence of mentioned phenomenon, has an alternative character,
defined as bifurcation. Therefore, the fact of taking a new deformation form by the
structure corresponds to a sudden change to the alternative branch of the equilibrium
path.
363

Therefore, a prerequisite condition for obtaining a proper form of the numerical
model deformation is to retain the conformity between numerical bifurcations and
bifurcations in the actual structure. In order to determine such conformity it is required to
verify the results obtained by an appropriate model experiment or by using the data
obtained during the tests of the actual object. It is often troublesome to obtain reliable
results of nonlinear numerical analyses and it requires an appropriate choice of numerical
methods dependent upon the type of the analysed structure and precise determination of
parameters controlling the course of procedures.
Due to the number of state parameters, the full equilibrium path should be
interpreted as hyper-surface in state hyperspace, satisfying the matrix equation for
residual forces:
r(u, ) 0 ,
(1)
where u is the state vector containing structure nodes displacement components

corresponding to current geometrical configuration, is a matrix composed of control
parameters corresponding to current load state, and r is the residual vector containing
uncompensated components of forces related to current system deformation state. The set
of control parameters may be expressed by a single parameter that is a function of the
load. Equation (1) takes then the following form:
r(u, ) 0 ,
(2)
called a monoparametric equation of residual forces.

The prediction-correction methods of determining the consecutive points of the
equilibrium path used in modern programs contain also a correction phase based on the
satisfaction of an additional equation by the system, called an increment control equation
or constraints equation:
c(u n , n ) 0 ,
where the increments:

un un1 un
and
n n1 n
(3)
(4)
correspond to the transition from n-th state to n+1-th state.

In order to find out whether there is full conformity between the character of actual
deformations and their numerical representation it would be required to compare the
combinations of the relevant state parameters in all the phases of the course of the
phenomenon considered herein. Because of the complication of such a comparative
system, the deformation processes are represented in practice by applying substitute
characteristics called representative equilibrium paths. They define the relations between
a control parameter related to load and a selected, characteristic geometric value related
to a structures deformation, an increment of which corresponds to a change of the value
of all or some state parameters.
In case of a large number of state parameters it is not possible at all to represent the
character of bifurcation by applying a representative equilibrium path. Sometimes,
364

changes of state parameters resulting from local bifurcation may show the lack of
perceptible influence on the representative value, which results in non-occurrence of any
characteristic points on the representative path. In general, however, these changes cause
a temporary drop in the control parameter value.
So both the experiment itself and nonlinear numerical analyses may result only in a
representative equilibrium path. In that case, the problem of the numerical representation
of bifurcation comes down to the preservation of conformity of the representative
equilibrium path obtained by a numerical method with the one obtained experimentally,
where a sine qua non for the application of the solution uniqueness rule is to recognise
the similarity of the post-critical deformation forms of the experimental and numerical
models as sufficient.
An additional problem occurring during the experimental determination of the
equilibrium path, results from the lack of possibilities of recording the said temporary,
little drops in load, arising from local bifurcations, causing changes of the values of a part
of state parameters. In the majority of experiments, the load of the tested model is
achieved by force control, e.g. using a gravitational system, or displacement, by means of
various types of load-applying devices (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. A stand for testing thin-shell structures subject to torsion: left - a version with a
loading system controlling the displacement (turnbuckle), right - a version with a
system controlling by force (gravitational)
However, even in case of devices with high level of technical advancement, in

general it is not possible to register precisely short-lasting force changes, occurring from
the beginning of a bifurcation phenomenon to the moment of reaching the consecutive
deformation form by the model. Therefore, the representative equilibrium path obtained
as a result of the experiment is of smooth characteristics, and its formation is based on
measuring points corresponding to the consecutive deformation states determined.
In case of nonlinear numerical analysis in the finite element approach, the accuracy
of the obtaining of the representative equilibrium path may be much more accurate. The
existing commercial programs usually offer the results of all the increment steps,
followed during the calculation process, and thus they also allow to observe slight
fluctuations of the control parameter. The only limitation here is exclusively the value of
the incremental step itself. In spite of this, due to the lack of possibilities of relating the
results obtained to the relevant detailed changes of the experimental characteristics, it
seems appropriate to determine the numerical representative equilibrium path of the same
level of simplification as in the case of the experiment.
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2. ANALYSES OF EXAMPLE STRUCTURES
The comparative analysis of such representative equilibrium paths is not, however, a
method that allows a complete enough verification of the reliability of the results of
numerical calculations.
An example of a problem in which the calculated results may have been deemed
incorrect despite the seeming full conformity of the representative equilibrium paths is
an open cylindrical shell, which was subjected to a cycle of tests, during which it was
assumed that stringers are characterised by a sufficient margin of stiffness and they do
not lose stability (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Geometry of the model
So the models made of the polycarbonate were strengthened with longitudinal

members with large, rectangular cross-section and relatively high values of geometric
moments of inertia. Each of the examined systems was subjected to constrained torsion,
using a test stand presented in Fig. 1. The tests aimed at developing the methodology of
determining stress distributions in a structures shell in post-critical deformation states.
In the conditions of torsion the stress state created in the shell of such system, may
be interpreted as an incomplete tension field. As a result, even if there are no geometrical
imperfections, the shell loses its stability. On the other hand, the post-critical deformation
increment causes significant stress redistribution. The experiments repeated a number of
times showed that the final form of post-critical deformations of such systems, occurring
at sufficiently high load values, is always the same in spite of the alternative character of
the course of the structure state changing process (Fig. 4).
The fact that local bifurcations following increases in loads occur with some scatter
of locations and stress levels makes the nonlinear numerical analysis particularly
troublesome in this case. It is practically impossible to develop a FEM model allowing to
reproduce accurately the entire process of the structures state changes, using commercial
software, due to the nature of the functioning of algorithms for choosing the variants of
the equilibrium path at the bifurcation points and the impossibility of the users
interference in the form of those algorithms. In this situation it seems appropriate to focus
only on obtaining a numerical solution consistent with the experiment results at assumed
load values.
366

The selection of an appropriate combination of numerical methods and parameters
controlling the course of the analysis seems particularly vital in this case, likewise the
proper representation of the models stiffness. Even small mistakes in this respect result
in the occurrence of incorrect forms of deformation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Incorrect forms of shell stability loss, showing a members buckling not revealed in
the experiment
It should be emphasised that it seems very risky to rely in the design process on the
results of nonlinear numerical analysis of similar structures without appropriate
verification in an experiment, if only a relatively cheap model experiment. In practice,
multiple repetition of the analysis and systematic comparison of its results with the
results of the experiment are required to obtain correct results of the numerical
representation of a structures state in the conditions of post-critical loads (Fig. 6).
Fig. 4. Accepted as satisfactory form of post-critical deformation obtained as a result of

nonlinear analysis (left) and a deformation form obtained as a result of experimental
tests at identical load (right)
The research results of various load-bearing structures confirm that the difficulty
related to carrying out an appropriate nonlinear numerical analysis results from the nature
of bifurcation. If the change in a structures form is gentle in nature and it occurs in a
small area, then the bifurcations related to it occur gradually, in relatively small subsets
of state parameters. The numerical simulation of the process is then easy to perform and
it may take place when using prediction-correction methods with simple correction based
on state control. But if the deformation occurs in a larger area, and the change of the form
is violent in nature, then the bifurcation corresponds to the simultaneous change of a
great number of state parameters, and the determination through a numerical procedure of
367

their appropriate combination, corresponding to the new state of static equilibrium, may
be hindered or even impossible. In such a case it is necessary to apply matchings of
prediction methods with correction strategies based on arc length control methods, such
as the Riks correction or the Crisfield hyperspherical correction.
Bifurcation changes of the forms of load-bearing structures, containing shells of
considerable curvature, occur more violently if there is a higher relation of the square of
the smaller of dimensions of the shell segment area limited by the adjacent member
frames to the value of the local radius of its curvature. Thus, semi-monocoque structures
of relatively low number of the framing elements are especially troublesome in nonlinear
numerical representations.
An example of such a structure is a closed cylindrical shell presented in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. A schematic view of a complete cylindrical shell reinforced by four members (a) and
a schematic view of a structure including dimensions (b)
The structures framing consists of a minimum number of crosswise elements, i.e.

two closing frames and four longitudinal members. The type of the structure itself
corresponds to solutions commonly used in the aviation technology, e.g. the construction
of a fuselage of an aircraft. It should be emphasised, however, the model subjected to
examinations constitutes a special instance of a structure of purposefully minimised
number of longitudinal members. The actual solutions are usually based on much more
extended framings. The structure described corresponds to an isolated phase of a wider
cycle of examinations aiming at determining direct dependences between the number of
framing elements and post-critical deformation distributions.
The examined structure was subjected to constrained torsion using a modified
version of the stand presented in Fig. 1.
According to the expectations, post-critical deformations occurred in a violent way.
Due to the gravitational way of load application, the measurement of the relation between
torsion angle and the torque moment, assumed as the representative equilibrium path,
corresponded to the steady states (Fig. 10).
Using this mode of taking measurements, the representative characteristics does not
reflect bifurcation points in an overt way, but attention should be drawn to the occurrence
of its horizontal section. It corresponds to this phase of the experiment in which a sudden
change occurred in the structure state with the simultaneous constant load level.
368
Fig. 6. The advanced post-critical deformation of the examined structure (left) and the
distribution of contour lines representing the size of the deformation, made using the
projection moir method (right)
With regard to the symmetry, the deformed structure possessed four characteristic
grooves in all the shell segments (Fig. 6). During the experiment the surface geometry
was registered using the projection moir method. ATOS scanner manufactured by a
German company, GOM Optical Measuring Techniques was used as a registering device.
Fig. 7. A geometrical model of a structure made in MSC PATRAN environment with

boundary conditions and loading
The problem discussed belongs to one of the most troublesome from the point of
view of a FEM nonlinear numerical simulation. A number of tests performed using the
MSC MARC software revealed the lack of effectiveness of its procedures in case of this
problem, with regard to determining the appropriate post-buckling state of a structure.
The algorithms used in those procedures are characterised by inability to represent the
symmetry of the phenomenon. With the idealised geometric form of the model, the
obtaining of the new form of the structure after crossing the critical load value occurs
only in one of the segments, in spite of the apparently correct, symmetrical initiation of
stability loss. This proves the faults in the algorithms for choosing the appropriate
variants of the equilibrium path in case of the appearance of changes in the state
parameters combination in several of their independent subsets.
The situation was improved when shell imperfections were implemented, by
applying normal forces to the skin, in the central points of particular skin (Fig. 7).
369
Fig. 8. The incorrect form of deformation, obtained in case of too many elements
However, even in the case of applying this type of forcing a form change, it was
very difficult to obtain results that would fully correspond to the experimental results.
Assuming the use of skin elements with linear shape functions, the appropriate density of
the mesh turned out to be the key factor, but its excessive density caused incorrect forms
of post-critical deformations (Fig. 8).
The better result, in case of application of beam elements as a representation of
stringers, was obtained with the use of a relatively low density of mesh. This proves the
rightness of the thesis, proved a number of times in many studies, pursuant to which the
decrease in the general number of degrees of freedom, corresponding to the number of
state parameters, in case of nonlinear procedures used in the available commercial
programs, often brings benefits that considerably exceed the deficiencies of a
mathematical description resulting from the decrease in the number of elements.
Fig. 9. The deformation distribution (left) and reduced stress distribution acc. to HuberMises hypothesis (right) for 100% of the maximum load (stringers modelled with
thick shell bilinear element)
The best result was obtained only after the fundamental change of the concept of
FEM model, when the different kind of finite elements was applied as a representation of
stringers (thick shell element was used instead of a recommended beam element).
However this solution, from the point of view of mathematical description is much less
correct, it turned out much more effective in case of relatively low values of the total
torsion angle of the structure.
370

The results of analysis of this FEM model version, obtained using secant prediction
method and strain-correction strategy are presented in Fig. 9.
The strain-correction strategy turned out most effective in case of significant,
violent change of the form of deformations, when the representative equilibrium path
contains relatively long horizontal section.
The relation between the representative equilibrium paths is presented in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. The presentation of the representative equilibrium paths
3. CONCLUSIONS
The presented examples of load-bearing structures represent only some of those
many used in the modern aviation technology. But the criterion applied while selecting
them as objects of experimental and numerical analyses was its representativeness for the
most commonly met elements of constructions, in case of which the occurrence of a local
stability loss is acceptable in the conditions of service load.
The fundamental conclusion that can be drawn from the presented results of the
research is the absolute need for using experimental verifications with regard to FEM
nonlinear numerical analyses of this type of structures. The more so that even in the cases
in which the correctness of the results obtained seems unquestionable, they may be in fact
burdened with errors resulting from the very limited reliability of the numerical
procedures used in commercial programs.
Based on the nonlinear numerical analyses, related to the presented structures,
frequently repeated many times, a general recommendation may also be formulated for
the maximum possible limitation of the size of a task. Striving for increasing the accuracy
of the calculations by increasing the density of finite elements mesh, applied successfully
in linear analyses, may turn out ineffective in case of a nonlinear analysis and may lead to
incorrect results or the lack of convergence of calculations.
The numerical representation of bifurcation, by virtue of the mere idea of the
discrete representation of continuous systems, must be simplified in case of the finite
elements method. In such a situation, based on the quoted examples, the need must be
emphasised for obtaining the indispensable convergence of the experimental and obtained
numerically relations between a selected geometric parameter characterising the essence
371

of a structures deformation and a selected value relating to the load, recognised as
representative equilibrium paths. This convergence, in combination with the accepted as
sufficient similarity of post-critical deformation forms, constitutes the grounds for
accepting the reliability of stress distributions determined by means of numerical
methods.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
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[11]
[12]
[13]
Arborcz J., Post-buckling behavior of structures, Numerical techniques for more

complicated structures, Lecture Notes in Physics, 228, 1985.
Bathe K.J., Finite element procedures, Prentice Hall, 1996.
Brzoska Z., Statyka I stateczno konstrukcji prtowych i cienkociennych, PWN,
Warszawa 1965.
Doyle J.F., Nonlinear analysis of thin-walled structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin
Heidelberg New York, 2001.
Crisfield M.A., Non-linear finite element analysis of solid and structures, J. Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1997.
Felippa C.A., Crivelli L.A., Haugen B., A survey of the core-congruential formulation for
nonlinear finite element, Arch. of Comput. Meth. In Enging. 1, 1994.
Felippa C.A., Procedures for computer analysis of large nonlinear Structural System in
Large Engineering Systems, ed. by A. Wexler, Pergamon Press, London, 1976.
Kopecki T., Stages of advanced deformity in the design of thin-walled regimes, Publishing
House of the Rzeszow University of Technology, Rzeszow 2010
Kopecki H., Problems in the Analysis of load-bearing structures stress states in the light of
experimental methods using the mode mechanics methods, in Polish], Rzeszw University
of Technology Scientific Papers , No. 78, Rzeszow, 1991.
Laerman K.H., The principle of integrated photo-elasticity applied to the experimental
analysis of plates with nonlinear deformation, Proc 7 th Conf on experimental stress
analysis, Haifa, 1982.
Lynch C., A finite element study of the post buckling behavior of a state typical aircraft
fuselage panel. PhD. Thesis, Queen's University Belfast, 2000.
Marcinowski J., Nonlinear stability of elastic shells, in Polish. Publishing House of
Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, 1999.
Rakowski, G., Kacprzyk Z., The finite elements method in mechanics of structures, in
Polish, Publishing House of Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, 1993.
372
STATIC AND DYNAMIC BUCKLING

OF FUNCTIONALLY GRADED PLATES SUBJECTED
TO THERMOMECHANICAL LOADING
K. KOWAL-MICHALSKA, R.J. MANIA
In the paper the buckling phenomenon for static and dynamic loading (pulse of
finite duration) of FGM plates subjected to simultaneous action of one directional
compression and thermal field is presented. Thin, rectangular plates simply
supported along all edges are considered. The investigations are conducted for
different values of volume fraction exponent and uniform temperature rise in
conjunction with mechanical dynamic pulse loading of finite duration.
1. INTRODUCTION
Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) were first introduced in 1984 by a group of
Japanese scientists and very soon have become very popular in research and engineering
applications. A typical FG gradient material is inhomogeneous composite made up of two
constituents - typically of metallic and ceramic phases which relative content changes
gradually across the thickness of a plate or a shell. This eliminates the adverse effects
between the layers (e.g., shear stress concentrations and/or thermal stress concentrations),
typical for layered composites. The high resistance heat capacity of ceramic and good
mechanical properties of metal phase make that the leading application area of FGM
structures are high temperature environments (spacecraft, nuclear reactors or structures
for the chemical industry and defence) [12],[13].
Nonlinear analysis of plates and shells devoted to basic types of loads is covered in
Shen monograph [13]. He considered static bending and thermal bending as an
introduction to buckling and postbuckling behaviour of FGM plates and shells. The shear
deformation effect is employed in the framework of Reddys higher order shear
deformation theory (HSDT).
In [12], alongside HSDT for FGM plates Reddy presents the comparison of FSDT
and CLP theories application for functionally graded plates. According to presented
results it is obvious that for thin-walled plates as well as for greater exponent value in the
power law through the thickness distribution function [7], the application of FSDT gives
results in practice the same as HSDT. The discrepancy between both theories is of 2% in
calculated deflections of analyzed plates.
The static buckling problem of functionally graded plates is discussed in the frame
of different approaches e.g.: in [15], [16] - biaxial in-plane compression and thermal loads
(constant temperature) with axial compression, in [2] and [10] - biaxial in-plane
compression, in work [3] - for thermal stresses only and in [11] - for through the thickness
temperature gradient.
373

In mentioned above publications the dominant subject are the static mechanical or
steady-state thermal loadings. The dynamic types of analyses concern mostly the
vibrations problems. From our previous experience [6], [8] connected with static and
dynamic analysis of thin-walled isotropic and orthotropic composite plates, the dynamic
buckling of thin-walled structure is theoretically difficult problem but of great importance
for practical engineering applications.
The present work deals with static and dynamic stability of thin rectangular plates,
simply supported along all edges, made of functionally graded materials. The material
properties are assumed to be temperature independent. Considered plates are subjected to
static or dynamic uniaxial compression and uniform temperature rise, constant through the
thickness and constant in time. The uniform temperature rise is of constant increment
form.
The investigations are conducted by analytical methods for static case and numerical
ones for dynamic pulse compression.
2. DESCRIPTION OF FGM PROPERTIES
According to the rule of mixture the properties of functionally graded material
( - density, - coefficient of thermal expansion, E - Youngs modulus, - Poissons
ratio) can be expressed as follows [1]:
q
2z h
;
2h
2z h
;
2h
( z ) m ( c m )
( z ) m ( c m )
2z h
E ( z ) Em ( Ec Em )
;
2h
2z h
.
2h
( z ) m ( c m )
(1)
where h / 2 z h / 2 , and q 0 is the volume fraction exponent (i.e., if q = 1 - plate is

full ceramic and for q = - plate is metallic).
In this paper it is assumed that for a given fraction exponent q Poissons ratio is
constant and equal to:
( z )dz
(2)
3. SUBJECT OF CONSIDERATION
A square simply supported FG plate (Fig. 1) subjected simultaneously to uniform
compression in x direction and uniform temperature rise is considered. The unloaded
edges of plate are immovable. The coordinate system x,y,z coincides with the midplane of
a plate.
It was proved in the paper [3] that for thin plates (a/h>40) the differences in the
results obtained on the basis of classical laminate plate theory (CLPT) and FDST are less
374

than 12%. Therefore in this paper CLPT is employed to obtain the governing equations
of thin FG plate equilibrium.
a l
y y
Nx=xh
Fig. 1. Geometry and loading of a plate
In the classical nonlinear laminate plate theory the strains across thickness are
expressed referring to the displacements u, v, w of plate middle surface [4], [5]:
(m) z (b)
(3)
T
2
2
u 1 w v 1 w u v w w
'
x
2
y
2
xw , yw , 2 xwy
2
(b )
(4)
(5)
Taking into account the generalized Hookes law for plane stress state, the in-plane
stress and moment resultants (N, M) are defined as:

N A B
m
M B D (b)

(6)
where: A, B, D, - are extensional, coupling and bending stiffness matrices, respectively,

for FG plate of components listed below:
h/2
A11 A22
E( z)
h/2
dz;
A12 A21
zE ( z )
dz;
2
h / 2 1
B12 B21
h / 2 1
h/2
B11 B22
E( z)
h / 2 1
h/2
dz;
zE ( z )
dz;
2
h / 2 1
375
h/2
E( z)
dz
h / 2 2(1 )
A66
h/2
zE( z )
dz; (7)
2
h / 2 (1 )
B66

h/2
z 2 E( z)
h / 2
D11 D22
dz;
h/2
z 2 E( z)
h / 2
D12 D21
dz;
z 2 E( z)
dz.
h / 2 2(1 )
h/2
D66
Due to the presence of nontrivial matrix B, the coupling between extensional and
bending deformations exists as it is in case of unsymmetrical laminated plates [4].
The stretching-bending coupling affects strongly the constitutive equations and
boundary conditions that have complex form and the solution procedures become
difficult.
In some papers (e.g., [19]) the concept of physical neutral surface is introduced
that allows to uncouple the in-plane and out-of-plane deformations.
The position of this physical neutral surface in the adopted coordinate system
B11
A11
(8)
can be found, assuming that under pure bending a surface exists for which strains and
stresses are zero.
The displacements u, v, w corresponding to x,y,z axes take the following forms:
u u0
w
w
( z e), v v0
( z e), w w( x, y)
x
y
(9)
where: u0, v0 ,w are displacements of physical neutral surface.

Strains are defined as:
(0) ( z e) (1)
(10)
The relations defining the in-plane stress and moment resultants in function of strains,
have now the following form:

N A 0
0
M 0 D (1)
(11)
The components of extensional stiffness matrix A are given by the relation (71) and for
bending stiffness matrix D* are as follows:
*
*
D11
D22
D11
2
B11
;
A11
*
*
*
D12
D21
D11
;
*
D66
1 *
D11
2
(12)
Comparing relations (11) with laminate plate theory based on geometric middle
plane, it can be seen that there is no extensional-bending coupling in constitutive
equations of equilibrium of FG plate subjected to in-plane compression and these
equations are the same as for homogenous isotropic plate.
376

4. STABILITY UNDER STATIC THERMOMECHANICAL LOADINGS
The well known Bubnov-Galerkin method has been applied to the problem solution.
The procedure is classical and described in details in many works concerning stability of
isotropic, composite and FGM plates (e.g. [5], [7], [8], [15]).
The plate is simply supported along all edges and the boundary conditions have been
assumed as follows:
for loaded edges x=0,a:
Nx xh
u0 0
w Mx 0 ;
N xy 0 ;
(13)
for unloaded edges y=0,a:
w M y 0;
v0 0
Ny 0
N xy 0 .
(14)
The deflection function is taken in the form:
w f sin
x
a
sin
y
a
(15)
and after rather long elaborations, the relation among compressive stress x, increment of
uniform temperature rise T and nondimensional deflection amplitude f*=f/h has been
obtained:
x x0
x0
where:
4 B11
2 A11h
f
*
f *2 ,
a 2 (1 )
4a 2 (1 )
4 2 D *
a h(1 )
2
(16)
KT
,
1
(17)
and
1
m (2 Em q 2 Ec q) c ( Em q Ec (q 1)
(2q 1)( q 1)
(18)
The relation (16) has been compared with the relation derived in the paper [15] for a
rectangular plate and the perfect agreement has been found.
Table 1. Constituents properties of considered metal-ceramic material [17]
Aluminium - TiC
3
[kg/m ]
E [GPa]
[-]
[1/K]
2700
69
0.33
2.310-5
377
4920
480
0.20
0.710-5

4.1. CALCULATIONS RESULTS
Some calculations have been performed for FG square plates of ratio width to
thickness equal to: a/h=60 and 80 and temperature increment T=20K and 40K (only for
a/h=60). The material properties of components are given in Table 1.
From the results presented in Table 2 (values of bifurcational stress xo) and in Figs.
2 and 3 (postbuckling curves), the influence of fraction volume exponent and the assumed
value of temperature increment is clearly visible. For greater values of q (e.g. q=10) the
plate ability to sustain the compressive load at given T is several times smaller than for a
plate containing more ceramics (e.g. q=0.5). As it can be seen the growth of temperature
increment results in the decrease of compressive load.
Table 2. Values of bifurcational stress xo (eq.17)
xo
[MPa]
T[K]
a/h = 60
a/h = 80
20
40
295.0
253.0
93.40
-
0.5
20
40
158.61
96.50
62.04
-
1.0
20
40
117.50
61.22
41.47
-
10
20
40
54.20
24.63
17.55
-
20
40
23.15
-
2.73
-
1800
1600
q=0.5
q=1
q=10
1400
max [MPa]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
f
Fig. 2.
Postbuckling curves for FG plates of a/h=60 and T=40K
378
3.0

It should be mentioned that equations (17) and (18) enable to find out the values of
Tcr and postbuckling curves as a function of uniform temperature rise versus
nondimensional maximal deflection f* at assumed value of compressive stress x
(see [15]).
1600
1400
a/h=60, T = 20K
a/h=60, T = 40K
a/h=80, T = 20K
max [MPa]
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Fig. 3.
Postbuckling curves for FG plates (q = 1) of a/h=60 (T=20K, 40K) and a/h=80

(T=20K)
5. DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF FG PLATE SUBJECTED TO PULSE COMPRESSIVE

LOAD AND CONSTANT UNIFORM TEMPERTURE RISE
For plates and plate structures, it is structures with stable postbuckling path, opposite
to the static loading the bifurcational dynamic buckling load does not exist. The dynamic
buckling is considered as a result of an in-plane load which involves rapid deflections
growth of plate/walls, which is/are initially not flat but imperfect. It has been proved that
for pulses of short duration the structure can withstand the dynamic loading magnitude
much greater than the static one. The dynamic pulse buckling occurs for pulses of
intermediate amplitude and duration close to the period of fundamental natural flexural
vibration. Due to lack of bifurcation load it is necessary to define a critical load on the
basis of an assumed dynamic buckling criterion. In most publications the BudianskyHutchinson criterion is applied to determine the dynamic critical load. It states that the
amplitude of pulse load which at given duration causes the dynamic buckling.
In their previous work [7] the authors presented the dynamic buckling analysis of
thin FG rectangular plates, subjected to in plane compressive pulse loading.
The boundary conditions in dynamic buckling analysis are assumed likewise in the
previous static considerations i.e., all plate edges are simply supported. The plate is
subjected to in-plane compressive pulse load of rectangular shape, of duration Tp equal to
T0 the period of fundamental flexural vibrations of considered FG plate and
simultaneously there is under one of two thermal environmental conditions. The first one
379

is define as T=20K and next T=40K, following those of static solution. The thermal
condition T=0K solution compared with results of work [7] can be treated as validation
procedure. Beside sets of thermal environmental conditions the dynamic pulse load was
referred to two reference planes distinguish by condition (8).
5.1 FEM MODEL OF METAL-CERAMIC PLATE
The numerical simulations and appropriate calculations have been conducted using
the finite element software ANSYS. The finite element SHELL181 has been used for
discretisation of created multi-layered composite plate model. This is four nodes element
with six degrees of freedom at each. It is suitable for analyzing geometrically nonlinear
problems and modelling of different material properties. Its option Shell SectionType
gives a possibility of defining a multi-layered cross-section, their thickness, number of
integration points across each layer thickness and of introducing different material
properties for separate layer. This approach of modelling FG plate as multi-layered one is
common in FEM buckling analysis [7], [18]. However, there are known 3D approaches
where the plate is modelled with application of solid finite elements with midside nodes
[9].
The finite element SHELL181 is defined with respect to First Order Shear
Deformation Theory what is in discrepancy with applied in analytical solution Classical
Laminate Plate Theory. However for considered plate width to thickness ratio i.e.
a / h = 60 and a / h = 80 the differences are negligible.
ceramic
metal
Fig. 4. Plate multi-layered cross-section meshing
Preliminary considerations allowed to establish the mesh density, number of layers

across the thickness of FG plate in order to obtain converged solution within acceptable
time of computations. This analysis has shown that for a square plate the optimal
discretisation corresponds to division into 5050 elements of uniform mesh and 20 layers
cross-section. The time step in applied Newmark time integration procedure has been
taken as 1/50 of the period of plate fundamental natural vibration.
The boundary conditions following the analytical solution with assumption of simply
support conditions, in finite element modelled were obtained through appropriate
displacements constrains applied to nodes located at plate edges. Additionally, to achieve
rectilinear shape of all edges translations normal to adequate edge of all its nodes were
coupled.
380

The dynamic pulse buckling occurs for pulses of intermediate amplitude and
duration close to the period of fundamental natural flexural vibration. However, it should
be emphasized that opposite to the static loading, the dynamic buckling only occurs for
imperfect structure, the bifurcational dynamic buckling load does not exist. Therefore, it
is necessary to define this critical load on the basis of an assumed dynamic buckling
criterion. In most publications the Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion [6] is applied to
determine the dynamic critical load that is the amplitude of pulse load, which at given
duration causes the dynamic buckling. Dynamic buckling criterion of BudianskyHutchinson states that: dynamic stability loss occurs, when the maximal plate deflection
grows rapidly with the small variation of the load amplitude.
Its modified version was employed for thermal buckling analysis as well [14], where
author used it to determine the buckling temperature.
The plate was subjected to uniform temperature rise constant in time and
simultaneously was dynamically loaded by compression pulse of finite duration. Similarly
as in static analysis material properties of both constituents of functionally graded plate
were defined as temperature independent. Only their thermal expansion features were
input into computational data.
The influence of thermal environmental condition with interaction of pulse loading
on the dynamic response of FG square plate was considered. The numerical results of this
analysis will be presented during the Symposium session.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education in Poland
National Science Centre Grant No. 2011/01/B/ST8/07441.
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[2]
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[4]
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[6]
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[8]
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Applied Mechanics Review, 60, 2007, 195-216.
Bodaghi M., Saidi A.R., Levy-type solution for buckling analysis of thick functionally
graded rectangular plates based on the higher-order shear deformation plate theory,
Applied Mathematical Modeling, 34, 2010, 3659-3673.
Javaheri R., Eslami M.R., Thermal buckling of functionally graded plates basing on higher
order theory, Journal of Thermal Stresses, 25, 2002, 603-625
Jones R. M., Mechanics of Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, London 1999.
Kolakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K. (eds), Selected problems of instabillities in
composite structures, A Series of Monographs, Lodz, 1995.
Kowal-Michalska K. (ed.), Dynamic stability of composite plate structures, (in Polish Stateczno dynamiczna pytowych konstrukcji kompozytowych), WNT, Warsaw, 2007.
K. Kowal-Michalska, R. J. Mania Static and dynamic buckling of FGM plates, chapter
6, 131-151 in M. Krlak, R. J. Mania (eds.), Statics, dynamics and stability of structures,
Vol. 1, ,,Stability of Thin-Walled Plate Structure, A Series of Monographs, Technical
University of Lodz, Lodz 2011.
Krlak M. (ed.), Postbuckling states and ultimate load of thin-walled girders (in Polish Stany zakrytyczne i nono graniczna cienkociennych dwigarw o cianach paskich),
PWN, Warszawa-odz, 1990.
381

[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
Kyung-Su Na, Ji-Hwan Kim, Thermal postbuckling investigations of functionally graded

plates using 3-D finite element method, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 42, 2006,
pp. 749-756.
Naderi A., Saidi A.R., On pre-buckling configuration of functionally graded Mindlin
rectangular plates, Mechanics Research Com., 37, 2010, 535-538.
Prakash T., Singha M.K., Ganapathi M., Thermal postbuckling analysis of FGM skew
plates, Engineering Structures, 30, 2008, 22-32.
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663-684.
Shen H-S., Functionally Graded Materials - Nonlinear analysis of plates and shells, CRC
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Shariyat M., Thermal buckling analysis of rectangular composite plates with temperaturedependent properties based on a layerwise theory, Thin-Walled Structures, 45, 2007, pp.
439-452.
Tung H-V., Duc N-D.: Nonlinear analysis of stability for functionally graded plates under
mechanical and thermal loads, Composite Structures, 92, 5, 2010, 1184-1191.
Tsung-Lin Wu, Shukla K.K., Jin H. Huang, Post-buckling analysis of functionally graded
rectangular plates, Composite Structures, 81, 2007, 1-10.
Tylikowski A., Dynamic stability of functionally graded plate under in-plane compression,
Mathematical Problems in Engineering, 2005-4, 2005, 411-424.
Zhang Y.X., Yang C.H., Recent developments in finite elements analysis for laminated
composite plates, Composite Structures, 88, 2009, pp. 147-157.
Zhou D-G, Zhou Y-H., A theoretical analysis of FGM thin plate based on physical neutral
surface, Computational Material Science, 44, 2008, 716-720.
382
THE STATIC RESONANCE EFFECT IN PROBLEMS OF

AXIAL COMPRESSION OF THE CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
WITH INITIAL GEOMETRICAL IMPERFECTIONS
V.L. KRASOVSKY, M.V. KOLESNIKOV
The Prydniprovsk State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Chernyshevskogo 24-a, 49000, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
R. SCHMIDT
RWTH Aachen University, Institute of General Mechanics
Templergraben 64, D-52056 Aachen, Germany
The numerical analysis of geometrically nonlinear deformation and buckling of the

axially compressed elastic circular cylindrical shells with initial geometrical
imperfections is presented. Imperfections are periodical in circumference direction.
The static resonance effect is also found out for this problem. It consists in the
increase of bending deformations and decrease of buckling load when the number
of imperfections in circumferential direction corresponds to the first transversal
eigenvibration mode of the shell.
1. INTRODUCTION
An important number of works is dedicated to the research of the initial geometrical
imperfections influence on the buckling load of axially compressed cylindrical shells
[1-4]. Nowadays, one of the most developed methods [5, 6], elaborated within the finite
element method procedure (FEM) is Stochastic Finite Element Method (SFEM). This
method is based on the Monte Carlo approach implemented in FEM in order to take in
account random initial imperfections. But the realization of SFEM needs to include
several statistics factors, which are not always available. That is why in the further
research there was developed a conception of worth cases [7, 8].
Taking this approach into account the effect of static resonance, discovered in the
experimental research of the circular cylindrical shells undergoing periodical in
circumferential strain-stress state [9, 10], is of our interest.
This effect consists in the increase of bending deformations and decrease of the
buckling load when the number of imperfections in circumferential direction corresponds
to the first transversal eigenvibration mode of the shell. Theoretical confirmation of this
effect existence is obtained for the case of the non-uniform axial compression of the
cylindrical shell in numerical research realized in ANSYS [9, 10]. This effect was found
out only by nonlinear solution. The same effect was discovered in linear bifurcation
solution for imperfect conical shells undergoing external pressure loading [9, 10].
The aim of the present work consists in the numerical linear and nonlinear research
of the influence of periodicity number of initial imperfections on the deformation and
buckling of axially loaded elastic circular cylindrical shells.
383

2. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE
The numerical analysis is carried out in ANSYS mechanical software. Numerical
research is realized on shells models with following geometrical characteristics: diameter
2R=143 mm; thickness h=0.24 mm (R/h=300); relative length L/R=0.7 and L/R=2.0.
Material properties corresponded to the experiment: Young modulus =195 GPa, Poisson
ration =0.3, material density =7850 kg/m3. There was executed geometrically linear
and nonlinear solution for the perfect and imperfect shell. For the perfect shell there was
also realized a dynamical linear solution with eigenvibration modes detection. The
bifurcation buckling solution (Ncr) is realized with linear prestress state account.
Geometrically nonlinear deformation solution is carried out until the limit force value
( N lim ) is achieved.
Boundary conditions correspond to the hinge support: the radial and tangent
displacements are limited on the entire circumference. Longitudinal shell displacements
are limited in the transversal plane of symmetry of the shell in one point (u = 0).
In all cases the longitudinal initial imperfection form is closed to the half of the
sinusoid line:
W W0 sin
x
L
In circumferential direction the imperfections form could also be described as a

sinusoid:
W W0 sin
pimp y
R
In function of the relative length L/R shells are grouped in two series: first series
(short shells, L/R = 0.7) and second series (long shells, L/R = 2). For all shells the initial
imperfections amplitude is equal to W0=1.0h.
Fig. 1 presents described form in circumferential (a) and longitudinal (b) amplitude
sections of the shell.
For the FE shell model generation there is used standard ANSYS FE library element
SHELL 281. This element is intended to be used for the shells with small and moderate
thickness.
The FE shell model is created in two steps. At first, a FE mesh is mapped on the
surface of the ideal cylindrical shell. Every element is square in plan. The average
element edge size is 4 mm. So the number of elements for the long (L/R = 2.0) shell is
about 6500 and for the short one (L/R = 0.7) is 1600. Initial element size is defined by the
size of one half-wave of the axisymmetrical solution buckling mode of the considered
shell:
ncl 1.728 Rh 7.16 mm.
So in the numerical experiment there are at least 4 element nodes on one half-wave.
384

On the second step one realized a linear bifurcation solution for shells with the same
geometry (L and R) and different thickness h. Due to the thickness variations we obtained
several deformed shell models with one half-wave in length and different number of
imperfections waves in the circumferential direction (Fig. 1 c-e).
Finally, by the standard FE procedure implemented in ANSYS, the initial perfect
mesh is deformed with pre-defined amplitude W0 = 1.0h according to the obtained
buckling modes.
a
Fig. 1. Initial imperfections form in circumferential (a) and longitudinal (b) amplitude
sections. Different shell buckling modes that correspond to the different shell
thickness pimp = 3 (c),7 (d),12 (e)
3. RESEARCH RESULTS
The main research results are relations between the relative amplitude of radial
displacements ( W ) and relative axial compression value ( N ) as well as relations
between the relative critical ( N cr ) and limit ( N lim ) compressive loads and number of
initial imperfections in circumferential direction (pimp).
Here: W W / h ; N N / N ; N
compressive force:
i
cl
N cl
cl
is a classical value of critical axial
2Eh 2
3(1 2 )
In Fig. 2 one can find curves N W for shells of first () and second (b) series.
Numbers on graphs correspond to the initial imperfection number pimp. In Fig. 3 one can
385

find dependence on N cr pimp and N lim pimp for series 1 () and 2 (b). White
rhombs correspond to the linear bifurcation solution N cr .
Fig.2. Dependence on N W for shells series 1 () and 2 (b)
Black squares correspond respectively to the geometrically non-linear solution

results. White circles represent axial load values of the perfect cylindrical shell.
Fig.3.
Dependence on N
cr
pimp and N
lim
pimp for shells series 1 () and 2 (b)
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The considered type of initial imperfections is not the most dangerous one. But this
imperfection is proper for the production technology (in particular for the shell with
cl
welded longitudinal joints). Thus, maximal buckling load decrease is of 0.43 N . At the
same time buckling load is very sensitive to the imperfection number pimp, particularly
the limit load N lim , which is the dangerous load in all ranges of pimp values. Moreover,
one can distinguish for shells series 1 and 2 minimal axial limit load values realized for
pimp = 11 and 7 (Fig. 3). Linear dynamical solution results have proved that exactly this
386

number of imperfections corresponds to the number of waves in circumferential direction
of the fist eigenmode of the transverse vibration.
From the other side, maximal pre-critical deformations also characterize this
imperfections number and they are very different even in comparison with deformations
of shells with pimp closed to the discussed values.
In general, the entire aforementioned are the conclusive evidence of the existence of
the effect of static resonance for circular cylindrical shells with periodical in
circumferential direction strain-stress state. The comparison of pre-critical shell
deformation modes with eigenvibration modes is given in Fig. 4. One can see that the
minimum of limit load is realized for the case of shell deformation similar to the
eigenvibration mode.
It is necessary to note that the static resonance is distinct only for geometrically
non-linear solution. In the case of linear solution, which is not the determining one for the
shells of the first series one can find a minimal load N cr displacement on one to the
increasing direction.
a
Fig. 4. Pre-critical buckling forms for shells series 1 () and 2 (c) and resonance
eigenvibration forms of perfect shells for 1(b) and 2 (d) shell series
5. CONCLUSION
The research of the influence on axially compressed cylindrical shells buckling
loads of the periodicity number of initial imperfections revealed once again the existence
of the static resonance effect. From the other side there has been proved that FE
procedure is a highly effective method for different non-linear buckling problems which
have periodically non-uniform strain-stress nature.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
387

REFERENCES
[1]
Koiter W.T., Purpose and achievements of research in elastic stability. WTHD nr 8. 1968,
Delft, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Technological University, III, 1968, 20 p.
[2] Long-Yuan L., Influence of loading imperfections on the stability of an axially compressed
cylindrical shell, Thin-Walled Structures, 1990, 10(3), pp. 215-220.
[3] Teng J.G. and Rotter J.M., Elastic-plastic large deflection analysis of axisymmetric shells,
Computers & Structures, 1989, 31(2), pp. 211-233.
[4] .. .., , , Moscow, 1978.
[5] Isaac E., Uncertain buckling: its past, present and future, Int. J. of Solids and Structures,
2000, 37(4647), pp. 6869-6889.
[6] Papadopoulos V., Papadrakakis M., The effect of material and thickness variability on the
buckling load of shells with random initial imperfections, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, 2005, 194(1216), pp. 1405-1426.
[7] Deml M., Wunderlich W., Direct evaluation of the "worst" imperfection shape in shell
buckling, Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 1997, 149(1-4), pp.
201-222.
[8] Lindgaard E., Lund E., Rasmussen K., Nonlinear buckling optimization of composite
structures considering "worst" shape imperfections, Int. J. of Solids and Structures, 2010,
47(22-23), pp. 3186-3202.
[9] .., .., ., " "
(
), Theoretical Foundations of Civil Engineering, Warsaw, 2008,
No 16, pp. 696-715.
[10] Krasovsky V., Effect of a Static resonance in elastic thin-walled cylinders. Abstracts
Book and CD-ROM Proceedings, in 21st Int. Congress of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics, Warsaw, IPPT PAN, 2004.
388
INFLUENCE OF MANNER OF APPLYING AXIAL

COMPRESSION ON THE BEHAVIOUR
OF A CYLINDRICAL SHELL
UNDER LOCAL ACTION
V.L. KRASOVSKY, V.A. MARCHENKO
The Prydniprovsk State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Chernyshevskogo 24-a, 49000, Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine
R. SCHMIDT
RWTH Aachen University, Institute of General Mechanics
The numerical comparative analysis of geometrically nonlinear deformation and

buckling of elastic circular cylindrical shell undergoing the local transversal
kinematical action and longitudinal compression is presented. There are analyzed
three combinations of boundary conditions and two primary load types (force or
kinematical action). It was established that the behaviour of shell depends
principally on primary load character and conditions that restrict the out-of-plane
edge displacements.
1. PRIOR ART AND THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH

Paper [1] deals with the stability of longitudinally compressed elastic circular
cylinders under quasi-static transversal loading. The research was based on the local postcritical modes analysis [2] based on the geometrical approach of Pogorelov shell theory
[3]. Four types of load application were analyzed. These variants are represented in this
work in Fig. 1. Scheme (variant) in the Fig. 1a corresponds to the case of force
longitudinal loading (dead weight) with allowed rotation of the shell edges. Scheme in
Fig. 1b corresponds to the case of kinematic (rigid) compression with allowable free
rotation of the shell edges too. Schemes in Fig. 1c, 1d correspond to the kinematic and
force loading, but the rotation of the shell edges plane was totally restricted. Also in [1]
the influence of the main load scheme on the minimal value of the longitudinal critical
force value was researched, leading to the transition to the post-critical one dent shell
buckling mode (low local critical load - N+, [4]). Energy barrier E which needs to be
overcome to pass into the local post-critical configuration was also studied. During the
research it was found out that minimal and maximal values of N+ and E correspond to the
schemes 1 and 4 respectively, but the difference between them is 3.7% for the maximal
value and 2.2% for the minimal one. In the same paper there were established force and
kinematic barriers that were in good agreement with the experimental data.
In papers [5-6] one can find the research of FE procedure performed in ANSYS
mechanical software, applied to the described problems comparing with experiments [1,
7] and numerical solution [1] results. There was realized a new (in comparison with [1])
389

type of main load application (Fig. 1d). According to this variant the compressive force
was applied to the shell edges as uniformly distributed load along the line in
circumferential direction. The radial and tangent displacements were restricted, but there
was not any restriction on the longitudinal one. Kinematical and force barriers of
transition to the post-critical mode obtained by numerical solution appeared to be closer
to the experimental results. However, in contrast to the analytical calculation based on the
model [1] approaching the experiment from below, the FE solution approached the
experiment from above. Due to the high sensibility of the thin-walled shells to the
imperfections it seems to be reasonable to think that FE model is preferable. At the same
time (and its the most important), for this load application type, the deformation of the
shell differed from the experimental data [1, 7] as well as from analytical solution. In
particular, the dependences deflexion - longitudinal force parameter did not allow to
estimate in the wide range of main load value the low local buckling compressive load
value N+.
The aim of the present work is to research (using ANSYS) within the common
approach the deformation and buckling of longitudinally compressed elastic circular
cylindrical shell, in the area of local transversal kinematical quasi-static loading with
different types of load application as well as with different main load type (schemes in
Fig. 1).
2. RESEARCH TECHNIQUE
In order to compare the results the numerical solution is carried out on the shell
models witch correspond to the experiments [1, 7]. Shell diameter is 2R = 86 mm;
thickness h = 0.271 mm (R/h=150); length ratio L/R = 2.0. Material properties
corresponded to the isotropic steel band 189 (young modulus =195 GPa, Poisson
ration = 0.3, yield strength 02 = 800 MP).
Transversal action in every case is realized in the middle section of the shell length.
The order of the load application corresponds to the typical case [5-6]: at first,
according to the scheme (Fig. 1) there is applied the main axial load until the datum N0,
then the increasing from zero transversal kinematical action (radial displacement W
directed positively inside the shell).
For the FE shell model we used the ANSYS library shell element SHELL 281.
SHELL 281 is suitable for analysis of thin to moderately-thick shell structures. This
element has eight nodes with six degrees of freedom at each node: in the direction of X,
Y, and Z axes, and rotations around the X, Y, and Z-axes. SHELL 281 is well-suited for
linear, large rotation and large strain nonlinear applications.
Shell model mesh is constructed with standard software options. The size of square
element is 2 mm (total number of elements 5984). This size is chosen because of the high
intensity of the shell form variation in the local action area. The mesh is more dens near
the shell edges.
In every case the longitudinal displacement restriction (ANSYS notation uz=0) is
applied to the nodes situated on circumference of the middle transversal section of the
shell (transversal symmetry plan).
Bellow we present the schemes of main longitudinal load application:
390

Scheme 1 (Fig. 1) - force load with edge plane rotation. Shell edges are hinged to
rigid circular cylinders 3 mm high. Plane displacements , Y (ux=0, uy=0) are
completely limited, but the rotation around , Y, Z remains possible. By particular
software procedure there is find a point on the disk surface witch corresponds to the shell
axis. Longitudinal load N0 is applied at this point.
Scheme 2 (Fig. 1b) - kinematical load with edge plane rotation. The only difference
with scheme 1 consists in the displacement load application Z0. Relation between the
longitudinal load N0 and Z0 value is determined by preliminary calculations of the shell
undergoing the force load.
Scheme 3 (fig.1, c) - force load without edge plane rotation. This scheme differs
from scheme 1 by additional rotation restriction of the points, situated on the external
edges of rigid discs (ux=0, uy=0). This condition completely restricted edges rotation due
to the local action.
Scheme 4 (Fig. 1d) - kinematical load without edge plane rotation. Scheme 4 differs
from scheme 3 by the longitudinal displacement application Z0 instead of axial force.
Relation between the longitudinal load N0 and Z0 value is determined by preliminary
calculations of the shell undergoing the force load.
Scheme 5 (Fig. 1e) - force loading by uniformly distributed load. There is no any
rigid disk on shell edges. Radial and tangent displacement are restricted at each node on
the both shell edges (ux=0, uy=0), but the rotation angles are not restricted. Shell
compression is realized by uniformly distributed in circumferential direction longitudinal
traction with resultant force N0.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 1. Loading schemes of the shell 1-5 (-, respectively)
Shell models with (a) or without (b) rigid disks are represented in Fig. 2.
Loading process is performed within solution process of the geometrically nonlinear
shell deformation by two load substeps. On the first substep the main load N0 is applied to
the shell model in incremental mode (the increment of the load is preliminary defined)
until the value N0. The kinematical action W is applied on the second substep in
incremental mode as well. The reaction of the shell on the action load (shear force value
Q) is observed throughout the entire loading process. This allows us to build for the fixed
N0 value the dependence of shear force via radial shell displacement.
391

3. NUMERICAL SOLUTION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The relative linear buckling force and limit compressive force values for the
discussed shell models undergoing only the axial loading are respectively: N cr =1.005
and N lim = 1.003 (buckling forms are represented in Fig. 2e-2f).
i
i
cl
Here N N / N , where N cl is the classical value of critical axial compressing
force
2 E h2
N cl
3 (1 2 )
The dependence W is the main result of the present work. These dependences
are obtained for all load schemes with different values of the axial load N0. Here is a
parameter of the shear force Q (shell reaction on the transversal action),
Q
Eh
R
;
h
W =W/h is the amplitude of the relative displacement.
Typical curves W for considered loading schemes are represented in Fig. 3

(a - loading scheme, b - scheme 4, c - scheme 5). Dependences W for the second
and third scheme are in qualitative agreement with dependences represented in Fig. 3a,
3b.
a
Fig. 2.
FE shell models (a, b), linear bifurcational buckling (c, ) and geometrically
nonlinear deformation forms (d, f) that correspond to the numerical solution of
axially compressed shells without any actions for loading schemes 1-4 (, d),
and scheme 5 (, f)
Dependences W corresponding to the loading schemes 1-4 reflect the

qualitative behaviour of longitudinally compressed shells with local transversal actions
revealed in experimental studies [1, 4, 7]. According to this research the subsequent
increase of the kinematical action with the presence of main load N0, that is lower than
(N0<N+), leads to the local deformation in the action zone. If the action is removed the
shells restore their initial form. This behaviour is completely reflected in numerical
solution. For the case N0=N+, when W touches the axe of abscises but do not
intersect it, one can observe the local post-critical dent appearance. This dent remains
even after the transversal action is removed. Values of the low local critical load for
loading schemes 1-4 are N = 0.487; 0.499; 0.510; 0.520, respectively.
392

If N0>N+ the equilibrium path intersects the axis of abscissas on the flowing interval
( W ). In this case, when = 0, the shell reaction on the local kinematical action changes
its direction to the opposite. It means that the shell pulls the action object to the shell
centre. If the shell is not attached to this object, one can observe a separation from this
object with the sharp increase of radial displacements. The shell will pass to the postcritical form. This is a very particular state and the shell behaviour in this case depends
on the main load N0 value. Two different cases of the shell behaviour can be
distinguished.
)
b)
Fig. 3. Dependences W for shells, loaded by schemes 1 (), 4 (b) and 5 (c)
For the first case of the main load value N0 is closed to N+ and if the shell is not
attached to the action object a dent by snap will transform in one post-critical dent. This
behaviour was observed in the experiment [4, 7]. The same snap is observed in numerical
solution. Thus, for the forth loading scheme (Fig. 3b) an equilibrium path 5 ( N 0 =0.6)
intersects on the descending interval the axis of abscissas for W =2. The ascending part
393

of this curve intersects the axis for W =6.8. It is obvious that in this case the snap to the
post-critical dent will occur when the action parameter will achieve W =2 and the one
local post-critical dent will have the amplitude equal to W =6.8.
It should be noted that the displacement action value that corresponds to = 0 on the
descending part of equilibrium path is a kinematical barrier ( W ) and the maximal value
of the shear force parameter is the force barrier (+). Both barriers are obtained for the
main load value N 0 which should be considered as a buckling load.
The second case occurs for big values of the main load N0. There was observe in
physical experiment [1, 4, 7] a particular shell behaviour, when for the load value that is
higher than so called upper local load (N+) [4] the shell undergoing local kinematical
action snaps to the total buckling form (with several post-critical dents). In the present
numerical experiment this effect corresponds to the following behaviour. Equilibrium
curves in Fig. 3b, for the main load value N 0 0.7 are not completed because of the
absence of the ascending part. The curves 5-7 for the first loading scheme have the
similar form (Fig. 3a). This incomplete form occurs in the case of non-converged
solution. This fact should be treated as an absence of the post-critical forms with one dent
in this domain of the main load. Differently speaking, the local dent transformation leads
to the total buckling forms and not to the local one. This is also proved by the
visualization of the shell deformation process. On the load substep corresponding to the
last converged solution one can observe several dents instead of one. This fact means that
with FE software ANSYS, one can find not only the N+ value, but also the upper local
buckling load N+. In other words one can establish the domain of the stable local postcritical configuration with one dent. Upper local load values for load schemes 1-4 are
N =0.624; 0.560; 0.616; 0.623.
For the fifth load application scheme dependences W (Fig. 3) are
qualitatively different from previous cases (Fig. 3a-3b). Here for all N0 values closed to
zero the reaction parameter grows with the increase of the kinematical action W until
achieves + value, than it decrease to 0 and change its sign. Equilibrium paths remain
descending and negative until the solution becomes unconverged. At the same time
values corresponding to the unconverged solution decrease with the increase of the main
load N0.
The solution end has two possibilities. If the main load is N00.5 before critical
local, deformation leads to the overall buckling form and shell distraction. Visualization
of the process provides a configuration with one dent surrounded by several smaller
dents.
For low main load values the process ends by the appearance of one big dent which
remains after the action. Bearing capacity of the shell in this case is not exhausted.
The main reason of the difference between shells behaviour loaded by fifth or 1-4
schemes is the out-of-plane edge displacement, which is not allowed for the scheme 1-4.
In Fig. 4 one can see upper edge forms for scheme 1-2 (a), 3-4 (b) and 5 (c).
We also presented in Fig. 4 force (d) and kinematic (e) barriers for all load
application types. One can see that the minimum values are realized for the fifth scheme.
Force barriers for main load scheme 1-4 are the same. Kinematical barriers are almost the
394

same for N0>0.6 in the case of 1-4 load scheme and if N0>0.7 they coincide for all main
load application cases.
Experimental values [1, 7] of kinematical barriers are represented in Fig. 4e. Here,
black dots correspond to the overall buckling and white dots are for the local form. Black
squares correspond to the overall buckling form with one dent, i.e. to the upper local
critical load N .
)
d)
e)
b)
Fig. 4. Upper edge shapes for the main load application scheme 1-2 (a), 3-4 (b) 5 (c), as
well as force (d) and kinematic (e) barriers
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. The numerical analysis of geometrically nonlinear deformation and buckling of
longitudinally compressed circular cylindrical shells under local kinematical loading is
performed in ANSYS mechanical software. This analysis is done for five different
variants (schemes) of axial load application. We considered two types of axial load: force
(schemes 1, 3, 5) and kinematic (schemes 2, 4) with three different types of shell edges
fixation. In two of three cases the shell edges are hinged to a rigid disk. The main load
there is applied to the disk. The out-of-plane rotation is allowed to scheme 1 and 2. For
schemes 3 and 4 the out-of-plane rotation of rigid disks is fixed and remains fixed during
the non-uniform in circumferential direction shell deformation. In third case the radial ant
tangential displacements are restricted on the upper and lower edge of the shell
(scheme 5).
2. The deformation and buckling solution results corresponding to the load schemes
1-4 are in good qualitative correspondence with experimental data for shell behaviour.
The lower N and upper N local critical load are equal, respectively, for schemes 1-4
N =0.487; 0.499; 0.510; 0.520 and N =0.624; 0.560; 0.616; 0.623. These results are
about 0.1 N cl higher than same experimental values. But, at the same time, they are close
enough to the area of the existence of the post-buckling mode with one dent. This area
was revealed in [9] by numerical variation iterative solution methods of two dimension
nonlinear boundary problems and it is limited by (0.49-0.7) of N cl .
3. Kinematical and force barriers obtained by numerical solution are almost common
for schemes 1-4 and provide the approximation from above to the physical experiment.
395

4. It is found out that the qualitative difference in shell behaviour loaded by scheme
5 caused by possible nodal out-of-plane displacements, which are not applicable for
schemes 1-4. Scheme 5 also has differences in general parameters of the deformation and
buckling process of the shell under transversal quasi-static loading.
5. FE procedure, implemented in ANSYS software is an extremely effective tool for
analysis of complex problems of thin shells theory.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
.., .., ..
//.
. . -1978. - 6. -.96-100.
.., .., ..
//. . -1975. -11,
11. -.24-30.
.. . .: , 1967. -280 .

/.., .., .. .
//. . . -1969. - 4. -.158-161.
Krasovsky V.L., Marchenko V.A, Kolesnikov M.V. Deforming and buckling of axially
compressed cylindrical shells under local impacts in numerical simulation and experiments
//Stability of Structures, XII-th Symposium. -Zakopane, 2009. -P.231-238.
Krasovsky V., Marchenko V., Schmidt R. Deforming and buckling of axially compressed
cylindrical shells with local loaded in numerical simulation and experiments //Thin-Walled
Structures. -2011. -49. -P.576-580.
.., ..

//. IX . . . -.: ,
1975. -.377-380.
..
(Theoretical foundations of civil engineering) Warsaw. -2002. - 10. V.2. -.696-715.
..
/. . .-. . -., 2006. 149 .
396
A NEW APPROACH TO DYNAMIC BUCKLING LOAD

ESTIMATION FOR PLATE STRUCTURES
T. KUBIAK, K. KOWAL-MICHALSKA
In the paper the authors propose to estimate the dynamic buckling load relatively to
static buckling load for imperfect plates, therefore the dynamic load factor DLF* is
introduced as a ratio of pulse load amplitude and the static buckling load for
imperfect plates. The calculations have been made to check how the way of
dynamic load factor determination influences the critical amplitude of pulse load
leading to dynamic buckling. The results for composite plate loaded by compressive
pulse load of different durations for different imperfection amplitude are presented
in figures and discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The problem of dynamic buckling of thin walled structures such as shells and plates
subjected to in-plane pulse loading has been widely investigated starting from sixties of
previous century (see e.g. works [2], [11], [13]). These pulse loads may be of various
durations and shapes (rectangular, sinusoidal, triangular, trapezoidal, etc.) being
approximations of real load courses. Depending on the so-called pulse intensity
different phenomena may occur impact for pulses of high amplitudes and durations in
range of microseconds or quasi-static behaviour if amplitude is low and duration is twice
of period of fundamental natural vibrations. For pulses of intermediate intensity
(amplitudes in range of static buckling load and durations close to one half or one of
period of fundamental natural vibrations) the phenomenon of dynamic buckling occurs. It
is known that at pulse loads of short duration (in range of milliseconds) the dynamic
structure carrying capacity is larger than static one. However it should be remembered
that for plate structure, in contrary to the static behaviour, the bifurcation dynamic load
does not exist. The phenomenon of dynamic buckling takes place only for initially
imperfect structures. Initial imperfections magnitude in connection with pulse shape and
its duration are crucial parameters in dynamic buckling load estimation [6], [7].
Dynamic buckling load is usually determined on the basis of dynamic buckling
criterion that oneself seems to be problematic. Commonly used Budiansky-RothHutchinson criterion [1] was formulated for structures having limit point or unstable
postbifurcation path. Its application to plate structure behaviour, with stable postbuckling
path, is based rather on accepted practice. Therefore in subject literature one can find a lot
of stability criteria - most of them are based on state of displacements or state of stresses.
The most popular are Volmir criterion [13] and Budiansky-Hutchinson [3] criterion.
Some degree of uncertainty of all mentioned criteria brought the researches of new
dynamic stability criteria basing on Jacobian matrix eigenvalues analysis (see Kubiak [8])
or applying phase portraits criterion (see Teter [12]).
397

In most papers the results of calculations are presented as the relations between
maximal dimensionless dynamic defection of a structure and ratio of pulse amplitude
versus static buckling load determined for perfect structure (i.e. bifurcation load). In
literature, following Budiansky and Hutchinson, the quotient of pulse amplitude and static
bucking load is termed as Dynamic Load Factor (DLF). The critical value of DLF is
determined on the assumed dynamic buckling criterion. It can be easily seen that for very
small imperfections the dynamic buckling load determined on the basis of BudianskyHutchinson criterion is greater than static one and in some range of loads the dynamic
deflections are smaller than static ones. For larger values of imperfections the character of
curves changes (it becomes similar to static course) and dynamic buckling load is less
than static one for a perfect plate.
Therefore the question arises - should the buckling load of imperfect structure be
determined relatively to the static critical load of a perfect structure as it is commonly
assumed? Perhaps the information of dynamic load carrying capacity would be more
evident with regard to static buckling load determined for imperfect structure.
In this paper the authors propose to estimate the dynamic buckling load relatively to
static buckling load for imperfect plates, therefore the dynamic load factor DLF* is
introduced as a ratio of pulse load amplitude and the static buckling load for imperfect
plates. The calculations have been made to check how the way of DLF determination
influences the critical amplitude of pulse load leading to dynamic buckling.
2. METHOD OF SOLUTION
A non-linear stability problem has been solved by means of the Koiters asymptotic
theory [5]. The displacement field U , and sectional force field N have been expanded
into the power series with respect to the parameter , - the buckling linear eigenvector
amplitude (normalised with the equality condition between the maximum deflection and
the thickness of the first plate).
U U ( 0 ) iU ( i ) i jU ( ij ) ...
N N ( 0 ) i N ( i ) i j N ( ij ) ...
(1)
It was assumed that the dimensionless amplitude of the initial deflections

(imperfections) corresponding to the considered buckling mode (for s-th buckling mode)
is:
U s*U ( i ) .
(2)
By substituting expansions (1) into equations of equilibrium with neglected inertia
terms (static buckling problem) and boundary conditions, the boundary problem of the
zero (superscript (0) in Equations (1) and further), first (superscript (i)) and second
(superscript (ij)) order has been obtained [8], [9]. The zero approximation describes the
prebuckling state, whereas the first order approximation allows for determination of
critical loads and the buckling modes corresponding to them, taking into account
minimisation with respect to the number of half-waves m in the lengthwise direction. The
second order approximation is reduced to a linear system of differential heterogeneous
398

equations, which right-hand sides depend on the force field and the first order
displacements only.
Having found the solutions to the first and second order of the boundary problem,
the coefficients aijs, bijks have been determined [8]:
aijs
( i ) * L11( U( j ) , U( s ) ) 0.5( s ) * L11( U( i ) , U( j ) )

s ( 0 ) * L2 ( U( s ) )
,
(3)
bijks
(i )
* L11( U
( jk )
,U
(s)
(0)
( ij )
* L2 ( U
* L11( U
(s)
(k )
,U
(s)
where: s - is the critical load corresponding to the s-th mode, L11 is the bilinear operator,
L2 is the quadratic operator and (i), (ij) are the stress field tensors in the first and second
order.
The postbuckling static equilibrium paths for coupled buckling can be described by
the equation:
1 s aijs i j bijks i j k s* ; (s = 1,, N),

(4)

s
s
which for the uncoupled problem have the form:

2
3
*
1
(5)
a111 b1111
cr
cr
where cr is the critical load value.

When the equilibrium path is symmetrical (a111 = 0) the eq. (5) have the form:

3
*
1
(6)
b1111
cr
cr
In a special case, i.e. for the so-called ideal structure without initial imperfections
(*=0) the postbuckling equilibrium path is defined by the equation:
1 b1111 2
cr
(7)
In the dynamic analysis (while finding the frequency of natural vibrations [9]), the
independent non-dimensional displacement and the load factor become a function
dependent on time, and dynamic terms were added to equations describing postbuckling
equilibrium path. Neglecting the forces associated with the inertia terms of prebuckling
state and the second-order approximations, and taking into account the orthogonality
conditions for the displacement field in the first U ( i ) and second-order
approximation U ( ij ) , the Lagrange equations can be written as:
..
1
2 s
s aijs i j bijks i j k s ; (s=1,2, , N)
s
s
399
(8)

where s is a natural frequency with mode corresponding to buckling mode; a ijs and bijks
are the coefficients (Eq. 4) describing the postbuckling behaviour of the structure
(independent of time); however the parameters of load and the displacement are the
functions of time t.
For the uncoupled buckling, i.e. the single-mode buckling (where index s = N = 1),
the equations of motion may be written in the form:
1 ..
(9)
1 1 a11112 b111113 1* ;
2 1
1
1
1
It is assumed that in the initial moment of time t = 0 the non-dimensional

displacement , as well as the velocity of displacement are equal to zero, i.e.:
(t=0) = 0 and ( t 0 ) 0 .
(10)
3. DYNAMIC BUCKLING CRITERIA

The results of calculations presented in the paper allow discussing the effect of
application of the following criteria:
the simplest criterion, proposed by Volmir [13] - the dynamic critical load
corresponds to the amplitude of pulse force (of constant duration) at which the
maximal plate deflection is equal to some constant value k (k=one half or one
plate thickness).
Budiansky&Hutchinson [3] stability criterion that states: dynamic stability loss
occurs when the maximal plate deflection grows rapidly with the small variation
of the load amplitude.
4. SUBJECT OF CONSIDERATION
A square simply supported composite plate with length to thickness ratio equals 100
is considered. The plate subjects to unidirectional compression in form of a rectangular
pulse load P of finite duration. The unloaded edges of plate remain straight and parallel
during loading. The analysed plate is made of epoxy-glass composite with fibre volume
fraction f equals 0.5. The material properties for epoxy resin and glass fibre are given in
Table 1.
Table 1. Assumed material properties
material type:
epoxy resin
glass fibre
E
[GPa]
3.5
71
0.33
0.22
[kg/m3]
1249
2450
For numerical calculation the orthotropic model was assumed. The necessary values
of Youngs modules and Poisons ratios were calculated using equations based on mixture
theory [4], which are as follows:
400
E x Em 1 f E f f ,
E y Em
G Gm
Em 1
yx m 1
Gm
Em 1
f 1
f f
f 1
Gm
f E
f Ef
f,
f
f
f 1
,
(11)
f 1 f .
1 f
f Gf 1
f Gf
where: Em and Ef are the Youngs modules of elasticity for matrix and fibre, respectively,
Gm and Gf are the shear modules for matrix (subscript m) and fibre (subscript f), m and f
are the Poissons ratios for matrix and fibre and f = Vf /(Vm + Vf) is the fibre volume
fraction.
5. RESULTS OF CALCULATIONS
5.1. STATIC BUCKLING LOAD AND POSTBUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
a)
b)
Fig.1. Dimensionless load P/Pcr vs. dimensionless deflection (a) or square of dimensionless
deflection (b)
401

For ideal plate structure the critical load can be determined from eigenvalue analysis
but for structures with imperfection the buckling load may be determined basing on preand post-buckling behaviour. The authors decided to employ two well-known methods for
identification of the critical load that are usually applied to the results of experimental
investigations. The inflection point method (P-w) which is very similar to top of the
knee method and alternative (P-w2) method was used [9].
The postbuckling equilibrium paths for plates with initial imperfections
corresponding to the buckling mode and different amplitudes w*=w0 /h (where: w0 amplitude of imperfection, h - thickness of the plate) are presented in Fig. 1. Using
mentioned above methods the buckling load Pcr*/Pcr for a plate with geometrical
imperfections has been found and presented in Table 2 (where Pcr*- buckling compressive
force for imperfect plate and Pcr - bifurcational load).
Table 2.
Pcr*/Pcr for different amplitude of initial imperfection
determination method:
initial imperfection
amplitude w*
0.001
0.005
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
P-w
P-w2
Pcr*/Pcr
0.999
0.998
0.995
0.990
0.968
0.925
0.834
0.589
Pcr*/Pcr
0.999
0.994
0.986
0.968
0.925
0.863
0.751
0.494
It follows from the Table 2 that lower values of Pcr* were obtained using P-w2
method and the differences between the results of both the methods are growing with the
increase of imperfection amplitude value.
In further investigations the values of Pcr* found on the basis of the inflection point
method (P-w method) were taken into account.
5.2. ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A PLATE
In most publications dealing with dynamic buckling problem the amplitude of initial
imperfection has been assumed as w* = 0.01 for which the buckling load decrease is very
small ca 1%.
The dynamic load factor DLF is defined as the ratio of an amplitude of pulse load to
the critical static buckling load for ideal structures. Presented below calculations were
made in aim to check how the way of DLF estimation influences the critical amplitude of
pulse load leading to dynamic buckling. The authors propose to introduce a dynamic load
factor DLF*=P/Pcr* - a pulse load amplitude divided by the static buckling load for
imperfect structures.
The calculations were performed for two values of pulse duration T0=T and T0=0.5T
(where T - period of natural fundament flexural vibration of a plate, for assumed material
properties and geometry T=0.59 ms).
402

In Tables 3 and 4 the critical dynamic load factors DLFcr (determined in the
conventional way) and DLF*cr (determined from DLF*(w/h) relations, where the
amplitude of pulse loading is divided by buckling load for imperfect structures) are
presented. The critical value of dynamic load factor DLF*cr was calculated as the
amplitude of pulse load divided by static buckling load for structure with initial
imperfection using inflection point method (see Table 2, P-w column).
Table 3.
DLFcr and DLFcr* for different amplitude of initial imperfection, T0=T
Assumed
criterion:
initial
imperfection
amplitude w*
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Table 4.
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
DLFcr
DLFcr
DLF*cr
DLF*cr
1.49
1.31
1.17
1.07
1.13
0.63
1.4 1.6
1.2 1.3
0.8 0.9
0.8 0.9
0.7 0.8
0.4 0.5
1.49
1.32
1.21
1.15
1.10
1.08
1.4 1.6
1.2 1.3
0.9 1.1
0.9 1.0
0.84 0.96
0.7 0.85
DLFcr and DLFcr* for different amplitude of initial imperfection, T0=0.5T
Assumed
criterion:
initial
imperfection
amplitude w*
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
Volmir
criterion
(w/t)cr = 1
BudianskyHutchinson
criterion
DLFcr
DLFcr
DLF*cr
DLF*cr
3.07
2.47
1.89
1.40
1.01
0.62
4.4 4.6
3.4 3.6
2.0 2.8
1.6 1.8
1.0 1.2
0.4 0.6
3.08
2.49
1.86
1.51
1.21
1.01
4.4 4.6
3.4 3.6
2.5 2.9
1.7 1.9
1.2 1.4
0.7 1.0
The courses of DLF(w/h) and DLF*(w/h) for three values of imperfection

amplitudes and two pulse durations (T0=T and T0=0.5T) are presented in Figs 2-4. In these
figures the static postbuckling curves P/Pcr (for flat plate) and P/Pcr* (for imperfect plate)
are also drawn.
It can be noticed that for relatively small imperfection amplitude w*=0.01 (Fig. 2)
the curves DLF(w/h) and DLF*(w/h) cover up for given pulse duration T0. Also the static
postbuckling curves overlap (excluding the initial range of deflections). In this case the
character of dynamic responses strongly depends on the assumed pulse duration - for
shorter pulse the deflections are small and the dynamic buckling load is at least three
times greater (see Table 3 and 4).
When the amplitude of imperfections grows up to the value w*=0.1 (Fig. 3) the
differences between DLF and DLF* curves are clearly visible for both pulse durations
and static postbuckling curves P/Pcr (for flat plate) and P/Pcr* differ as well. The character
403

of dynamic responses for pulse durations T0=T and T0=0.5T is similar but the dynamic
buckling load for shorter pulse is twice the one for T0=T.
Fig. 2. Static and dynamic dimensionless responses versus dimensionless deflection

for w*=0.01.

for w*=0.1.
For relatively large value of w* (the imperfection amplitude equals one half of plate
thickness) - Fig. 4, the results show that the dynamic responses of a plate do not depend
on pulse load duration (the relations DLF(w/h) for T0=T and for T0=0.5T cover up and
also DLF*(w/h) for both assumed pulses overlap) and moreover the courses of
DLF*(w/h) are almost identical as the static postbuckling curve P/Pcr*. It should be
underlined that the differences between the courses of DLF (estimated as the ratio of
404

pulse load amplitude to static bifurcational load) and DLF* (estimated as the ratio of
pulse load amplitude to static buckling load of imperfect plate) are clearly visible.

for w*=0.5.
6. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the results analysis of the conducted calculations following
conclusions can be drawn:
For small values of imperfection amplitude (in range of hundredth parts of
plate thickness) the differences between the dynamic response known as DLF
(w/h) (ratio of pulse load amplitude to static bifurcational load versus
dimensionless deflection) and proposed relation DLF* (w/h) (ratio of pulse
load amplitude to static buckling load for imperfect plate versus
dimensionless deflection) are less than 1% and the curves are practically
identical. In this case the pulse load duration time strongly affects the
dynamic buckling load value and the character of dynamic response of
considered plate.
For rather large values of imperfection amplitude (in range of one half and
greater) the influence of pulse duration on courses of DLF(w/h) and
DLF*(w/h) has shown to be negligible but the dynamic responses DLF(w/h)
and DLF*(w/h) differ significantly. It should be strongly underlined that the
proposed relations DLF*(w/h) calculated for two values of pulse load are
almost identical as static postbuckling curve P/Pcr* what allows us to
conclude that for large imperfection amplitude values the static and dynamic
behaviour of a plate is practically the same (for considered pulse durations).
This fact can be only observed if proposed relation DLF*(w/h) is applied in
calculations.
405

The authors are aware that the analysis conducted in this work is restricted to a
single plate and for pulses of rectangular shape; therefore further investigations should be
performed to confirm the above conclusions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This publication is a result of the research work carried out within the project
subsidized over the years 2009-2012 from the state funds designated for scientific
research (MNiSW - N N501 113636).
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling of elastic structures: Criteria and Estimates, Report SM7, NASA CR-66072, 1965.
Grybo R., Stability of structures under impact load, /in Polish/, PWN, Warsaw-Poznan,
1980.
Hutchinson J.W., Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling estimates, AIAA Journal, 4(3), 1966,
pp. 525530.
Kelly A. (ed.), Concise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials, Pergamon Press, 1989.
Koiter W.T., General theory of mode interaction in stiffened plate and shell structures,
WTHD Report 590, Delft, 1976.
Kowal-Michalska, K. (ed.), Dynamic stability of composite plated structures, (in Polish),
Warszawa d, WNT, 2007.
Kowal-Michalska, K., About some important parameters in dynamic buckling analysis of
plated structures subjected to pulse loading, Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering,
Vol.14, 2010, pp.269-279.
Kubiak T., Interactive dynamic buckling of thin-walled columns, /in Polish/, Scientific
Bulletin of d Technical University, d, 2007.
Kubiak T., Estimation of dynamic buckling for composite columns with open crosssection, Computers and Structures, 89, 2011, pp. 2001-2009.
Rhodes J., Zara J., Determination of critical loads by experimental methods, in Statics,
Dynamics and Stability of Structures, Vol.2., Statics, Dynamics and Stability of Structural
Elements and Systems, edited by Z. Koakowski, K. Kowal-Michalska, Publishing House
of d University of Technology, 2012.
Simitses G.J., Dynamic stability of suddenly loaded structures, Springer Verlag, New
York,1990.
Teter A., Multi-modal buckling of thin-walled stiffened columns loaded by compressive
pulse, /in Polish/, Scientific Bulletin of d Technical University, d, 2010.
Volmir S.A., Nonlinear dynamics of plates and shells, /in Russian/ Science, Moscow,
1972.
406
ELASTIC DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING OF THIN-WALLED

BARS OF CLOSED SQUARE CROSS-SECTION
M. KUJAWA
Department of Structural Mechanics and Bridges,
Gdansk University of Technology
G. Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
C. SZYMCZAK
Department of Theory and Ship Design,
Gdansk University of Technology
G. Narutowicza 11/13, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
In this study a thin-walled bar with closed quadratic cross-section is considered.

The elastic stability of axially compressed bar related to the cross-section distortion
is investigated. The governing differential equation is derived with aid of the
principle of stationary total potential energy. The critical load for the simply
supported bar is found in analytical form and it is compared with the FEM solution.
Sufficient accuracy of the results is worth of noticing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Both in the classical Euler theory and the theory of restrained torsion of thin-walled
bars it is assumed that the bar cross-section is non-deformable. In the context of
engineering experience, this implies the need to use diaphragms in small intervals. If there
are no diaphragms or the distance between them is large one should take into
consideration the cross-section deformation of the bar. Up to date the local stability of
walls in the frame of plate buckling analysis and the global stability of the bar has been
well developed [1 - 5].
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the bar and expected deformation of cross-section a) without
and b) with internal walls
However, there are hardly a few papers dealing with the stability of bars including
the deformability of the bar cross-section. Particularly noteworthy is the article written by
407

A. Chudzikiewicz [6], in which the possibility of stability loss due to the cross-section
deformation is investigated. The main topic of this paper is a detailed stability analysis of
a bar with closed deformable quadratic cross-section with or without internal walls and
equal the wall thickness (Fig. 1a, 1b). In this case flexural buckling, torsional buckling
and distortional buckling due to the cross-section deformation are independent of each
other therefore in this paper only elastic distortional buckling analysis is considered. The
one dimensional model of the bar is taken into account and the governing differential
equation is derived using the stationary energy theorem. The most important in
engineering practice is to describe the geometrical properties of the bar cross-section in
which the critical distortional buckling load is less than the flexural or torsional one.
2. ELASTIC ENERGY OF DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING
Let us consider an axially compressed bar stiffened by two diaphragms at both ends
and with freedom of warping (Fig. 1c). We apply for solving our problem a fundamental
concept of minimum total potential energy . The total potential energy , is the sum of
the elastic strain energy V, stored in the deformed body and the potential energy U, of the
applied loads.
The potential energy of cross-sectional distortions V p can be described as:
Vp
1
4
2
l a
0 0
M2
2
dsdz
EJ
EJ
l a
M 2 dsdz
0 0
24 EJ
1
2 dz K 2 dz ,
a
2
(1)
where bending moments of one wall M and the factor K (1) are defined as:
M 2
6 EJ
1 3 E 3
,
u
6
EJ
6
E
a
12 a
6a
a2
def
48EJ 4 E 3
.
a
a
(2)
The elastic bending energy Vg of the bar in longitudinal direction is:

l
Vg
1
M z2
1
1
4
dz EJ g a 2 2dz K g 2dz ,
2
EJ g
2
2
where the bending moment M z and the factor K g (3) are defined as:
M z EJ g u EJ g
408
a
,
2
(3)

def
K g EJ g a 2
Ea5
.
12
(4)
In addition, the potential energy of torsion of the cross-section walls Vs is taken into
account:
l
1
1
Vs GJ d 4 2dz K s 2dz ,
2
2
(5)
where GJ d is the free torsional rigidity of walls. The factor K s (5) is defined as:
def
4
K s 4GJ d G 3a
3
(6)
Moreover, the potential energy U p I of the compressive loads P due to all cross-section
walls bending:
l
1 P
1 a
U pI 4
u2dz P
2 4
2 2
2l
1
8
2dz Pa 2 2dz ,
(7)
and walls torsion U p II is taken into account:

l
1 P
1
U p II 4 r0 2 2dz P r0 2 2dz ,
2 4
2
(8)
where r02 is a square of polar radius of gyration, which is given by:
r02
J 0 1 12 a3 3a
1 2
a 2 ,
A
a
12
in which a it is a height of cross-section and is a wall thickness.

The total potential energy can be written as a sum of previously defined parts of
energy:
Vp Vg Vs U p I U p II .
After substitution of the individual components (1), (3), (5), (7), (8), we get:
409
(9)

l
1
1
1
1
K 2dz K s Pa 2 P r02 2dz K g 2dz .

2
2
4
2
(10)
The necessary condition of the stationary total potential energy can be written as:
Pa
K g v
12
min 0 ,
(11)
4 K s K 0 .
a
(12)
The final form of the governing differential equation (12) is:
v 2 2 0 ,
where
1
Kg
(13)
2
2
2
2
3
Pa
P 4 a 16a G
,
4 K s
12 a
a5E
and
K
Kg
4 E 3 12
2
.
48
a Ea5
a6
The general solution of the equation (13) is:
( z) C1 cosh(t1 z) C2 cosh(t1 z) C3 sinh(t 2 z) C4 sinh(t2 z) ,
(14)
where t1 and t 2 are:
t1 2 2 ,
t2 2 2 .
3. BUCKLING OF SIMPLY SUPPORTED BAR

Let us consider a simply supported bar with or without internal walls, compressed by
axial loads P (Fig. 1c). Substituting the boundary conditions of the form:
z 0 ; 0 ; 0
z l ; 0 ; 0
to the equation (14), solving the resulting system of equations and equating the resolving
to zero, we receive:
410
2
l
l2
(15)
From the equation (15) we obtain the formula for the distortional critical load in case of
any number of deformed state n:
Pkr n
(n4a6 E 4 48l 4 E 2 16a 2Gl 2n2 2 2 )

.
al 2n2 2 (4a 2 2 )
(16)
Proceeding similarly but in case of the bar with internal walls (now we have 12 walls
instead 4 as in the previous case (Fig.1)) we get the formula for critical load for any n:
Pkr n
3(n4a6 E 4 3072 El 4 3 512a 2Gl 2n2 2 3 )

.
64al 2n2 2 (a 2 2 )
(17)
In both cases, the critical load Pkr may be expressed in terms of critical load of flexural
buckling PE by using the coefficient :
Pkr PE
2 EJ c
l2
(18)
In the case of bars without internal walls for n=1 we have:
a 6 2 48l 2 2 8a 2 2
6l 2 2
1
l
2
,
a 2 2 (4a 2 2 ) 2
(19)
and in the case of bars with internal walls for n=1:
3072l 4 2 256a 2l 2 2
3 a 6
2
4
1
.
2 2
2
16a (a )(3a 2 2 )
(20)
If > 1 the Euler critical load PE is smaller than the load corresponding the distortional
buckling. The derived formulas for critical loads are valid only if < 1. Example values of
the coefficient obtained from equations (19) and (20) are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
These values depend on the relationships a/ and l/a in case of constant value of the
Poisson ratio . In Figs. 2, 3 are shown the relation of change of values of critical force P
in the dependence on dimensions l, a and in case of bars with/without internal walls.
411

Table 1
a/
Values of the coefficient in case of bars without internal walls (for n=1 and
=0.33)
l/a
20
50
100
150
200
Table 2
a/
10
12
16
20
0.5017
0.3953
0.3801
0.3772
0.3763
2.3009
0.6835
0.4521
0.4093
0.3943
5.0455
1.1231
0.5620
0.4581
0.4218
10.0241
1.9205
0.7614
0.5468
0.4716
30.7584
5.2414
1.5918
0.9158
0.6792
74.4256
12.2355
3.3406
1.6931
1.1164
Values of the coefficient in case of bars with internal walls (for n=1 and =0.33)
l/a
20
50
100
150
200
4
1.3682
0.2719
0.1149
0.0858
0.0756
10
12
16
20.3733
3.3213
0.8775
0.4248
0.2663
49.4789
7.9913
2.0455
0.9438
0.5583
102.340
16.4728
4.1667
1.8867
1.0887
322.706
51.8301
13.0096
5.8172
3.2996
a)
20
787.0840
126.3390
31.6441
14.0998
7.9587
b)
Fig. 2. The critical load P vs. height of cross-section a and bar length l, for the cross-section
- a) without, b) with internal walls
a)
b)
Fig. 3. The critical load P vs. thickness of walls and length of bar l, for the cross-section a) without, b) with internal walls
412
Fig. 4. First mode of distortional buckling - Abaqus (Table 3 - Pkr=23.092 MN)
Fig. 5. First mode of distortional buckling - Abaqus (Table 4 - Pkr=73.642 MN)
Results of theoretical and numerical analysis were also compared with the solution using
the Timoshenko energy method [1], [6] (for n=1 and m=1) in the case of cross-section
without internal walls:
Pkr n
6 4 (l 2m2 a 2n 2 ) 2 2
2a n
2 1
6a n 2
2
EJ c .
l2
(21)
In Tables 3 and 4 are presented results of calculation of critical loads for different values
of the coefficient , in cases:
- proposed solutions (16), (17),
- analytical solution by Chudzikiewicz [6] (21),
- FEM,
for cross-sections with/without internal walls (Fig. 1).
Table 3 The critical load [MN] (for n=1, E=70GPa, =0.33, =0.01 m, a=0.4 m)
FEM
l=3 m 0.75
Difference
l=2.3 m 0.5
Difference
23.092
25.125
Proposed
solution (16)
Analytical solution by
Chudzikiewicz (21)
24.510
5.8 %
28.190
10.9 %
23.466
1.6 %
26.132
4%
413

Table 4 The critical load [MN] (for n=1, E=70GPa, =0.33, =0.01 m, a=0.4 m)
FEM
l=2 m
0.85
Difference
l=1.73 m
0.5
Difference
73.642
72.718
Proposed
solution
(17)
70.549
4.2 %
56.231
22.7 %
The results of comparative analysis are consistent and show the correctness of the
proposed theoretical analysis. The accuracy of approximate formulas (16), (17) depends
mainly on the value of the coefficient . The calculations show that the
calculation error increases when the value of the coefficient is decreased (see Tables 3,
4). Errors are also increases when the value of the coefficient is greater than 1 - but then
the solution is dominated by the Euler buckling.
4. SUMMARY
The distortional mode of elastic stability loss of the thin-walled box-type bars is
discussed in the paper. We should remember that exceeding the Euler force is more
significant because is generally closer to the failure load than the considered critical load
(16), (17). However, in all studied cases the solution it is dominated by plate buckling.
The results summarized in Tables 1 and 2 show that the distortional buckling in elastic
range is not possible for bars made of standard metals used in construction (steel,
aluminum). On the other hands, how Chudzikiewicz notices in his article [6]: for bars
made of materials with low modulus of elasticity and high elastic limit the buckling under
consideration may be of some importance also in practical cases. Some aluminum alloys
can meet these conditions.
It is worthwhile noticing that using the derived formulas (16), (17) we can calculate
the critical loads with the sufficient accuracy. In the case of bars for which the value of
coefficient is close to 1 the error should not exceed 5%.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Timoshenko S., Gere J., Theory of elastic stability, McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Thompson J., Hunt G., A general theory of elastic stability, John Wiley & Sons, 1973.
Waszczyszyn Z. et al., Modern methods of stability analysis of structures, Ossolineum,
1981 (in Polish).
Waszczyszyn Z. et al., Selected problems of stability of structures, Ossolineum, 1987 (in
Polish).
Krlak M., Mania R. (eds.), Stability of thin-walled plate structures, vol. 1, Technical
University of Lodz, Lodz, 2011.
Chudzikiewicz A., Stability loss due to the deformation of the cross-section, Engineering
Transactions, VII, 1, 1960, pp. 45-61 (in Polish).
414
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF STEEL BOX-SECTION GIRDERS

P. LIS, M. KOTEKO
The paper deals with the load-carrying capacity stochastic variance based sensitivity
analysis of thin-walled box-section girder subjected to pure bending. The lower- and
upper-bound load-capacity estimation is performed. The methodology is based on the
Monte-Carlo method. The exemplary results are presented in diagrams and pie charts
showing the sensitivity of load-capacity to different random input variables. The
analysis is focused on the variance of the yield stress of the girder material and girders
wall thickness. Some final conclusions, concerning an efficiency of the applied models
and the sensitivity analysis are derived.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years the deterministic approach to the design of TWS has been often
replaced by the probabilistic one [1, 2, 3, 9, 13]. It concerns especially thin-walled girders
[1, 14]. Also some new codes, particularly concerning TWS in civil engineering, treat the
structural reliability and load-carrying capacity of TWS as a probabilistic problem [4].
However, since using any probabilistic method one has to perform a great number of
calculations, the main limitation becomes the time of computation, which depends on the
method applied.
The strength of thin-walled structures is usually calculated on the basis of effective
width model and their ultimate capacity is evaluated using a reduced or effective crosssection and, additionally, the elastic limit for maximum stress. This approach is currently
used in almost all design codes and leads to the lower-bound estimation of the loadcarrying capacity. The elastic post-buckling behaviour of the thin-walled beam was
analysed by Kolakowski et al [5] who solved the problem using the asymptotic method in
the range of the second order approximation. The algorithm based on the asymptotic
method is relatively simple and delivers the lower-bound estimation of the load-carrying
capacity (LBELC) in the short time of computation.
However, TWS members display a significant post-elastic capacity. It means that the
actual load-carrying capacity of any thin-walled member is higher than the ultimate load
calculated using the method mentioned above.
Thus, the alternative approach is the upper-bound estimation of the load-carrying
capacity, consisting in the determination of the intersection point of a post-buckling path
(evaluated using either analytical method or numerical one, e.g. Finite Element Method)
and a rigid-plastic failure curve obtained from the plastic mechanism analysis Koteko
et al. [6, 7].
Compilation of post-buckling analysis with the yield-line analysis (plastic
mechanism approach) leads to a relatively simple and quick solution of the upper-bound
estimation of load-carrying capacity (UBELC). Thus, both the asymptotic method
415

(LBELC) and yield-line analysis (UBELC) have advantages over numerical methods,
particularly FEM.
The paper deals with the sensitivity analysis of the load-carrying capacity (LBELC
and UBELC) of thin-walled, box-section girder subjected to pure bending (Fig.1).
a)
c)
C
c
C
b)
Fig. 1. Box-section girder under pure bending: a) dimensions, b) load and support lay-out,
c) theoretical model of the plastic mechanism of failure
2. LOAD-CAPACITY COMPUTATION MODEL

The load-carrying capacity of the girder was calculated using the software code
NOSNOSC elaborated by Koakowski, Koteko and Kubiak [8]. The code provides
information about the girders structural behaviour in the whole range of loading (up to
and beyond the ultimate load) and calculates the lower bound and upper-bound loadcarrying capacity estimations (denoted below as LBELC and UBELC, respectively).
LBELC corresponds to the first yield in the beams compressed flange, while UBELC is
calculated as an ordinate of inter-section of the post-buckling elastic path with the failure
path. The post-buckling path is calculated using the asymptotic method. The study is
based on the numerical method of the transition matrix using Godunovs
orthogonalization [5, 12]. In order to determine maximum stresses in girders plate
members under compression, the width of a compressed flange is reduced to the effective
width to obtain the real decrease in a flexural stiffness of the cross-section after local
buckling. The first yield threshold criterion is used in order to estimate load-capacity of
the girder (lower-bound estimation) - (Koakowski & Koteko, 2004).
The failure path is derived from the yield-line analysis, based on the theoretical
model of plastic mechanism shown in Fig. 2. The energy method is applied in order to
calculate an actual bending moment at the global plastic hinge [7].
The out-put quantities obtained from the code NOSNOSC are the lower-bound
(LBELC) and upper-bound (UBELC) maximum bending moments of the girder.
1.
LOAD-CAPACITY SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
The sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the sensitivity of LBELC and
UBELC with respect to the variance of several random input quantities i.e. dimensions of
the girder and material parameters. The initial geometrical imperfections were not taken
416

into account. The input random quantities are indicated in Table 1. The material
parameters and their standard deviations are taken from publication by Kala et al. [9]. The
methodology based on the Monte Carlo method [2, 1] is applied in the analysis.
The analysis consists in the polynomial decomposition, carried out using the multidimensional linear regression. The calculations were performed using the program
Minitab 15 [10]. Knowing the distribution of input variables one is able, using the MonteCarlo method, to generate adequate data files (Mikulski [2]). After generating the data
files the values of out-put variables have to be determined. Then, after generating in-out
files one can derive equations of regression. Afterwards, performing the analysis of
variance of particular variables multiplied by direction coefficients of regression one can
determine the significance of each variable and its contribution in the final value of a
predicted quantity. Within the framework of each run of the Monte Carlo method, the
LBELC and UBELC were found, using the code NOSNOSC. For each calculation case
100 iterations were conducted. After performing iterations, the procedure of multidimensional linear regression was carried out.
Table 1. Input random quantities
Random quantity
Unit
Mean value
Standard deviation
Type of
distribution
Width A
0.1
0.0005
Normal (Gauss)
Hight B
Length L
Wall thickness H
(HA= HB)
Youngs modulus
E
Poissions ratio
m
m
0.1
0.1
0.0005
0.0005
Normal (Gauss)
Normal (Gauss)
0.001
1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15 [%] *
Normal (Gauss)
GPa
210
12.6
Normal (Gauss)
0.27
Normal (Gauss)
MPa
284.5
0.03
21.5, (real), 22.5, 23.5**
Yield stress Re
Normal (Gauss)
(*) wall thickness sensitivity analysis (variance of wall thickness), (**) yield stress sensitivity analysis
(variance of yield stress)
3.1. WALL THICKNESS SENSITIVITY

The sensitivity analysis was performed in two steps: in the first one the analysis was
carried out in terms of the variance of wall thickness H, with the standard deviations
shown in Table 1. The results of the regression analysis and sensitivity analysis in terms
of wall thickness variance are discussed in details in [11, 12]. Fig. 2 shows the results of
the sensitivity analysis of UBELC in terms of the variance of wall thickness H represented
by pie charts. The corresponding diagram is shown in Fig. 8.
On the basis of the results of wall thickness standard deviation change (thickness
tolerance) one can conclude, that the UBELC induction is generated mainly by the yield
stress (60%), when the tolerance of thickness is restrictive (here 1mm 0.01). Increment
of the thickness tolerance changes this structure [11]. In the next steps of the analysis the
magnitude of thickness standard deviation was checked using the test ANOVA. It allowed
one to conclude, that the deviation of thickness does not generate any distinction of
417

samples (based on means of difference between UBELC and LBELC) as a different
materials on requested (as a standard 95%) confidence level (Fig.3).
Pie Chart of sensitivity H=1mm +/-2%
Pie Chart of sensitivity H=1mm +/-1%
Category
A
B
L
H 1 +/-1%
E
v
Re
Category
A
B
L
H 1 +/-1%
E
v
Re
a)
b)
Fig. 2. Exemplary pie charts (UBELC sensitivity analysis wall thickness variance):
a) 1 % standard deviation, b) 2 % standard deviation
One-Way ANOVA for Roznica OG_1; Roznica OG_2; Roznica OG_3;...
Summary Report
Do the means differ?
0
0,05
0,1
> 0,5
Yes
No
P = 0,612
Differences among the means are not significant (p > 0,05).
Means Comparison Chart
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Roznica OG_5
Roznica OG_4
Roznica OG_3
Roznica OG_1
Roznica OG_7
Roznica OG_2
Roznica OG_6
Which means differ?

Differs from
None Identified
Roznica OG_5
Roznica OG_4
Comments
Roznica OG_3
You cannot conclude that there are differences among the

means at the 0,05 level of significance.
Roznica OG_1
Roznica OG_7
Roznica OG_2
Roznica OG_6
0,60
0,65
0,70
0,75
0,80
Fig. 3. ANOVA test results for of UBELC (OG) and LBELC (OD) difference analysis for
wall thickness variance
3.2. YIELD-STRESS SENSITIVITY

In the second step the analysis was carried out in terms of the variance of the yield
stress Re, with the standard deviations shown in Table 1. The results of the regression
analysis and sensitivity analysis in terms of the yield stress variance are shown in pie
charts in Fig. 4. The corresponding diagram is shown in Fig.7. The analysis indicates that
the larger is the standard deviation of Re, the higher is an influence of this quantity on
UBELC. It varies linearly from 47.5% up to about 70%. The increase of the Re influence
is associated with a decrease of the influence of other material out-put quantities: Young
modulus and Poisson ratio (both of linear character). Influence of geometrical parameters
(dimensions) is approximately constant.
418
a)
b)
Fig. 4. Exemplary pie charts (UBELC sensitivity analysis yield stress variance):
a) 21.5 MPa standard deviation, b) 23.5 MPa standard deviation
Fig. 5. ANOVA test results of UBELC (OG) and LBELC (OD) difference analysis for Re
variance: Re = 284.5 MPa, standard deviations 21.5, 22.5 i 23.5 MPa
Fig. 6. Exemplary histograms of UBELC (og) and LBELC (od) differences for the yield
stress variance
419

The ANOVA test shows that at the standard confidence level (95%) mean values of
LBELC and UBELC for each tested class (for subsequent standard deviations) are not the
same (Fig.5). The similar tests for the wall thickness variance show, that the samples are
the same [11] as it was mentioned above.
Fig. 7. Exemplary histograms UBELC (og) and LBELC (od) differences for wall thickness
variance
Sensitivity Analyse
90
Variable
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
80
70
Data
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
3
4
5
Tolerance H=1mm +/-%
10
Fig. 8. Results of UBELC sensitivity analysis wall thickness variance
420
A
B
L
H
E
v
Re
Fig. 9. Results of UBELC sensitivity analysis yield stress variance
4. FINAL REMARKS
The regression analysis confirms that a statistically significant empirical multidimensional model exists for the lower-bound estimation (LBELC) in terms of considered
input random quantities. However, its efficiency is weak. Accuracy of the model based on
the least squares method was connected with 25% error.
On the contrary, the efficiency of analogous empirical model for the upper-bound
estimation - (UBELC) is high (above 98%). It concerns both the yield stress and wall
thickness variance.
The increase of the yield stress standard deviation induces an increase of the
differences of UBELC and LBELC (see the shift of the histogram in Fig. 6). Also a
shift of means of those differences is noticed. It is not observed for the wall thickness
variance (Fig. 7). The distribution of UBELC-LBELC differences is not normal for the 95
% confidence level (Fig.6) in the case of the yield stress variance, while for the wall
thickness variance at the same confidence level this distribution is normal (Fig.7).
Results of the performed analysis show, how a quality of structural steel affects the
load-carrying capacity of the girder. The upper-bound estimation (UBELC) induction is
generated mainly by the yield stress. Activity of the yield stress is reduced with the
tolerance change of wall thickness, but is elevated by the increase of the yield stress
standard deviation itself.
The results presented in the paper are based on linear models of analysis, without
interactions. The relations between indicators of UBELC and LBELC were checked with
use of non-linear models. However, the improvement of the estimation efficiency of those
models was about 4%.
Results based on the algorithm, which applies the yield-line approach (plastic
mechanism approach) for the approximate determination of the upper-bound loadcarrying capacity of TWS, indicate that this approach is useful for the sensitivity analysis.
The empirical multi-dimensional model used in the presented sensitivity analysis based on
this approach is more efficient than the model based on the lower-bound estimation.
421

The analysis performed allows one to conclude, that a redundancy of the load
capacity of the girder (the post-elastic capacity) is more sensitive to the yield stress
deviation than to the wall thickness deviation.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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[14]
Szymczak C. (et al.), Sensitivity analysis of beams and frames made of thin-walled
members, Gdask, ed. by Politechnika Gdaska, 2003.
Mikulski T., Thin-walled frames, modelling and sensitivity analysis (in Polish - Ramy
cienkocienne, modelowanie i analiza wraliwoci), Politechnika Gdaska, ser.
Monografie, 2010.
Melcher J. (et al.), Sensitivity and statistical analysis within elaboration of steel plated
girder resistance, Int. J. of Advanced Steel Construction, vol. 5, No 2, June, 2009, 120126.
Kamiski M, Krauze I., Stochastic corrosion effects on reliability of the steel beams with I
profiles. Lightweight Structures in Civil Engineering. Contemporary problems. XVII
International Seminar of IASS Polish Chapter (LCCE 2011) ed. by M. Kamiski, J.B.
Obrbski, d , December 2011, pp. 114-119.
Manevich A., Koakowski Z., Influence of local postbuckling behaviour on bending of
thin-walled beams, Thin-Walleed Struct., vol. 25, No 3, 1996, 219-230.
Koteko M., Load-capacity estimation and collapse analysis of thin-walled beams and
columns recent advances, Special Issue Cold formed steel structures: recent research
advances in Central and Eastern Europe, ed. By D. Dubina, Thin-Walled Structures,
v.42/2, Elsevier 2004, 153-175.
Koteko M., Load-capacity and mechanisms of failure of thin-walled structures (in Polish Nono i mechanizmy zniszczenia konstrukcji cienkociennych), WNT, Warszawa, 2011.
Website of the Department of Strength of Materials. TUL:www.kwm.p.lodz.pl
Kala Z., Kala J., Variance-based sensitivity analysis of stability problems of steel
structures using shell Finite Element and non-linear computation method, Proc. of the 2nd
WSEAS Int. Conference on Engineering Mechanics, Structures and Engineering Geology,
89-94.
Minitab Inc., Users GUIDE 2: Data Analysis and Quality Tools, Part I: Statistics, 2000.
Koteko M., Lis P., Yield-line analysis Perspectives and new areas of application.
Chapter in Statics, dynamics and stability of structures, v.1.: Stability of thin-walled
plate structures ed. by M.Krlak, R.J.Mania, Technical University of d, Series of
Monographs, pp. 53-72, d 2011.
Lis P., Koteko M., Koakowski Z., Load-capacity stochastic sensitivity analysis of thinwalled box-section beam, Lightweight Structures in Civil Engineering. Contemporary
problems. XVII International Seminar of IASS Polish Chapter (LCCE 2011) ed. by M.
Kamiski, J.B. Obrbski, d , December 2011, pp. 120-125.
Szymczak C., Sensitivity analysis of thin-walled members, problems and applications.
Thin-Walled Structures, v.41, pp 53-68.
Kala J., Skaloud M., Sensitivity analysis of thin-walled girder using non-linear transient
approach. Proc. of 10th International Conference:Modern Building Materials, Structures
and Techniques, Vilnius, Lithuania, 2010.
422

THIN PLATE SHEAR WEBS WITH STIFFENED CUT-OUTS SUBJECTED TO
IN-PLANE SHEAR DISPLACEMENT LOADING
J. LOUGHLAN, N. HUSSAIN
Department of Aeronautical and Automotive Engineering, Loughborough University,
Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
This paper examines the response of thin plate shear webs when subjected to inplane shear loading in the form of applied in-plane shear displacements. The
buckling and post-buckling failure capabilities of thin plates subjected to in-plane
shear can be substantially eroded through the introduction of openings or cut-outs
which can contribute, significantly, towards a less stable structural system. The
paper details appropriate suitable finite element modelling strategies and procedures
to enable the determination of the post-buckled failure response of thin plate shear
webs with cut-outs. The results presented in the paper give a detailed account of the
complete loading history of the shear webs, illustrating the significant degrading
influence on structural performance of the cut-outs, as well as highlighting the
considerable redeeming influence of providing reinforcement at the cut-out
boundaries. The paper provides a detailed account of the growth of deformations
with load as well as the initiation and propagation of yielding throughout the
loading process up to ultimate conditions and then through the elasto-plastic
unloading phase of behaviour.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin plate shear webs are structural elements, which are utilised in several
engineering fields including civil, mechanical, and aeronautical engineering. The thin ribs
in the wing structure of a civil airliner, for example, maintain the wing profile and
essentially, equilibrate the shear loading from the wing lift in flight, as well as the
torsional shears associated with wing twist. Shear webs often have cut-outs for light
weighting or for more practical reasons such as the passage of systems within the
structural framework such as electric cabling and hydraulics.
The presence of openings in shear webs changes the stress distribution within the
web by developing high stress levels around the holes. This results in a significant
reduction of the elastic buckling capability and ultimate shear capacity of the webs.
Reinforcements are then frequently utilised around the holes in order to reduce the stress
concentrations and to enhance the buckling and post-buckling strength of the webs.
Many researchers have investigated the influence of perforations on the stress
distribution and the ultimate strength of thin plate structural systems. The analysis
procedures of Gurney [1] are able to describe the stress distributions around the circular
hole of perforated infinite plates with and without reinforcement. Beskins [2] examined
the behaviour of plates with reinforced circular cut-outs subjected to edge loads. In this
work, the influence of the reinforcement design on the stress distributions around the
strengthened circular holes was found to be significant. Wang [3] presented a theoretical
model which was able to predict the stress distribution in square, rectangular and in
423

infinitely long perforated plates subjected to shear loading. The work of Mansfield [4]
studied plates with various openings and introduced the concept of neutral holes, which
are defined, essentially, as reinforced holes, which are elastically equivalent to the unperforated plate. Houghton and Rothwell [5] conducted experimental tests for circular
and elliptical holes with symmetrical reinforcements under various loadings, including
biaxial and pure shear. This work illustrated the significant influence of the reinforcement
bending stiffness on the stress variations within the thin web plate. Rockey et al. [6] have
studied the shear buckling response of thin plates with circular cut-outs. They used the
finite element method of analysis to show the effect of hole diameter on the shear
buckling capability of the thin plates for the case of simply supported and fixed edge
boundary conditions. The influence of circular ring stiffening at the hole boundary was
found to improve the shear buckling performance markedly and the findings from the
proposed analysis procedures were found to be in good agreement with their
experimental test results. The experimental and theoretical work of Hoglund [7] was
aimed at determining the strength of I-girders with circular and square holes subjected to
shear, bending and combined shear and bending loads. The experiments showed that the
girders with holes in a high shear zone failed, comparatively, at a much lower load than
those with holes present in a high bending zone. Uenoya and Redwood [8] carried out a
bifurcation analysis of square plates with centrally placed circular cut-outs subjected to
shear loading. They considered simply supported and fixed edge boundary conditions and
their results were found to compare favourably with independent experimental test data
for the simply supported boundary condition. Rockey [9] presented a theoretical study to
examine the buckling response of square simply supported and clamped plates with
central circular cut-outs. This study was in fact a continuation of the previous work of
Rockey at el. [6] in which unreinforced and reinforced holes with circular flat rings were
studied. In the continuation work, lips were introduced around the edge of hole due to
which high residual stresses were developed and these were found to affect, considerably,
the buckling resistance of the plates. Narayanan and Rockey [10] discussed the failure
mechanisms of plate girders with webs containing circular cut-outs and determined the
ultimate strength by carrying out experimental tests. Parameters, including web
slenderness, size of hole and flange thickness, which influence the ultimate strength, were
varied to note the effect. The presence of large holes, in particular, were found to affect
the inclination and width of the diagonal tension field in the plate girder webs and stiff
girder flanges were found to increase the post-buckling capacity of the plate girders
significantly. Shanmugam and Narayanan [11] gave details of approximate formulae,
using the finite element method, to determine the elastic buckling of perforated square
plates for various loading and edge conditions. Their work covered the behaviour of
square steel plates with circular and square cut-outs and dealt with the loading cases of
bi-axial compression and shear. Roberts and Azizian [12] performed a finite element
study to observe the effect of a hole on the initial buckling and ultimate capacity of thin
plates subjected to uniaxial and bi-axial compression and to shear loading. The ultimate
capacity was found to decrease significantly for the case of slender plates under
compressive loading. Narayanan and Der Avenessian [13] extended this work
considerably by modifying the program initially developed by Roberts and Azizian [12]
to investigate the elastic buckling response using structural symmetry in the development
of their finite element models. Their work considered square and rectangular plates with
square and circular stiffened and unstiffened cut-outs, with the thin plates being subjected
424

to in-plane shear loading. Narayanan and Chow [14] carried out experiments on
perforated plates subjected to shear in order to compare with earlier numerical work.
They detailed an analytical solution to determine the initial shear buckling response for
plates with central and eccentric holes and, in addition, a method was also proposed to
accurately predict the ultimate strength of the thin perforated shear webs. Sabir and Chow
[15] used the finite element method to show the effect of eccentric circular holes on the
elastic buckling of thin plates subjected to several different loading systems. Their results
showed that the eccentricity reduced the buckling load, particularly for large holes.
Shanmugam [16] has presented a fairly detailed review of the work carried out by other
researchers, prior to 1997, relating to the effect of openings in thin-walled steel plated
structures subjected to various loading systems. This review should be duly noted by
other researchers, especially by new researchers in this field of study. Shanmugam at el.
[17] used the finite element method to model the behaviour of plate girders with central
circular and rectangular web openings. The effect of web thickness, flange stiffness and
hole size on the ultimate capacity of the girders was examined and the results from this
work compared favourably with independent experimental test data. Paik [18-19] carried
out finite element studies to determine the ultimate load capacity of simply supported
plates subjected to shear and combined shear and biaxial compression and for the case of
the straight edge boundary condition. The effect of hole size, plate aspect ratio, and plate
slenderness ratio on ultimate conditions was detailed in this work and a useful design
formula was proposed for determining the ultimate capacity of perforated plates as a
function of the hole size and the plate dimensions. Pellegrino at el. [20] showed the
influence of location, orientation and size of circular and square holes on the shear
buckling coefficient of square plates and plates with higher aspect ratios. Cheng and Zhao
[21] employed various shapes and geometries of stiffeners around the central circular
hole and in the perforated web subjected to compression to show their effect on buckling
behaviour and on the ultimate strength.
This paper details appropriate suitable finite element modelling strategies and
procedures to enable the determination of the post-buckled failure response of thin plate
shear webs when subjected to in-plane shear loading in the form of applied in-plane shear
displacements. The paper highlights the significant influence of cut-outs on structural
performance and details the substantial improvements to be gained through the use of
reinforcement at the cut-out boundaries. The work at this stage is, essentially, that of
numerical simulation with the view to developing accurate and reliable modelling
strategies and solution procedures which will provide an in-depth understanding of the
complex failure mechanics of thin plate shear webs with reinforced cut-outs. The paper
provides a detailed account of the growth of deformations with load as well as the
initiation and propagation of yielding throughout the loading process up to ultimate
conditions and then through the elasto-plastic unloading phase of behaviour.
2. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
The finite element simulation package PATRAN/NASTRAN is used to determine
the elastic critical buckling and post buckling elasto-plastic response of the thin plate
shear webs. The simulations use the four-nodes CQUAD4 quadrilateral shell element of
the package to discretise the thin shear webs in order to build the finite element models
for the eigenvalue and incremental nonlinear analyses. The CQUAD4 shell element is
425

particularly well suited for dealing with the post-buckling behaviour of thin-walled
structural systems. It is readily able to account for the interaction of the local bending and
membrane stretching of the shear webs which takes place during the post-buckling
process. The size of the elements is an important factor in the simulation process, a fine
mesh provides greater flexibility and leads, generally, to more accurate solutions
however, the greater the number of elements, the more computational time is required
and so appropriate convergence studies are necessary to obtain the most optimised
accurate solution.
In order to determine the complete shear loading history of the perforated web
plates, well-refined models under shear displacement loading with suitable boundary
conditions have been developed. Boundary conditions are of great importance in finite
element simulation and this is particularly true for the case when shear displacement
loading is employed. The post-buckling failure mechanics of the shear webs was
determined by employing the nonlinear static solution sequence (SOL106) involving
geometric nonlinearity as well as elasto-plastic material nonlinearity using the simplified
von Mises elastic-perfectly plastic stress-strain model of the web plate material. The
developed modelling strategy is shown to be able to describe the complete loading
history of the shear webs from the onset of initial buckling through the elastic postbuckling phase and then through initial yielding and yield propagation to ultimate
conditions, leading, eventually, to elasto-plastic unloading.
2.1. GEOMETRY AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Square plate shear webs with stiffened circular cut-outs are studied. The dimensions
of the web plates are 500 mm by 500 mm with a uniform thickness of 2mm. The diameter
of the central circular cut-out is varied and ring stiffeners are introduced at the cut-out
boundaries. The ring stiffeners are rectangular in cross-section and can be attached at the
cut-out boundary on one side of the plate shear web or symmetrically disposed at the
boundary about the mid-plane of the web plate. The dimensions of the cut-out and
stiffener are varied to study their influence on post buckling performance. The element
size used in the plate shear web simulations is 10 mm along the web plate edges and this
is reduced considerably around the cut-out boundary region through automatic mesh
generation to account for the high stress gradients associated with the cut-out. Figure 1
shows a typically converged mesh simulation of the thin plate shear web with a stiffened
cut-out. The simplified von-Mises elastic-perfectly plastic material model is used for the
isotropic steel material with an elastic modulus of 210 *103 N/mm2 and a Poissons ratio
of 0.3. Three yield stress values are considered in the work, y = 345, 450 and
550 N/mm2.
2.2. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Simply supported boundary conditions are used in the analysis with all four edges of
the web plate considered to be normal stress free in-plane. Multipoint constraints MPCs
are used in the form of rigid body RBE2 elements. These rigid elements connect one
node to another or to multiple nodes, where the motion of the connected nodes is
governed by the defined degrees of freedom. In RBE2 elements a single node called the
master node or independent node has six degrees of freedom by default and the
426

connecting node or set of nodes are called slave nodes or dependent nodes and also have
six degrees of freedom i.e. three translational and three rotational but for the slave nodes
the degrees of freedom are defined by the user depending on the nature of the problem. It
is significant to understand the importance of choosing the degrees of freedom for the
dependent nodes. These should be chosen according to the movement of the master node
as the displacement is applied to the master node only. With reference to Figure 1, there
are four master nodes (MN1 MN4), one at the centre of each edge of the shear web as
indicated. All other nodes along each edge are slave nodes and these are connected to
their respective master nodes using the rigid body RBE2 elements. Using single point
constraints, SPCs, the translations of all edges of the shear web are constrained in the outof-plane Z-direction. As all edges are normal stress free in-plane, only one degree of
freedom is associated to the set of slave nodes on each edge, which is translation in the
X-direction for the top and bottom edges and translation in the Y-direction for the left
and right edges of the plate shear web. In other words the applied shear displacements at
the master nodes on each edge is just transferred to their corresponding set of slave nodes
without adding any stiffness to the structure. It is worth noting that once the degree of
freedom is assigned for the slave nodes then using single point constraints SPCs these
nodes must not be restrained in the same direction as that of the assigned degree of
freedom in order to avoid conflict between SPCs and MPCs.
Fig. 1. Simulation of thin plate shear web with stiffened cut-out showing master nodes
MN1 MN4 at the centre of each plate edge
2.3. LOADING CONDITIONS

The shear displacement load is applied at the master nodes (MN1 MN4) of all the
four edges of the plate using multipoint constraint as shown in Figure 1. The set of slave
nodes along each edge connected to the master node at each edge will have the same
applied shear displacement as the master node in the direction corresponding to the
applied displacement at the master node. The displacement is applied at the master node
and a reactive force is obtained at this node once the post-buckling solution is completed
427

and this is considered to be the equivalent average shear force. The average shear force is
then divided by the corresponding cross-sectional area of the edge where the
displacement loading is applied in order to get the equivalent average shear stress. It is
also observed that the average shear force at the master node of each edge is equal and
opposite in direction to the sum of the reactive forces acting at its slave nodes on the
same edge. The aspect ratio of the perforated shear web is one and thus for the square
web, the reactive forces at all master nodes are found to be the same. The average shear
stress obtained is therefore the same for all four edges of the square web plate thus
ensuring that the plate is under pure shear.
3. TYPICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Only a few selected results are presented in the paper which serves to illustrate the
usefulness of the applied in-plane shear displacement approach using a multipoint
constraint system with master nodes at the centre of each plate edge. The modelling
strategies and solution procedures employed in the finite element simulations are shown
to be able to describe the complete loading history of the shear web panels including the
ultimate failure at zero in-plane shear stiffness and the subsequent elasto-plastic shear
unloading phase resulting from the associated yield mechanism at failure. The results
presented in the paper are for steel simply supported square plates with a central circular
hole and are in accordance with the normal stress free boundary condition along the plate
edges during post-buckling.
Fig. 2. Applied average shear stress ave against in-plane shear displacement u/ucrit
The simply supported normal stress free condition at the plate edges ensures the
outcome of a lower bound solution to the thin plate shear web problem whilst enforcing
straight edges which are constrained against out-of-plane rotations lends itself to the
upper bound solution. If the edges of the web plate are attached to other structural
elements which afford elastic in-plane and rotational restraint to the web plate at its
428

boundaries then the shear web solution will, of course, lie somewhere between these two
limiting conditions. A wide ranging research programme is being carried out at
Loughborough University to look into all aspects of the behaviour of stiffened shear webs
with cut-outs with the view to reliable optimised designs. Some preliminary results are
presented in the paper for the lower bound solution of thin plate shear webs with stiffened
circular cut-outs.
Figure 2 shows the average applied shear stress ave plotted against the nondimensional in-plane shear displacement u/ucrit for a 500 by 500 mm steel web plate with
a central circular cut-out of 250 mm diameter and a plate thickness of 2 mm. The curves
presented are the elastic response and the elasto-plastic response corresponding to the
three material yield stress values of 345, 450 and 550 N/mm 2. At the point of buckling,
u/ucrit = 1, it is noted that the in-plane shear stiffness of the web plate drops
instantaneously to be of the order of 60% of its pre-buckled value. The gradual loss in
stiffness thereafter in the post-buckling range of the elastic solution is then solely
attributable to geometric non-linearity. The influence of material non-linearity is clearly
Fig. 3. Applied average shear stress ave against out-of-plane buckling displacements
evident in the elasto-plastic solutions where it is of note that from the onset of yielding,
the in-plane shear stiffness of the web plate is seen to be eroded fairly significantly with
increased shear displacement. The ultimate applied average shear stress occurs when the
in-plane shear stiffness of the web plate is zero and at this point a yield mechanism has
developed along the web leading diagonal and around the circular cut-out perimeter.
Unloading then takes place through the mechanism and this is readily predicted using the
displacement loading strategy detailed in the paper. With reference to Figure 2, the
ultimate shear stress levels of the web plate are found to be 47.79, 58.08 and 67.12
N/mm2 with regard to the material yield stress values of 345, 450 and 550 N/mm 2
respectively.
The out-of-plane equilibrium characteristics of the web plate are as shown in Figure
3 where the applied average shear stress ave is seen to be plotted against the out-of-plane
429

buckling displacements measured at the edge of the cut-out on the leading diagonal of
the plate. It is clear that the level of imperfection o chosen for the non-linear analysis is
extremely small and as such the web plate is considered, essentially, to be a geometrically
perfect plate. Again, the elastic and elasto-plastic solutions are detailed and the influence
of material yielding on the out-of-plane response of the web plate is clearly evident.
Fig. 4. Post-buckled to pre-buckled in-plane shear stiffness ratio S*/S against in-plane shear
displacement ratio u/ucrit for different levels of yield stress
The influence of buckling deformations on the in-plane shear stiffness of the

perforated web plate is highlighted in some detail in Figure 4 where the post-buckled to
pre-buckled in-plane shear stiffness ratio S*/S is shown to be plotted against the in-plane
shear displacement ratio u/ucrit for the different values of material yield stress considered.
The full lined curves shown are for the unperforated web plate, d/b = 0, and the dotted
curves are for the perforated web plate, d/b = 0.5. For the case of the full web plate, d/b =
0, it is seen that there is an instantaneous loss in shear stiffness at the point of buckling,
u/ucrit = 1, this is of the order of 20% and thus the plate shear stiffness reduces to about
80% of its pre-buckled value. The further loss in elastic shear stiffness is noted to be
more gradual in nature as a result of the geometric non-linearity associated with a
continually changing buckled form during post-buckling.
For the perforated web plate, d/b = 0.5, the instantaneous loss in shear stiffness at the
point of buckling is noted to be of the order of 40%, and thus the web plate shear stiffness
reduces to about 60% of its pre-buckled value. Again, the further loss in elastic shear
stiffness is noted to be more gradual in nature as a result of the buckled form change that
takes place during the increased shear displacement loading of the web. For both web
plates the most severe losses in in-plane shear stiffness are seen to be those associated
with material non-linearity. The onset of material yielding at the initial deviation from the
elastic curve and the subsequent yield propagation in the webs during further elastoplastic loading then leads eventually to zero shear stiffness, S*/S = 0, at ultimate
conditions. At this point an appropriate yield mechanism has developed in the web plate
430

and as a result, shear unloading takes place with the application of any further in-plane
shear displacement.
The performance of perforated shear web plates can, of course, be improved through
the introduction of appropriate stiffening at the perforation free edge. The influence of
symmetrically disposed rectangular ring stiffeners is detailed in Figure 5 which shows the
applied average shear stress ave plotted against the in-plane shear displacement u for the
case of stiffeners with different depths, ds/b = 0.025, 0.05 and 0.1. The web plate being
stiffened is the steel square plate, 500 by 500 mm which is 2 mm thick and has a 250 mm
diameter centrally located cut-out. The stiffeners are the same thickness as the web plate,
ts/t = 1, and are made from the same material as the web. The curves detailed in Figure 5
are those corresponding to the material yield stress level of y = 345 N/mm2.
Fig. 5. Applied average shear stress ave against in-plane shear displacement u for different
ds/b (symmetrically disposed stiffeners)
The influence of the ring stiffeners is clearly evident in Figure 5 where it can be seen
that considerable improvements can be made on the ultimate shear carrying capability of
the unstiffened web plate, ds/b = 0, which is 47.79 N/mm2. This is noted to be increased
by 26.1% to 60.25 N/mm2 for the stiffener depth of ds/b = 0.025, by 44.3% to 68.96
N/mm2 for ds/b = 0.05 and by 51.9% to 72.58 N/mm2 for ds/b = 0.1. Location 5 on the
equilibrium curve for ds/b = 0.05 is the point at which first yield is experienced on the
web plate mid-surface. The membrane stress variations at the various locations indicated
are illustrated and discussed in some detail later in the paper.
The out-of-plane equilibrium characteristics of the stiffened web plates are as shown
in Figure 6. Again, it is quite clear that the level of imperfection o chosen for the nonlinear finite element analysis is extremely small and as such the stiffened web plates can
be considered, essentially, to be geometrically perfect. The out-of-plane buckling
displacements are measured at the edge of the cut-out on the leading diagonal of the
web plate for the unstiffened plate, ds/b = 0, and at other locations along the leading
diagonal of the web plate away from the cut-out perimeter for the different stiffener
431

configurations. It is of note from Figure 6 that material yielding significantly influences
the out-of-plane equilibrium characteristics of the stiffened shear webs.
Fig. 6. Applied average shear stress ave against out-of-plane buckling displacements for
different ds/b (symmetrically disposed stiffeners)
The equilibrium curves of Figures 5 and 6 for the case of d s/b = 0.05 are shown to
illustrate 12 load locations. The membrane stresses in the web plate at the different load
levels have been determined and the stress-loading history is as detailed in Figure 7
which gives an insight into the development and propagation of yielding during the
loading process. For load levels 1 to 4 the membrane stresses are found to be everywhere
elastic with the maximum values being 263, 283, 305 and 326 N/mm 2 for levels 1 to 4
respectively. It is to be noted that the membrane stress patterns are symmetric about both
diagonals of the square web plate and that these maximum values occur at the cut-out
perimeter on the leading diagonal. Load location 5 signifies first yield on the web middle
surface where the maximum stress is now the yield stress y = 345 N/mm2. Further
loading is then seen to propagate yielding around the perimeter of the cut-out and then
along the leading diagonal of the web plate. At load level 10 when the in-plane shear
stiffness of the web plate is zero a yield mechanism is seen to occur all along the leading
diagonal. This results in shear unloading of the web plate with any further increase in the
applied in-plane shear displacement. During the unloading process through levels 11 and
12 it is to be noted that the complete symmetry of the stress distributions is lost and that
symmetry is maintained only about the leading diagonal.
This paper gives a detailed outline of the finite element modelling strategies and
solution procedures employed in the analysis of thin plate shear webs with stiffened cutouts. The results presented in the paper highlight the usefulness of the applied in-plane
shear displacement approach in being able to deal with all aspects of behaviour including
432

the shear unloading phase resulting from an appropriately developed yield mechanism.
The paper gives a detailed account of the complete loading history of the shear webs,
illustrating the significant degrading influence on structural performance of the cut-outs,
as well as highlighting the considerable redeeming influence of providing reinforcement
at the cut-out boundaries.
10
11
12
Fig. 7. Yield initiation and yield propagation on web plate middle surface throughout
the loading process for ds/b = 0.05 (symmetrically disposed stiffener)
REFERENCES
[1]
Gurney, C. (1938). An analysis of the stresses in a flat plate with a reinforced circular
hole under edge forces. RAE Report, R. M. 1834, pp. 663-687.
433

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[7]
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Beskins, L. (1944). Strengthening of circular holes in plates under edge loads. Journal of
Applied Mechanics, 66, A140-A148.
Wang, C. K. (1946). Theoretical analysis of perforated shear webs. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Trans. ASME, 13 (2) A77-A84.
Mansfield, E. H. (1953). "Neutral holes in plane sheet-reinforced holes which are
elastically equivalent to the uncut sheet." Q. J. Mech. Appl. Math., 6, pp. 370378.
Houghton, D. S., and Rothwell, A. (1961). "The analysis of reinforced circular and
elliptical cutouts under various loading conditions." Report No. 151, The College of
Aeronautics, Cranfield, pp. 110.
Rockey, K. C., Anderson, R. G. and Cheung, Y. K. (1967). The behaviour of square shear
webs having circular hole. In Proceedings of the Swansea Conference on Thin- Walled
Structures. Crosby Lockwood and Sons, London, pp. 148-169.
Hoglund, T. (1971). Strength of thin plate girders with circular or rectangular web holes
without web stiffeners. Proceedings of the Colloquium of the International Association of
Bridge and Structural Engineering, London.
Uenoya, M., and Redwood, R. G. (1978). Elasto-plastic shear buckling of square plates
with circular holes, Computers & Structures, Volume 8, Issue 2, Pages 291-300.
Rockey, K. C. (1980). The buckling and post-buckling behaviour of shear panels which
have a central circular cut-out. Thin-walled structures (Proceedings of the Glasgow
Conference held in 1979 edited by J. Rhodes and A. C. Walker), (Granada, St. Albans),
pp. 658672.
Narayanan, R., and Rockey, K. C. (1981). Ultimate load capacity of plate girders with
webs containing circular cut-outs. Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs., Part 2, 71 845862.
Shanmugam, N. E., and Narayanan, R. (1982). Elastic buckling of perforated square
plates for various loading and edge conditions. International Conference on Finite
Element Methods, Shanghai, pp. 658672.
Roberts, T. M., and Azizian, Z. G. (1984). Strength of perforated plates subjected to inplane loading. Thin-Walled Structures, 2(2) 153-164.
Narayanan, R. and Der Avenessian, N. G. V. (1984). Elastic buckling of perforated plates
under shear. Thin-Walled Structures, (2) 51-73.
Narayanan, R., and Chow, F. Y. (1985). Experiments on perforated plates subjected to
shear. Journal of Strain Analysis, 20(1) 23-34.
Sabir, A. B., and Chow, F. Y. (1986). Elastic buckling of plates containing eccentrically
located circular holes. Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 4, Issue 2, pp. 135-149.
Shanmugam, N. E. (1997). Openings in Thin-Walled steel structures. Thin-Walled
Structures, Volume 28, Issues 34, pp. 355-372.
Shanmugam, N. E., Lian, V. T., Thevendran V., (2002). Finite element modelling of plate
girders with web openings. Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 40, Issue 5, pp. 443-464.
Paik, J. K. (2007), Ultimate strength of perforated steel plates under edge shear loading.
Thin-Walled Structures, Volume 45, Issue 3, pp. 301-306.
Paik, J. K. (2008), Ultimate strength of perforated steel plates under combined biaxial
compression and edge shear loads. Thin-Walled Structures, Vol 46, Issue 2, pp. 207-213.
Pellegrino, C., Maiorana, E., and Modena, C. (2009). Linear and non-linear behaviour of
steel plates with circular and rectangular holes under shear loading. Thin-Walled
Structures, Volume 47, Issues 67, pp. 607-616.
Cheng, B., and Zhao, J. (2010). Strengthening of perforated plates under uniaxial
compression: Buckling analysis. Thin-Walled Structures, Vol 48, Issue 12, pp. 905-914.
434
ABOUT THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUT LENGTH ON

DEFORMATION AND STABILITY OF THE ELASTIC
CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
O.V. LYKHACHOVA, D.L. VOLCHOK
Department of Structural Mechanics and Strength of Materials,
Prydniprovska State Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Chernyshevskogo 24-a, 49600 Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine
R. SCHMIDT
Institute of General Mechanics, RWTH Aachen University
By means of the numerical simulation of the deformation of the axially compressed

elastic circular cylindrical shells with one longitudinal cut, it has been described the
cut length influence on the shell behaviour features and its stability, for two
different types and conditions of axial compression.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays there are widespread and prevailing universal software of high level
based on FEM. They are successfully used for the linear and nonlinear analyses of the
shell stress-strain state and buckling. The efficiency of this approach is proved by
different authors [1, 3, 4-5], over and over again.
Particularly, in the works [4-5] for shells with several large (about 83 % of the shell
length) cuts it has been figured out a good qualitative and quantitative correspondence
between the results of the geometrically nonlinear solution at ANSYS software for
kinematic axial compression (there are uniform longitudinal displacements applied on the
shell edge) and the experimental data [2]. At the same time it has been revealed a
considerable difference between the numerical results for the kinematical and force
loading at the geometrically nonlinear problems.
The aim of this work is to study the deformation and buckling features of the axially
compressed elastic circular cylindrical shells with the only longitudinal cut for two types
of the static shell loading (see Fig.1a).
2. NUMERICAL SIMULATION PROCEDURE
The numerical simulation of the linear and geometrically nonlinear buckling
problem has been carried out by means of FE procedures implemented in ANSYS
software. The material model is linear and isotropic. The mechanical characteristics are:
the modulus of elasticity = 191 GPa, conventional yield strength 02 =800 MPa and
Poissons ratio = 0.3. The geometrical characteristics are: the internal diameter
435

2R = 183 mm, shell thickness - h = 0.305 mm (R/h = 300), length ratio - L/R = 2.1
(L = 192 mm). The longitudinal cut length l is 0.05, 0.1 till 0.83 of the shell length (where
the step 0.1 is equal to a half-length of a square wave).
The numerical research is carried out on the three-dimensional FE models of a shell
half due to the plane of symmetry in the middle of the shells (Fig.1a). The FE mesh of the
model is created using an element SHELL 181 from the standard ANSYS element library,
adopted for the simulation the thin and moderate shells and also used for the nonlinear
problems with large deformations and deflections. Created finite elements are square (the
size of 3.5 mm) in plane. Considering free edges of the cut, there is a complementary
mesh refining by the cut lines (Fig.1b). So, the total elements number is from 5 000 till
5 400 FE, depending on cut length l.
b)
a)
Fig. 1. Loading scheme of a shell with one longitudinal cut (), FE model (b) and distinctive
points of the shell ()
The boundary conditions correspond to the hinge support: there are tangent and
radial displacements restrained on the top of the shell. At the plane of symmetry there are
symmetric boundary conditions applied.
For the generated models it has been performed buckling analyses and geometrically
nonlinear stress-strain state analyses, taking into account linear prestress deformations.
All mentioned analyses are performed for two types of static loading: force (uniform
forces distributed on the top edges) and kinematic (uniform longitudinal displacements
distributed on the top). For the buckling problems it is defined eigenvalues ( N cr ) and
eigenmodes. The definition of the limit forces ( N lim ) in the geometrically nonlinear
analyses is based on nonlinear equations of the technical shells theory (by means of the
arc-length method for the force loading and by means of Newton-Raphson for the
kinematic one). At the case of kinematic compression N cr and N lim are defined as total
edge reactions on top nodes of the FE model.
436

The results of the numerical simulations are presented in the Fig. 2 as dependences
cr
of the critical N N cr N cl and limit N
lim
N lim N cl loads on the value l. Here, N cl
is the classical value of the critical axial compressive force N cl 2Eh 2
3(1 2 ) .
White and black rounds correspond to the linear and geometrically nonlinear solutions for
the force loading. The linear and nonlinear solutions for the kinematic loading are figured
with white and black squares.
Fig. 2. Dependences of relative limit and critical loads on relative cut length l
These dependences show that the numerical simulation results of the stability of the
shells with one cut at linear problems coincide for two types of loading. While the limit
forces for the kinematic loading are considerably higher than the limit charges for the
force one. The growth of the cut length leads to the distinction of 46 %. Meanwhile a
qualitative and quantitative difference is observed. But it should be noted here the inverse
near the small cuts region, where the linear solution results appear higher than the results
of the geometrically nonlinear solutions.
According to the research plan, for the concerned shells while solving linear
bifurcation problem, it has been determined bifurcation modes attended by symmetric
separation of the shell edges along the cuts. Thus, it is ascertained eigenmodes are
identical for two types of loading. In Fig. 3-d there are adduced typical modes depending
on values l.
By geometrically nonlinear solution of the shells deformation it has been obtained
prebuckling modes. As well in the case of linear solutions, most of the buckling modes
are equal for two considered types of loading (see Fig. 3e-f). The certain differences
should be noted only for the shells with small values l (see Fig. 3g-h, and therein after).
In Fig. 4 there are dependences revealing the postcritical deformation behaviour of
the shell with the cut length l=0.3 for the kinematic loading. Here are: 1) the dependence
437

of a relative longitudinal displacement Z on a relative shell reaction N (Fig. 4);
2) the dependence of relative radial displacements w w / h of points 1 and 2 situated
on the cut boards (see Fig. 1) on a relative shell reaction N (in the Fig. 4b displacements
of the point 1 are marked with a thick line and displacements of the point 2 are marked
with a thin dotted line); 3) the dependence of a relative longitudinal displacement Z on
a relative reaction N z of the point situated on the top edge of a shell above the cut
(Fig. 4).
The dependences shown in the Fig. 4 are typical. While the shell reaction reaches its
limit point, values Z and w vary depending on l within the ranges (0.28-0.55) h and
(0.14-9.5) h respectively. The buckling mode at this moment is given in Fig. 5, a. The
follow-up loading of the shell is accompanied with a sharp fall of the reaction of the point
(Fig. 4c), whereas the total edge reaction goes down a little. The shell mode transfers to
a new equilibrium state by means of developing a local (Fig. 5b) to total (Fig. 5c)
buckling mode.
l=0.1
a)
l=0.3
l=0.5
b)
c)
l=0.7
e)
l=0.7
d)
l=0.1
f)
g)
h)
Fig. 3. Typical bifurcation modes ( for the kinematical loading, b for the force loading)
and precritical deformations (c for the force loading, d for the kinematical
loading) of the shells with one cut
In the case of the uniform force compression the shell deformation behaviour differs.
During loading the top edge comes out of the plane and the maximal vertical
displacements are realized on the top edge above the cut (the point ) and are equal
(0.24-0.43) h - depending on the cut length. In Fig. 6a there is presented the dependence
of a relative longitudinal displacement of the point C on a relative compressive force N
for the shell with l=0.4. It should be mentioned here that after reaching a certain point (a
bifurcation point) the load goes down and then again goes up passing on the ascending
branch. The axial load, at this moment, coincides with the critical load of linear solution.
438

But not for all cases of the considering shells the bifurcation leads to the rising of the
axial compressive force at geometrically nonlinear solutions. Therefore, as limit point it
has been taken the next higher load followed by the descending branch.
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 4. Deformation of the shell with the cut l=0.3 for the kinematical loading
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 5. Precritical and postcritical deformations of the shell with the cut l=0.3 for the
kinematical loading: initial (a), local (lower) (b) and overall (c) buckling mode
As for the case of the kinematic loading points B1, 2 realized the biggest radial
displacements (0.12-14.07) h depending on values l (in the Fig. 6b a thick line represents
the displacement of the point 1, and a thin dotted line shows the displacement of the
point 2). At that, these displacements start with the bifurcation point (see Fig. 6-b). The
buckling of a shell occurs to curvature centre nearby the cut, sometimes accomplished
with slight asymmetric displacements of the cut boards (see Fig. 6c).
4. CONCLUSIONS
The analysis of the results of linear and geometrically nonlinear problems of the
deformation and stability of the elastic circular cylindrical shells with one longitudinal cut
for two different types and conditions of loading shows that the shells failure occurs at
reaching the limit force. It is confirmed with the analysis of the buckling modes given in
the Fig. 3, 5, 7. Despite the critical loads lie below the limit forces in the region of large
cuts l, the bifurcations dont cause the failure but are the initial stage of the deformation
which precedes the general buckling of the shell.
439
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 6. Deformation of the shell with the cut l=0.4 for the force loading
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 7. Deformations of the shell with the cut l=0.05 for the force loading: linear solution
(a); local (b) and overall (c) modes of the geometrically nonlinear solution
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is supported by Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Institutional
academic cooperation program, grant no. 3.4-Fokoop-UKR/1070297).
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Krasovsky V., Marchenko V., Schmidt R., Deformation and buckling of axially
compressed cylindrical shells with local loads in numerical simulation and experiments,
Proceed. of Intern. Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, 2011, 49, 5, pp.576-580.
Zavarykin L.G., Nonlinear deformation and stability of cylindrical shells undergoing the
non-uniform compression (in Russian), PhD thesis, DICE, Dnepropetrovsk, 1984.
Krasovsky V., Kolesnikov M., Schmidt R., Numerical analysis of load-carrying capacity of
thin-walled cylinders with geometrical imperfections periodical in circumference direction
(in Russian), Theoretical foundation of civil engineering, WP, Warsaw, 2009, 17,
pp.157-164.
Lykhachova ., Stability of cylindrical shells with longitudinal cuts (in Russian),
Theoretical foundation of civil engineering, WP, Warsaw, 2011, 19, pp.155-160.
Lykhachova .V., Stability of axially compressed cylindrical shells with longitudinal cuts:
numerical investigation (in Russian), Abstracts of Conf. Informational technologies at
education, science and management, PSACEA, Dnepropetrovsk, 2012, pp.164-16.
440
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF COLD-FORMED STEEL

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS WITH PERFORATIONS SUBJECTED
TO COMPRESSION LOADING
M. MACDONALD, M. P. KULATUNGA
School of Engineering & Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University,
Glasgow, UK
Numerical investigation on the behaviour of cold-formed thin-walled steel
structural members with perforations is presented in this paper. Many structural
cold-formed steel members are provided with cut-outs to accommodate electrical,
plumbing, and heating services and so on. Due to the position of cut-outs, the
elastic stiffness and ultimate strength of a structural member could be varied. The
primary interest of this paper is to study the possible buckling occurrence on cold
formed steel structural sections used as columns with perforations. Initially, a
reliable finite element model was generated using the ANSYS software package to
be able to predict the ultimate strength of cold-formed structural sections and to
obtain a better understanding of the buckling failure behaviour highlighted, and
conclusions will be drawn on this basis.
1. INTRODUCTION
In steel construction cold-formed structural members are becoming more popular
and have a growing importance. Cold-formed steel exhibits a versatile nature which
allows for the forming of almost any section geometry [1]. Cold-formed steel sections are
usually thinner than hot-rolled sections and can be subject to different modes of failure
and deformation and therefore extensive testing is required to provide a guideline for the
design of cold-formed thin-walled structural members [2].
The main mechanical properties (yield point, tensile strength and ductility) of coldformed steel sections, particularly at the corners, are considerably different from those of
the flat steel sheet, plate, strip or bar before forming. This is because the cold-forming
operation increases the yield point and tensile strength, and at the same time decreases
the ductility. Design codes have been generated in different countries [3], [4], [5], and [6]
amongst many others for cold-formed steel structures subjected to various loading
scenarios which can cause buckling, bending and web crippling or a combination. Many
structural cold-formed steel members are provided with perforations of different shapes
to accommodate electrical, plumbing, and heating services and so on as illustrated in
Fig.1. The position of such perforations can affect the elastic stiffness and ultimate
strength of a structural member [7].
1.1 EFFECTS OF PERFORATIONS
In general the effect of perforations made specifically for fasteners such as bolts,
screws, etc. on the overall strength of a structure may be neglected as holes are filled with
material. However, any other openings/perforations generated and not filled with
441

replacement material creates a reduced cross sectional area and cross sectional properties
and this should be taken into account in any analysis. The effect of perforations on the
structure is examined by testing and analysis.
Fig.1. Perforations for fasteners. [8]
2. BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF COLD-FORMED STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

Unlike heavy hot-rolled steel sections, cold-formed thin-walled sections tend to
buckle locally at stress levels lower than the yield strength of the material when they are
subjected to various loading conditions. However, these members do not fail at these
stress levels and continue to carry further loads. This phenomenon is called post-buckling
behaviour. There are different buckling modes as illustrated in Fig. 2: Local [9],
Distortional [9], Euler, Torsional-Flexural and Lateral-Torsional [10].
Fig. 2. Different buckling modes
The buckling mode is influenced by cross-section geometry, end conditions, loading

and material. Also, introducing perforations to structures has a significant effect on the
critical buckling load and the buckling mode [12], [13].
3. NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is an accurate and flexible technique to forecast the
performance of a structure, mechanism or process under different loading conditions. A
442

general finite element procedure with a particular emphasis on analysing thin-walled
members using ANSYS finite element software package is presented here. FEA is now
commonly used early in a design process to try out new concepts and optimise before any
physical prototypes are made and tested. The three main stages in an FEA are: generation
of the model, solving the model, and saving and reviewing the results.
A commonly employed methodology to generate a finite element model in ANSYS
is the direct generation of the finite element model, creating a solid model within ANSYS
or importing a solid model created in a separate CAD system. Direct generation is
employed when the model is fairly simple and provides much more control over the
geometry and numbering of nodes and elements. However, for relatively large or
complicated models this approach becomes less flexible. The ANSYS program has a
large library of element types. These elements are mainly categorised based on the
features embedded into the element type. The common types of elements for structural
analysis are categorised as link, plane, beam, solid and shell elements.
Fig. 3. Element types (a, b), mesh type(c) and symmetry boundary condition (d) [14]
In general, cold-formed thin-walled members such as channel sections, encompass

relatively thin webs, flanges and lips, and are subjected to loading through flanges.
Further, these members can have large width-to-thickness ratios. Shell elements are often
used to model thin-walled structures and provide more accurate results with a reasonable
solution time compared to volume elements. SHELL181 is one of the shell elements in
the ANSYS element library along with many other shell elements such as SHELL43,
SHELL93, etc [14] (Fig. 3a). SHELL181 has features which can represent thin-walled
structures effectively such as suitability for analysing thin to moderately-thick shell
structures, suited for linear, large rotation, and/or large strain nonlinear applications.
Load can be applied using a load bearing plate. SOLID45 is one of the most suitable
element types among other elements such as SOLID46, SOLID65, and SOLID70 etc.
443

The element has plasticity, creep, swelling, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large
strain capabilities.
Meshing is an integral part of the computer aided engineering simulation process.
The accuracy, convergence and speed of the solution depend on the density of the mesh.
Furthermore, the time it takes to create and mesh a model is often a significant portion of
the time it takes to get results from a CAE solution. Therefore, better and more automated
meshing tools give better results. Three basic steps are involved in the meshing process:
element attributes, mesh controls, and meshing the model.
Finite Element Analysis of a structure is mainly carried out to investigate the
structural behaviour of the structure due to various loading conditions. Hence, accurate
modelling of the loading is vital. There are several ways of applying the necessary
loading to a structure: as displacements, structural forces or pressures onto either
geometric entities or a set of nodes in the finite element model if the investigation is a
pure structural analysis. Boundary conditions are defined based on supports, connections
and contacts. In practice, boundary conditions can change during loading and could affect
the final solution. However, these effects are difficult to determine and are often
neglected. Boundary conditions are applied by restraining the displacements and/or
rotations of a set of selected nodes and are varied according to the structure. Many
structures show one or more symmetries with regards to their geometries and loading.
The model size is optimised by applying appropriate boundary conditions along the
planes of symmetry by identifying symmetric features [14].
During the solution process ANSYS program performs a series of statistical
operations using a system of simultaneous equations generated from the finite element
model and corresponding nodal results are stored. ANSYS provides several types of
equation solvers depending on the analysis type. The type of analysis could be static,
buckling, transient or modal and must be specified at the beginning of the solution
process. The type of analysis depends on the behaviour of the system being examined and
the results expected. Structural behaviour could be analysed on the basis of its linear or
nonlinear response to external forces. Linear analysis provides a fast solution and usually
with less amount of modelling time. However, small displacements and rotations within
the linear range of material behaviour will give accurate results. In real circumstances
structures exhibit nonlinear behaviour within their actual loading ranges, mainly due to
geometric nonlinearities, material nonlinearities and changing status. ANSYS uses the
Newton-Raphson method to solve nonlinear problems. This iterative procedure continues
until the problem converges.
4. ANALYSIS OF BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF STUB COLUMNS
In this design exercise, buckling behaviour of a thin walled cold formed `C section
was analysed under compression loading as detailed in Fig. 4. Further, the perforation
position and number of perforations presented in the structure were studied. In the
construction industry perforations are often used for various design purposes and they
may be varied with respect to size, shape and position. Areas around perforations are
more vulnerable to high stresses leading to possible failure around these regions. Hence,
a careful study is required to define the perforation size, position etc. on a structure to
keep stresses and strains within acceptable levels. Research is structured into two stages:
444

first stage - Finite Element Analysis (FEA) been employed; second stage - FEA results
were compared with test results.
B
H
h
t
r
30 mm
60 mm
8 mm
0.75 mm
2 mm
Fig. 4. (a) p2-wnf perforated on the web near the flanges at and of the width of the web,
(b) p2-fnoe perforated on the flanges near the outer edges at 2/3 of the width of the
flanges.
Fig. 5 shows schematic views highlighting perforations and position, with one end
of the structure fixed and load is applied from the other end with the aid of a load bearing
plate. This position represents the pinned-pinned condition and gives the option to apply
load uniformly along the edge of loading face.
Fig. 5. Schematic view of `C sections with end support/load bearing plate
Two different types of sections have been used for the FEA analysis and the crosssection is constant. A circular shape perforation is used throughout the analysis as it is
more commonly in steel structures, and the load is applied using a load bearing plate at
the same speed rate.
4.1 DEVELOPING FE MODELS FOR BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
The cross section was modelled using key points, lines and arcs. Further, crosssection shape was dragged along a line to generate the section. Perforations were created
by subtracting required areas from the section using subtract area command and special
attention was paid when selecting the relevant area. The sections, loading and support
reactions were symmetrical about the vertical plane therefore only one-half of the section
was modelled. Load was applied through a load bearing plate and the plate was modelled
as a solid beam.
445

The section was developed using ANSYS element type SHELL181 as it is wellsuited for linear, large rotation, and/or large strain nonlinear applications. Further, it is
capable of handling change in thickness accounted for in nonlinear analyses. For the
bearing plate ANSYS element type BEAM45 was used. The mapped meshing technique
was used to generate a variable density mesh. Fine mesh was employed around
perforations and coarse mesh further away from the perforations. Fig.6(c) shows the
element mesh generated for p2-wnf model and illustrates different regions of the element
mesh.
Fig. 6. Generate section (a, b & c)/symmetry boundary condition (d & e)
Pinned-pinned boundary condition was applied for all loading cases. One end was
restricted for three degree of freedoms to represent the fixed end. Nodes in other end
were coupled together to represent the fixed condition of the flange to the load bearing
plate. Load was applied as nodal displacements under the load bearing plate. The
symmetric boundary conditions shown in Fig. 6(e) were applied at mid section of the
member, Y-direction displacement was fixed and the rotations about the X-axis and Zaxis were also fixed. Load bearing plate was modeled as a solid block member the same
as attached to the section. As a result, nodes adjacent to bearing plate move with the load
bearing plate as it was given displacement to represent compression load. At this point X
and Z displacements were restricted, with Y displacement allowed.
Load is applied through a load bearing plate which represents the actual loading
conditions applied in the experiments. Load bearing plate and the top flange of the
section were connected by a pair of contact surfaces where nodes on flange edge
represent same loading conditions as in load bearing plate.
5. COMPARISON
Results of the analysis were obtained by using ANSYS general postprocessor
/POST1 and time history postprocessor /POST26. These processors are built in the
ANSYS software and used for different functions. General postprocessor /POST1 was
used to view the results of the analysis and to obtain the various nodal stress and strain
values and the deformed shape. History postprocessor /POST26 was used to provide
results over the time history and very useful in obtaining the load vs. deformation graphs
446

under load bearing plate and other critical locations. Load was applied in terms of
displacement and calculated against the displacement. Fig.7 shows the failure load plot
for 2 specimens tested with comparisons to FEA, tests (from experimental investigations
carried out by Rhodes and Schnieder [15]), Eurocode and BS5950. Fig. 8 shows the load
vs. displacement curves for the 2 specimens obtained from FEA.
Table 1. Comparison of buckling failure load
Fig. 7. Comparison of buckling failure load

6. CONCLUSION
Finite element models were developed to simulate buckling failure of cold-formed
channel section columns with circular cut-outs under compression. ANSYS finite
element package was used for the analysis and nonlinear material behaviour was studied
in order to represent the plastic failure in the post-yield region. Results showed that the
displacement of the structure under compression varied significantly with the cut-out
position. The tests carried out in the experimental investigations were capable of
validating the buckling behaviour of channel sections as exhibited in the FE models. The
design codes predicted loads which werent very consistent with the FEA and the test
results and require further investigation.
There have been limited investigations into buckling behaviour of sections with cutouts and it is understood that there are still no reliable equations or models capable of
predicting the ultimate buckling strength. The next step of this research will be an
extensive experimental program which is capable of confirming the FEA observations
obtained from this research, and results that can be used for further developing finite
element models and to inform analytical investigations and design codes.
447
Fig. 8. FEA results (load and displacement) for section p2-wnf & p2-fnoe
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Rhodes, J., 1991. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Members. Elsevier Applied Science:
England. ISBN 1 85166 595 1.
Yu, W.W., 2000. Cold-Formed Steel Design. 3rd Edition. Canada: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0-471-34809-0.
ENV 1993-1-3:2006, Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures; Part 1.3: General Rules Supplementary Rules for Cold Formed Thin Gauge Members and Sheeting. November
2009. (Edited Draft).
British Standards Institution, 1998. British standards for structural use of steel work in
buildings Part 5: Code of practice for design of cold formed thin gauge sections.
BS5950.
American Iron and Steel Institute, 2007.Specification for the Design of Cold Formed
Steel Structural Members, AISI-S100-07.
AS/NZS4600, 2005. Cold-Formed Steel Structures, Standards Australia, Sydney.
Don Allen, P E., 2007. Innovations in Cold-Formed Steel Framing. Insights, pp. 54-56.
Cristopher, D.M., 2009. Direct strength design of Cold-formed steel members with
perforations. The Johns Hopkins University, Department of Civil Engineering. Baltimore.
Teng, J.G., Michael, R., 2004. Buckling of thin metal shells. Spon Press. London.
Schafer, B.W., Pekz, T., Local and distortional Buckling of Cold-Formed Steel
Members with Edge Stiffened Flanges. [online] available at:
<http://ceeserver.cee.cornell.edu/tp26/TWResearchGroup/tpadd/edgepap-corr.doc>
Young, B., Local buckling and shift of effective centroid of slender sections. Available
through: University of Hong Kong [online] website
<www.hkisc.org/proceedings/2006421/9_Ben-Young.pdf>.
Eurocode resources. [online] available at: <http://www.eurocode-resources.com/bucklinga16.html>.
AISI. Distortional buckling of cold-formed steel columns, Research Report rp. 00 1.
Revision 2006.
ANSYS, Inc, November 2010. ANSYS Mechanical APDL Structural Analysis Guide:
ANSYS Release 13.0. USA.
Rhodes, J. and Schneider, F.D., Compressional Behaviour of Perforated Elements, 12th
International Specialty Conference on Col-Formed Steel Structures, St. Louis, Missouri,
USA, October 1994.
448
STABILITY OF THIN-WALLED CHANNEL BEAMS WITH

ORTHOTROPIC FLANGES
E. MAGNUCKA-BLANDZI
Institute of Mathematics, Poznan University of Technology,
ul. Piotrowo 3a, 60-965 Pozna, Poland
K. ZAJC
WOM Brodnica
ul. Podgrna 90, 87-300 Brodnica, Poland
The paper is devoted to a cold-formed thin-walled channel beam. The appropriately

shaped flanges are orthotropic structures. The mathematical model of the beam has
been described. Geometrical properties of the cross section have been derived and
critical stresses of global buckling have been calculated. Two cases are considered:
the problem of lateral buckling (the beam under pure bending) and the problem of
global buckling (the beam under compression). The study of global buckling
includes flexural and torsional buckling. The numerical model of the beam has been
also formulated. The critical loads have been analytically and numerically (with the
use of FEM - finite strip method) calculated. The obtained results have been
compared and presented in Figures and Tables.
1. INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed thin-walled beams are widely applied in many engineering structures
- vehicles, machines, buildings and others. Thin-walled beams are at risk of losing their
stability. The global buckling especially lateral buckling phenomenon as well as local
buckling of beam cross section parts play crucial role and they must not be omitted while
designing process. Strength and buckling problems of these beams are described in many
monographs and papers of the 20th century, for example in chronological order by Vlasov
[1], Bleich [2], Timoshenko and Gere [3], Murray [4], Baant and Cedolin [5], Weiss and
Giejowski [6], and Trahair [7].
Besides monographs, these problems have been presented in many papers for years.
Rasmussen [8] presented a general bifurcation analysis of thin-walled beams. Hancock [9]
used FSM (finite strip method) to study local, distortional and flexural-torsional buckling
problems of I-beams, and together with Papangelis [10] studied analytically and
numerically buckling problems of thin-walled beams with open and closed cross sections.
Put et al. [11, 12] concentrated with cold-formed lipped channel-section beams.
Shapes of flanges or webs of cold-formed thin-walled channel beams are rather
complicated. Davis [13], Magnucki and Paczos [14] overview problems of channel
beams. Selected problems of buckling and optimal design of cold-formed thin-walled
beams were reviewed by Magnucka-Blandzi and Magnucki [15].
The subject of the paper is thin-walled channel beams with orthotropic flanges. The
beam is under compression (Fig. 1) or pure bending. Flanges consist of two plates. The
449

outer one (a top side of the flange) is a flat plate. The second one (a bottom side of the
flange) is corrugated plate (a cosine wave) as shown in Fig 1. Top and bottom parts are
not joined together. These parts are in contact only.
Fig. 1. Scheme of simply supported thin-walled channel beam and loads
2. GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS SECION OF THE BEAM

The cross section of the considered beam is mono-symmetrical C-section. Its scheme
with principal axes y z is shown in Fig.2. The origin O0, 0 and the shear center (the
point C ) are located on the z -axis of symmetry.
Fig. 2. Scheme of the cross section of a beam with orthotropic flanges
A total area of the cross section is as follows

A 2at f 0 x0 , x1 , x4 ,
where dimensionless function is
f 0 x0 , x1 , x4 1 x4 1 2 x1 mx0 S0 ,
dimensionless parameters are
b
b
t
b
c
x0 0 , x1 1 , x2 a , x3 , x4 ,
b
b
a
b
b
450
(1)
(2)

1
S0 1 k 2 sin 2 21 d 1 ,
1 z1 b0 ,
ca
,
b0
and m denotes the number of cosine waves, t a thickness of the beam, ca and b0 their
amplitude and period respectively, a and b dimensions of the cross section, and
H 2a t a depth of the beam.
The geometric stiffness for Saint-Venant torsion of the cross section is given in the
formula
Jt
2 3
at f 0 x0 , x1 , x4 .
3
(3)
The location of the centroid (point O ) follows from a first moment of the cross section
with respect to the principal axis y which equals zero, i.e.
1
1
1
1
z0 A 2t b 2 b12 b1 b b1 b0 S0 m b1 mb0 0
2
2
2
2
(4)
therefore
z 0 b x4
1 2 x1 m2 x1 mx0 x0 S 0
.
2 f 0 x0 , x1 , x4
(5)
Moments of inertia of the plane area with respect to the y and z axes are as follows
1
2
J y 2a 3t x1 1 x1 x12 mx 03 S 3
3
3
1
mx 0 S 0 x02 4m 2 1 x0 x1m x12 x43 z 02 A ,

12
(6)
J z 2a 3t f 3 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,
(7)
1
2
where S 2 cos 21 1 k sin 21 d 1 , S 3 2 12 1 k 2 sin 2 21 d 1 ,

1
1
x4 1 2 x1 1 x3 x4 2 m x0 x22 x42 S 2 1 x3 x4 x2 x4 S0 ,
3
2
The location of the shear centre (the point C ) is given by
f 3 x1 , x2 , x3 , x4
zC z B
2
Jz
451
y dA
(8)

where B is the sectorial coordinate, with respect to the auxiliary point B for
characteristic points of the cross section of a beam, as follows:
B1 0 , B 2 ab , B3 B 2 tb , B 4 B3 b1 a t , B5 z B 4 B z ,
2z0
1
2z
dz0 a t ca 1 cos
b b1 z ,
B z a t 2 z b b1 ca 1 cos
b0
2
b0
for z mb0 the sectorial coordinate B5 B5 mb0 B 4 mb0 a t ca ,

and B6 B5 b1 a t .
The coordinates y for characteristic points of the cross section are:
1
z
y1 a , y2 a , y3 a t , y4 a t , y5 z a t ca 1 cos 2 ,
2
b0
for z mb0 the coordinate y5 y5 mb0 a t , and y6 a t .
Therefore
zC z B
a 4t
1 2 x1 1 x3 x 4 21 x3 x 4 2 x1 mx 0 1 x3 x 4 x 2 x 4 mx 0
Jz
8 2 mx 0 2 x1 2 2 x 3 x 4 x 2 x 4 2 2 x 3 x 4 x 2 x 4 S 0
x 22 x 4 2 2 x1 mx 0 S 2
(9)
m
x 0 x 42
4
The sectorial coordinates (the warping functions) with respect to the shear centre point
C for characteristic points of the cross section are:
1 z B zC a , 2 1 ab , 3 2 t b zB zC , 4 3 b1 a t ,
5 z 4 C z ,
where
dz 0
1
z
a t ca 1 cos 2 b b1 z z B z C a t b b1 z B zC
2
b0
z
C z 2a t z ca 1 cos 2
z0
b0
for z mb0
5 5 mb0 4 mb0 a t ca ,
and
452
6 5 b1 a t .
Then the warping moment of inertia of the area of the cross section is as follows
J 2 s dA ,
(10)
which is equal to
J 2t J1 J 2 J 3 J 4 J 5 J 6 ,
(11)
where
1
2
J 1 a 3 z B zC ,
3
1
J 2 a 2b z B zC b2 z B zC 2 z B 2 zC b ,
3
1
J 3 t z B zC b2 a 2 z B zC a t ba t z B zC 2a t b 2a t ,
3
1
2
b1 b1 z B z C a t ba t
3
z B z C a t ba t b1 2 z B 2 z C a t 2ba t ,
J 4
J 5 mb0 A52b02 S1 A12b02 S 4 2 A1 A5b02 S5 2 A4 A5b0 S 6 A1 A4b0 S 7 A42 S8
1
1
A1 A2b0 A22 A3 m 1 A2 A3 2m 1 A1b0 S 2

6
2
1
1

A62 m2m 3 1 A72 A5 A7 b0 A6 m 1 A7 A5b0 S 0 ,
2
1
1
1
1
A1 ca , A2 ca b b1 z B zC , A3 ca b0 , A4
ca b0 ,
2
2
2
2
1
1
A5 a t ca , A6 b0 2a 2t ca ,
2
2
A7
1
2ab b1 z B zC b1 2t ca ca 2t b z B zC ,
2
453

1
2
S1 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S3 2 12 1 k 2 sin 2 21 d 1 ,
S 4 2 cos 2 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d , S5 2 cos 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,

1
S6 sin2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S7 sin4 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
S8 sin 2 2 1 k 2 sin 2 2 d ,
0
and
1
J 6 b1 2b1 z B z C a t ba t mb0 a t ca
3
3b1 2 z B 2 z C a t 2ba t 2mb0 a t ca
b1 z B z C a t ba t mb0 a t ca .
2
3. GLOBAL BUCKLING
Two cases of loads are considered. The first one is a beam under pure bending (a
beam carries two equal moments at its ends). In this case, the lateral buckling moment of
a thin-walled beam under pure bending is as follows [15]
M CR
E
2 J
J y J t 1 21 2 ,
L Jt
21 L
(12)
and the critical stress is given in the formula

Lateral
CR
M CR
a .
Jz
(13)
The second case is a beam subjected to a compressive force. Two global buckling modes
are taking into account. The first one is the flexural buckling. Then the critical force (the
Euler critical force) is as follows
Euler
FCR
2 EJ y
L2
(14)
and the critical stress can be written in the formula

Euler
CR
Euler
FCR
.
A
454
(15)

The second case of global buckling for the beam under compression is torsional buckling.
Then the critical force (the Wagner critical force) is as follows
Wagner
FCR
Jt
AE
2
2 J ,
2
J y J z ( z0 zc ) A 21 L
(16)
and the critical stress can be written in the formula

Wagner
CR
Wagner
FCR
.
A
(17)
Buckling problems of thin-walled channel beams with orthotropic flange are
numerically solved with the use of the finite strip method (CUFSM B. Schafer).
Obtained results are compared to analytical ones.
Detailed numerical analysis and results of analytical calculations have been conducted for
the beam with following sizes: H 200 mm , t 1mm , a H t 2 99.5 mm ,
b 99.5 mm , b1 11.75 mm , m 5 , b0 b 2b1 t m 15 mm , ca 10 mm . Material
constants are: the Youngs modulus E 2 105 MPa , the Poissons ratio 0.3 .
Lateral
The values of critical stresses have been analytically obtained ( CR
) based on
FSMl
the equation (13), and numerically ( CR
) with the use of FS method for lateral
buckling, and have been presented in Fig. 3 and Table 1.
Fig. 3. Comparison of analytical and numerical results lateral buckling
455

Table 1.
Lateral lateral buckling

Critical stresses CR
L [mm]
5000
6000
8000
10000 11000 12000 13000 14000
Lateral
94.85
66.45
38.20
25.11
21.06
17.98
15.57
13.66
FSM
85.61
62.06
36.50
24.14
20.28
17.32
15.01
13.17
relative
error %
10.79
7.07
4.66
4.02
3.85
3.81
3.73
3.72
CR
CR
While the beam has been compressed two types of buckling have occurred: flexural and
torsional buckling. The values of critical stresses have been analytically calculated based
on Eqs. (15) and (17) respectively. Comparison of numerical and analytical results has
been presented in Table 2 and Fig. 4 for flexural buckling mode, and in Table 3 for
torsional buckling mode.
Fig. 4. Comparison of analytical and numerical results flexural buckling

Table 2.
L [mm]
Euler flexural buckling

26000 27000 28100 28250 28500 29000 30000 31000
Euler
CR
3.05
2.83
2.61
2.58
2.54
2.45
2.29
2.14
FSM
2.84
2.73
2.61
2.60
2.55
2.47
2.31
2.16
relative
error %
7.39
3.66
0.78
0.39
0.82
0.87
0.93
CR
456

Table 3.
Wagner torsional buckling

L [mm]
Wagner
CR
4000
5000
9000
10000 14000 18000 22000 26000
61.95
40.23
13.54
11.27
6.54
4.60
3.61
3.05
FSM
57.33
38.12
12.98
10.80
6.25
4.36
3.40
2.84
relative
error %
8.06
5.54
4.31
4.35
4.64
5.50
6.18
7.39
CR
The flexural buckling has revealed for the beam longer then 26000 mm , while the
torsional buckling for shorter beams.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the mathematical model of a cold-formed thin-walled channel beam
with orthotropic flanges is presented. Analytical and numerical studies are devoted to
global buckling. The formulas for global buckling loads when the beam is axially
compressed and under pure bending are obtained. Numerical calculations have been
performed not only using analytical formulae presented in the paper but also with the use
of finite strip method. The values of critical loads obtained from each method correspond
to each other very well. Differences decrease in lateral buckling mode for sufficiently
long beams if the beam length increases. When the beam is axially compressed the
influence of torsion on the buckling load may be observed for the shorter beam while the
flexural buckling mode has revealed for the longer one.
REFERENCES
[1]
Vlasov V.Z., Thin-walled elastic bars, Fizmatgiz, Moscow, 1st ed. 1940, 2nd ed. 1959 (in
Russian).
[2] Bleich F., Buckling strength of metal structures, McGraw-Hill, New York 1952.
[3] Timoshenko S.P., Gere J.M., Theory of elastic stability, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York 1961.
[4] Murray N.W., Introduction to the theory of thin-walled structures, Clarendon Press,
Oxford 1986.
[5] Baant Z.P., Cedolin L., Stability of structures, Oxford University Press, New York,
Oxford 1991.
[6] Weiss S., Giejowski M., Stability of metal constructions, Arkady, Warsaw 1991 (in
Polish).
[7] Trahair N.S., Flexural-torsional buckling of structures, F&FN Spon, an imprint of
Chapman & Hall, London 1993.
[8] Rasmussen K.J.R., Bifurcation of locally buckled members, Thin-Walled Structures 28(2),
Elsevier, 1997, pp. 117154.
[9] Hancock G.J., Local, distortional, and lateral buckling of I-beams, Journal of the Structural
Division 104(ST11), ASCE 1978, pp. 17871798.
[10] Papangelis J.P., Hancock G.J., Computer Analysis of Thin-Walled Structural Members,
Computers and Structures 56(1), 1995, pp. 157176.
[11] Put B.M., Pi Youg-Lin, Trahair N.S., Lateral buckling tests on cold-formed channel
beams, Journal of Structural Engineering 125(5), 1999, pp. 532539.
457

[12] Put B.M., Pi Youg-Lin, Trahair N.S., Bending and torsion of cold-formed channel beams,
Journal of Structural Engineering 125(5), 1999, pp. 540546.
[13] Davies J.M., Recent research advances in cold-formed steel structures, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 55(13), Elsevier 2000, pp. 267288.
[14] Magnucki K., Paczos P., Theoretical shape optimization of cold-formed thin-walled
channel beams with drop flanges in pure bending, Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 65(89), Elsevier 2009, pp. 17311737.
[15] Magnucka-Blandzi E., Magnucki K., Buckling and optimal design of cold-formed thinwalled beams: Review of selected problems, Thin-Walled Structures 49(5), Elsevier 2011,
pp. 554561.
458
NUMERICAL STABILITY STUDY OF I-BEAM PILLAR

STRUCTURE WITH BLAST PROTECTIVE PANEL
L. MAZURKIEWICZ, K. DAMAZIAK, J. MALACHOWSKI,
M. KLASZTORNY, P. BARANOWSKI
Department of Mechanics and Applied Computer Science,
Military University of Technology
Gen. S. Kaliskiego Street 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
The paper presents numerical analyzes aimed at preliminary assessment of

the protective panel effectiveness, which task is to protect the elements of
building structures against explosion. The criterion for assessing the
effectiveness of the panel is load capacity of the column made of steel
I-beam. Critical force was determined by using advanced computational
procedure, which consisted of four stages: preload, blast simulation,
dynamic response and static analysis of deformed structure. Blast load was
simulated using Lagrangian-Eulerian domain coupling. Results indicated
that application of the protective panel significantly reduces the plastic
deformation of the structure.
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
The motivation to undertake the work aimed to develop protective panels was
described in [1], where it was pointed out that majority of terrorist attacks are bombing
attacks. The problem of blast wave interaction with structure and its destructive effect
was already presented in many papers [2-6]. Fragment of research presented in this paper
shows advanced, multistage analysis procedure of determination of support structure load
capacity. Main reason for focusing attention on this particular parameter is fact, that it
can be used both to evaluate protective panel effectiveness, as well as to evaluate strength
of structure after outbreak. The second is crucial for such security issues as evacuation
plans etc.
Geometry of analyzed structure is shown on Fig. 1. Support pillar is made of steel
I-beam and is loaded by weight of surrounding roof structure, represented by force P and
lumped mass M. Multilayer protective panel consists of steel, fiber reinforced composite
and metallic foam. It is assumed, that two different phenomena will be responsible for
minimization of shock wave effects: flow around cylindrical panel and energy absorption
by panel structure. Mass of the charge was evaluated based on "abandoned briefcase"
scenario, where briefcase filled with TNT lies just at the pillar.
From the analytical point of view, such scenario means that blast wave is acting on
preloaded I-beam. It also means that static problems of preload and limit load
investigation has to be separated by highly dynamic outbreak event, which must to be
analyzed using special numerical techniques. Therefore authors decided to use
commercial code LS-Dyna, which is particularly suited to model such short, highly
dynamic phenomena. Additional advantage of this choice was ability to chain different
459

types of solvers/analyses implemented in the code. This allowed running sequence of
calculation using just one numerical model.
Fig. 1. Investigated problem a) without protection and b) with protection
2. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Evaluation of blast influence on load capacity of investigated structure was done by
comparison of results derived for three models: perfect I-beam structure, pillar subjected
to blast acting directly and for pillar covered by protective panel. All three models were
prepared using the same FE base model, by subtracting part of the model or by changing
analysis sequence.
2.1. FE MODEL
FEM models of the column and each part of protective panel were made. Part of the
panel made from metallic foam was modeled using 8-node hex elements. Other parts of
panel assembly, as well as column were discretized using 4-node Belytschko-Lin-Tsay
shell elements (Fig. 2).
Both column and panel mount to a concrete foundation has been modeled by fixing
translational degrees of freedom in appropriate nodes. Additional rigid walls were also
introduced in order to describe contact conditions between concrete base and structure. In
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order to save computer resources, fluid domain, required to model blast wave
propagation, covered only lower part of the panel and the post. Ready to run FEM model
consisted of 1,078 mln Euler (fluid) elements and over 78000 Lagrange (structural)
elements. The whole model is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. FEM model of supporting beam with protective panel
2.2. MATERIAL MODEL

Load due to outbreak cause very rapid changes of strain field in the structure.
Therefore elastic-plastic material model with isotropic hardening and strain rate effects
was applied in order to describe properties of the beam material. Thus, JohnsonCook
model was implemented, which provides a prediction of flow stress flow for large strains
and high strain rates, when its dependence on strain rate is linear in semi logarithmic
scale. The mathematical formula which describes this model is as follows [6]:
n
flow A B p 1 C ln *p
(1)
where A, B, C, n = material constants and *p = effective plastic strain rate.

2.3. ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Investigation of perfect structure load capacity required only one, static step. For
two other cases, simulation was divided to four stages (Fig. 3)
In the first stage I-beam structure was subjected to nominal load Pn, which was
equal to the load carried by the pillar during its normal service. Incremental static
461

analysis was performed using full Newton-Rapshon algorithm. Equation solved in this
stage had the following form
Ki xi 1 Qi
(2)
where: Ki - stiffness matrix, xi-1 - displacement vector, Qi - external force vector

Convergence of the problem was controlled by two criteria: displacement relative
convergence tolerance and energy relative convergence tolerance.
Dynamic relaxation
Preload
(Statics)
Small restart
Blast loading
(Explicit with ALE)
Full restart
Dynamic behaviour
(Explicit)
Static loading
(Statics)
Fig. 3. Analysis procedure scheme
In the second stage results from the previous stage were taken into account as prestress field present in the column. It was obtained using dynamic relaxation procedure.
Dynamic relaxation allows to quickly reaching preloaded state by linear ramping nodal
displacement field to prescribed values over 100 time steps. It should be noted that the
comparison of stress field taken from static analysis and stress field generated by
dynamic relaxation procedure showed small differences introduced by the latter. On the
other hand, the procedure allows for application of predefined stress filed on selected part
of FE model in a very effective manner.
The blast loading in this stage require to apply transient dynamics procedure with
explicit central difference time integration. Equation solved had the following form:
Mxn Fnext Fnint Cxn
(3)
where: M - the diagonal mass matrix, Fnext - external and body force loads, Fnint -the
stress divergence vector, C - dumping matrix.
Gas domain, consisted of air and detonation products, was modeled using finite
volume technique (so called Euler formulation). The coupling between Lagrangian
formulation (solid material) and Eulerian formulation (gas medium) was taken into
account during calculations. Generaly ALE procedure consists of the following sequence
of steps: the classical Lagrangian step and the advection step. The advection step is
carried out with the assumption that changes in the positioning of nodes are only slight
(very small) in comparison to characteristics (lengths of elements that surround these
nodes).
In the performed numerical tests the detonation process of TNT high explosive
material was implemented through the automatically programmed burn model, supported
by LS-DYNA using so called explosive burn material model. The energy contained in
the HE was assumed to be immediately released inside the front of detonation wave. The
detonation requires modelling of the movement of the PD (product of detonation) after
reaching successive locations by the DW (detonation wave) front. Hence
462

Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) equation of state was implemented in the applied explosive
burn model with the following form [7,8]:

e
p A 1
exp R1 B 1
exp R2
R1
R2
(4)
where =HE / ; e =HE e ; HE - density of the high explosive; p - pressure of PD;

e - specific internal energy of PD and - density of PD. A, B, R1, R2, are empirical
constants determined for specific type of a high explosive. All constants required are
taken from literature [5].
In the following stage, I-beam response to the blast wave was assessed. The main
difference between previous stage was that the sole of interest was only the pillar without
other parts. Therefore, so called "small restart" was used to remove Euler domain as well
as panel structure, together with corresponding contact and FSI interfaces from the
numerical model. This allowed for reducing size of FE model to 12000 elements (almost
100 times less than in the full model) and thus, to increase time covered by analysis and
to shrink wall time required for computations. The termination time of the analysis was
the moment at which further growth in plastic deformation could not be observed.
Fig. 4. Axial force versus axial displacement of supporting beam
The final stage was similar to the first one in terms of analysis type. Again static
analysis with Newton-Raphson procedure was used. This time, however, data exchange
required to generate prestress state in the I-beam, was conducted using more accurate
"stress initialization" option. Structure was loaded by a multiple of operating force, so
that the iteration procedure could reach the point of divergence due to ill-conditioned
463

stiffness matrix. Load value causing divergence conditions was considered as the load
capacity of the structure.
3. ANALYSIS RESULTS
In the following figures axial, vertical force vs. axial, vertical deflection are shown.
In Fig. 4 blast wave effects can be clearly seen as shift of displacement value (at the
nominal force value). It can also be noticed that protection panel works correctly,
although does not provide full protection of structure.
For better and clearer presentation, results shown in Fig. 4 were normalized, so
displacement axis starts after analysis stage 3 (Fig. 5). It can be interpreted as
investigation of limit load value for the perfect structure (no blast) and for two other
perturbed geometries, where imperfections level depends on protective panel occurrence.
Results shows, that although protected column suffered from plastic deformation
(imperfections), it can carry virtually the same load as unperturbed geometry.
Fig. 5. Axial force versus normalized axial displacement of I-beam pillar
In Fig. 6 final deflection of beam axis for all three geometries is shown. The area
affected by blast wave dominates in case of unprotected structure. On the deflection
curve of protected column effects of outbreak are also noticeable, but it has rather local
character. Therefore global structure behavior is similar to elastic beam.
The protective panel influence can be much more clearer noticed in Fig. 7, where
plastic strain distributions are shown for protected and unprotected I-beam structure. For
the investigated mass and location of charge, blast wave impact generates well developed
plastic hinge in unprotected structure, while protected structure remains virtually elastic.
464
Fig. 6. Deflection profile of I-beam pillar
a)
Fig. 7.
b)
Plastic strain of deformed pillar a) without protection and b) with protection
465

4. CONCLUSIONS
The developed multistage analysis allowed for investigation of such complex
problem which could not be analyzed using only one numerical technique. Preload and
stabilization after outbreak are simply time-consuming to be covered by explicit
algorithm. On the other hand, a static procedure does not allow for simulating of blast
wave at all. It can be stated, that different procedures chaining is the only way to include
imperfection due to blast wave in the analysis.
Investigated beam structure is very resistant, compared to predicted service loading.
Therefore, influence of imperfections caused by blast wave on so called critical load is
not very obvious. For this particular support column setup, the very important role of the
protective panel is simply to prevent the placement of the charge close to the structure
and consume the blast wave energy in order to avoid the structure failure due to plastic
deformations
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was carried out under a research grant from Polish Ministry of
Science and Higher Education no. 0097/R/T00/2010/12. This support is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Malachowski J., Mazurkiewicz L., Analysis of Selected Structural Components Subjected

To Blast Wave, Journal of KONES, 2012 (in print).
Louca L.A., Mohamed Ali R.M., Improving the ductile behaviour of offshore topside
structures under extreme loads, Engineering Structures 30, 2008, 506-521.
Tang E., Hao H., Numerical simulation of a cable-stayed bridge response to blast loads,
Part I: Model development and response calculations, Engineering Structures 32, 2010,
3180-3192.
Lu Y., Wang Z., Characterization of structural effects from above-ground explosion using
coupled numerical simulation, Computers and Structures 84, 2006, 1729-1742.
Malachowski J., Modelowanie i badania interakcji ciao stae-gaz przy oddziaywaniu
impulsu cinienia na elementy konstrukcji rurocigu, BEL Studio, Warszawa, 2010.
Malachowski J., Influence of HE location on elastic-plastic tube response under blast
loading, Shell Structures Theory and Applications, Vol. 2, 2010, 179-182.
Wlodarczyk E., Fundamentals of detonation, Military University of Technology, Warsaw,
1995.
Hallquist J.O., LS-Dyna. Theory manual, Livermore, California, 2006.
466
VERTICAL BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR

OF HYBRID STEEL GIRDERS
Y. MATOGE, S. SHIMIZU, Y. YAMASAKI
G. FUJITA, N. TANAKA
Miyaji Engineering CO, LTD,
3 Yawata Kaigan-Dori, Ichihara, 290-8580 JAPAN
This paper describes the numerical results on the flange vertical buckling of a
hybrid steel girder. The flange vertical buckling is one of the buckling patterns in
an I-shaped steel girder under bending. This type of buckling is expected to occur
in the girder with the very slender or weak web plate, and is considered as a very
rare type of buckling. In a hybrid steel girder, the top and the bottom parts of the
web plate yield although the flange plates are still in the elastic range at the ultimate
state, therefore, a hybrid girder is to be considered to have very weak web plate at
its ultimate state. In practically, the experimental test on behaviour of the hybrid
girders by authors indicates that vertical buckling occurred in one of the test models.
The authors have indicated that the vertical buckling behavior of a hybrid girder is
affected mainly by loading imperfections. In this paper, the authors try to reproduce
the test results on vertical buckling completely and show the conditions, which may
affect vertical buckling behavior.
1. INTRODUCTION
A hybrid steel girder is compound of the
high-strength steel flange plate and the normalsteel web plate. On the other hand, a steel girder,
which consists of the same grade steel for the
flange plate and the web plate is called as a
homogeneous steel girder. Bending is carried
mainly by the flange plates in a steel plate girder.
Therefore, a hybrid steel girder that has high
performance to carry bending is considered. In
addition, it is expected to reduce the construction
cost by using a hybrid steel girder.
Photo 1. Observed vertical buckling [2]
JSSC (Japan Society of Steel Construction)
organized a subcommittee on hybrid steel girders and proposed the design method of
hybrid steel girders [1]. To establish the proposal, the subcommittee carried out a series
of experimental tests on behaviour of hybrid steel girders. During the test, unexpected
flange vertical buckling occurred in one of the test models as shown in Photo 1 [2].
467

Flange vertical buckling is one of the collapse patterns of steel girder under bending.
It is said that flange vertical buckling shall occur under the particular condition that the
girder has the very weak web plate. Therefor this buckling shall not occur in the normal
steel girder.
The studies of flange vertical buckling are very few. Basler and Thurlimann
designate the formula to establish the critical width-thickness ratio of the web plate which
prevent from vertical buckling [3]. Applying this formula to the test model, it is indicated
that vertical buckling never occurs. However, practically, the vertical buckling was
observed in the test model. Therefore, the formula of Basler and Thurlimann proved is not
applicable to, at least, the test model. Thus, a new formula should be provided for vertical
buckling.
In the current paper, as the first steps of the study on vertical buckling, the authors
try to reproduce the JSSC test result. In the authors previous paper [4], it is indicated that
the vertical buckling behaviour may be affected mainly by the loading imperfections.
However, in the previous paper, the test results cannot reproduce completely. In the
current paper, the authors show the numerical results which can reproduce the test results
on vertical buckling. This paper also shows the conditions which may affect vertical
bucking behaviour.
Fig. 1. Layout of first analysis model
2.1 GENERAL
The aim of this paper is to reproduce the JSSC test result on vertical buckling and to
shows the conditions which may affect vertical buckling behaviour. In this paper, three
types of analyses are carried out. In the first analysis type, it is tried to reproduce the test
results by the numerical analysis. Second analysis is made to clarify the influence of the
parameters such as web and flange thickness. In the third analysis, comparison is made
with the hybrid steel girders and homogeneous girders.
In all numerical models, out-of-plane initial deflection is considered with the cosines
shape of 0.7 mm in the centre-bottom web panel and 0.3mm in the centre-top web panel.
468

2.2 FIRST ANALYSIS
The analysis model is equal with JSSC test model in design. The layout of the test
model is shown in Fig. 1. This model has the Span of 7,000mm. The flange plates of
200mm15mm and the web plate of thickness is 4.5mm for the central 3mm. The model
is fixed vertically at the both ends as same to the test model, and fixed horizontally at the
centre, far the more, the model is subjected to two loadings.
On this analysis model, the SM570 high strength steel is used for the flange plates and the
LY235 low yield steel for the central part of the web pale. The remaining parts of the web
plate are made of the SM400 normal steel. Fig. 2 shows the stress-strain relations of the
materials. These material properties used for the numerical analysis are nominally same to
those of the JSSC test models.
Fig. 2. Material properties
In the first analysis, three difference patterns of analysis conditions are dealt with.
Fig. 3 shows the three types of the condition patterns. In the condition pattern 1 (Fig. 1a),
the model has the completely symmetric shape and the completely symmetric loadings.
That is, with this condition pattern, the numerical model has the shapes and the
dimensions completely equal to the nominal shapes and the nominal dimensions of the test
model.
As opposed to this pattern, the condition pattern 2 and the condition pattern 3 have
the asymmetry conditions in the shape or the loading.
During the fabrication process of a steel girder, when welding transverse stiffeners, it
may be attached on the wrong position due to the low fabrication accuracy. Considering
this low accuracy of the fabrication, in the condition pattern 2, the transverse stiffener
indicated with the thick black line in Fig. 3b is shifted by 2mm to the right direction.
469
(a) condition pattern 1 : completely symmetric
(b) condition pattern 2 : with the shifted stiffener
(c) condition pattern 3 : with asymmetric

loadings
Fig. 3. Condition patterns in the first
analysis
In the JSSC test [2], two loadings shown in Fig. 1 are considered to be nominally
equal to each other. However, the review of the test results indicates that the left load is
larger by around 1 than the right load during the test. Therefore, to realize this
imperfection of the asymmetricity, in the condition pattern 3, the left side loading is kept
to be larger by 1 than the right side loading.
2.3 SECOND ANALYSIS
This analysis is the parameter analysis for hybrid steel girders; here the parameters
are the flange thickness (Tf) and the web thickness (Tw).
The numerical model of this analysis is generally equal with the model use in the
first analysis except the flange and web thickness. This model is fixed vertically and
horizontally at the left ends, and fixed vertically at the right end.
The asymmetry loading is introduced in this analysis, i.e. left side loading is kept to
be 1 larger than right side. The numerical model of this analysis, as same to the first
analysis, the SM570 high strength steel is used for the flange plates and the LY235 low
yield steel for the central part of the web pale. The remaining parts of the web plate are
made by the SM400 normal steel.
The model layout of the second analysis is illustrated in Fig. 4.
470
Fig. 4. Numerical model in the second analysis
2.3 THIRD ANALYSIS

The third is the parameter analysis for the homogeneous steel girders in order to
compare with hybrid steel girder.
The numerical model of this analysis is practically equal with the second analysis
model except the materials. The loading condition and the boundary condition of this
model are same to those in the second analysis.
In this analysis model, the SM570 high strength steel is used for the whole section.
3.1 FIRST ANALYSIS
Fig. 5 shows the deformation at the final stage under the condition pattern 1.
Because this model has the shapes and the dimensions nominally equal to the test model,
it is expected that vertical buckling occurs at the centre of the top flange. However, as it is
found in Fig. 5, in this model, torsional buckling is occurred instead of vertical buckling.
Fig. 5. Deformation at ultimate stage under the condition

pattern 1
471
Fig. 6. Load deflection relation under the condition pattern 1
In Fig. 6, the load-deflection relation of the condition pattern 1 is plotted. The

vertical axis of this figure denotes the load P (KN), and the horizontal axis the vertical
displacement (mm) at the centre of the top flange. Fig. 6 indicates that the displacement
and the load increase almost linearly and reaches the peak load (1012KN).
After the peak, the displacement still increases although the load begins to decrease.
Beyond the displacement of 50mm, the load decreases in the faster rate. Torsional
buckling is observed at this stage.
Fig. 7. Deformation at ultimate stage under the condition pattern 2
In Fig. 7, the deformation of the condition pattern 2 at the final stage is illustrated. In
this model, the combination of torsional buckling and vertical buckling occurs. Fig. 8
shows the load-deflection relation under this case. The vertical and horizontal axes of this
figure are same as those of Fig. 6. With this pattern, the numerical model behaves almost
equally to the previous case up to the displacement reached to about 70mm. In this model,
472

torsional buckling occurs at the stage that the displacement reaches about 50mm, and it
begins to develop as same to Fig. 6. However, beyond the 70mm of the deformation, load
begins to decrease rapidly, and at this stage, vertical buckling is occurs.
The deformation at the final stage under the condition pattern 3 is shown in Fig. 9.
In this model, vertical buckling occurs in the top flange, shifted from the centre by
200mm. Fig. 10 shows the load-deflection relation under this condition. This figure
indicates that the displacement and the load increase linearly and reach the peak load
(925KN) as same as figures 6 and 8. After that stage, only the displacement increases up
to 60mm although the load is almost constant. However, beyond this stage, the load starts
decreasing very rapidly. At this point, vertical buckling is observed.
Fig. 9. Deformation at ultimate stage under the condition pattern 3
473
3.2 SECOND ANALYSIS

This is the parameter analysis for the hybrid steel girders. The parameters are the
flange thickness (Tf ) and the web thickness (Tw). In Table 1, the results of this analysis are
summarized. In this table, the left side column indicates web thickness and the upside row
indicates flange thickness. The numberes in this table are the ratio of the thickness of the
flange plate to the thickness of the web plate. In this table, the cases in which vertical
buckling is observed are identified by surrounding with a frame.
As it was found from this table, the relatively thin web plate brings vertical buckling. For
example, with the flange thickness of 13 mm, in the model with the web thickness of 4.0
mm and 4.5 mm, flange vertical buckling occurred and the model with the web thickness
of 5.0 mm or more collapsed with flange torsional buckling. This table suggests that
vertical buckling occurs in the models with the ratio of the flange thickness and the web
thickness over around 2.8.
Table 1. Results of the parameter analysis of hybrid girders (second analysis)
TwTf
4.0mm
4.5mm
5.0mm
5.6mm
6.0mm
6.3mm
7.0mm
8.0mm
13mm
3.25
2.89
2.60
2.32
2.17
2.06
1.86
1.63
14m
3.50
3.11
2.80
2.50
2.33
2.22
2.00
1.75
15mm
3.75
3.33
3.00
2.68
2.50
2.38
2.14
1.88
474
16mm
4.00
3.56
3.20
2.86
2.67
2.56
2.29
2.00
18mm
4.50
4.00
3.60
3.21
3.00
2.86
2.57
2.25

3.3 THIRD ANALYSIS
Third analysis is also the parameter analysis, but this is for the homogeneous steel
girders in order to compare with the results of the hybrid steel girder. Table 2 shows the
results of this analysis. In this table, same as the Table 1, the left side column indicates the
web thickness and upside row indicates the flange thickness. As same to Table 1, the
numbers in this table are the ratios of the flange thickness and the web thickness. The
cells with the frame show that vertical buckling is observed in the parameters.
This table again indicates that the models with the relatively thin web plate collapse
with flange vertical buckling. However, unlike to the hybrid steel girders, vertical
buckling occurs with the ratio of the flange-web thickness over around 3.5. That is, in the
homogeneous girders, vertical buckling occurs with thinner web plate than the hybrid
steel girders.
Table 2. Results of the parameter analysis of homogeneous girders (third analysis)
TwTf
3.2mm
13mm
14m
15mm
16mm
18mm
4.06
4.38
4.69
5.00
5.63
3.6mm
3.61
3.25
3.89
4.17
4.44
5.00
4.0mm
4.50
2.89
3.75
3.33
4.00
4.5mm
3.50
3.11
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.56
3.20
4.00
5.0mm
5.6mm
2.32
2.50
2.68
2.86
3.60
3.21
6.0mm
2.17
2.33
2.50
2.67
3.00
6.3mm
2.06
2.22
2.38
2.54
2.86
4. REMARKS
The limit depth-thickness ratio for which no flange vertical buckling occurs for an
unstiffened web plate can be estimated with the formula [3]
b
2 E Aw 1
(1)
t
241 2 A f f f
where b denotes the web depth, t the web thickness, E the Youngs modulus of the web
plate, Aw the area of the web plate, Af the area of the flange plate, f the yield stress of
the flange plate and f denotes the yield strain of the flange plate. Substituting the
measured material properties into (1) and Aw and Af of the test model (or of the typical
numerical model), the limit of the depth-thickness ratio is obtained to b t 254 for both
the hybrid girder and the homogeneous girder. However, the test model (or the typical
numerical model) has a web depth-thickness ratio of 200. This fact suggests that vertical
buckling never arises in the test model or the numerical model. However, in addition to
the test result, the numerical results in this paper show that vertical buckling may arise,
and thus the new formula is required.
The results in this paper indicate that, when the numerical model has completely
symmetric shapes and dimensions, flange torsional buckling occurred, and with
475

asymmetry of the shape (i.e., a stiffener is installed in the wrong location), torsional
buckling occurred first and then the vertical buckling-like deformation begins to develop.
When the model is subjected to asymmetric loading, vertical buckling arises after
torsional buckling. These results suggest that the "natural" flange collapse pattern is
torsional buckling and the vertical buckling occurs with the imperfection such as
asymmetry of the loadings.
The results of the parameter analysis show that vertical buckling occurs with the
relatively thin web plate. For the hybrid steel girders, the ratio of the flange and the web
thickness over around 2.8 brings vertical buckling and for the homogeneous girders, the
ratio over 3.8 causes vertical buckling. This suggests that the new formula should be
established with the ratio of the web and the flange thickness.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper is aimed (1) to reproduce the JSSC test result on vertical buckling and (2)
to show the conditions, which may affect vertical buckling behaviour with the numerical
analysis. From the analysis, the followings are found.
The first aim of this paper (to reproduce the test results) is performed with
introducing the asymmetric loading that is the loading imperfection may affect the vertical
buckling behaviour.
The natural collapse pattern of an I-shaped steel girder having the section shapes and
the dimensions such as the test model is the flange torsional buckling, and vertical
buckling arise following the torsional buckling.
The relatively thin web plate brings vertical buckling, and the ratio of the flange and
the web thickness affects the buckling behaviour. With this, the new formula should be
established.
This work if this paper was supported by the Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research of
the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science(JSPS).
REFEERNCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Subcommittee for Design Method of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders, A Prorosal for
Design Method of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders using Ultimate State Design, JSSC
(Japanese Society of Steel Construction), Tokyo, 2002. (in Japanese)
Shimizu S., Zhang J., Tanaka N., Akehashi K., Nakai H., An Experimental Study
on Ultimate Strength Behaviour of Hybrid Steel Plate Girders, Steel Construction
Eng., JSSC (Japanese Society of Steel Constr.), 10, 51-60, 2003. (in Japanese)
Basler K., Thurlimann, B., Strength of plate girders in bending, Proc. ASCE, ST6,
153-181, 1961.
Shimizu S., Yamasaki, Y. Tanaka,N., The Numerical Analysis on Flange
Vertical Buckling in Hybrid Steel Girders, Int. Conference on Numerical Analysis
and Applied Mathematics (ICNAAM 2011), Halkidiki, Greece, 1168-1671, 2011.
Shimizu S., Flange vertical buckling of a hybrid steel girder, Thin-Walled
Structures - statics and stability, to be appear.
476
ON A MODELLING OF STABILITY OF ANNULAR PLATES

WITH FUNCTIONALLY GRADED STRUCTURE INTERACTING
WITH AN ELASTIC HETEROGENEOUS SUBSOIL
B. MICHALAK
Department of Structural Mechanics, Lodz University of Technology
Al. Politechniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
The object of analysis is a composite annular plate with the apparent properties
smoothly varying along a radial direction. The plate interacting with an elastic
heterogeneous subsoil with two moduli. The aim of contribution is to formulate
macroscopic mathematical model describing stability of this plate. The
considerations are based on those summarized in monographs (Woniak et al. 2008,
2010). Some applications of the tolerance averaging technique for the modelling of
various stability problems for elastic microheterogeneous structures are presented in
papers; Baron (2003), Jdrysiak (2007), Jdrysiak and Michalak (2011), Michalak
(1998), Tomczyk (2010).
1. INRODUCTION
The contribution is devoted to the determine of stability of microheterogeneous
annular plates interacting with an elastic foundation with two foundation moduli. The
assumed model of foundation is a generalization of the well known Winkler model. The
introduction of an additional modulus of horizontal deformability of the foundation makes
it possible to describe the stability of the plate resting on a sufficiently fine net of elastic
point supports such as piles or columns. The object of the analysis is a composite thin
plate with the apparent properties smoothly varying along a radial direction of the plate
(Fig.1).
Fig. 1. A fragment of midplane of the plate with longitudinally graded microstructure:

a) microscopic level, b) macroscopic level
477

Considerations are restricted to the two-phase of the functionally graded - type
composites. The plate is made of isotropic homogeneous matrix and isotropic
homogeneous beams which are situated along the radial direction. The plate is resting on
foundation, which has different moduli under the matrix and the beams. The plate and the
foundation have -periodic microstructure along the angular axis and smooth and slow
gradation of effective properties in the radial direction. The generalized period of
inhomogenity is assumed to be sufficiently small when compared to the characteristic
length dimension of the plate along the angular axis. Thus we deal with plate and
foundation having space-varying periodic microstructure.
The aim of this contribution is to formulate macroscopic models of stability of the
plate under consideration. There models will be referred to as tolerance and asymptotic,
respectively.
2. PRELIMINARES
Introduce the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system O1 2 3 in the physical
space occupied by a plate under consideration. The time coordinate will be denoted by t .
Sub- and super-scripts i, k , l run over 1, 2, 3 and , , run over 1, 2 . Setting x (1 , 2 )
z 3 it is assumed that the undeformed plate occupies the region

{(x, z) : h / 2 z h / 2, x } , where is the plate midplane and h is the plate
thickness. We denote by g a metric tensors and by a Ricci tensor. Here and in the
and
sequel, a vertical line before the subscripts stands for the covariant derivative and
/ . The plate rests on the generalized Winkler foundation whose properties are
characterized by vertical k z and horizontal k t foundation moduli. The foundation
reaction according to (Gomuliski (1967)) has three components acting in the direction of
the coordinates ( z, , ) :
Rz k z w
R kt
h
w
2
R kt
h1
w ,
2
(1)
The model equations for the stability of the considered plate will be obtained in the
framework of the well-known second order non-linear theory for thin plates resting on
elastic foundation (Woniak et al. 2001). Denoting the displacement field of the plate
midsurface by w(x, t ) , the external forces by p(x, t ) and by the mass density related to
this midsurface, we obtain strain-displacement and constitutive equations
m D ,
(2)
where: D 0.5 D ( g g g g ( ) , D Eh 3 / 12(1 2 ) .

The governing equations of the plate under consideration can be described by the
well known principle of stationary action. We introduce action functional defined by
478

t1
(w()) (y, w|(y, t), w|(y, t), w (y, t), w(y, t))dtdy,
t0
(3)
with Lagrangian defined by
h2
kt w w ) pw.
(4)
4
where n are in-plane forces and Kronecker-deltas will be treated as a tensor;
11 1 / 2 , 22 1 .
For Lagrangian (4) we can write the Euler-Lagrange equation
12 (w w n w| w| D w| w| k z w w
0.
t w w w| | w| |
(5)
and the equilibrium equations
( D w ) (n )
h2
p .
(kt w ) k z w w
4
(6)
This direct description leads to plate equations with discontinuous and highly oscillating
coefficients. These equations are to complicated to be used in the engineering analysis
and will be used as starting point in the tolerance modelling procedure.
Introduce the polar coordinates system O1 2 , 0 1 , R1 2 R2 so that the
undeformed midplane of annular plate occupies the region [0, ] [ R1 , R2 ] . Let ,
0 , is the known microstructure parameter. Denote as a subset of of

points with coordinates determined by conditions (1 , 2 ) ( / 2, / 2) ( R1 , R2 ) . An
arbitrary cell with a centre at point with coordinates (1 2 ) in will be determined by
(1 , 2 ) (1 / 2, 1 / 2) { 2 } . At the same time, the thickness h of the plate

under consideration is supposed to be constant and small compared to the microstructure
parameter .
In order to derive averaged model equations we applied tolerance averaging
approach. This technique based on the concept of tolerance and indiscrenibility relations
and on the definition of slowly-varying functions. The general modelling procedures of
this technique are given in books (Woniak et al. 2008, 2010).
The fundamental concept of the modelling technique is the averaging an arbitrary
integrable function f () over the cell ()
479

1 / 2
f ( , )
1
f (, ) d .
2
(7)
1 / 2
for every 1 [ / 2, / 2] , 2 [ R1 , R2 ] .
The first assumption in the tolerance modelling is micro-macro decomposition of the
displacement field
w( , t ) w0 ( , t ) h A (1 )VA ( , t )
(8)
for and t (t0 , t1 ) .

The modelling assumption states that w0 (, 2 ) , VA (, 2 ) are slowly-varying
functions with respect to the argument
1 . Functions
w0 (, 2 , t ) SV2 (, ) ,
VA (, 2 , t ) SV2 (, ) are the basic unknowns of the tolerance model. Function h A (1 )

are known, dependent on the microstructure length parameter , fluctuation shape
functions.
~
~
Let h A () , 1h A () stand for periodic approximation of h A () , 1h A () in ,
respectively. Due to the fact that w(, 2 , t ) are tolerance periodic functions, it can be
observe that the periodic approximation of wh (, 2 , t ) and wh (, 2 , t ) in () , have the
form
wh ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( , t ) h A ( y ) V A ( , t ),
wh ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( , t ) 1h A ( y ) V A ( , t ) h A ( y ) 2V A ( , t ),
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( , t ) h A ( y ) V ( , t ),
h
(9)
for every x , almost every y ( ) and every t (t0 , t1 ) .

The tolerance model equations will be obtained by the averaging of the lagrangian
( , w, w , w , w ) . Substituting the decomposition (8) of displacement field into
Lagrangian and using the tolerance averaging approach, we obtain
480
1
2
w w h A w 0 VA 12 h A B VAVB p w 0 ph A V A
0
12 D w 0 w 0 D11 h A 11 w 0 V A D 22 h A V A 22 w 0
2 D12 h A 1 w 0 V A 2 D1122 h A 11h B V A VB 22 12 D1111h A 11h B 11 V A VB
2 D1212 h A 1h B 1 V A 2 VB 2 12 D 2222 h A h B V A 22 VB 22
1
k z w0 w0
2
1
h2
k z h A h B VB V A
k t g A g B 22 V A 2 VB 2
2
8
h2
h2
1 w 0 V A
k t h A 2 w 0 V A 2
k t h A 1h B 1 11 V A VB
4
4
k z h A w0 V A
h2
kt h A 1
4
h2
k t w 0 w 0 12 n w 0 w 0 n1 h A 1 w 0 V A n 2 h A V A 2 w 0
8
12 n11h A 1h B 1 V A VB n12 h A 1h B V A VB 2 12 n 22 h A h B V A 2 VB 2
(10)
Applying the principle of stationary action to averaged functional h the EulerLagrange equations take the form
L L
L
L
(
) (
),
0
0
0
0
t w
w
w ,
w0
L L
L
L
(
) (
), 2
0
t VA
V A 22 22
VA ,2
VA
(11)
Using the averaged Lagrangian (10) we obtain the following system of equations
describing stability of the plate resting on microheterogeneous foundation
( D w0 ) ( D 11h A 11 V A ) ( D 22 h A V A 22 )
k z w0 k z h A V A
h2
h2
( k t w0 ) ( k t h A 1 1V A )
4
4
h2
0 p ,
( k t h A 2V A 2 ) ( N w 0 ) w
4
481
D11 h A 11 w 0 D1122 h A 11 h B VB 22 D1111h A 11 h B 11 VB

( D 22 h A w 0 ) 22 ( D1122 h A h B 11 VB ) 22 ( D 2222 h A h B VB 22 ) 22
2( D12 hh A 1 w 0 ) 2 4( D1212 h A 1 h B 1 VB 2 ) 2 k z h A h B VB
h2
h2
( k t h A 2 w 0 ) 2
k t h A 1 11 w 0
4
4
h2
h2
( k t h A h B 22VB 2 ) 2
k t h A 1 h B 1 11VB
4
4
( N 22 h A h B VB 2 ) 2 N 11 h A 1 h B 1 VB h A h B VB p h A
(12)
k z h A w0
We have assume that forces n can be represented by a decomposition
n ( ) N ( ) n~ ( ) ,
(13)
where N n is a slowly varying function and n~ () is a fluctuating part of the

~ 0 . In Eq.(10) we have assumed that the fluctuating part
forces n () , such that n
n~ () of the forces n () is very small compared to their averaged part N () , and

hence n 22 h A h B N 22 h A h B .
The above equations have the smooth and functional coefficients in contrast to
equations in direct description with the discontinuous and highly oscillating coefficients.
Equations (12) together with micro-macro decomposition of displacement field (8)
constitute the tolerance model of the plate under consideration.
3. ASYMPTOTIC MODEL
For asymptotic modelling procedure we retain only the concept of highly oscillating
function. We shall not deal with the concept of the tolerance periodic function as well as
slowly-varying function. For every parameter 1 / n , n 1, 2,...we define a scaled cell
(l / 2, l / 2) and by ( x) x the scaled cell with a centre at .

The mass density () , moduli of the foundation k z () , kt () and tensor of elasticity
D () are assumed to be highly oscillating discontinuous functions () , k z () , kt () ,

D () HO0 (, )
D
for
almost
every
If
() ,
k z () ,
kt () ,
() HO (, ) then for every there exist functions ( y, ) , k z ( y, 2 ) ,

0
kt ( y, 2 ) , D ( y, x 2 ) which are periodic approximation of functions () , k z () , kt () ,

D () , respectively.
The fundamental assumption of the asymptotic modelling is that we introduce
decomposition of displacement as family of fields
482
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) , y ( )
(14)
~
where h A ( y, 2 ) are periodic approximation of highly oscillating functions h A () . From
formula (14) we obtain
~ y
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 1h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) 2V A ( y, 2 , t )
~
y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t )
~A y 2
~ y
2
21h ( , ) 2V A ( y, , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) 22V A ( y, 2 , t )
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) 2 h A ( , 2 ) VA ( y, 2 , t )
(15)
Bearing in mind that by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), function
~
h A ( y / , 2 ) , y ( ) , is weakly bounded and has under 0 weak limit. Under
limit passage 0 for y ( ) we obtain
w 0 y, 2 , t w 0 ( , t ) O(),
w y, , t w ( , t ) O()
0
V A y, , t V A ( , t ) O(),
2
w y, , t w 0 ( , t ) O(),
2
2V A y, 2 , t 2V A ( , t ) O()
22V A y, 2 , t 22V A ( , t ) O()

0
w 0 y , 2 , t w 0 ( , t ) O ( )
(16)
VA y, 2 , t VA ( , t ) O()
By means of (16) we rewrite formulae (14) and (15) in the form
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) O()
w ( y, 2 , t ) w 0 ( y, 2 , t ) O()
~ y
w ( y, 2 , t ) w0 ( y, 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 ) V A ( y, 2 , t ) O()
2
0
2
w ( y, , t ) w ( y, , t ) O()
For a periodic approximation of Lagrangian we have
483
(17)
~ y
y
y
y
( , 2 , w0 ( , 2 , t ) O(), w0 ( , 2 , t ) O(), w 0 ( , 2 , t ) O(),
~
y
y
y
w0 ( , 2 , t ) 11h A ( , 2 )V A ( , 2 , t ) O())
(18)
~
If 0 then by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), tends
weakly in to

, w , t , w , t , w , t , w , t
0 , w0 , t , w0 , t , w 0 , t , w0 , t ,V A , t
1 ~
y,
x
11
~
h A y, 2 V A , t dy.
(19)
Asymptotic action functional has the form
w ,V (
t1
( , w0 (), w0 (), w0 (), V A (), w 0 ()) d dt
(20)
t0
where Lagrangian is given by

0 ( , w0 , w0 , w0 ,V A 22 , V A 2 ,V A , w 0 )
1
1
D w0 w 0 D11 h A 11 V A w0 D1111 h A 11 h B 11 V A VB
2
2
1
h2
1
1
0
0
0
0
kz w w
k t w w 2 n w0 w0 w 0 w 0 p w0 .
2
8
2
(21)
From principle stationary action we can derive the Euler-Lagrange equations

0 0
0 0
0
0
t w
w
w ,

0
0 0
w
(22)
0
0, A 1,...,N
V A
Substituting formulae (21) into equations (22), governing equations of the plate under
consideration take the form
484

( D w 0 ) ( D11 h A 11 V A ) k z w0
h2
( k t w0 )
4
0 p
( N w0 ) w
D11 h A 11 w0 D1111 h A 11 h B 11 VB 0
(23)
Eliminating V A from second equation (23)
VA
D11 h B 11
w0
1111 A
B
D h 11 h 11
(24)
and denoting effective elastic moduli
Deff
D
D11 h B 11
D11 h A 11 ,
D1111h A 11 h B 11
(25)
we arrive the following equation of motion for the averaged displacement of the plate
midplane w0 ( , t )
( Deff
w0 ) k z w0
h2
( kt w0 ) ( N w0 )
.
4
(26)
0 p
w
Equations (24)-(24) represent the asymptotic model of the stability behaviour of the plate
interacting with microheterogeneous subsoil.
The general results of contribution will be illustrated by analysis of the stability of
an annular plate resting on elastic heterogeneous foundation. Coefficients of model
equations (12), (26) are a smooth functions of radial coordinate ( R0 , R1 ) , and in most
cases numerical methods have to be used in order to obtain solutions. In this contribution
in order to obtain the approximate solution of equations (26) will be used the Galerkin
method. Example of the obtained results will be given during presentation.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Baron E., On dynamic stability of an uniperiodic medium thickness plate band, J. Theor.
Appl. Mech., 41, 2003, pp. 305-321.
Gomuliski A., Determination of eigenvalues for circular plates resting on elastic
foundation with two moduli, Arch. In. Ld. 13, 2, 1967, pp. 183-203.
Jdrysiak J., The tolerance averaging model of dynamic stability of thin plates with onedirectional periodic structure, Thin Walled Struct., 45, 2007, pp. 855-860.
Jdrysiak J., Michalak B., On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin-Walled Struct., 49, 2011, pp. 627-635
485

[5]
[6]
Michalak B., Stability of elastic slightly wrinkled plates, Acta Mechanica, 130, 1998, pp.
111-119.
Tomczyk B., Dynamic stability of microperiodic cylindrical shells, Mech. Mechanical
Eng., 14, 2010, pp. 137150.
[7]
Wgrowska M., Woniak Cz., On the modelling of dynamic problems for visco-elastic
composites, Int. J. Engng Sci., 35, 1996, pp. 923-932.
[8]
Woniak Cz., (eds.), Mechanics of elastic plates and shells (In polish), Warszawa, PWN
2001.
[9]
Woniak Cz., et al., (eds.), Mathematical modeling and analysis in continuum mechanics
of microstructured media, Wydawnictwo Politechniki lskiej, Gliwice, 2010.
[10] Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J., (eds.), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures, Wydawnictwo Politechniki dzkiej, d, 2008.
486
ASYMPTOTIC AND TOLERANCE 2D-MODELLING IN

ELASTODYNAMICS OF CERTAIN THIN-WALLED
STRUCTURES
B. MICHALAK, Cz. WONIAK
Department of Structural Mechanics, Lodz University of Technology
Al. Politrchniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
The object of analysis is a plane structures reinforced by system of periodically

distributed thin parallel ribs (Fig.1). The aim of contribution is to derive a 2Dmacroscopic mathematical model describing elastodynamics behaviour of this
structure. The considerations are based on those summarized in monographs
(Woniak, Michalak, Jdrysiak, eds. 2008). Some applications of the tolerance
averaging technique for the modelling of various dynamic and stability problems
for elastic microheterogeneous structures are given in series of paper by: Baron
(2003), Jdrysiak and Michalak (2011), Michalak and Wirowski (2011), Nagrko
and Woniak (2002), Wgrowska and Woniak (1996), Wierzbicki and Woniak
(2000).
1. FORMULATION OF THE MODELLING PROBLEM

Introduce the orthogonal Cartesian coordinate system O x1 x 2 x 3 in the physical
space occupied by a plate under consideration. Let (0, L1 ) (0, L2 ) be the midplane
(the symmetry plane) of the structure. It is assumed that a thickness of the plate h is small
compared to the minimum length dimension of the midplane of the plate,
h min(L1 , L2 ) . At the same time the thickness h is supposed to be small compared to
the width of the stiffened ribs H , h H (Fig.2).
Fig. 1. A fragment of a plate structure with periodic system of stiffeners
487

Subsequently it will be assumed that number n of the ribs is very large, 1 / n 1 ,
and the maximum distance l between ribs is very small when compared to L1 . Hence
l L1 / n will be treted as a microstructure length parameter. At the same time, the

thickness h of the plate is supposed to be small compared to the microstructure length
parameter l , h l .
Fig. 2. A fragment of a cross-section of the stiffened plate structure
The aim of this contribution is to formulate 2D macroscopic models of dynamics

behaviour of the plate under consideration. There models will be referred to as asymptotic
and tolerance, respectively. By the 2-dimensional macroscopic model we shall understand
mathematical model governed by averaged equations of motion with smooth coefficients
and unknowns functions dependent on coordinates x1 and x 2 .
Throughout the paper, indices i, k , l run over 1, 2, 3 , indices , , ,... run over
1, 2 and t stand for the time coordinate. Subsequently we shall use denotations x x1 ,
1 / x1 , 2 / x 2 . The summation convention holds all aforementioned sub-and

superscripts.
2. PRELIMINARES
The considerations are based on the well-known equations for the plane stress state
in the plate. It is assumed that the undeformed midplane of the plate occupies region
(0, L1 ) (0, L2 ) . Denoting by l distance between the ribs of the plate-structures,
every i , where xi l / 2 (i 1) l , i 1, 2,...,n, , (1 / n 1) , will be referred to the cell
in with centre at xi (Fig.3). Let i [0, L2 ] will be region in the physical space
occupied by plate-structure and int( i ) -cross section of by every x 2 (0, L2 ) plane. Let subcells i , i , i will be parts of every cell i (x) ; belonging to plate,
ribs-stiffeners and part belonging both to plate and stiffeners, respectively.
The model equations for the dynamic behaviour of the plate-structure under
consideration will be obtained for plane-stress state in the plate.
P
Subcells i . Plane stress n 33 0 , hence
P
SP
488
hE
(e11 e22 )
1 2
hE
n 22
(e22 e11 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
n11
(1)
where e strain tensors.
Fig. 3. The basic cell of the stiffened plate structure
Subcells i . In this region of the structure we consider 3D-stress state

SP
n11 h( 2)e11 h(e22 e33 )

n 22 h( 2)e22 h(e11 e33 )
n 33 h( 2)e33 h(e11 e22 ) ,
n12
(2)
hE
e12
1
where , are Lames constants.

Subcells i . Plane stress n11 0 , hence
S
hE
(e22 e33 )
1 2
hE
(3)
n 33
(e33 e22 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
S
SP
From condition of continuity on interfaces i i
n 22
489
h( 2 )e33 h (e11 e22 )
hE
1 2
(e33 e22 ) ,
(4)
we derive
e33 [
E
1 2
e22
h
h
E
(e11 e22 )] /[ ( 2 )
]
H
H
1 2
(5)
and bearing in mind that h H we shall assume approximation that h / H is

negligibly small in formula (4) and then formula (4) take the form e33 e22 . Hence we
assume conditions; e33 e22 in subcell i and e33 0 in subcell i .
Averaging formulae (2), (3) in S over ((h H ) / 2, (h H ) / 2) we have
S
SP
N 11 h( 2)e11 he22
N 22 [ HE h( 2)]e22 he11 ,
N 12
(6)
hE
e12
1
and in P over (h, h)
hE
(e11 e22 )
1 2
hE
n 22
(e22 e11 ) ,
1 2
hE
n12
e12
1
n11
(7)
we derive constitutive equations for 2-dimensional model of the heterogeneous structure

under consideration.
2-dimensional model of the plate structures with the periodic distribution of ribs.
Let displacement of the midplane of the plate will be denoted by w ( x , t ) , external
forces by p ( x , t ) and by ~
the mass density averaged over the plate thickness related
to the midplane.
In the framework of the linear theory for plane-stress state we obtain:
- equations of motion
~
0 ,
N p ~ w
where
490
(8)
h
(h H )
in P
,
in S
~
n
N
in P
in S
(9)
(10)
constitutive equations, which we shall write in the form
~
N D e ,
(11)
~
N 11 D1111e11 D1122 e22 ,
~
N 22 D 2211e11 D 2222 e22 ,
~
N 12 D1212 e12 .
(12)
where
It can be seen that the coefficients in above equations are discontinuous and highly
oscillating. These equations are to complicated to be used in the engineering analysis and
will be used as starting point in the tolerance modelling procedure.
In order to derive averaged model equations we applied tolerance averaging
approach. This technique based on the concept of tolerance and indiscrenibility relations
and on the definition of slowly-varying functions. The general modelling procedures of
this technique are given in books (Woniak et al. 2008, 2010).
The fundamental concept of the modelling technique is the averaging an arbitrary
integrable function f () over the cell i
1
i
f ( y) dy
y i .
(13)
The first assumption in the tolerance modelling is micro-macro decomposition of the

displacement field
w ( x , t ) u ( x , t ) g ( x1 )V ( x , t )
(14)
for x and t (t0 , t1 ) .

The modelling assumption states that u () , V () are slowly-varying functions with
respect
to
the
argument
x1 (0, L1 ) .
491
Functions
u (, x 2 , t ) SV1 (, ) ,
V (, x 2 , t ) SV1 (, ) are the basic unknowns of the tolerance model. Function g ( x1 ) is

known, dependent on the microstructure length parameter l , fluctuation shape function.
Let g~ () , 1 g~() stand for periodic approximation of g () , 1 g () in ,
respectively. Due to the fact that w (, x 2 , t ) are tolerance periodic functions, it can be
observe that the periodic approximation of wh (, x 2 , t ) and wh (, x 2 , t ) in ( x1 ) ,
x1 have the form

wh ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) g ( y )V ( x , t ),
wh ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) 1 g ( y )V ( x , t ) g ( y ) 2V ( x , t ),
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) g ( y )V ( x , t ),
h
(15)
for every x1 , almost every y ( x1 ) and every t (t0 , t1 ) .

The modelling assumption states that if in every cell ( x1 ) , x1 will be define
residual forces
r N p ~
w
(16)
then the following orthogonality conditions holds
r T ( x1 ) 0,
g r T ( x1 ) 0
(17)
where operator T ( x1 ) stands for tolerance averaging over the cell ( x1 ) .

Substituting the right-hand side of formula (13) into equations (16) and bearing in
mind orthogonality conditions (17), we obtain the following system of equations of
motion
( D u D 1 1 g V D 2 g 2V ) p
~
u ~
g V 0
2 ( D 2 g u g D 21 1 g V g D 2 2 g 2V ) D1 1 g u
g D11 g V g D1 2 g V p g ~
g u g ~
g V 0
1
(18)
The above results represent the system equations for averaged displacements u ( x , t ) ,
and displacements fluctuation amplitudes V ( x , t ) . These equations together with micromacro decomposition of displacement fields (14) and physical condition that solutions
have to be slowly-varying functions with respect to the argument x1 (0, L1 ) , constitute
the tolerance model of structural plate under consideration.
492

3. ASYMPTOTIC MODEL
For asymptotic modelling procedure we retain only the concept of highly oscillating
function. We shall not deal with the concept of the tolerance periodic function as well as
slowly-varying function. Using the asymptotic procedure we introduce parameter
1 / n , n 1, 2,.... Let l , h , H and b are a scaled dimensions of the cell A
scaled cell is defined by (l / 2, l / 2) and ( x) x is a scaled cell with a
centre at x .
The mass density ~
() and tensor of elastic moduli D () are assumed to be
highly oscillating and discontinuous functions, ~
() , D () HO 0 (, ) , for almost
every x . If ~
() , D () HO0 (, ) then for every x there exist functions
~
() , D () ,
( y, x 2 ) , D ( y, x 2 ) which are periodic approximation of functions ~
respectively.
The fundamental assumption of the asymptotic modelling is that we introduce
decomposition of displacement as family of fields
y
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( y, t ) g~( ) V ( y, t ),
where
g~(, x 2 ) are
periodic
approximation
y ( x), t (t 0 , t1 )
of
highly
oscillating
(19)
functions
g () HO1 (, ) . From formula (19) we obtain

y
y
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( y, x 2 , t ) 1 g~( )V ( y, x 2 , t ) g~( ) 2V ( y, x 2 , t ),
y
2
2
2
w ( y, x , t ) u ( y, x , t ) g~( )V ( y, x , t ),
(20)
Bearing in mind that by means of property of the mean value, Jikov et al. (1994), function
g~( y / , x 2 ) , y (x) , is weakly bounded and has under 0 weak limit. Under limit
passage 0 for y (x) we obtain
u ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
u ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O(),
V ( y, x 2 , t ) V ( x , t ) O().
u ( y, x , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
2
By means of (21) we rewrite formulae (19) and (20) in the form
493
(21)
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) O(),
y
w ( y, x 2 , t ) u ( x , t ) 1 g~( )V ( x , t ) O().
(22)
Using formulae (22) for orthogonality conditions (17) we obtain equations
( D u D 1 1 g V ) p ~
u 0
D1 1 g u 1 g D11 1 g V 0
(23)
Eliminating V from equations (23)
D1 1 g
u ,
1 g D11 1 g
(24)
we arrive the following equation of motion for the averaged displacements of the plate
midplane u ( x , t )
( D
D 1 1 g D1 1 g
) u p ~
u 0 .
1 g D11 1 g
(25)
Equations (24), (25) represent the asymptotic model of the structural plate under
consideration.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Baron E., On dynamic stability of an uniperiodic medium thickness plate band, J. Theor.
Appl. Mech., 41, 2003, pp. 305-321.
Jdrysiak J., Michalak B.,On the modelling of stability problems for thin plates with
functionally graded structure, Thin-Walled Struct., 49, 2011, pp. 627-635
Michalak B., Wirowski A., Dynamic modeling of thin plate made of certain functionally
graded materials,Meccanica DOI 10.1007/s11012-011-9532-z.
Nagrko W., Woniak Cz., Nonasymptotic modelling of thin plates reinforced by a system
of stiffeners, Electronic J. Polish Agric. Univ., Civil Engineering, 5, 2002,
www.ejpau.media.pl.
Wgrowska M., Woniak Cz., On the modelling of dynamic problems for visco-elastic
composites, Int. J. Engng Sci., 35, 1996, pp. 923-932.
[6]
Wierzbicki E., Woniak Cz., On the dynamic behaviour of honeycomb based composite
solids, Acta Mechanica, 141, 2000, pp. 161-172.
[7]
Woniak Cz., Michalak B., Jdrysiak J., (eds.), Thermomechanics of Heterogeneous Solids
and Structures, 2008,Wydawnictwo Politechniki dzkiej, d.
494
RESEARCH ON GEOMETRY AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

INFLUENCE ON CYLINDRICAL SHELL STABILITY
D. MIEDZISKA, T. NIEZGODA, J. JACHIMOWICZ
Department of Mechanics and Applied Computer Science,
Military University of Technology
Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
The paper is related to the results of dynamic numerical analyses of stability of thinwalled steel cylinders exposed to an impact load from an infinitely rigid plate with
variable kinetic energy. The influence of the boundary conditions, load speed and
cylinder geometry on the deformation process and the critical forces values (forces
causing the instability) was shown.
1. INTRODUCTION
The thin-walled cylinders are widely used in aerospace and automotive structures as
energy absorbers and protections against crash for example under seats or in bumpers.
The idea of using such crash elements is presented in Fig. 1 [1, 2].
Fig. 1. Crash elements: a) idea of using, b) correct application, c) example of construction
495
Fig. 2. Cylinder instabilities: a) elastic-plastic, b) plastic
The allowable loads for modern construction are usually determined by their
stability. The most popular thin-walled structures have developable surface (e.g.
cylinders). They work under various load conditions, with can cause the structure
instability [3].
Fig. 3. Thin-walled cylinder compression test results [4]
The experimental compression test results for thin-walled cylinder were presented in
Fig. 3.
The results of dynamic numerical analyses of stability of thin-walled steel cylinders
exposed to an impact load from an infinitely rigid plate with variable kinetic energy were
presented in the paper. The influence of the boundary conditions, load speed and cylinder
geometry on the deformation process and the critical forces values (forces causing the
instability) was shown.
496

2. NUMERICAL MODELS AND ANALYSIS DESCRIPTION
The thin-walled cylinders numerical models were developed with the use of shell 4node elements [5]. Three different geometries for cylinder were applied: ideal, with
circumferential and sinusoid imperfection (Fig. 4), what reflected the real structures
shapes.
Three cases of boundary condition were applied for each cylinder:
#1 - compression test with the use of rigid walls (stationary and moving one load
speed 5, 10, 15 and 20 m/s),
speed 5, 10, 15 and 20 m/s) and fixed radial degree of freedom in the cylinder top edge
nodes,
speed 5, 10, 15 and 20 m/s) and fixed radial degree of freedom in the cylinder top and
bottom edge nodes.
The elastic-plastic material model for steel was applied (density 7800kg/m3, Young
modulus 210GPa, Poisson ratio 0.33, yield stress 330 MPa, tangent modulus 0.1 GPa).
The thickness of the structure was 1 mm, the height was 50 mm and diameter 30 mm.
The finite element analyses were carried out with the use of LS Dyna computer
code.
For the domain, the governing equation is the conservation of momentum. By
expressing equilibrium in the current configuration and based on Finite Elements, the set
of discrete differential equations is presented as follows:
f ext V e BT dV
Mu
(1)
Here is the tensor representing Cauchy stress in the structure, M is a mass matrix,
is the vector of nodal accelerations, fext is the vector of external forces, B is the matrix
of shape functions derivatives and Ve describes the element e volume. An underlying is
related to vector, matrix or tensor quantities.
t=Le/(Q+(Q2+c2)1/2)
(2)
where Q is the function of the bulk viscosity coefficients, c is the adiabatic sound speed,
Le characteristic length of element.
The elastic-plastic material model with isotropic hardening was applied to describe
the material properties for steel. The yield condition is defined in this model as:
=1/2sijsij-(y2/3) = 0
(3)
where y=0+Epeffp and is a parameter between 0 and 1 representing kinematic and

hardening effects respectively.
497
Fig. 4. Numerical models geometries: a) ideal cylinder, b) with circumferential and

c) sinusoid imperfection
The penalty function can be applied to normal displacements in the displacementbased approach; to normal velocities defined in the velocity-based approach; and to
normal displacements in the velocity-based approach, the latter being the most often form
of application. In the penalty function method the normal contact force is expressed with
the following equation:
Fnij=unijH(-unij)
(4)
where: H() is Heaviside step function and = 1/, - coefficient of the penalty function
[5].
The thin-walled cylinders numerical models were developed with the use of shell 4node elements The finite element analyses results were presented as values of critical
force (the force that initiates the cylinder damage) in each case described above (Table 1)
and as examples of deformations for v =10 m/s and t =2 ms (Fig. 5).
498

Table 1.
Resulted values of critical forces
Boundary conditions #1
40.9
40
31.7
43.28
37.66
22.11
22.9
41.34
40.98
31.31
45.87
46.08
35.81
15
20
43.2
45.6
46.7
46.2
25.4
28.2
46.44
41.5
42.6
41.6
30.66
35.3
46.76
45.79
46.85
42.68
45.18
45.08
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Cylinder with
circumferential
imperfection
19.3
46.7
Ideal cylinder
43.2
45.1
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Cylinder with
circumferential
imperfection
37.5
Ideal cylinder
5
10
Ideal cylinder
Cylinder with
sinusoid
imperfection
Critical force [kN]

Cylinder with
circumferential
imperfection
Load
speed
[m/s]
Fig. 5. Deformations for v = 10 m/s and t = 2 ms for: boundary conditions #1

a), b), c), boundary conditions #2 d), e), f), and boundary conditions #3
g), h), i) for ideal cylinder, cylinder with circumferential and sinusoid imperfection
4. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper the influence of the numerical investigation on the influence of the thinwalled cylinder geometry, boundary conditions and load speed on the structure stability
was presented.
It was concluded that the significant influence of cylinder geometry, load speed and
boundary conditions on critical force value was strictly visible. The force rose with the
499

increase of load speed value to 15 m/s and fell for 20 m/s. The sinusoid imperfection of
cylinder geometry decreased the critical force value, because it influence and stimulate
the deformation waves in the structure. Finally it was concluded that fixing the edges of
the cylinder increases the stiffness of the construction (the critical force value increased in
each case).
The deformation of the described structures were also presented and showed good
correspondence with experimental results.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Brust S., Nagelstrassel M., Watzka W., Crash type destruction Rusing structure - borne
sound sensing, www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/esv/esv21/09-0230.pdf.
Flesher N., Finite Element Simulation of Braided Composite Tubes for Crash Energy
Absorption,
www.structure.stanford.edu/Project/ResearchProject/flesher/Nathan_Flesher.pdf.
Grybo R., Stateczno konstrukcji pod obcieniem uderzeniowym, Polska Akademia
Nauk, Warszawa 1980.
Nowak J., Cylindryczne elementy energochonne obcione fal uderzeniow, PhD thesis,
Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna, Warszawa. 2008.
Hallquist J.O., LS-Dyna. Theoretical manual, California Livermore Software Technology
Corporation, 1998.
Zienkiewicz O.C., Taylor R.L., The finite element method, 5 th edition, McGraw-Hill,
London 2000.
500
VIBRATIONS AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF THE PENDULUM

WITH VIBRATING MOUNTING POINT
W. MORZUCH
Wrocaw University of Technology
50-372 Wrocaw, Smoluchowskiego 25
In the article dynamic analysis of the pendulum whose mounting point performs the
vibration was presented. Equation of motion was written and then the stability of
this motion was examined. Finally Mathieu equation without suppression was
obtained, which solution allowed to designate the frequency bands at which the
force of the pendulum motion was unstable.
Keywords: mathematic pendulum, dynamic stability
1. INTRODUCTION
The movement of many mechanical systems is described by the Mathieu differential
equation. An example here might be the lateral vibrations of electric machines rotors,
bipolar [3, 4] or transverse vibrations of spacer bars [5, 6]. Variability of some
parameters like e.g., the magnetic tension force in the case of rotors or compressive force
in the case of rods, such a issue can be checked by the Mathieu differential equation. As a
result of its solution is obtained a range of enforce frequencies at which there is a
phenomenon of instability (parametric resonance). Similar situation occurs in the case of
a mathematical pendulum with oscillating point of suspension. Differential equation
describing such a motion is Mathieu differential equation with coefficients depending on
the amplitude forcing and frequency of change. Stability of motion such a pendulum
depends on whether the parameters of this work are contained in sedate or unsedate
interval. So it was necessary to determine the boundary lines describing a motion stability
of an increased pendulum, based on our own method of solution of Mathieu equation.
2. EQUATION OF PENDULUM MOTION
Considered pendulum is shown in Figure 1. It was assumed that the point of
suspension performs vibrations described by dependence
(t) o cospt
where
o -vibrations amplitude, p- vibration frequency
501
(1)
Fig. 1. The pendulum with oscillating suspension point
The motion equation of the pendulum at the direction perpendicular to its length has the
form
m(sin l) mgsin
(2)
m( g)sin ml 0
(3)
sin
(4)
so
Assuming
differential equation (3) will takes the form
m( g) ml 0
After substituting
o cospt
(5)
is obtained
g
) 0
l
After substituting the known dependence

502
(6)
o
2
g
l
(7)
equation (6) was obtained in the form
g
l
(1 ) 0
(8)
This equation can be written as
o 2 [1 f(t)] 0
(9)
where
f(t)
(10)
so
o 2 (1
p 2 o cospt
) 0
g
(11)
Differential equation (11) can be written as
o 2 (1 2cospt) 0
(12)
where
p 2 0
2g
(13)
Coefficient is a modulation depth factor. Equation (12) is a Mathieu equation (without

damping).
Let`s analyze the case, when p 2 ,where
parameter
2
Tp
. From dependence p 2 we will receive

2
2
2
Tp
T
503
T p - period of change a
,
(14)

where: T- pendulum period of free oscillation
l
g
T 2
(15)
From equation (14) we have
1
2
Tp T
T 2Tp
so
(16)
Thus, the period of free oscillation is equal to two periods of change parameter .
In order to determine an instability region the solution of equation (12) was presented in
the form
n (t) A(t)cos
pt
pt
B(t)sin
2
2
(17)
Where A (t), B (t) - slowly changing functions of time t such that
A
A
A
B
B
B
(18)
After differentiating (17) and substituting to (12) differential equation describing the
functions A (t) was given.
(t) 1 A(t)( 1 p 2 2 2 )( 1 p 2 2 2 ) 0
A
o
o
o
o
4
4
p2
(19)
The solution of this equation is presented as
A(t) C1e
1t
C 2 e 2t
(20)
1 , 2 - roots of the following characteristic equation

2
1 1 2
1
2
2
2
2
( p o o )( p 2 o o ) 0
2
4
p 4
(21)
In case when 0 unstable sollution is given. After solving above inequality

dependences describing the boundary lines of the instability area were obtained
2
504
2 1
p
2 1
o
(22)
Obtained dependence is identical with dependencies given in other works such as [1, 2].
The boundary lines for area described by equation (22) are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig.2. The boundary lines of unstable area
3. CALCULATION EXAMPLE
Following section analyze of pendulum motion stability with the length
50cm and with the length l2 100cm and the amplitude of extortion
l1
o 10cm . In case of pendulum with length l1 50cm basic on dependence (22)
forcing frequency was obtained at which instability occurs.
After accepting
p 2 o 1
(upper line)
(23)
p 2 o 1
(down line)
(24)
l1 50cm obtained
o
g
4,43s 1 (T0 1,42s)
l1
Then the stability of pendulum motion near the frequency was examined
p 2o 8,86s 1 (T p 0,71s)
Based on dependences (23) and (24) obtained
505
(25)
p 10,48s 1 , p 6,86s 1 .
(26)
So in above example dependence was obtained
ppp
(27)
where
6,86s 1 8,86s 1 10,48s 1
(28)
In above condition pendulum move will be unstable. Then adopted pendulum with length
l2 100cm .
Proceeding as above were obtained sequentially
o 3,13s 1 (T0 2s); 0,2; p 6,81s 1 ; p 5,6s 1
(29)
Thus, as previously obtained dependence
ppp
(30)
5,6s 1 6,28s 1 6,81s 1
(31)
because
Here pendulum motion will be also unstable.

4. CONCLUSION
Stability of a mathematical pendulum with oscillating point of suspension depends
on forcing frequency range. There is a range of frequencies at which the pendulum
motion is unstable. Those frequencies determine so-called areas of instability. Width of
these areas increases with increasing depth modulation factor.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Dygado Z., Kaliski S., Solarz L., Wodarczyk E., Vibrations and waves. WAT, Warsaw
1965.
McLachlan N.W., Theory and applications of Mathieu functions. Oxford 1947.
Morzuch W., Stateczno dynamiczna wirnikw dwubiegunowych silnikw
asynchronicznych, Archiwum Elektrotechniki, Vol XXXII, No.3-4,1983.
Morzuch W., Obszary niestatcznoci wirnikw klatkowych dwubiegunowych silnikw
asynchronicznych. Archiwum Budowy Maszyn. Vol XXXIII, No.2, 1986.
Morzuch W., Stateczno dynamiczna prta przekadowego ciskanego si okresowozmienn. Rozprawy Inynierskie. 1989 t.37, z 2.
Morzuch W., Dynamic buckling of sandwich bar compressed with periodic variable force.
Engineering Transactions. Vol. 55, 2007.
506
VIBRATIONS AND DYNAMIC STABILITY OF MECHANICAL

SYSTEMS DESCRIBED BY MATHIEU'S AND HILL'S
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
W. MORZUCH
Wrocaw University of Technology
50-372 Wrocaw, Smoluchowskiego 25
Following article presents a solution of Mathieu and Hill differential equation
describing the vibrations of mechanical systems submitted to force variable in time
with damping and without damping. An examples of above systems were presented
and selected parameters was set at which the respective solutions of differential
equations are unstable.
1. INTRODUCTION
Vibrations of many mechanical systems are described by Mathieu or Hill
differential equation. An example here might be the lateral vibrations of electrical
machines rotors [3,5] or the transverse vibrations of spacer rods [4,6]. Variability in time
during the magnetic tension (in the case of the rotors) or variability of compressive force
(in the case of spacer rods) is reduced to examination of issue to solving a differential
equation with time variable coefficients. Depending on adopted model differential
equations may contain same function (the model without damping) or it first derivative
(the model with damping). In this article own methods of solution above differential
equations were presented.
2. THE SOLUTION OF MATHIEU AND HILL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
The issues described in the preceding paragraph reduced to solution of differential
equations whose form depends on adopted model of the problem. In the case of adopting
the model without damping considered issue reduced to solving the Mathieu differential
equation in a form:
2 (1 2 cospt)T 0
T
n
n
n
n
(1)
where: Tn - function of time describing dependences of the analyzed value (e.g.,

deflection) from time t, n - frequency of a n-th order system for a case when p = 0,
p - frequencies of changes n parameter, n - function which is a ratio of modulation
depth.
In the case of adopting the model with damping analogically to (1) differential
equation has the form
2hT
2 n [1 f(t)]T 0
T
n
n
n
507
(2)

This is a Hill's differential equation. Here coefficient h is the damping factor.
In case absence of damping (h = 0) and after the adoption the function f(t) in form of
f(t)=2 n cos pt obtained by the classical Mathieu equation in the form:
2 (1 2 cospt)T 0
T
n
on
n
n
(3)
where on - is frequency for the n-th order of system without damping at n = 0.

A first and also the widest area of instability, was obtained by adopting a solution of
the differential equation (3) in the form:
T(t) A(t)cos
pt
pt
B(t)sin
2
2
(4)
where A(t), B(t)- slowly changing functions of time such that
A
A
A
and
B
B
B
(5)
Analyzing further the solution of the differential equation (3) dependence describing
boundaries of the first area of instability was obtained.
1
1
( z n z)( z n z) 0
4
4
where
z(
on
p
)2
(6)
(7)
A solution of inequality (6) are shown graphically in Fig. 1 and expressed as
z1 z z 2
(8)
On a basis of the condition (8) dependences describing boundaries of the first

instability area were obtained
(9)
After taking into account the substitution (7) dependence describing the boundary
lines of the first area of instability were obtained
2 1 n
p
2 1 n
on
(10)
This area is shown in Figure 2.

Identical to the dependence (10) were obtained dependences administered in many
text books, such as in [1, 2]. In a similar way the solution of the differential equation (2)
508

for a system with damping was obtained. For this purpose the solution of above equation
was adopted as
Fig.1. Solution of inequality Z1 and Z2
Tn e ht n
(11)
Fig.2. Boundary lines of the first area of instability

Finally a new differential equation describing the function n was obtained
n n 2 [1 f1 (t)]n 0
where
509
(12)
n 2 n 2 h 2
(13)
f1 (t) n2 f1 (t)
n
(14)
Equation (12) resembles Mathieu equation without damping.

It follows from above that by analyzing this equation can be based on solving the basic
Mathieu equations by substituting f1(t) in spite f(t) and n2 h2 in a place of n2.
Proceeding similarly as in the case of Mathieu equation term of the instability for Hill's
equations was obtained in form:
2 h 2
(15)
Above term was brought to solve the inequality
n 2
1 1 2
1
2
2
[
p
h
)(1
n )][ p 2
n
2
2
2
p 4
n h
4
(n
n 2
h )( 2
n 1)]h 2
2
n h
2
(16)
As a result of solutions above inequality obtained a term for a creation of parametric

resonance for the system with damping
n 2 n 2 n
(17)
h 2
n (
)
n
where
(18)
Also obtained the dependence at a relative damping coefficient
at which parametric
resonance occurs.
0 n
1
3
(19)
Elements corresponding quadratic equation resulting from the inequality (16) are
expressed in a form
1 3 n n 4 n 8 n
2
z1
4[(1 3 n )2 n ]
2
510
(20)
1 3 n n 4 n 8 n
2
z2
4[(1 3 n ) 2 n ]
2
In a case if z1 = z2 instability vertex coordinates in system are obtained
(21)
n ,
p
n
Equality of elements will occurs when the discriminant inequality (16) will be equal to
zero. After performing the appropriate transformations obtained
z z1 z 2
1
4(1 n )
(22)
After substitution
z(
n 2
)
p
(23)
obtained
p
2 1 3 n
n
(24)
Boundary lines describing the first area of instability was shown as visual aid in Fig.3
The top of the first instability area has the coordinates.
W(2 1 2 1
2 1 3 1 )
Fig.3 First area of instability

511
(25)

Proceeding similar as in the absence of damping obtained dependences describing
boundary lines of the first area of instability
(1 1 ) 2 1
p
2
2
2
1
1 3 1 1 4 1 8 1
(26)
(1 1 ) 2 1
p
2
2
2
1
1 3 1 1 4 1 8 1
(27)
Dependence (26) describes the upper lines, whereas the dependence (27) describes the
bottom line.
The solutions outlined above have been used in earlier work of the author [4, 5, 6].
3. CONCLUSION
As a result of solving the problem described by Mathieu equation without damping
a series of so-called areas of instability is obtained Inclusion of damping insert
considered question down to the Hill equation. Here also, areas of instability are obtained
which are much narrower. There is a limit value of damping at which parametric
resonance occurs.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Z. Dygado, S. Kaliski, L. Solarz, E. Wodarczyk, Vibrations and waves,WAT, Warsaw

1965.
N.W.Mc Lachlan, Theory and application of Mathieu functions. Oxford 1947.
W. Morzuch, Stateczno dynamiczna wirnikw dwubiegunowych silnikw
asynchronicznych. Archiwum Elektrotechniki.1983 t.32,z.3/4.
W. Morzuch,S tateczno dynamiczna prta przekadkowego ciskanego si okresowozmienn. Rozprawy Inynierskie, t. 37, z. 2, 1989.
W. Morzuch, Wpyw tumienia wewntrznego na drgania gitne wirnika dwubiegunowego
silnika elektrycznego, XII Sympozjum Statecznoci Konstrukcji, Zakopane 2009.
W. Morzuch, Stateczno dynamiczna prta przekadkowego z lepko sprystym
rdzeniem, XII Sympozjum Statecznoci Konstrukcji, Zakopane 2009.
512
Stability Structures XIII-th Symposium- Zakopane 2012
THE INFLUENCE OF CROSS-SECTION SHAPE OF THE CAR

ROOF RAIL ON THE QUASI-DYNAMIC BUCKLING MODES
A. MRZ
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lodz University of Technology
This paper presents the results of numerical analysis of the aluminium

profiles subjected to dynamic, of different time duration impulse loading.
The analysis includes the change in cross-section of the roof rail, ranging
from the open C profile, through closed Rectangular to hybrid
Tandem with brackets. The main aim of this study is to model the
dynamic response of the car roof rail to impulse loading, which may appear
in case of collision.
1. INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of the automotive history, growing emphasis has been put on
the development of the safety standards. Because of the continuous engine boosting,
upgrading the power, efficiency and ecological standards- the modern cars are far
different to their ancestors from the beginning of the 20th century. Adding to this the
increasing number of used vehicles, there is a meaningful probability of various
collisions. Some investigations have been conducted on the causes of the injury in
rollover accidents because of the high fatality rate in comparison to other types of the
accidents [1].
Fig. 1. Illustration of highway rollover [1]
513

Although before the pre-serial production the crash tests are carried through, these
are realized in strictly prcised conditions and are far from the parameters appearing in
reality. Because of the high cost of destructive experiments, more and more attention is
paid to computer analysis, basing mainly on FEM (Finite Element Method) software.
Author suggested the simplified analysis of the dynamic response of long, thinwalled profiles. This analysis will be the introduction to complex study engaging the
application for car roof rails. The aim of this is the verification of the influence of the
profiles cross-section (subjected to the dynamic impulse loading) and correctness of the
statement treating the roof rails as safety upgrading equipment in car design.
1.1. LITERATURE REVIEW
The stability of the thin-walled structures has been always in the main field of
interest of many modern scientists. In the thirties of 20th century H. Wagner, H. L. Cox,
K. Maguerre, E. Treffz, S. Levy, W.S. Hemp have initialized studies on post critical
construction response in elastic range. Koning and Taub put the step further and
examined the simply supported beam, subjected to axial impact [2]. This was the first
analysis which because of the load time could be called as the pre-dynamic study. In the
sixties, many publications describing the phenomenon of interaction of buckling modes
and influence of initial imperfections have appeared.
Due to the technical development resulting in new invented materials and advanced
computer facilities, a lot of analyses have been carried out, where not only the material
properties have been taken into account but also specific initial conditions could have
been modified. The item of A. Teter [3] is a very interesting example, where the
dynamic, coupled buckling in long prismatic profile, simply supported at the ends is
analyzed. Another publication, by Z. Kolakowski and T. Kubiak deals with the
interactive dynamic buckling in thin walled channels made of orthotropic material
subjected to in-plane pulse loading [4]. A meaningful attention should be paid to next
items - a series of monographs where the problems of instability in the elasto-plastic
range and post buckling behavior of plated structures are presented [5] and teamwork
publication of the workers of Department of Strength of Materials of Lodz University of
Technology, where among the literature and topic review, the examples of the dynamic
stability analyses are presented [6].
1.2. DYNAMIC BUCKLING
Dynamic stability (dynamic response) is the phenomenon of losing the stability of
structures subjected to time-dependent impact. As mentioned in the literature review, the
phenomenon of dynamic buckling of the structures has been started being investigated in
the sixties. Since this time many criteria basing on geometrical or energetic assumptions
514

have been developed. The most common are presented by Volmir [7], BudianskyHutchinson [8], Ari Gur and Simonetta [9], Petry Fahlbush [10].
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 2. Considered cross-sections of the profile with dimensions: a) C channel,

b) Rectangular, c) Internal tandem, d) External tandem
515

It is stated, that dynamic buckling appears in members subjected to impulse loading
of certain time duration, close to the period of fundamental natural flexural vibrations. In
the current article, the Budianski and Hutchinson criterion will be considered, that states:
the dynamic stability loss occurs, when the maximum deflection grows rapidly at a small
variation in the load amplitude.
The rails - modelled as beams of the same length (600 mm), simply supported at the
ends but of different cross-section shapes are taken into consideration. Thus, the C
channel presented in Fig. 2a, Rectangular Fig. 2b, hybrid ones Internal Tandem
Fig. 2c and External Tandem Fig. 2d are within this paper interest. The dimensions of
the profile are modified in a way, to achieve the same value of perimeter (cross-section
area).
The profiles are made of isotropic, linear elastic material - aluminium alloy 6060
which mechanical properties are presented in Tab. 1.
Tabble 1. Mechanical properties of aluminium alloy 6060 [11]
Density
Melting range
Modulus of elasticity
[g/cm3]
[585-650 0C]
[MPa]
2,7
585-650
69 500
Shear modulus
[MPa]
26 100
The profiles/rails are subjected to axial uniform compression z imp on one end with
the another constrained. The time duration of the impulse varies from 0.5 to 1.0 of natural
period Tnp (Fig. 3).
a)
b)
z imp.
For 0 t Tnp
z = z imp.
For t Tnp
z = 0
t
Timp.
2 Timp.
Fig. 3. Loading details: a) C channel boundary conditions, b) The rectangular impulse

loading characteristics
516

3. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
The results of numerical computations are the evidence of meaningful influence of
the profile cross-section shape on its natural fundamental frequencies (presented in Fig.
4.) and critical stress value (Fig. 5). This is especially distinctive when comparing the
value of critical stress of the open C-channel to the rectangular profile critical stress. The
closed cross-section brings the increase of critical stress more than 5 times. The hybrid
solution of the cross-section is a way to improve the rail stability by 30%. However there
are no distinct differences between internal and external tandem.
1600
Frequency of natural
vibrations [Hz]
1400
1200
1000
C channel
800
rectangular
600
internal tandem
external tandem
400
200
0
1
Fig. 4. First 5 lowest natural frequencies for the beams of different cross sections
Critical stress [MPa]
300
250
200
C channel
150
rectangular
internal tandem
100
external tandem
50
0
1
Fig. 5. First 5 lowest values of critical stress for the axially compressed beams of different
cross-sections
517

When taking into consideration the transient- dynamic analysis, the critical value of
Dynamic Load Factor [5] is on comparable order of magnitude for both compared
profiles. The buckling modes are presented in Fig. 6 where the graphs presenting the
dependence between DLF and deflection in Internal Tandem, for different impact
duration are presented in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.
a)
b)
c)
d)
UY
Fig. 6. Dynamic response to impulse compression pressure of the profile with cross section:
a) C channel, b) Rectangular, c) Internal tandem, d) External tandem
40,00
35,00
30,00
25,00
20,00
15,00
10,00
5,00
0,00
1T (|max|)
0,8
1,2
1,4
1,6
DLF
Fig. 7. Dynamic deflection obtained with the FEM for Internal tandem - time duration of
compression impulse equals 1 x natural period (of 1 st mode)
518

8,00
7,00
6,00
UY
5,00
4,00
0,5T (|max|)
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
0,8
1,2
1,4
1,6
DLF
Fig. 8. Dynamic deflection obtained with the FEM for Internal tandem - time duration of
compression impulse equals 0.5 x natural period (of 1 st mode)
The deflection was determined for displacement in perpendicular to the mid-plane

for the same node for all types of the profiles. The duration of the pulse load plays a
fundamental role on the buckling character. For long lasting impulse (1Tnp ) the
magnitude of the displacement is almost 5 times higher than for the load lasting of
0.5Tnp. The value of the critical DLF is comparable, however for the shorter impact, it is
almost 8% higher. The results for all profiles are presented in Tab. 2.
Table 2.
Determined critical Dynamic Load Factor for different cross-sections

Internal
External
C channel
Rectangular
tandem
tandem
time duration of
compression
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,1
impulse equals 1 x
natural period
time duration of
compression
1,6
1,8
1,4
1,4
impulse equals 0.5
x natural period
4. CONCLUSIONS
The article is the introduction of the authors involvement in dynamic stability of
the roof rails in automotive application. The proposed numerical model was consciously
519

simplified in order to investigate the influence of the beams cross-section shape on the
dynamic stability and the obtained results confirmed the initial statement.
The next steps which will be taken, will concern the correlation between the natural
frequencies and buckling mode in order to characterize the appropriate pulse duration and
to make the phenomenon more dynamic. Moreover, the shape of the impulse will be
modified in order to make it more realistic to the ones occurring during the crash (records
from decelerator meters from crash test).
Fig. 9. Rollover crash test of Volvo XC90 [7]
In addition to this, nonlinear material characteristics - achieved from laboratory

tensile test, will be considered and the aging process of the aluminium will be taken into
account and modelled in FE analysis.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Eichler R. C., The causes of injury in rollover accidents, Accident Reconstruction Journal,
Jan/Feb 2003.
Koning C., Taub J., Impact buckling of thin bars in the elastic range hinged at both ends,
NACA TM, June 1934, 748.
Teter A., Wielomodalne wyboczenie cienkociennych uebrowanych supw obcionych
impulsem ciskajcym, Politechnika dzka, d 2010 (in polish).
Kolakowski Z., Kubiak T., Interactive dynamic buckling of orthotropic thin-walled
channels subjected to in-plane pulse loading, Composite Structures 81, 2007, 222-232.
Kowal-Michalska K. (ed.), Dynamic Stability of Composite Plate Structures, WNT,
Warszawa, 2007.
Krlak M., Mania R.J. (eds.), Stability of Thin-Walled Plate Structures, vol.1 of Static,
Dynamic and Stability of Structures, A Series of Monographs, TUL, 2011.
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/accidents-hazardous conditions/28002rollover-accidents-explained.htm.
520
FREE VIBRATIONS OF CARBON NANOTUBES WITH DEFECTS

A. MUC, A. BANA, M. CHWA
al. Jana Pawa II 37, 31-684 Cracow, Poland
In the paper the eigenfrequencies of pristine and defective single walled carbon
nanotubes are investigated. The defects are in the form of point vacancies. The axial
vibrations of structures are studied only. A special attention is focused on the
effects of material and geometrical properties of nanostructures on the results.
Three different models are considered: the Euler beam model, a continuous
specially orthotropic model and a 3D nonlinear finite element model consistent
with molecular mechanics formulations. The results demonstrate that the Euler
beam model overestimates the values of natural frequencies.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recent studies have indicated that carbon nanotubes (CNTs) exhibit superior
mechanical and electronic properties over any known materials. Due to their novel
electronic, mechanical and other physical and chemical properties, CNTs have potential
applications in atomic-force microscopes, field emitters, nano-actuators, nano-motors,
nano-bearings, nanosprings, nano-fillers for composite materials, and nano-scale
electronic devices. Hence, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have become the focal points of
studies in computational nano-mechanics and computational condensed-matter physics
over the recent years, including vibrational behavior. Since controlled experiments at the
nanometer scale are very difficult, two approaches are widely used for the researches on
CNTs. One is the molecular dynamics simulations which is very time-consuming and
remains formidable for large-scale systems. The other is the continuum mechanics
methods such as shell and beam modeling of CNTs. Via nanotechnology, the nonlocal
theory has been applied to analyze vibration and wave propagation of CNTs based on the
beam models [15], including also the non-linear interaction with the surrounding
medium [6]. Ru [7, 8] used the elastic shell model to conduct buckling analyses of CNTs.
Yakobson et al. [9] noticed the unique features of fullerenes and developed a continuum
shell model to study different instability patterns of CNTs under different compressive
loads. He et al. [10-13] investigated the buckling behavior of CNTs using elastic shell
model having the van der Waals effect. Muc [14] discussed the applicability of thin shell
theory in predicting behavior of CNTs.
In contrast to theoretical considerations the experimental verifications of the CNTs
strength or Youngs modulus demonstrate evidently discrepancies that may reach even up
to 30% - see e.g. Mielke et al. [15]. Possible single or multiple defects in CNTs provide
an explanation for the extant theoreticalexperimental differences.
However, this deterioration in the mechanical characteristics is partly alleviated by
the ability of nanotubes to heal vacancies in the atomic network by saturating dangling
bonds. The defects can appear at the stage of CNTs growth and purification, or later on
521

during device or composite production. Moreover, defects in CNTs can deliberately be
created by chemical treatment or by irradiation to achieve the desired functionality.
Therefore, possible defects in CNTs can be classified in the following manner: 1) point
defects such as vacancies, 2) topological defects caused by forming pentagons and
heptagons e.g. 5-7-7-5 defect so-called Stone-Wales defects, 3) hybridization defects
caused due to functionalisation. It is possible to consider single walled CNTs (SWCNTs)
with a single vacancy (one atom removed), with a double vacancy (two adjacent atoms
knocked out) and with a triple vacancy (three adjacent atoms missing), as depicted in Fig.
1. In what follows, these configurations will be referred to as non-reconstructed defects.
In each tube the non-reconstructed double vacancy defects have two axially
distinguishable orientations separated by 120 degrees (only one configuration is shown in
Fig. 1). These atomic configurations are meta-stable but can survive for macroscopic
times at low temperatures or when the atoms with dangling bonds are bonded to a
surrounding medium, e.g., a polymer matrix.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 1. Atomic networks of SWNTs with non-reconstructed (a, c) and reconstructed (b, d)
single (a,b), double (c,d). Only the front wall of each tube is shown. The
configurations correspond to a (10, 10) armchair SWNT
In this study the axial vibrations of SWCNTs are analyzed only. The free vibrations
are investigated with the use of three different models:
the Euler beam model,
the continuous specially orthotropic cylindrical shell model,
the 3-D FE beam model based on the molecular dynamic and the interatomic
potential formulations.
522

The numerical results are presented for only one nanostructure configuration, however,
they can be easily extended for other form of structures. The lack of appropriate material
properties is especially emphasized.
2. FREE VIBRATIONS OF PRISTINE CNTs
A single-walled carbon nanotube can be defined as a hollow cylinder rolled from a
graphene sheet. The nanotube, composed of carbon hexagons, is indexed by a pair of
integers (n1, n2) to represent its helicity. The radius of the nanotube is calculated as:
R a 3 n12 n22 n1n2 / 2
(1)
where a = 0.142 [nm] is the CC bond length. One type of nanotubes, armchair (n1 = n2,
i.e. R=0.0678*n1 [nm]) is studied in this paper.
Fig.2. Cylindrical shell equivalent in mechanical response to a SWCNT
In the literature it is demonstrated that for small radius of the nanotubes the buckling
mode falls into the regime of Euler beam buckling (R<0.8 [nm]) and then with the
increase of the radius the circumferential modes of buckling (i.e. for n>1) becomes to be
dominant. Therefore the analytical studies are limited to the axisymmetric
buckling/vibration analysis only, i.e. n=0 and m>0. For simply supported cylindrical
shells (Fig. 2) made of a specially orthotropic material the eigenfrequencies can be easily
derived in the analytical way using the Rayleigh-Ritz method as the roots of the following
equation:
3 b02 c0 d0 0
where:
523
(1)

2
2
b0 a11 a 22 a33, c0 a11a 22a11a33 a 22a33 a13
, d 0 a11a 22a33 a22a13
, a11 2m ,
a22
A66 2
A
A
h2 4
mR
m , a33 22
m , a13 12 m , m
, R 2 h2 /A11
2
A11
A11 12 R
A11
L
(2)
, R, h and L denote the nanotube density, radius, equivalent thickness and length,
respectively, and m, n are wave numbers in the longitudinal and circumferential
directions. Aij are the membrane stiffness matrix coefficients for specially orthotropic
bodies. The roots of Eq. (1) can be represented as follows:
1
1 a22 , 2 ,3 a11 a33
2
2
2
2
a11
4 a13
-2 a11 a33 a33
(3)
If the carbon nanotube arrays are assumed to be transversely isotropic the material
properties in the circumferential and thickness directions are identical. However, the
twisted array SWCN is a helical array then, in fact, the nanotube does not possesses
completely transversely isotropic properties. Therefore five material constants are
necessary to characterize the CNT array behavior. Using micromechanical approach
Popov et al [16] computed four of them, and Salvatat et al [17] gave the fifth material
constants (G23). The values of constants take the following form: E1=580 [GPa],
E2=E3=9.4 [GPa], 12= 13=0.18, 23=0.90, G12=G13=17.2 [GPa], G23= 2.47 [GPa]. The
direction denoted by 1 corresponds to the longitudinal one. In addition let us assume
=600 [kg/m3] and L=29.5 [nm]. Thus, for =1 the square root of the ratio A11/(hR2) is
equal to 6.55 [THz] (n1=n2=5) and is the multiplier of natural frequencies - Eq. (2). As it
may be seen the magnitude of natural frequencies (THz) is in the range mentioned in the
literature. For (5=n1,5=n2) carbon nanotubes the radius R=0.339 [nm] the parameter
m=0.0314*m and it is treated as negligibly small. Since all membrane stiffnesses Aii are
proportional to the thickness parameter h so that that constant can be omitted in the
further considerations.
Dimensionless vibrational
frequences
0.1
Second shell mode (a33)
0.08
0.06
0.04
Euler beam mode

(h=0.34 nm, L=3nm)
First shell mode (a22)
0.02
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Mode parameter
Fig. 3. Comparison of vibrational frequencies for different models
524

Figure 3 demonstrates the comparison of the values of the frequencies described by
Eqs (3) and the value corresponding to the Euler beam model which is given by the
relation:
2
Euler m 2m
L
(4)
In Fig. 3 the x axis corresponds to the value 2m and the y axis represents the value
/ 2m . As it may be easily noticed from the relations (3) the first shell mode is constant
and equal to a22 / 2m , the second - a33 / 2m and the third (not plotted in Figure) is equal
to a11 / 2m so that is equal to 1. It is necessary to emphasize that the above formulas are
the approximations only for the second and the third modes but they are satisfactory for
the present numerical data. In the second shell mode and in the Euler beam model the
shell thickness h is equal to 0.34 [nm]. In the plot the first shell mode corresponds to the
lowest frequency. It is worth to mention also that in the literature the frequencies are
usually compared with values obtained with the use of the Euler beam model. However,
the use of the shell model allows us to predict lower value but the relation between those
values is strongly dependent on the assumed CNT length L. For higher values the Euler
value can be lower than that corresponding to the application of the shell model.
3. RECONSTRUCTION OF VACANCIES - EVALUATION OF FREE VIBRATIONS
Now, the eigenfrequency analysis will be adopted to the estimations of free
vibrations for defective nanotubes. The reconstruction of the defective structure can be
modelled in two ways:
i) the new positions of the carbon atoms are derived in order to keep the form
plotted in Figs 1b and 1d; in such a case the distances between C-C bonds are
constant and equal to 1.42 [nm] should be shifted below the pristine shell structure;
ii) the new position are derived from the condition of the minimal energy for
neighbourhood atoms; in such a situation it is necessary to introduce the interaction
potential - see Muc [14, 18].
In the present analysis the first simplest method is used. The key difference in the
comparison with other works is that the former bear on the intrinsic material property
(bond strength), whereas the proposed method relates to tube geometry. It should be
noted that the present analysis relies a continuum representation of nanotubes. Since
atomic scale kinematics is not considered, the analysis may tend to over predict the
eigenfrequencies of structures.
Let us consider the defective carbon nanostructure as the space-frame structure
where each of the C-C bonds is represented as a beam. The stiffness of the C-C bond is or
variable but at the beginning of the deformation process it is equal to 1 [TPa]. Then, it is
evaluated incrementally at each step of deformations with the aid of the Tersoff-Brenner
potential. It is assumed that in the carbon nanostructure each carbon atom may react with
the neighbourhood atoms only. As the atom moves from the equilibrium state the nonzero reaction force is computed as the first derivative of the potential. We restrict the
525

motion of the two atoms to one dimension, along the line connecting them, so that the
atoms can only move directly towards or away from one another. It is necessary to point
out that the C-C bond stiffness is not equal to the stiffness moduli mentioned in the
previous section since they characterize the properties of the whole nanotube shell.
The numerical space-frame model of carbon nanotubes is presented in Fig.4. One of
the ends of the tube is simply supported, whereas at the second the symmetry conditions
are imposed. The carbon nanotubes remain cylindrical until the critical eigenfrequency is
reached at which point they deform in the longitudinal direction (i.e. n=0). The half of
nanotubes is modeled only due to symmetric boundary conditions. The natural
frequencies have been obtained with the use of the NISA FE package.
Fig. 4. Numerical model of the (5,5) carbon nanotube

6
Frequency [THz]
m=2
The FE model
The FE model
The Euler beam model
4
m=1
m=1
3
0
Number of vacancies
Fig. 5. Dependence of frequency on the number of vacancies
Figure 5 represents the differences in the first two eigenfreuquencies for defective
and pristine carbon nanotubes derived with the use of the beam model. The analysis was
526

carried out for two form of vacancies plotted in Fig.1 and two modes of eigen-frequencies
corresponding to m=1 and m=2. The numerical model shows the classical situation of the
frequency decrease with the increase of the number of vacancies. The differences reached
almost 10%.
4. STRESS-STRAIN CURVES
Using the FE model it is also possible to plot the stress-strain curves for the pristine
and defective nanostructures. In our approach (see Muc [19]) the Young modulus of a
material is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain as obtained
from a uni-axial tension test. Following this definition, the Youngs modulus of CNTs is
been calculated using the following equation:
Elong
long
long
, long
Nbeams
k 1
klong , long
Nbeams
k 1
k
long
(5)
where long / long is an average longitudinal stress/strain component computed as the

sum of longitudinal components of each individual beams characterizing C-C bonds. Let
us note that the above definition is more general than that described as the global on in the
first section and it is consistent with the homogenization theory. At each load step
corresponding to the increments of the axial displacements, the molecular mechanics
force field constants as well as the beam geometrical and mechanical properties are
evaluated in order to find the longitudinal stress components in individual beams. This
iterative, non-linear procedure goes on to the prescribed end of the deformation process.
The accuracy of modelling procedure depends on the number of load steps chosen. In
order to maximize the accuracy of computational results, in each case, the displacement
increment was chosen from convergence tests in which the convergence criterion was set
equal to 2% of the maximal stress. Thereby, if between two sequential displacement
increments a difference smaller than the 2% was achieved in the computed maximal
stress, the larger displacement increment was finally adopted for the analysis.
Figure 6 shows the calculated stress-strain curves and Youngs modulus of pristine
and defective (with one-atom vacancy) carbon nanotubes from the present models. At the
beginning we have compared the Youngs moduli of (5,5) armchair CNTs. The predicted
initial Youngs modulus of CNTs are 797 [GPa], 708 [GPa] and 682 [GPa] for the
pristine and defective CNT with one and two vacancies (Fig.1), respectively, which
agrees well with the experimental value and other theoretical values mentioned
previously. Those values are strongly dependent on the form of the assumed interatomic
potential and the form of defects. The defects reduce the failure stresses by 19 %, and
failure strains by 32 %. It may reduce also buckling stresses for compressive loads since
the defect considered may be treated as an geometrical imperfection for cylindrical shells.
It is also obvious that the reduction factor is significantly dependent on the form and
magnitude of imperfections (the assumed type of defects).
527

80
Stress [GPa]
60
1 vacancy
2 vacancies
40
Pristine CNT
Defective CNT
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
Strain
Fig. 6. Tensile stress-strain curves for pristine and defective (5,5) nanotube
For the estimated values of Youngs moduli, it is possible to find the

eigenfrequencies. Since in the present analysis the longitudinal Young modulus is known
only the values of frequencies are computed with the aim of the Euler beam model Eq (4).
The results are plotted in Fig. 5. Using that relation it can be easily derived that:
m 2
4 if E identical
m 1
pristine
defective
E pristine
E defective
(6)
As it may be seen in Fig. 5 the Euler beam estimations of eigenfrequencies is not correct
since it gives higher values that the FE beam model. In addition, the differences between
values for the neighbourhood wave numbers (m=1 and m=2) are also too high Eq (6)1.
On the other hand, the comparison of the frequencies for pristine and defective nanotubes
is much better - Eq (6).
We have used three different models (the Euler beam model, the continuous shell
model and the FE model) to study axial free vibrations of the configuration of a singlewalled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) with and without vacancy defects. It is found that the
best description of eigenfrequencies can be obtained with the use of the numerical FE
528

model. However, that model should be enriched by the appropriate material models taking
into account transversely isotropic properties of nanostructures.
There is a significant difference in natural frequencies for the pristine and defective
nanostructures. In view of that it is possible to use one of the most quantitative
nondestructive testing (NDT) technique, ultrasonic NDT to distinguish defective
SWCNTs. Today it has been much progress in instrument technology so that it will be
possible to find testing techniques able to reveal anomalies in the material property.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Polish Research Foundation
acknowledged for financial support.
PB
1174/B/T02/2009/36
is
gratefully
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Belytschko , The role of vacancy defects and holes in the fracture of carbon nanotubes,
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Popov VN, Van Doren VE, Balkanski M. Elastic properties of crystals of carbon
nanotubes. Solid State Commun 2000;114: 3959.
Salvetat J, Briggs AGD, Bonard J, Bacsa R, Kulik AJ, Stockli T, et al. Elastic and shear
moduli of single-walled carbon nanotube ropes. Phys Rev Lett 1999;82(5):9447.
Muc A., Design and identification methods of effective mechanical properties for carbon
nanotubes. Mat Des (2010), 31:1671-1675
Muc A., Modeling of CNTs/nanocomposites deformations and tensile fracture. Proc. 17th
International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-17), 2009, Edinburgh UK
530
STABILITY AND DYNAMICS OF BILLBOARD SHEET

M. NAGYOV, J. RAVINGER
The authors of the paper designed the project of the structure of billboard with size
8x18 m. The design includes reinforced concrete foundations, steel vertical column
and two advertising boards. The grand shape of boards arranged in V with 30
angle. For the possibility of emplacement advertising films ladders and walkways as
well as supporting structure for mounting lights must be built. Nowadays in place of
sticking promotional material a special film is used attached around the perimeter of
grid system covered by the thin steel plate. The geometric non-linear theory of large
deflections must be used for a description of the behavior of such a plate. Thin steel
sheet changes its own circular frequency depending on the load level. In case of
wind load is necessary to analyze the possibility of resonant phenomena as well as
skips which go beyond the areas.
1. INTRODUCTION
The billboard structure is shown in Figures 1 and 2. The conditions of foundations
were quite difficult. The level of the water was at 0.7 m below the ground. Under the
ground level 3 m thick sandy clay layer was located, which was replaced by a layer of
gravel under the designed foundations. The base plate was carried out gradually. At first
the 0.2 m thick cemented base layer was above the level of groundwater. Then "concrete
cages" with anchoring bolts were placed and cemented. At the end the base above ground
was carried out.
In place the supporting column was assembled from two pieces of steel pipe.
Billboard tables were assembled separately too. The installation of billboard was realized
by mobile crane (Fig. 3).
During the design of the billboard many engineering tasks must be managed. In the
design of foundations is necessary to qualify the condition for "flipping". An open
question is the possibility of counting passive pressures on the walls of the foundations as
well as counting the soil layer above the foundation. Each responsible designer must to
take on risk. Vertical steel pipe is rigid enough to be able to resist twisting and torque.
There was no problem to consider the resultant wind pressure in the quarter of a
rectangular area.
2. STATICS OF THIN STEEL SHEETS
Special attention was paid to the "cladding" of billboards - thin sheets. For the
mentioned area of the billboard was performed an analysis of thin steel sheet, which
thickness was 0.5 mm and the range was 400 mm. The results are processed in Figs. 4 and
5. These results allow us to make the following comment. If we think the board is only
531

simply supported on opposite sides and the effect of Poisson constant is neglected, for the
displacement in the middle we have a well-known relationship =5/384*q*l4/EI.
18 m
8m
30 000 kg steel
24 m
100 m3
renf.concrete
1.8 m
Fig. 1. The scheme of the billboard structure
If we consider the load level q = 0.001 N/mm2 (this value corresponds to 100
kg/m ), than the evaluated deflection is 152.3 mm. The intended load-level is real, but the
result of deflection is "completely out". But if we realize a nonlinear analysis taking into
account that the horizontal movements in aid are prevented, the evaluated deflection at the
considered load level is 2.15 mm. It is already quite acceptable value since the margin to
the ratio is 400/2.15 = 186. How interesting can be the following fact. If we consider the
edges build-in the linear deflection is 5 times lower than the deflection in case of simply
supported sheets (30.6 mm). On the level of load q = 0001 N/mm2 in case of non-linear
analyzes the deflection reach 2.01 mm which is only slightly less than in the case of
simply supporting.
The linear deflection of rectangular plates is 3.5 times lower than the deflection of
the beam obtained from unit plate strip of this board that is 43.5 mm. If we implement a
nonlinear analysis, the deflection of a square (rectangular) plate is 1.41 mm, which is only
2.15/1.41 = 1.52 times less than the deflection of the beam. This result indicates that the
effect of lateral reinforcement is relatively small.
2
532
Fig. 2. View on the top of the billboard structures
Fig. 3. Installation of the billboard structure
533

3. DYNAMICS OF THIN STEEL SHEETS
One definition of the task of the dynamics says that we must accept the inertial
forces of the mass. To be able to capture the dynamic phenomena for large deflections the
conditions for geometrically nonlinear elongation must be accept. For the descriptions of
the dynamic process the Hamiltons principle has been used in increments. Note: The
incremental formulation is not an incremental process.In a dynamic process in any time
interval the variation of the kinetic and the potential energy plus the variation of the work
of the external forces equals zero.
p [kN/m]
1.0
A
t
0.5
A
B
b=1 m
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
0
2.0
4.0*106
1.0
2.0*106
[mm]
2 [s-2]
p [kN/m]
p=1kN/m linear deflection

A=152.38 mm, B=30.476 mm
0.00
5
p=0 A2=2120.6 s-2

p=0 B2=10899.0 s-2
0.1
0.2
5000
10000
0.3
1500
0
[mm]
2 [s-2]
Fig. 4. Dependence of deflection and natural circular frequency for "unit" plate strip
For the elongation the members of the second order must be accept. For simplicity
and illustration the derivation in "x" axis is stated for in the case of rod system. For twodimensional task, it is necessary to add links to the direction "y".
534
1
2
x u,x u,x 2
1 2
w, x z .wxx
2
We suppose the linear elastic material E 0 , where index 0 indicates the

initial strains. An important detail is the correct definition of the strain increment. The
increment of the strain and the variation of the increments are
1
1
2
2
u,x u,x .u,x u,x .u,x w,x .w,x w,x .w,x z.wxx ,
u,x u,x .u,x u,x 2 w,x .w,x w,x 2 z .wxx
where is the sign of the variation.
p [kN/m2]
2.0
p [kN/m2]
linear
0.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
2.5 1.25 1.2

3
1.2
2
1.22
1.5
b / p 3.52
1.0
b=l
p
t
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=l
0.5
b - beam
p - plate
0
1.0
2.0
[mm]
Fig. 5. Comparison of steel plate and "unit" plate strip of steel
With some modification we can obtain a system of conditional equations
K M K INC FINT FEXT FEXT 0

where K M is mass matrix, K INC - is the incremental stiffness matrix - is function of
displacements of the system, f INT - is vector of internal load, f EXT - is vector of external
load, f EXT - is increment of external load, - is vector of increment of
displacements acceleration, - is vector increment of displacements.
535

In the case of static tasks the inertial forces K M 0 are neglected. For the
solution the incremental approach as well as Newton-Raphson iteration could be used. By
the properties of the incremental stiffness matrix K INC the stable and unstable branches
of solutions could be distinguish.
The natural circular frequency is obtained from the equation K INC 2 K M
det
0 ,
where the incremental stiffness matrix takes into account the level of loading and initial
imperfections.
Unloaded beam respectively square plate strip get its own circular frequency of the
4 EI
well-known relationship 2
2120.4 s 2 . On the loading level q=0.001 N/mm2
Al 4
the natural circular frequency is 12
4 EI
4022000.0 s 2 .
Al 4
p [kN/m]
p
0.1
w0
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=1 mm
w0 =01 sin x/l+ 02 sin 2x/l

01=1.0 mm, 02=0.1 mm
bifurcatin point
stable path thick line
unstable path thin line
0.0
5
b
mode of buckling
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
2.5*104
1.0
1.5
5*104
7.5*104
b [mm]
2 [s-2]
mode of buckling
Fig. 6. The "snap- through" effect of the plate strip with initial deflection
Interestingly, the frequency of simply supported beam (plate strip) on the higher
levels of is almost the same as the frequency of build-in beam.
A serious problem in the behavior of thin steel sheets is the "snap- through" effect of
sag area. Part of the results is presented in Figures 6 and 7. If the initial deformation will
"shape in mode 2" (the shape identical to the shape of the unstable branch in case of
"snap- through"), there is no "snap- through" effect. Note: In that case of the initial
536

imperfection there are larger amplitudes of deformation of the metal supporting grid
system. High natural circular frequency may contribute to the fatigue violation.
4. CONCLUSION
Thanks to the implemented non-linear static-dynamic analysis it is possible to
reduce the thickness of the steel sheet of billboard cladding panels. An important issue is
how to snap the small metal support structure. The high intrinsic angular frequency can
contribute to fatigue failure. An important question is how to snap the thin steel sheets to
the metal supporting grid system. High natural circular frequency may contribute to the
fatigue violation.
p [kN/m]
1.0
w0 =01 sin x/l+ 02 sin 2x/l
w0
b
l
01=1.0 mm, 02=0.1 mm
E=210000 MPa
l=400 mm
t=0.5 mm
b=1 mm
01=0.1 mm, 02=1.0 mm

0.5
bifurcatin point
stable path thick line
unstable path thin line
b [mm]
-2.0
-1.0
1.0
2.0
Fig. 7. The "snap- through" effect of the plate strip for different shapes of initial deflection
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
[1]
Bolotin, V. V., The Dynamic Stability of Elastic System. CITL. Moscow, 1956
(In Russian. English translation by Holden Day. San Francisco, 1994.)
537

[2]
Clough, R.W., Penzien, J., Dynamics of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York,

1993.
[3] Nagyov M., Psotn M., Ravinger J., Stability and Friction. An Inter. J. for
Engineering and Information Sciences. 2010, Vol. 5. No 3. 2010, pp. 63 70.
[4] Psotn M., Ravinger J., Von Misses Truss with Imperfection. Slovak Journal of
Civil Engineering, No. 2, 2003, pp. 1-7.
[5] Psotn M., Ravinger J., Post-Buckling Behaviour of Imperfect Slender Web.
Ingineering Mechanics, Vol, 14, No. 6, 2007, pp. 423-431.
[6] Ravinger J., Computer Programs - Static, Stability and Dynamics of Civil
Engineering Structures. Alfa, Bratislava, 1990. (In Slovak).
[7] Ravinger, J., Vibration of an Imperfect Thin-walled Panel. Part 1: Theory and
Illustrative Examples. Part 2: Numerical Results and Experiment. Thin-Walled
Structures, 19, 1994, pp. 1-36.
[8] Ravinger J., Kleiman P., Natural Vibration of Imperfect Columns and Frames.
Building Research Journal. Vol. 50, No 1., 2002, pp. 49-67.
[9] Volmir, A.S., Non-Linear Dynamic of Plates and Shells. Nauka. Moscow. 1972.
(In Russian).
[10] Zienkiewicz, O. C., Taylor, R. L., The Finite Element Method. Vol. 2. Solid and
Fluid Mechanics. Dynamics and Non-Linearity. McGraw-Hill, London, 1991.
538
STABILITY AND LIMIT LOAD OF THIN-WALLED

COLD-FORMED CHANNEL BEAMS
P. PACZOS
Unit of Strength of Materials and Structures
Piotrowo 3 street, 60-965 Poznan
The subject of the presented investigations is cold-formed thin-walled beams

- channel beams with drop and box flanges. Obtained results confirmed and
validated the used test stand and method for testing beams. Special attention was
paid to critical loads, buckling modes and limit loads. The beams were loaded with
two moments (pure bending) that increased monotonically until collapse.
Experimental results were compared with theoretical models.
1. INTRODUCTION
The subject of this paper is a continuation of researches conducted in The Unit of
Strength of Materials and Structures at Poznan University of Technology. The results of
experimental investigations are used for validation of theoretical and numerical models of
thin-walled beams. In order to determine the limit load of thin webs of I-beams and
rectangular tubes bounding theorem of plastic-limit load analysis is used [3].
Cold-formed profiles are usually thin-walled members, i.e. their wall-thickness is
small compared to other dimensions of their cross-sections. Therefore their load capacity
is mainly determined by buckling and post-buckling behaviour [1]. In the case of bent
beams this may be flexural-torsional or lateral buckling. The web of beam may buckle
because of shear forces that cause the web to corrugate. Many useful hints about
modelling buckling of thin-walled members were presented by Wojewodzki [11][12].
Fig. 1. Cross-sections of C-channel thin-walled beams
Thin-walled beams collapse because of plastic failure mechanism and this is the
most common scenario [2]. The behaviour of thin-walled beams that are monotonically
539

loaded can be divided into four stages: pre-buckling, nonlinear behaviour, post-buckling
(elastic-plastic) behaviour and collapse. This disadvantage can be overcome by
contemporary cold rolling mills that make it possible to produce beams with very
complex cross-sections. They increase the strength and stability of these structural
members but complicate their analysis because there are different possible buckling
modes: local, distorsional (rotation of a stiffened flange at a flange/web junction) or
global, e.g. flexular-torsional buckling. Some interactions between different modes are
observed as well [4].
2. THEORETICAL SOLUTION
2.1. LOCAL AND DISTORTIONAL BUCKLING
Flanges of beams are considered as rectangular plates with three simply supported
and one free edges. The model of buckling of compressed flanges includes bending and
torsion (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
Scheme of local buckling of double box beam (the web and flange)
The flange width b is small compared to its length L. Therefore, the variation of its
curvature across its width can be neglected. This leads to a simplified scheme of
displacements shown in Fig. 2. A cross-section of flange and web rotates around their
common edge by angle 0 .
Local buckling
vx, z 0
sin
z
b
sin
mx
L
(1)
and distortional buckling
vx, z 0 z sin
540
mx
L
(2)

for a y a and 0 z b .
It is assumed that deflection of the web (transverse displacements) is of the following
form
wx, y 0
y
y mx
,
sin sin
2 cos
2
a
a
L
a
2
(3)
and the boundary conditions at the corners (Fig.2) are
Elastic strain energy
0 flange 0web 0
(4)
U U flange Uweb
(5)
1
1 2v

U flange GJ t f
dx EJ z f 2 dx
L
web
(6)
2
2
2
L a
2 w 2 w
2 w
1
2 w 2 w
D 2 2 2 2
2 1
dxdy (7)
2 0 a x y
x y 2
xy
Work of load (a beam subjected to pure bending):
W W flange W web
L
1
v
W flange x0 A f
web
(8)
dx
(9)
b
z
2
2
1
y w
x0 t
dxdy
2
a x
0 a
L a
(10)
The critical load is determined using the theorem of minimum total potential energy
U W 0
(11)
The critical stresses of elastic distortional buckling are equal to
xDist
,CR k
2E t
,
12 1 2 b
541
(12)

where
f
a
128
5
b
b
k min 1 , f1 5 X m2 4
... , f 2 2 cc , X m m
2
m
L
a
a
f
9
4
X

2
m
3
The critical (general buckling) stresses of drop flange [7] are following
2
flange
CR
b
GJ t f 2 EJ z1f
L
, for m=1.
3
3
r 9 r
3
b t 1 1
b 2 b
(13)
Taking into account local stability, the critical stresses of the upper plate of flange can be
determined by modelling this as a simply-supported, axially compressed rectangular plate
(Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. The model of local buckling of beam with drop flanges
In this case the critical stresses can be expressed as (Ventsel [10])

up plate
CR
2
t
E .
2
3 1 b
2
(14)
The critical stresses of the lower plate of compressed flanges (Fig. 3) are determined by
modelling this as a rectangular plate which is simply supported at two shorter edges and
has two other longer edges clamped and free [6]:
low plate
CR
kdr
t
E
,
2
12 1 b r
542
(15)
where kdr
6 2
4 8
1 1
1.437 for 0.3 .
2 3
3
2.2. LIMIT LOAD IN ELASTIC AND PLASTIC STATE

If a beam is subject to pure bending, there are only normal stresses in its
cross-section. They are equal to
Mg
Iz
Mg
Wz
RH
(16)
where
RH the yield strength, Ix the moment of inertia about the axis x,
x, y the distance from the neutral axis.
Fig. 4. Channel beam subjected to pure bending: the distribution of elastic

and plastic stresses
The stress distribution presented in Fig. 4 refers to beams that do not buckle locally.
They are loaded with a bending moment 0 < M < Mel and secured from general buckling.
There are also no shear forces so they are not twisted. Load capacity in the elastic range
is described be the following equation
M R Wz f d ,
(17)
Iz
), fd strength of steel.
ymax
The above equation is based on the fact that the maximum stresses of cross-section are
equal to fd. This formula can be used only for cross-sections of class 3, i.e. if cmax fd.
Plastic limit load of a bent cross-section of monotonically loaded channel beam is
presented in Fig. 4. The beam is secured from general and local buckling. Plastic limit
load can be determined using the same equation as in the case of elastic range, the only
difference is that = fd, so
where: W section modulus ( Wz
M R Wpl f d ,
where: Wpl plastic section modulus.
543
(18)

If the ratio pl of plastic section modulus to elastic one is known then limit load in
the plastic range can be calculated in the following way
M R pl Wz f d
(19)
3. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
The cross-sections of beams and their dimensions are presented in Fig. 1.
Experimental investigations were conducted in the Laboratory of Strength of Materials
that is the part of Institute of Applied Mechanics at Poznan University of Technology
(Poland). The investigated beams were cold-formed and made of steel sheets by Polish
company "Pruszyski Sp. z o.o.", Sokolow, Poland.
Fig. 5.
The experimental test stand force, model and real object
Fig. 6.
a) Experimental relationship between stress and forces and b) experimental

relationship between forces and deflection of the lower flange measured in three
points (wall thickness: t = 1.00mm)
3.1 TESTING EQUIPMENT AND TEST STAND

The experiments were carried out at the testing machine ZWICK Z100 within the
range of tensile load 0-100 kN (Fig. 5). The following equipment was used: strain gauge
544

bridge Spaider, the deflection sensor 2 (WI2) and 5 mm (WA50) Hotinger, foil strain
gauges HBM type 6/120LY11: resistance 120 0.35%, gauge factor 2.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The beams were loaded at both ends with bending moments (Fig. 5). The graphs
presented in Fig. 6 show stresses within the full range of load.
The points in the graph, where a relationship between stresses and load stops to be
linear, means that at that load beams buckle locally. The first point is considered as the
critical load because then the cross-section of beam changes its shape. However,
sometimes this deformation is not clearly visible. This assumption was confirmed and
validated by a theoretical model. Relationships between deflection of the lower flange and
load are shown in Fig. 6. The growth of displacements of cold-formed thin-walled beams
subjected to increasing load causes local buckling that may also interact with global
buckling.
4. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION
Local buckling that often occurs with global buckling is the cause of small load
capacity of beams, which depends also on the dimensions of structure, boundary
conditions (support), type of load and the shape of cross-section [8].
Table 1.
Results of investigations: critical force and limit load (t = 1.00 mm).

Critical Force and Limit Load (maximum) [kN]
Cross CSections
Experimental
FCR
Analytical
FCR
Experimental
Fmax
DBF
SBF
DrBF
15.5
12.6
11.8
15.1
13.2
12.6
24.1
21.7
19.4
Analytical
Fmax
Analytical
Fmax
elastic range
34.5
30.7
29.4
plastic range
38.6
34.5
32.2
Buckling modes of the investigated beams confirm that their load capacity is
generally restricted by local buckling of different parts of beams. Firstly, the web buckled
and afterwards the compressed flange. Therefore some interactions between different
buckling modes were observed as well.
5. CONCLUSION
Results of analytical and experimental investigations of beams with open and close
profiles of flanges are shown in Table 1.
The main conclusions are:
1) the difference between critical forces obtained from the experiment and theoretical
models is approximately 5%, this is satisfactory,
2) in the presented thin-walled beams there are interactions between different types of
buckling,
545

3) limit load of thin-walled beams cannot be accurately calculated basing only on the
Classical Beam Theory because the differences between theoretical and experimental
results are more than 30% (Table 2), this means that the general and local buckling
should be considered (e.g. Eurocode 3 includes a procedure for determining limit
load)
ACKNOLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by Ministry of Science and Higher Education Grant
no. 2073/B/T02/2010/39.
REFERENCES
Awrejcewicz J., Adrianom I.V., Pyty i powoki w przyrodzie, mechanice i biomechanice,
Wydawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, Fundacja Ksika Naukowo-Techniczna. Warszawa
2001.
[2] Koteko M., Mechanizmy zniszczenia zginanych dwigarw o ciankach izo- i
ortotropowych, Z.N. Politechniki dzkiej No 844, Rozprawy Naukowe No 273, d
2000.
[3] Krlak M., Stany zakrytyczne i nono graniczna cienkociennych dwigarw o
ciankach paskich. Praca zbiorowa pod redakcj M. Krlaka, PWN, Warszawa-d,
1990.
[4] Magnucka-Blandzi E., Paczos P., Wasilewicz P., Buckling Study of Thin-walled Channel
Beams with Double-box Flanges in Pure Bending, Strain, An Intl Journal for Experimental
Mechanics, 2011 (in press)
[5] Magnucki K., Paczos P., Elastic buckling and effective shaping of selected cross sections
of flanges of thin-walled channel beams. Proc. 5th Int. Conference on Coupled Instabilities
in Metal Structures, Vol. 1, K. Rasmussen, T. Wilkinson (Editors) The University of
Sydney, Australia, CIMS, 23-25 June 2008, pp.375-382.
[6] Magnucki K., Paczos P., Kasprzak J., Elastic buckling of cold-formed thin-walled channel
beams with drop flanges. ASCE: Journal of Structural Engineering, 136 (7), 2010, 886896.
[7] Magnucki K., Paczos P., Optimal design of cold-formed thin-walled channel beams with
drop flanges, Journal of Construction Steel Research, 65 (2009), pp.1731-1737.
[8] Paczos P., Wasilewicz P., Experimental investigations of buckling of lipped, cold-formed
thin-walled beams with I section, Thin-Walled Structures, 47 (2009), pp.1354-1362
[9] Paczos P., Zawodny P., Magnucki K., Stress state and displacements of cold formed thinwalled channel beams. Proceedings of the Ninth Intl Conference on Computational
Structures Technology, CST 2008, B.H.V. Topping and M. Papadrakakis (Eds) CivilComp Press, Stirlingshire, Scotland, (Athens, 2-5 September 2008, Greece), Paper 217,
pp.1-10.
[10] Ventsel E. and Krauthammer T., Thin plates and shells. Theory, analysis and applications.
New York, Basel, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2001.
[11] Wojewdzki W., Nono graniczna konstrukcji prtowych. Copyright by Oficyna
Wydawnicza Politechniki Warszawskiej, Warszawa 2005.
[12] Wojewdzki W., Nono graniczna pyt. Copyright by Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki
Warszawskiej. Warszawa 1995.
[1]
546
GIRDERS WITH PROFILED AND STRUCTURED WEB

- ONGOING RESERCH
H. PASTERNAK, S. BARTHOLOM
Faculty of Architectrue, Civil Engineering and Urban Planning,
Chair of Steel and Timber Structures,
Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus
Konrad- Wachsmann- Allee 2, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
In an ongoing research project, welded girders with I-section and thin honeycomb structured web will be investigated. A series of plate girders with different
webs (flat, profiled or structured) are being modelled and analyzed under shear
load. The numerical analysis will be based on nonlinear finite element method.
Several plate girders were built for tests. The aim of the tests is to query if the
structured web has a better buckling behaviour than a normal flat web or even
comparable corrugated web. Finally a comparison between numerical and
experimental test results will be made. The paper describes former investigations on
the shear capacity of the structured sheets, ongoing numerical analysis and
experimental tests on global and local buckling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Multi-dimensional structures are used today in the field of the car industry or the
home appliance. Structured metal sheets improve the essential properties of the initial
material, e.g. its stiffness. Structured metal sheets with regular bumps offer a higher
bending stiffness compared to flat sheets. The application of those structured sheets
requires new investigations regarding their strength and deformation behaviour.
In an ongoing research project, welded girders with I-section and thin honey-comb
structured web will be investigated. A number of plate girders with different webs (flat,
profiled or structured) are modelled and analyzed under shear load. The numerical
analysis will be based on nonlinear finite element method. It is necessary to choose
different parameters for the thickness, the wrench size or the depth of the structured
sheets. The girder will be modelled by means of shell elements, and the ABAQUS
program will be applied.
Fig. 1.
Example of structured plates
547

For the experimental tests plate girders with a planar, a trapezoidal or sinusoidal
corrugated and structured web were built. The geometry of all girders is identical. The
aim of the tests is to query if the structured web has a better buckling behaviour than a
normal planar web or even a comparable trapezoidal or sinusoidal corrugated web.
Finally a comparison between numerical and experimental test results will be made.
The paper describes former investigations on the shear capacity of the structured sheets,
ongoing numerical analysis and experimental tests on global and local buckling.
2. STATE OF ART
Structured plates are an innovated lightweight product. There are two types of
production methods. The first is the buckling-structuring which is used by Dr. Mirtsch
GmbH, the second is the hydro forming for structured plates produced by FQZ GmbH or
Borit Leichtbau-Technik GmbH.
In this research sheets from FQZ GmbH are used. The structure is a hexagonal
regular bump structure with a small bridge of 2,0 mm between the bumps and a depth of
the bump about 3 mm. The basic material is the low alloyed steel DC04 (1.0338). The
thickness of the metal sheet is 0,5 mm. During the hydro-forming manufacturing process
from flat sheet to a structured sheet, the material thickness is reduced particularly. In
order to find the real material properties it is necessary to adapt the specimen dimension
from DIN EN ISO 6892-1. Therefore the Chair of Joining and Welding Technology,
BTU, Cottbus, Germany, modified the specimen test length in adaption of the proposed
ratio between width and length in the DIN code.
300
Rp,global
global yield strength
total strain at break
total strain at tensile strength
250
flat, 0
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
%
34
Stress [MPa]
200
%
110
32
structured, 0
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
30
150
28
structured, 45
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
24
18
10
90
80
70
50
structured, 90
b=100 mm, w/l=1:2
20
F1_90_E3
100
60
22
50
F1_0_E3
F1_45_E3
26
100
G_0_E3
40
30
20[%]
Strain
30
40
50
60
Fig. 2. Stress-strain curves for a selected specimen dimension for three tested structure
positions and a flat sheet metal with corresponding deformation images [5]
In figure 2 are given the stress-strain relationship for one selected specimen
dimension [5]. The other structured webs (two types), which are used, are produced from
548

Borit Leichtbau-Technik GmbH. The sheets have a twelve-angled regular bump
structure. Both sheet- metal has a thickness of 0,6 mm.
Another research topic is spot welding of structured plates. The same Chair of
Joining and Welding Technology made tests on assembling method. For retaining the
structure and the properties of the sheets during the welding process, not all positions of
fixing two plates are possible. As well a stabile position is one condition for welding two
sheets for a sandwich assembly.
Bridge-Bridge / Bridge- Comb / Comb-Comb / Bridge-Plane / Comb-Plane / Plane-Plane

Fig. 3. Variants of joining [6]
There are 7 variants to create a sandwich with two structured plates. Figure 3 shows
the chosen variant with the joining comp-comp and other possibilities [6]. In the future
there will be tested the variant of the joining bridge-bridge too. For producing a sandwich
element consisting of two sheets from Borit, the company uses a bonding technology.
The design of welded I-section girders (with a planar or profiled web) contains DIN EN
1993-1-5:2010 [1]. Another design method can be found in the German DASt-Richtlinie
015 [2]. For the design of girders with structured webs the methods from [1] and [2] can
be adapted.
3. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
3.1. VERIFICATIN OF THE EXPERIMENT
For modelling the girder under a mid-span load, the software ABAQUS [7] was
used. In order to find the best model, which behaviour is near to the real shear load test, a
lot of models were tested. As material properties, the true stress and true strain curve from
the tensile test were used. The boundary conditions are defined as shown in figure 4 and
table 1. The several parts of the girder are modelled with shell element S4R5 and meshed
with a size of 20 mm. The first step for the Finite Element Method was a linear buckling
analysis. The initial imperfection (geometric imperfection and residual stress) was
measured at the real test sample [4]. Later it was imported to the next step, the general
static analysis which lets one find the ultimate load.
549

Table 1.
Location
Point A
Point B
Point C
Point D
Boundary conditions of the girders (not constraint = 0; constraint = 1)

ux
uy
1
0
0
0
uz
1
1
0
0
rotx
1
1
1
1
roty
0
0
0
0
rotz
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Fig. 4. Geometry of a girder in ABAQUS and the orientation of the system
The numerical results of the girders with a planar (VK1.1), trapezoidal shaped
(VK1.2) or sinusoidal corrugated (VK1.3) web are shown in Fig. 5. Generally, the results
from the FEM of the girder with planar web confirm those from the tests.
Fig. 5. Load-deflection curve for girders with planar, trapezoidal or sinusoidal

corrugated web from tests and FE simulations
The experimental results from the girder with the trapezoidal and sinusoidal
corrugated webs are different to those of the FEM for the critical (buckling) load and
ultimate load. All test-parameter are included in the ABAQUS-Model, but never the less,
550

the behaviour of the web is nearly in every experiment not the same, thats why it is
difficult to implement the right horizontal imperfection.
Table 2.
Comparison of test and simulation results (s- small comb, b- big comb)
web
planar
trapez
VK
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
t [mm]
0,88
0,88
0,88
2x0,5 2x0,5 2x0,6 2x0,6 2x0,6 2x0,6
Fcr,exp
38,5 38,9
Fu,exp
92,6 93,8 89,7
Fcr,fem
50,4 51,2
67,4
67,2
67,3
Fu,fem
92,7 93,2 107,2 112,0 82,7
82,8
82,7
sinus
86,9
-
FQZ
Borit
5.1
6.1
7.1
7.2
8.1
36,4
35,5
54,6
44,9
58,5
39,7
100,5 111,6 125,7 89,2
89,8
91,4
91,8
87,4
95,0
The modelling of the girder with the structured web as a sandwich element in FEM
produces about 20500 shell elements of type S4R5, S3 and S4R. The single structured
plate was modelled with the software ProEngineer [8].
Fig. 6. Small part of the mesh (left) and a welded structured element FQZ
and Borit [9] (right)
Table 3.
Comparison of test and simulation results (s- small comb, b- big comb)
Sensitivity
Length
analysis
1
E
2
D
3
E
4
D
5
D
6
D
7
E
Height Thickness
E
E
D
D
D
E
D
Shear aspect ratio
D
E
E
D
E
D
D
E
D
D
E
E
D
D
Thickness/
Height ratio
D
E
D
E
D
D
E
Status
Done
Done
Done
Done
Not finished
Not finished
Not finished
3.2. PARAMETER ANALYSIS OF THE GIRDERS (PLANAR, TRAPEZOIDAL SHAPED

OR SINUSOIDAL CORRUGATED)
After calibration of the tests with ABAQUS the sensitivity analysis starts with
different parameters. For all web geometry there were carried out about 40 models with
differences in length, height and thickness of the web; shear aspect ratio and thickness to
551

height ratio, shown in Table 3. The results are shown in figure 8 for the first sensitivity
analysis for all girders.
The influences of thickness and the shear aspect ratio of the web on the shear load
are not new. The analysis 1 describes nearly a direct linear relationship between the
thickness and the load for all 3 types of girders.
But for the trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated web in the analysis 2 one can
realize that the influence is not so big because of the local buckling behaviour of the web.
Fig. 7. Load over shear aspect ratio and thickness - results from FE- simulation
Even in analysis 3 the girder with a sinusoidal corrugated web has an indirect
relationship until a shear aspect ratio of 3. In analysis 4 the ultimate loads of the girder
with a trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated web are higher than those of the girder with a
planar web (constant thickness assumed).
4. SHEAR LOAD TESTS
To find the material properties of steel used for the web and the flange there were
carried out tensile tests. Table 4 shows the average from all tests. Due to the difficulties of
fabrication of the structured plates with a thickness of 1 mm it was decided to create a
sandwich construction with 2 plates of 0,5 mm first.
Figure 8 shows 3 possible orientations of the structured web related to the load
direction.
552

a) 0
b) 45
c) 90
Fig. 8. Orientation of the structured web in dependence to the load direction

Table 4.
Material properties of used parts (results in N/mm)
Used parts
material
Rp0,2
ReH
ReL
Rm
Planar web
DC01
209141
183
327
Trapez web
180964
301
291
355
Sinus web
178687
319
298
332
170
295
Flat web
DC04
FQZ web
DC04
Flange
S355
65
305
411
391
534
215228
The static system of the girder is a beam with two bearings, one fixed and one
moveable. Additionally the girder was also fixed in the horizontal direction for
elimination tilting vertically to the moment plane. A concentrated force was put in the
middle of the girder at the transversal stiffener. The experimental setup is shown in
figure 9, the geometry in figure 10.
Fig. 9. Test girder 4.1 during shear load test

Table 5.
Specimen
Measured imperfections of the girders

Imperfection shear field 1 in mm
Imperfection shear field 2 in mm
VK1.1
2,3
3,2
VK1.2
1,51
1,58
VK4.1
2,4
1,4
553

Before the tests started the geometrical imperfections of the girders with planar and
structured plates were measured. The imperfections of the web have an influence on the
buckling behaviour. Table 5 shows all initial imperfections of the tested girders. For the
test specimen with a trapezoidal or sinusoidal corrugated web the horizontal geometric
imperfection were not measured because of the local buckling behaviour.
The test speed was 1 mm/min. It is an acceptable value for having comparable test
results in reference to the buckling time and regarding the relation between buckling and
shear load. For analysis the horizontal deflection of the web, the vertical deflection of the
girder, the strain in the web and the ultimate load were considered. Figure 10 shows the
test: two load cells, four strain gauges (linear or rosette) in all girders with a flat web as
well as 10 displacement transducers.
Fig. 10. Geometry of the girder and test girder 6.1 during the shear load test
Two different test series are made with different length, aspect ratios and rigid or
non rigid end post. Up to this date, 17 tests have been carried out in series 1 and two tests
in series 2. Obviously, the shear area ratio has an influence on the ultimate force and the
stiffness of the rigid end post has an effect, too. But for further data interpretation we only
use all test with the same length 1,194 m and a shear ratio of 1,25 to show the influence of
the thickness and the design of the different webs. Figure 9 and 10 shows 2 girders with a
structured web with a sheet plate from FQZ and Borit. In comparison to all tests it can
554

be seen, that the experimental tests of the girders with a plane and a structured web have a
similar behaviour and those test of the girders with a trapezoidal or sinusoidal corrugated
web. Figure 11 shows the load-vertical deflection curves (1) for girders with a planar and
a structured web. In Figure 12 are shown load-vertical deflection curves (2) for girders
with trapezoidal and sinusoidal corrugated web.
If the structure is nearly complete planar the load rise to the ultimate load.
Differences between the directions of the structure (comb 0 90) are also recognized.
Thats why one can define there is a big influence for reaching a higher critical buckling
load (buckling behaviour) between the direction of the comb and the load direction.
Based on the stiffness of the different structured web from FQZ and Borit the graphs of
the ultimate load are different. The behaviour of the girders with the trapezoidal and
sinusoidal webs are similar as shown in figure 12. Based on the beginning of the test the
load- deflection curve steeply rising until the critical buckling load (local buckling). After
this load one can see a big load drop. At the same time the web have an abrupt local
buckling of the trapezoidal or sinusoidal corrugated web. There was the variant of
buckling in the near of the middle rigid and also buckling in the near of the rigid end post.
Furthermore one can note that the horizontal deflection in the center of the shear field
depends on the stiffness of the sandwich web.
Fig. 11. Load-vertical deflection curves (1)
555
Fig. 12. Load-vertical deflection curves (2)
The diagram in figure 11 shows that the behaviour at the beginning of buckling is
different for girders with a planar and a structured web. This phenomenon appears due to
the deformation of the sheets (plane of the structure) without of the load.
Figure 13 shows the different behaviour of the girder with the planar web and the
structured web with regard to the horizontal displacement of the centre of the two shear
fields. It can be seen that the structured plate has a higher stiffness than the planar web.
That means that the buckling behaviour of a girder with a structured web is much better
than the girder with a flat web.
Fig. 13. Horizontal deflection shear field 1 and 2
556

Figure 14 and 15 shows the different tension fields from test VK1.4.1- VK1.8.1. It
can be observed that the comb structure does not exist partially.
Fig. 14. Tension field from girder VK4.1, VK5.1 and VK6.1
Fig. 15. Tension field from girder VK7.1, VK7.2 and VK8.1
5. ANALYTICAL RESULTS
The ultimate load is achieved when the load does not increase anymore and only the
deformation accelerates. Table 6 contains the measured load for all five types of girders.
Furthermore for the first girders it was possible to calculate the ultimate load according to
[1], [2] and [10]. In adaption of [3] it should be possible to find a design method of
girders with structured web.
In all girders with planar and structured web after shear buckling, a tension field
developed (=post- buckling) and later plastic hinges were formed (=frame effect). A
difference between the flat and structured web was observed: Parallel to the forming of a
tension field, the comb structure was lost. There was one difficulty in finding the
comparable values for the definition of shear and tension load from [2] for the experiment
and the FE method. The buckling load was defined as a load, which corresponds to the
horizontal displacement of the web of 1 mm. It was difficult to recognize, when the frame
effect started during the experiment. Thats why the tension effect was given by an
approximate value. In table 6 are only shown the complete ultimate loads from the tests
and the analytical analysis.
557

Table 6.
Comparison of test and analytical results (s-small comb, b-big comb)
Specimen
Web
Fu,exp
VK1.1
Planar
92,6
VK1.2
Planar
93,8
VK2.1
Trapez
89,7
VK2.2
Trapez
86,9
VK3.1
Sinus
100,5
VK3.2
Sinus
111,6
VK3.3
Sinus
125,7
VK4.1
FQZ 0
89,2
VK5.1
FQZ 90
89,8
VK6.1
Borit 0k
91,4
VK7.1
Borit 90k
91,8
VK7.2
Borit 90k
87,4
VK8.1
Borit 0g
95,0
Fcal,ec3
Fcal,dast15
Fcal,Zem
44,5
72,9
47,7
39,8
68,5
43,9
In Figure 16 the comparison is shown considering the influence of the parameter

thickness and shear aspect ratio. An overview of the differences is given in table 3. The
thickness is directly linear to the ultimate load, as shown in sensitivity analysis 1. The
highest value for loads is calculated for a girder with a sinusoidal web. In the diagram for
the sensitivity analysis 2 has 4 graphs with the same value of load for different shear ratio
aspects. More over the obtained results show, that the shear aspect ratio for analysis 3 is
indirectly proportional to the ultimate load and the thickness is more than linear directly
proportional to the ultimate load (analysis 4).
558
Fig. 16. Load over shear aspect ratio and thickness- analytical results
6. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions are:
The stiffness of the sandwich element is higher than the flat plate. (Because of
the stiffness it is simpler to weld a sandwich element to the flanges than a thin
flat web.)
The ultimate loads of girders with planar and structured webs are comparable.
The buckling behaviour of the girder with a structured web is dependent on the
orientation of the combs.
Sin girders give the highest ultimate load.
Conclusions for further test samples:
The direction of the structured web has to be changed (rotation about 45).
Conclusions for the analysis:
The calculation model is being developed according [3], [2] and [1].
The further refinement of structured web-model with geometry and material
properties is necessary.
559

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by the Ministry of Science, Research and Culture of the
State of Brandenburg (MWFK), Germany. The authors are responsible for the contents of
this publication.
REFERENCES
DIN EN 1993-1-5:2010. Design of steel structures Part 1-5: Plated structural elements.
DASt- Richtlinie 015, Trger mit schlanken Stegen, 1990.
Aschinger R., Beljaev V.F., Mikhailova T.V., Zur Querkrafttragfhigkeit von I-Trgern
mit verschiedenen Stegprofilierungen, Stahlbau 60 (1991), 314-317
[4] Beg D. et al., ECCS Eurocode Design Manuals - Design of plated structures, 2010.
[5] Fritzsche S., Ossenbrink R., Michailov V., Experimental Characterisation of Structured
Sheet Metal, 14th International Conference on Sheet Metal, Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven, 2011.
[6] Schleu L., Ossenbrink R., Michailov V., Widerstandspunktschweien strukturierter
Bleche - Schweibereiche, Prfung, Anwendung 12. Kolloquium Widerstandsschweien
und alternative Verfahren, Halle (Saale), 2010.
[7] ABAQUS/ Analysis Users Manual, Version 6.9-EF1, Dassault Systems, 2010.
[8] ProEngineer Tutorial 1 to 6, pro-e-tut1.html, 2011
[9] Borit: http://www.borit.de/
[10] Zeman: http://www.zeman-stahl.com,Technical documentation, 1999
[1]
[2]
[3]
560
THE LOSS OF DYNAMIC STABILITY OF THREE-LAYERED,

ANNULAR PLATES WITH THICK CORE
D. PAWLUS
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Bielsko-Biaa
Willowa 2, 43-309 Bielsko-Biaa, Poland
The paper presents the solutions and the calculation results of three-layers, annular
plate with thick core subjected to the variable in time loads. Presented solutions use
the approximate methods: orthogonal method and finite difference method in
analytically-numerical solution of problem and finite element method. The
observed phenomenon of the reduction of critical load values of plates, which the
buckling mode is not global and the additional deflections of respective plate layers
differ, was particularly analysed in evaluation of the critical state and supercritical
plate behaviours. The critical deformation could be in the form with the strong
deformation in the region of the loaded plate edge. The observation of the dynamic
behaviours of plates buckling modes with the circumferential waves is the
important element of analysis. Presented solutions, including the proposed
analytically-numerical solution of problem, have been generalized on the plate
cases with buckling waves in circumferential plate direction. The viscoelastic
properties of plate core material have been adjusted, too.
1. INTRODUCTION
The evaluation of the critical state of three-layered plates with the thick core
requires taking note of the plate buckling behaviour significant depending on plate
material and geometrical parameters. The thickness of plate core enacts here the
important meaning. With the increase of core thickness the noteworthy change of the
mode of plate stability loss could be expected. The mode changes from the quasi-euler
form occurred for layered plates with middle core thickness to form characterizing with
the strong symmetrical or unsymmetrical transverse deformations particularly in the
region of plate loaded edge. The values of critical loads are lower than corresponding
values obtained for the global mode buckling. On this phenomenon the Authors of
example works [1,2,3] take note. The observation of the buckling behaviour of threelayered plates with the annular shape, which confirm these regularities, is the subject of
the analysis in this work.
2. PROBLEM FORMUALTION
The subject of the consideration is three-layered, annular plate with the core
multiple thicker than the thickness of its facings. The plate is loaded with the uniformly
distributed forces caused the radial compression of outer layers. The main observation is
focused on the dynamic response to the acting of linear, quickly increasing in time loads,
expressed by formula:
561

p=st
(1)
where: p compressive stress, s rate of plate loading growth, t time.

The scheme of such a plate model is presented in Fig.1. The plate with elastic and
linear viscoelastic properties of the polyurethane foam of core material is subjected to
examination. The calculations were carried out using two methods: finite difference
method (FDM) and finite element method (FEM). Expected, quasi-euler form of the loss
of plate dynamic stability has been denoted in the moment of time loading determined on
the strength of the criterion presented in Volmirs work [4]. According o this criterion the
loss of plate stability occurs at the moment when the speed of the point of maximum
deflection reaches the first maximum value.
1
h1
p
p
3
1,3 - facings
2 - plate core
p
p
h2
h3
ri
ro
z
u
Fig. 1. Scheme of the plate
3. THE SOLUTION TO THE DYNAMIC PROBLEM USING THE FINITE

DIFFERENCE METHOD
The detailed description presenting the basic equations for annular, three-layered
plate in nonlinear geometrical problem is presented in monograph [5]. The analytical and
numerical solution uses the approximate methods: orthogonal method and finite
difference method. The way of solution has been presented in paper [6], too. The solution
is based on the assumption of classical theory of sandwich plate using the broken line
hypothesis and the participation of plate layers in carrying the plate load: the facings are
loaded with normal but the core with shear stresses [7]. Equal value of transverse
additional deflections of symmetrical arranged three layers in plate structure is accepted.
The linear physical relations of layers materials and nonlinear geometrical equations in
the mathematical description of facing deformations have been used. The generalized
form of the system of differential equations with respect to time variable for the plate
with viscoelastic core is the following:
Q W1U
W2U
PU Q PLU
L
M Y Y QY
562
(2)
(3)
Q
MYY
Y
M V V QV
Q
MVV
V
MZZ QZ
Q
M Z
Z
M DM UM U
M GM G
MDL D
D
U
UL
G
GL
M GM UM U
M DM D
MGGL G
GG
GU
GUL
GD
GDL
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
where:
W1, W2 expressions: W1=K72 WK5 WK8 EL , W2=K73 WK5 WK8 FL ,
s
h'
, WK5
, WK8 ro h 2 M ,
K7, WK5, WK8 expressions: K7
p cr
h
pcr critical static stress, h - facing thickness, h2 core thickness, h (h=2h+h2) plate
total thickness, M (M=2h+h22) expression, , 2 facing and core mass density,
respectively, ro outer radius, EL, FL quantities determined by elastic and viscosity
constants of core standard material,
U, Y, V, Z vectors expressed by the additional plate deflections and components of
stress functions, respectively, D, G vectors of expressions , (, - differences of
displacements in middle surface of plate outer layers in radial and circumferential
direction, respectively), QL, QY , QV , QZ vectors of expressions composed of the initial
and additional deflections, components of stress functions, material and geometrical plate
parameters, quantity b (b the length of the interval in the finite difference method),
coefficients , , number m of buckling waves,
P, Q, PL, QL, MY, MV, MZ, MDL, MD, MU, MUL, MG, MGL, MGGL, MGG, MGU, MGUL, MGD,
MGDL matrixes of components described by plate parameters, numbers b and m and
vectors composed of derivatives of X vector elements.
expression K7, X
Eliminating from the system of equations (2)(10) the equations (4),(6),(8) and the
expressions connected with the differential operator

applied in physical relations of
t
viscoelastic material of plate core, the system of equations for plate with elastic core is
obtained. Critical static stress pcr has been calculated solving the eigenproblem for the
problem of the disk state neglecting the inertial components and nonlinear expressions.
4. CALCULATION MODELS OF PLATE IN FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Two models have been used in the analysis:
basic model in the form of complete model of annular plate, circularly symmetrical
- Fig. 2
simplistic model built of axisymmetrical elements - Fig. 3.
The facings are built of shell elements but the core mesh is built of solid elements. The
grids of facings elements are tied with the grid of core elements using the surface contact
interaction. The calculations were carried out at the Academic Computer Center
563
-

CYFRONET-CRACOW
ABAQUS system.
(KBN/SGI_ORIGIN_2000/Pdzka/030/1999)
using
the
shell elements
shell elements
solid elements
shell elements
solid elements
shell elements
Fig.2.
Basic model
Fig.3.
Simplistic model
4. EXAMPLES OF NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS

The exemplary numerical calculations were carried out for plate with the following
material, geometrical and connected with loading parameters:
inner radius: ri = 0.2 m, outer radius: ro = 0.5 m, facing thickness: h = 0.0005 m,
0.001 m, core thickness: h2 = 0.005, 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06 m,
steel facing material: Youngs modulus E=2.1105 MPa, Poissons ratio =0.3, mass
density =7.85103 kg/m3,
polyurethane foam core material: Kirchhoffs modulus G2=5 MPa [8], Youngs
modulus for isotropic material E2=13 MPa, Poissons ratio =0.3, mass density
2=64 kg/m3, elastic constant G2=3.13 MPa and viscosity constant
=212.92104 MPas for the standard model parameters of viscoelastic core
material (Fig.4),
the rate of loading growth on the outer edge: s931 MPa/s.
G2
G2'
Fig.4.
'
Standard model
The form of plate preliminary deflection in dynamic problem is the rotational

axially-symmetrical or circumferentially waved with the number of waves consistent with
the number m corresponding to the analysed buckling form.
The exemplary values of the minimal critical static loads of plates supported in
slidably clamped edges and radially compressed on outer edge are presented in Fig. 5.
Line 1 shows the results obtained for the basic FEM model of plate. Line 2 shows the
564

results for the basic model, too but the layers are connected with the condition of the
equal deflection. Line 3 presents the results calculated for the plate model solved using
the finite difference method (FDM). The point marked by the cross is for the plate cases,
which the critical deformation has other than quasi-euler, global buckling form.
h'=0.0005 m FEM - line 1
200
h'=0.0005 m FEM - line 2

180
h'=0.0005 m FDM
h'=0.001 m FEM - line 1
160
h'=0.001 m FEM - line 2

h'=0.001 m FDM
pcr [MPa]
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
h2 [mm]
Fig.5.
Critical static loads distribution depended on core thickness
Fig.6.
Time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection and buckling form of plate
simplistic FEM model with parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
565

Relevant decrease in values of critical loads of plate models without the connected
layers with the condition of the equal deflection is observed for plates with the thick core:
h2=0.06 m. The good compatibility of values of minimal critical static loads of plate
models FEM and FDM with the global buckling forms (lines 1,2) is observed, too.
The dynamic plate behaviours are presented for plate model with thick core:
h2=0.06 m and facing thickness: h=.001 m. The calculation results of simplistic FEM
model and FDM model are consistent for axially-symmetrical form of plate predeflection. The dynamic buckling mode is global - Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 shows the time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection of simplistic plate
model. The values of critical dynamic loads are equal to p cdyn=183.37 MPa and 192.06
MPa for FEM and FDM plate models, respectively. The value of critical load obtained
for basic FEM model is lower, pcdyn=121.93 MPa. In the region of the critical state the
tendency to the change of the buckling form to circumferentially waved is observed
Fig. 7. The examinations of the basic models of plates with waved forms of predeflection
show the decrease in values of dynamic, critical loads of plates with number m equal to:
m=911. The critical dynamic load for plate with m=9 is equal to p cdyn=42.76 MPa. The
minimal critical static load calculated for FEM and FDM models correspond to buckling
mode with number m=9 circumferentially waves, too.
The Table 1 presents the values of critical dynamic loads obtained for basic FEM model
of plate and approximate values calculated using the finite difference method for different
number m of buckling waves.
t=0.127 s
Fig.7.
t=0.131 s
Courses and deformation forms of basic plate model with parameters:

G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
566

Fig. 8 shows the time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection and critical
deformation of plate with number m=9 buckling waves. Presented curves are obtained for
the plate nodes, which belong to the transverse line of FEM grid: node 9031 to facing
grid, adjacent node 13031 to core grid, node 5031 to second facing grid and adjacent
Table 1.
Dynamic critical loads of plates for wavy buckling modes and parameters:
G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
Critical dynamic load Buckling form Basic FEM model FDM model*
m=0
121.93
192.06
m=1
112.20
163.03
m=3
110.55
125.77
m=5
99.47
135.08
pcrdyn [MPa]
m=7
75.30
130.42
m=8
68.22
125.77
m=9
42.76
125.77
m=10
49.83
125.77
() *- the layers are connected by the condition of the equal deflection
Fig.8.
basic FEM model with parameters:
m=9, G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.001 m
567

node 31 to core grid and node 17031 to core grid situated in the middle of side line of
solid element. The curves show the character of transverse nonlinear deformation of plate
structure with thick core. The loss of plate stability has not quite global form
characterized by the equal additional deflections of each plate layers. This structure
deformation shows that classical broken line hypothesis in description of the geometrical
relation for plates with thick core could not be proper. The hyperbolic deformation should
approximate the transverse structure deformation better. Here, it could be noticed very
important comments presented in work [3].
The critical deformation state with the tendency to the change of the regular, global
form to the strongly deformed in the region of the plate loaded edge one is presented in
Fig. 9. The Fig. 9 shows the dynamic stability loss of the plate with the thick core
(h2=0.06 m) and very thin facings (h=0.0005 m) built of the axisymmetric elements. The
form of the plate preliminary deflection corresponds to the expected buckling mode with
m equal to: m=0. The curves show the time histories of the deflections and velocity of
deflections of the selected grid nodes. From the moment of the loss of plate dynamic
stability the additional deflections of the nodes of upper and bottom plate layers and
located in the middle core surface take different values.
t=0.264 s
Fig.9.
t=0.3 s
Time histories of deflections and velocity of deflections and buckling forms of

simplistic model of plate with parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.0005 m
The examination of plates with viscoelastic core confirms the detailed results and
the character of dynamic behaviour of plates with elastic core.
568
Fig.10.
Time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection of plate with viscoelastic

core for parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.0005 m, m=8
Fig.11.
with elastic core for parameters: G2=5 MPa, h2=0.06 m, h=0.0005 m, m=8
The Fig. 10 shows the time histories of deflection and velocity of deflection of plate basic
model with viscoelastic core for wave number m equal to: m=8. The Fig. 11 shows the
results for the same plate but with elastic core. Results do not differ. The dynamic
behaviours and detailed critical values obtained for plate models quickly loaded with
accepted, presented in this work, elastic and viscoelastic parameters practically are
compatible.
569

6. CONCLUSIONS
The generalization of the field of numerical examinations on the plate cases loaded
on outer edge, which the loss of dynamic stability analysed for the minimal values of
critical, dynamic loads have the circumferentially waved form is the significant novelty
of this work. The exemplary calculation results of examined plates subjected to dynamic
loads indicate the necessity in undertaking the perceptive, full analysis of plates with
including the wavy buckling modes. The transverse deformation of plates with thick core
does not fulfil the condition of the equal deflections of plate layers occurred for the
global buckling form. The nonlinear, geometrical relations in description of the
transverse deformation of such layered structure should be used. The limitation of the
plate examinations to the analysis for quasi-euler buckling forms leads to the calculation
of the inflated values of critical static and dynamic loads. It is significantly noted in
mentioned work [3], too.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Rammerstorfer F. G., Dorninger K., Starlinger A., Composite and sandwich shells in
nonlinear analysis of shells by finite elements (Ed. F.G. Rammerstorfer), Springler-Verlag,
Wien 1992, pp. 131-194.
Romanw F., Stricker L., Teisseyre J., Stability of sandwich constructions, Technical
University of Wroclaw, Wrocaw 1972, (in Polish).
Romanw, F., Strength of sandwich constructions, WSI in Zielona Gra, Poland 1995, (in
Polish).
Volmir, C., Nonlinear dynamic of plates and shells, Moskwa: Science 1972, (in Russian).
Pawlus D., Dynamic stability of three-layered annular plates with viscoelastic core,
Scientific Bulletin of the Technical University of d, 1075, d 2010.
Pawlus D., Solution to the dynamic stability problem of three-layered annular plates with
wavy forms of buckling, Stability of Structures XIITH Symposium, Zakopane7-11
September 2009, pp. 349-356, (in Polish).
Volmir, C., Stability of deformed system, Moskwa: Science 1967, (in Russian).
Majewski, S., Makowski, R., Creep of foamed plastics used as the core of sandwich plate,
Engineering and Building Industry (in Polish, Inynieria i Budownictwo), 3, 1975, pp.
127-131, (in Polish).
570
STABILITY OF CONCRETE SHALLOW SHELL

M. PSOTN, J. RAVINGER
The combination of the shallow thin concrete shell and the steel tie is offered as the
ceiling panel. The cylindrical shallow shell is approximated as the shallow arch.
The big differences between the results from the linear stability solution and the
nonlinear solution emphasize the necessity to use the full nonlinear analysis
including the investigation of the effects of the initial imperfections. The stable and
unstable paths and the bifurcation point have been followed.
1. INTRODUCTION
The reinforced concrete is a heterogeneous structure. We have the combination of two
materials with very different mechanical properties. (These differences are the roots of
the heterogeneity.) The steel is a ductile material having almost identical properties in the
tension and compression. The concrete is able to carry the high level of the compression
load, but its tension strength is very small. The concrete is a brittle material. The
reinforced concrete represents a suitable combination of these characteristics.
In the text books the behaviour of the reinforced concrete beams is usually explained as
the combination of the concrete vault and the steel tie. (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Mechanism of the behaviour of the reinforced concrete beam and shallow shell
The similar situation occurs in the case of the plate. In the plate with the higher aspect
ratio the concrete vault has the cylindrical shape. This situation evokes an idea to arrange
the beam or the plate as the combination of the vault and the tie as the only static active
elements. If the thickness of the vault is small the stability problem occurs.
571

2. ELASTIC CRITICAL LOAD OF THE SHALLOW ARCH
For the next investigation the shell with the unit width (b=1.0 m), the span l=4.0 m
and the height 0.15 mm was supposed. The cylindrical shell has been evaluated as the
arch. As the first step the distribution of the internal forces has been evaluated as the
result of the linear algebraic equations
K L .q f
(1)
where K L is the stiffness matrix, q - the vector of the nodal displacements, f - the
vector of the nodal forces.
Now the elastic critical load i. e. the linearised stability problem of the eigenvalue and
eigenvectors can be evaluated
K L KG
det
(2)
where K G is the geometric matrix (the matrix of increments of the bending stiffness due
to action of the normal forces), the parameter of the elastic critical load.
The elastic critical load is defined by the equation
pcr . p where p is the external load.
(3)
The eigenvectors from the Eq. (2) give the modes of buckling. The results for the
investigated concrete arch are arranged in the Fig. 2.
p=1.0 kN/m
E=20.0 GPa, b=1.0 m
0.15 m
4.0 m
0.04 m
pcr1=19.5 kN/m
N
pcr2=43.5 kN/m
N=13.4 kN
V
pcr3=78.8 kN/m
M
Fig. 2. Elastic critical load and the modes of buckling of the shallow arch
The circle arch loaded by the external pressure was supposed and so the shear forces
and the bending moments are negligible.
3. NON-LINEAR SOLUTION OF THE SHALLOW ARCH
It is famous that in the case of the shallow arch the elastic critical load obtained from
the linearised stability problem (Eq.(2)) is much higher than the critical load obtained
from the nonlinear solution. The nonlinear solution leads to the system of cubic algebraic
equations and the incremental formulation can be used ([5,6]).
572
K INC .q f int fext fext 0
(4)
where K INC is the incremental stiffness matrix, q - the vector of the increments in
nodal displacements, f int - the vector of the internal nodal forces, f ext - the vector of the
external nodal forces, f ext - the increment of the vector of the external nodal forces.
Assuming that we start from the exact solution, where f int f ext 0 , the Eq. (4)
can be used for the increment
K INC .q f ext
(5)
Eq. (4) could be used for the Newton-Raphson iteration. The residua represent the
unbalanced nodal forces
f i int f i ext r i
(6)
The correction of the equation roots can be obtained from the equation
1
qi K INC .r i , qi 1 qi qi
(7)
Iteration process must be finished using the proper norm, for example
q .q q .q
q .q
i 1 T
i T
i 1
i 1 T
0.001
(8)
In the case of the solution of the nonlinear problems of the shallow arches stable and
unstable paths and the bifurcation points must be distinguished.
Using the theory of quadratic forms, the stable path must satisfy the condition
det K INC 0
(9)
and all the principal minors must be positive as well. The incremental stiffness matrix
must be evaluated using the load as the pivot term.
The nonlinear solution of the shallow arch is presented in the Fig. 3.
Presented results were obtained due to the ability of the interactive change of the
pivot term. The displacement parameter as the pivot term must be used for the
overcoming the top of the load. In the bifurcation point the sign of the determinant is
changed. To get the path related to the antimetric mode of the buckling the iteration
process must be started near the bifurcation point with the suitable initial approximation.
It is important to note that the level of the load in the bifurcation point
(pcr=18.75 kN/m) is lower than the elastic critical load obtained from the linear stability
(Fig. 2 - pcr=19.5 kN/m). Special attention should be paid to take in consideration the
effects of the initial imperfections.
573

4. THE EFFECTS OF THE INITIAL IMPERFECTIONS ON THE BEHAVIOR OF
THE SHALLOW ARCH
The shallow concrete cylindrical shell calculated as the shallow arch has been
analysed. It is obvious that the behaviour after the snap-through with the displacement
about 250 mm is out of practical using. Our interest must be focused on the region near
the bifurcation point. The load in the level of the bifurcation point represents the load
bearing capacity.
As it was noted in the previous part, the effects of initial imperfections are very
important. The initial imperfections are the deviations from the ideal shape of structure. In
the nonlinear solution it is not possible to use the superposition and the initial
imperfection must be included into the theoretical derivation.
In addition to the value (the amplitude) of the initial geometric imperfection its
mode is very important as well. The partial answer to this question is presented in the
Figs. 4 and 5.
[kN/m] p
40
p
0.15
wC
t=0.04 m
E=20.0 GPa
4.0 m
m
30
20
pcr=18.7
5
stable paths
unstable paths
bifurcation point
10
wC
0
100
20
0
300
[mm]
-10
Fig. 3. Nonlinear solution of shallow arch
Fig. 4 presents the results of the nonlinear solution of the shallow arch assuming the
initial imperfection on the mode related to the lowest elastic critical load. This mode can
be called as the mode 1.
In the case of the solution of the arch with initial imperfection the change into the
antimetric mode of the deformation is smooth. The bifurcation point is the top of the load
vs. displacement line. The level related to this point is the load bearing capacity of the
arch.
574

[kN/m]
30
0.15
wC t=0.04 m m
linear solution
E=20.0 GPa
4.0 m
19.5
18.75
20
w01
1 mm
w0= w01* 01
14.5
10
0
1 mm
2 mm
5 mm
10
10 mm
stable paths
unstable paths
01
bifurcation point
wC
20
[mm]
Fig. 4. Shallow arch with the initial imperfection in the mode 1
It is obvious that the initial imperfections significantly decrease the maximum

utilisable load. Assuming the amplitude of the initial imperfection 5 mm the maximum
load is pmax=pbif.b.=14.5 kN/m and the related displacement is 19 mm. This displacement is
1/210 from the span and it is rather high ratio.
[kN/m]
bifurcation point
30
stable paths
0.15 m
wC t=0.04 m
E=20.0 GPa
unstable
paths
4.0
m
20
1 mm
1 mm
10
w0= 1.0*w01-1.0*w02 [mm]

w0= 0.1*w01-2.0*w02 [mm]
wC
0
10
20
[mm]
Fig. 5. Shallow arch with the initial imperfection assuming

the combination of the modes 1 and 2
575
w01
-1 mm
w02

The Fig. 5 shows the solution of the shallow arch with the initial displacement as the
combination of the modes related to the first and the second elastic critical loads.
Comparing these results with the results presented in the Fig. 4 it can be noted that the
mode 1 is the most disadvantageous one. This result was expected, but in the
nonlinear solution even the expected results must be proved.
5. SHALLOW SHELL WITH THE TIE
The shallow shell with the hinge supports produces high values of horizontal forces
in the supports. During the transport and the assembly, the concrete shallow shell has no
horizontal support and such a panel would be probably destroyed. Use of the steel tie is
one of the possibilities how to solve this problem.
The numerical model of the shell with tie is the same as the model of the shell with the
elastic support.
mode of buckling
20
10
mode of buckling
MC [kNm]
VA [kN]
wC [mm]
pcr [kN/m]
NC [kN]
t0=0.04
E=20 GPa 0.15 m
A0 E0=210 GPa
l=4.0 m
EA
k 0 0
l
wC
NC
VA
V
M
MC
A0
5
8
20
51
0
108
40
101
0
60
1012
80 *10 [kN/m]
520
Fig. 6. Static and stability analysis of the shallow arch with the elastic support
Fig. 6 shows the results from the static and stability analyses of the shallow arch with
elastic support. In the case of the zero stiffness of the support the internal forces are
1
1
1
1
M C pl 2 1.0 * 4.0 2 2.0 kNm, VA pl 1.0 * 4.0 2.0 kN , N 0
8
8
2
2
576

(Note. In the evaluation of the shear and normal forces we have neglected the inclination
of the arch near the support.)
40
[kN/m]
p
k=
k=12000
0
k=80000
20
wC
30
EA
l
kN/m
stable paths
unstable paths
k=40000
bifurcation
point
10
wC
10
0
5
0
150
30
0
250
20
0
[mm]
350
-10
Fig. 7. Nonlinear solution of the shallow arch with the elastic support
The stiffness of the elastic support could be evaluated as the steel tie (reinforcement
bars) assuming the modulus of elasticity E=210 GPa. (A0 in the Fig. 6).
[kN/m]
15
stable paths
14.65
unstable paths
10
bifurcation
point
w
5
1 mm
w01
0
1 mm
5 mm
10 mm
01
w0= w01* 01
k=40000 kN/m
wC
0
20
40
60
Fig. 8. Shallow arch with elastic support with initial displacement
577
80 [mm]

An interesting result was observed that decreasing of the stiffness of the support
causes the decrease of the normal force and consequently the increase the elastic critical
load. For the small value of the stiffness of the support, the mode of buckling is the
punch mode.
Fig. 7 shows the results of the nonlinear solution of the shallow arch with elastic
support. The results are presented as the load vs. displacement curve in the centre for all
the snap-through effect. The paths related to the antimetric mode of the buckling are also
drawn. As it is shown in the scheme, in the cases of various stiffnesses the paths overlap
each other. This implies that the snap-through in antimetric mode is not affected by the
stiffness of the support.
As the minimum stiffness we can note k=40000 kN/m. For the lower stiffnesses, the
horizontal displacements reach too high values. There are big differences between the
elastic critical load obtained from the linearised stability solution and the level of the load
related to the bifurcation point. For example for k=40000 kN/m the elastic critical laod is
(Fig. 6) pcr=20.5 kN/m and the bifurcation point has the level of the load pmax=pbif.b.=14.7
kN/m.
5. CONCLUSION
Presented results prove that the idea to design the ceiling panel as the combination
of the thin concrete shell and the steel tie is realistic. This panel could be used as the
formwork. The big differences between the results from the linear stability solution and
the nonlinear solution emphasize the necessity to use the full nonlinear analysis including
the investigation of the effects of the initial imperfections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Baant Z. P., Cedolin L., Stability of Structures. Oxford University Press. New YorkOxford. 1991.
Bilk J., Fillo ., Halvonk J., Concrete Structures. BETONING, Bratislava, 2005. (in
Slovak).
Psotn M., Ravinger J., Von Misses Truss with Imperfections. Slovak Journal of Civil
Engineering, 2003, Vol. XI, No 2, pp. 1-7.
Ravinger J., COMPUTER PROGRAMS Statics, Stability and Dynamics of Civil
Engineering Structures, Alfa, Bratislava, 1990. (in Slovak).
Ravinger J., Vibration of an Imperfect Thin-walled Panel. Part 1: Theory and Illustrative
Examples. Part 2: Numerical Results and Experiment, Thin-Walled Structures, 1994 Vol.
19, No 1, pp. 1-36.
Ravinger J., Kleiman P., Natural Vibration of Imperfect Columns and Frames. Building
Research Journal, 2002, Vol. 50, No 1, pp. 49-68.
578
A REVIEW ON VIBRATIONS AND BUCKLING OF

CURVILINEAR FIBRE COMPOSITE LAMINATED PANELS
P. RIBEIRO, H. AKHAVAN
IDMEC/DEMEC, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto
R. Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
A. TETER, J. WARMINSKI
The variable stiffness concept in fibre reinforced laminated composite panels is

presented and a review on works that investigate the behaviour of panels with
curvilinear fibres is carried out. The review mostly focuses on buckling and
vibrations, but failure and stresses fields in membrane static deformations are also
addressed. The literature review is followed by the presentation of the linear
stiffness matrix of Variable Stiffness Composite Laminated (VSCL) plates with
curvilinear fibres. For the latter purpose, a Kirchhoff approach is followed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Composite materials are made of at least two constituent materials that remain
separated in the finished structure. A popular type of composite are laminated
fibre-reinforced composites [1-2], which have a number of advantages in
comparison to metal based structures, including the facts that they offer lightweight, stiff,
aerodynamically efficient surfaces, resist well to corrosion and fatigue. As a rule, fibre
reinforced composite materials have straight and unidirectional fibres, which are
homogeneously distributed in each lamina, hence the stiffness does not vary in space (in
a macroscopic sense). However, novel composite materials, designated as Variable
Stiffness Composite Laminated (VSCL) panels, have particularly since the nineties [312] deserved greater interest, as they become technologically and economically more
viable.
There are several techniques to obtain VSCL panels, including varying the volume
fraction of fibres, and dropping or adding plies to the laminate [4-12]. But VSCL with
variable curved fibres have advantages in comparison with laminates that employ other
ways of varying the stiffness. One of them is that the stiffness varies continuously with
the membrane coordinates, in opposition to what occurs when plies are terminated at
different locations. The latter option leads to abrupt changes in panel thicknesses, which
produce stress concentration and out-of-plane, interlaminar, stresses [13]. Since this
communication concentrates on VSCL panels where the fibre orientation angle is not
constant in a ply, VSCL means just this type of panel in the remaining of this text.
Moreover, although other fibre patterns are possible, we will only consider the more
frequent case of curvilinear fibres.
579

Present tow-placement technology is capable of controlling fibre tows individually
and placing them onto the surface of a laminate with non-traditional curvilinear fibre
paths. Tow-placement machines have computer controlled axes that allow for precise
control of the fibre orientation, providing the possibility to curve the fibres within the
plane of the laminate [10-11]. This technology opens the door to an enlarged design
space with respect to the traditional straight-fibre reinforced composites, offering new
possibilities for weight reduction or better performance, which may be particularly
important in transports. For example, in an aircraft fuselage some regions dominated by
bending are adjacent to regions where shear deformation mostly affects the response;
therefore, for optimal design, plies with fibres aligned along the fuselage axis should alter
to 45 with relation to the same axis [12]. A VSCL with curvilinear fibres can answer this
problem without introducing discontinuities.
The practical interest on tow-placed variable stiffness composite laminates (VSCL)
is large in lightweight constructions, where the study of vibrations is extremely important
[14-17], since vibrations cause failure, instability, noise and life reduction due to fatigue.
Another main challenge in the design of compressed elements is the buckling
phenomenon [18]. The idea of curved fibres was used to maximize buckling loads on
composite structures. Some progress in the application of VSCL was achieved in plates
[5-6, 19-25] and cylindrical structures [26-27]. Failure is naturally and for obvious
reasons also a major concern.
In this communication, previous research on laminated composite panels with
curvilinear fibres is reviewed, focusing on buckling and vibrations. A few works that
address failure and static response are also quoted. After two sections solely devoted to
review, the stiffness matrix of VSCL is presented following a Kirchhoff approach. Our
goals are to introduce this novel and interesting type of composites to a larger audience
and to define a sort of state of the art.
2. BUCKLING, FAILURE AND IN-PLANE RESPONSE
Significant increase in the buckling load can be obtained through using VSCL
panels instead of traditional straight fibres composite panels. It is particularly important
for an optimal structures' design. Possible applications of curved fibrous composites are
still not fully exploited and there are not too many papers.
Early works that address variable stiffness composite laminates with curvilinear fibre
paths were published by Hyer and Lee [4-5], who explored the gains that can be achieved in
buckling performance with this type of design. A sensitivity analysis and a gradient-search
technique were used to select fibre orientations that increase the buckling load.
Improvements in buckling resistance of plates with a hole were obtained. Another early
study was published by Gurdal and Olmedo [6], where the in-plane elastic response of
panels with curvilinear fibres was modelled. The stress distribution investigated, showing
that different stress variations occur in VSCL and in traditional, straight fibre laminates.
Tatting, Gurdal and co-workers [8, 10-11, 21, 23, 28-29] used the extra freedom that
is provided by curvilinear fibre paths to optimize flat and curved panels for maximum
buckling load, taking into account manufacturing limits of tow-placement machines and
exploring other properties, as for example the overall in-plane stiffness. Increases of the
buckling load up to twice the value of conventional straight-fibre panels were achieved.
580

An example of the tailoring possibilities opened by VSCL is offered by reference [21],
where VSCL were designed in such a way that the majority of the load was carried by the
region near the edges of the plate where the boundaries suppress the displacements, while
reducing the compressive load at the centre.
A study on the effect of thermal stresses on the buckling performance of VSCL
again indicates that these panels can perform better than constant stiffness ones [30].
Analysis of thermal performance is also an important part of reference [31].
Published works also indicate that tow steered composite panels can be more
resistant to the onset of damage than straight-fibre laminates. In [32] and [33] simulations
in ABAQUS finite element software were carried out to investigate the advantages in
terms of resistance to damage of curvilinear over straight-fibre laminates, under
compressive loads. More specifically, in [32] numerical simulations were carried out to
analyse resistance to the onset of damage. Reference [33] extends the former analysis into
the postbuckling progressive damage behaviour and final structural failure due to
accumulation of damage. In references [34] and [35] failure and interlaminar stresses of
VSCL plates were investigated, again using ABAQUS finite element software. The
buckling and postbuckling first-ply failure response characteristics of variable-stiffness
panels, with a central hole, fabricated by Automated Fibre Placement Technology were
analysed in [24]. Both in terms of buckling and first-ply failure, important advantages in
comparison with constant-stiffness formats were demonstrated via an Abaqus based
numerical analysis.
3. VIBRATION ANALYSIS
As written in the introduction, vibrations are important for many reasons, but in the
usual applications of laminated panels the main vibration related issues tend to be
stresses, failure and noise. Although these problems generally develop under the action of
forces, knowledge on the modes of vibration is important to understand the dynamic
characteristics of the VSCL panels, justifying that free oscillations are also studied.
The number of publications that involve vibrations of laminated fibre panels with
curvilinear fibre paths is still somewhat small, although recently increasing. In [36] the
maximization of the fundamental frequency of variable stiffness composite plates was
treated; numerical results showed a significant increase in the optimal fundamental
frequency achieved using VSCL compared to constant stiffness panels. In [37] a study is
conducted with the same goal maximizing the fundamental frequency but now on
VSCL conical shells. Also in this case a higher fundamental frequency is found in VSCL
than in constant stiffness shells. In [38] the modes of vibration were investigated in the
linear regime using Classical (thin) Plate Theory and it was found that plates with
curvilinear fibres can have mode shapes that markedly differ from the ones of
conventional plates. Moreover, it was found that plates with curvilinear fibres result in
higher fundamental frequencies than plates with straight fibres and that there are specific
optimum fibre orientations along the plate boundaries. In [39] a new p-version finite
element that uses a third-order shear deformation theory was presented, still for linear
vibrations of VSCL. The third-order theory followed leads to zero transverse shear stress
at the free surfaced and does not require a shear correction factor. It was shown that by
using curvilinear fibres, and keeping all other properties fixed, important changes in
mode shapes and natural frequencies can be achieved. The p-version Third-Order Shear
581

Deformation element of [39] was extended to include geometrical non-linearity, and to
investigate static deflections and stresses (part of this work, which actually is in the static
domain, was presented in [40]). Since an Equivalent Single Layer approach was
followed, computation of interlaminar shear stresses was not always the best.
Nevertheless, the comparison of computed stresses with the ones of other publications
was in general quite good. In [41] and [42] the differences in the geometrically non-linear
vibrations of VSCL and traditional plates were explored. It was found that plates with
curvilinear and straight fibres that had essentially the same dynamic characteristics at low
vibration amplitudes, can behave quite differently at large vibration amplitudes: one can
avoid/encounter resonance in the non-linear regime by curving fibres, even when the
linear behaviour does not change much with respect to a reference traditional plate. In
free vibrations, different internal resonances appeared due to the curvilinear fibres [41].
In forced vibrations [42], it was found that, at least in some situations, curvilinear fibres
lead to lower vibration amplitudes.
4. FORMULATION OF STIFFNESS MATRIX IN VSCL
For demonstrative purposes, the stiffness matrix of a VSCL is here obtained, using
Classical (thin) Plate Theory. Therefore, the displacement components in the x, y and z
directions, respectively represented by u, v and w are given by
ux, y, z u 0 x, y zw,0x x, y
vx, y, z v 0 x, y zw,0y x, y
(1)
wx, y, z w x, y
0
where u 0 , v 0 and w 0 are the values of u, v and w at the reference surface. The origin of
the Cartesian coordinate system is located in the centre of the undeformed plate; axis x
and y define the plates middle reference plane (see Fig. 1). Only static equilibrium is
here considered, hence time does not appear as a function argument.
y
1
x
a
Fig. 1. Curved fibre and plate dimensions
582

Without loss of generality, a p-version finite element method approach [43-44] is
followed. In each p-version finite element for VSCL, the middle plane displacements are
given by
u
u0 , N ,

v0 , 0
w , 0
0

0
,
0
0 qu
0 qv
N w , qw
(2)
with [] indicating row vectors and {} column vectors. The vector of shape functions are:
, g1 g1
g1 g 2 g pi g pi
N w , f1 f1
f1 f 2 f po f p o
(3)
gi() and fi() are one dimensional shape functions; symbols and represent local
coordinates and vectors {qi(t)} contain the generalized coordinates (i=u, v, w). With one
element only being enough to represent rectangular plates, the local and global coordinates
are simply related by
x=a/2
y=b/2
(4)
with a representing the plate length and b the plate width (Fig. 1).
The strain displacement relations in the linear regime are:
x x, y , z
u ,0x x, y zw,0xx x, y
0
0
v , y x, y zw, yy x, y
y x, y , z
x, y, z u 0 x, y v 0 x, y 2 zw 0 x, y
xy
,
y
,
x
,
yy
(5)
where x, y represent the membrane strain components in the x and y directions and xy is
the membrane shear strain. Partial derivation is represented by a comma and
a subscript variable.
Although the fibre orientation varies, principal stresses and strains are still related
by the equation that applies in traditional orthotropic lamina:
1

2

12
(k )
Q11 Q12
Q21 Q22
0
0
0
0
Q66
(k )
1

2

12
(k )
(6)
with numbers 1, 2 and 3 indicating the principal material axes x1, x2 and x3 [1-2]. In
curvilinear fibre laminates the orientation of the principal material axis is not constant in
each lamina.
References [1-2] give the plane-stress reduced stiffnesses Qij as functions of the
longitudinal and transverse moduli of elasticity (E1k, E2k, respectively), Poisson ratios
(12k, 21k) and shear moduli (G12k, G13k, G23k). The same references also give transformed
583

stress-strain relations in a form similar to:
k
Q11 x, y Q12 x, y Q16 x, y
Q12 x, y Q 22 x, y Q 26 x, y
Q16 x, y Q 26 x, y Q 66 x, y
x x, y, t
y x, y, t
xy x, y, t
x x, y , t
y x, y , t
xy x, y, t
(7)
However, the transformed reduced stiffnesses Qij x, y , which are constant in a straight
k
fibre panel, become functions of x and y in a general curvilinear fibre panel. Very often, the
fibre orientation is just a function of x, x), and the following relations hold:
Q11 k x U1 U 2 cos 2 k x U 3 cos 4 k x
k
Q12 k x U 4 U 3 cos 4 k x
k
Q22 k x U1 U 2 cos 2 k x U 3 cos 4 k x

k
k
1
Q16 k x U 2 sin 2 k x U 3 sin 4 k x
2
k
1
k
Q 26 x U 2 sin 2 k x U 3 sin 4 k x
2
Q66
x U
U 3 cos 4 k x
(8)
where Ui are defined as:

1
3Q11 3Q22 2Q12 4Q66
8
1
U 3 Q11 Q22 2Q12 4Q66
8
1
U 5 Q11 Q22 2Q12 4Q66
8
1
Q11 Q22
2
1
U 4 Q11 Q22 6Q12 4Q66
8
U1
U2
(9)
The membrane force vectors {V(x,y)} and the vector of moment resultants {M(x,y)}
(forces and moments per unit length) are given by the constitutive relations
V x, y Ax
M x, y Bx
Bx 0m x, y
Ax b x, y
(10)
where the membrane strains at the middle surface and the plate curvatures were written in
vector form (respectively, as 0m x, y and b x, y ). The extensional stiffness matrix is
584
U k ( x )
1
A x hk U 4 k ( x)
k 1

0
( x)
U 4 k ( x)
k
U 2 k ( x)
0
U 5 k ( x)
1 1 0
1
U 3 x 1 1 0 cos 4 k x U 2 k x
2
0 0 1
0 0 1
U 3 x 0 0 1 sin 4 k x
1 1 0
1 0 0
0 1 0 cos 2 k ( x)
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1 sin 2 k x

1 1 0
(11)
If only laminates that are symmetric about their middle plane are of interest, then
the bending-extensional coupling matrix [B(x)] is zero. Finally, the bending stiffness
matrix is given by
n
D x
k 1
3
k
U k x U 4 k x
0
zk31 1 k
k
0
U 4 x U1 x
3

k
0
0
U 5 x
1 0 0
U 2 k x 0 1 0 cos 2 k x
0 0 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
U 3 k x 1 1 0 cos 4 k x U 2 k x 0 0 1 sin 2 k x
0 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
U 3 k x 0 0 1 sin 4 k x
1 1 0
(12)
In the present case, the virtual work of the internal forces can be written as follows:
Win 0m x, y A x 0m x, y b0 x, y D x b0 x, y d
(13)
The expression of the virtual work of the external forces is common to traditional
laminates [42]. Applying the principle of virtual work, equilibrium equations of the
following form are obtained:
585
Kuu11
K vu21
K uv12
K vv22
0
0
qu Pu
qv P
v

Kb33 qw Pw
(14)
The constant stiffness matrix is constituted by sub-matrices of the type K kij , where

k=uu, uv, vu, vv, b; with u and v the in-plane displacements and b representing bending.
5. CLOSING COMMENTS
The use of curvilinear fibres paths to tailor fibre-reinforced laminated composites so
that the stiffness varies as a function of position is an increasingly available option. The
practical interest on Variable Stiffness Composite Laminates with curvilinear fibres
(VSCL) is large, particularly in aeronautics, because the expanded design space can lead to
weight reductions. Permitting the fibres to curve within the surface of the laminate allows,
for example, the designer to move the load away from a less supported area to the plate
boundaries, thus increasing the buckling capacity. The developments on tow placement
technology turned possible to tailor the stiffness of the composite laminates so that the
stiffness varies continuously as a function of position. The works addressed in the literature
review demonstrate that this type of variable stiffness concept introduces new possibilities
and can be used to improve the structural response in comparison to the conventional
straight-fibre, constant-stiffness laminates. But, on the other hand, it results in a more
difficult design, increases the complexity of mechanical analysis and eventually requiring
the application of optimization techniques. The literature review also reveals that advances
have been achieved in the understanding of the mechanical behaviour and possibilities
offered by this technology, but that there are still unexplored issues concerning VSCL. In
particular, advances in what concerns failure analysis and non-linear vibrations are
welcome, as well as more experimental tests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union
Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), FP7REGPOT20091, under
grant agreement No: 245479. The support by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher
Educationgrant no 1471-1/7.PR UE/2010/7is also acknowledged by the third and the
forth author.
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588
SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL BOX COLUMNS

CONNECTED WITH A BAR ELEMENT
S. SHIMIZU, S. FUKASAWA
Following the authors' previous study on seismic behaviour of a lone steel box
column used in the motorway viaduct, a dynamic analysis is made on a structure
system which contains two steel box columns. The columns of the viaduct are, of
course, connected with the girders of the superstructure. Therefore, the columns are
affected by each other on their dynamic behaviour through the superstructure. Thus,
in the current paper, the two columns are connected by a beam which is
corresponding with a superstructure girder. The dynamic behaviour of the columns
is compared with the result of the lone column. A practically measured seismic
acceleration is used as a dynamic loading. The numerical results indicate that the
displacement is reduced by the connecting beam.
1. INTRODUCTION
The seismic behaviour of steel box columns used for piers of the motorway viaduct
has been studied by many researchers [1]-[4]. One of the author also has made a series of
studies on the behaviour of steel box columns by using the practically measured ground
motion due to the earthquake [5]-[9]. Almost all previous studies on the seismic
behaviour of the steel box columns are dealing with the lone column, i.e. a column which
is standing alone. However, the practical columns for the viaduct are, of course,
connected by the girders of the superstructure at their top to each other. In this case, the
column behaviour may be difference from the standing-alone column behaviour due to
interference between the connected columns.
30 000
Fig. 1. Connected columns
In the current paper, as a first step of the study on the connected columns, the
numerical analysis is made on the seismic behaviour of a couple of columns connected
with a beam. As same to the authors previous studies, the practical seismic motion
589

measured in the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake
(2004) is used as the seismic load. The results are
compared with the behaviour of the lone column.
2. NUMERICAL MODELS
In Fig. 1, the layout of the numerical model

of the columns used in this paper is illustrated.
The columns are connected by a beam having the
section of 350mm x 175 mm, and the two
columns are placed with the interval of 30m.
Each column has its shapes and dimensions
as same to those of the authors previous studies,
and has the height of 10m and the 3m x 3m
square section, as shown in Fig. 2, with the plate
thickness of 20mm. In this figure, FEM mesh
pattern is also displayed.
3 000
Fig. 2. FEM Mesh Pattern
with dimensions
steel (t=32mm)
131.8
rubber (t=11mm)
10 000
2.1 OUTLINE OF THE MODELS
350
Fig. 3. Laminated rubber bearing
column
Two types of the shoe supporting the beam are considered in this study; one is the
laminated rubber bearing illustrated in Fig. 3, and
connecting beam
another one is the steel block. The bearing in Fig. 3 300 tons
is same to the commonly used laminated rubber
bearing, and consists of 5 rubber sheets of the
thickness of 11mm, with 4 steel sheets of 4 mm
700 tons
thick, and the 32mm thick top and bottom steel
plates. The total thickness of the bearing is 131.8
mm. The steel bearing is a simple steel block with
the thickness of 131.8 mm. Both types of the
bearings have their width and depth of 350mm as
shown in the Figure.
For the dynamic analysis, mass must be
considered in the numerical model. In the current
Fig. 4. Mass Layout
study, the mass of 700tons is set at the top of the
each column, and the mass of 300 tons at the end of the bar as shown in Fig. 4. For the
590

lone column, a 1000 tons mass is assumed at the top of the column. The mass is
corresponding with the superstructure of the viaduct.
The results are discussed with the displacement at the top of each column, because
the strength of a steel column in seismic design is defined as the residual horizontal
displacement at the top of the column.
2.2 MATERIALS
In the current study, the grade SM490 steel, which has the Youngs Modulus E =
210 GPa, Poissons Ratio =0.3 and the yield stress y = 315 MPa, is considered for the
column, the beam and the steel of the bearing.
For the rubber in the laminated rubber bearing, idealized material properties are
used. That is, for the rubber, the linear stress-strain relation with no yielding is assumed.
The Poissons Ratio of rubber is generally = 0.5. However, with this value, the analysis
is impossible because (1-2may be used in the denominator of the formula in the
analysis. Therefore, in the current study, Poissons ratio is set as = 0.49. The Youngs
Modulus of the rubber is assumed as E = 2.98 MPa. Thus, the Shear Modulus G =
E/2(1+) of the rubber in this paper becomes G = 1.0 MPa.
The density of the materials is 7.85x10-6 kg/mm3 for steel and 0.96x10-6 kg/mm3 for
the rubber.
2.3 DUMPING FACTORS
In the dynamic analysis, the dumping matrix [C] is defined as
[C] = [M] + [K]
where [M] and [K] are the mass matrix and the stiffness matrix respectively, and and
are the dumping parameters defined as
j hi
i j i

2 2

2
i j 1 / j 1 / i h j

i and j are the dominant circular frequencies (generally the circular frequencies of the
first mode and the second mode) of the structure, and hi and hj are the dumping constants.
In this study, hi and hj are set as hi, hj=0.02 which are often used for the dynamic analysis
of the steel structures.
Therefore, to estimate the dumping matrix [C], natural frequency analysis as an
eigenvalue problem is required.
The results of the frequency analysis of the eigenvalue problem gives that the
circular frequencies of the connected columns are 12.707 rad/sec and 19.098 rad/sec for
the first and the second mode respectively, and frequencies of the standing-alone column
are 2.493 rad/sec and 2.562 rad/sec. With these values, the dumping parameters and
can be estimated as =0.306 and =0.254x10-3 for the connected columns and =0052
and =7.913x10-3 for the lone column.
591

3. SEISMIC LOAD
Gal
2000
1500
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
NS
EW
UD
0.1
1
10
Frequency [Hz]
[cm]
cm/sec
As the seismic load, the record

EW
of the main shock of Niigata
1000
Chuetsu Earthquake occurred in
500
2004, recorded in Kawaguchi Town
0
in Niigata Prefecture, Japan is used.
-500 0
15
30
45
60
The measured seismograms of the
-1000
EW (East-West) component, NS
-1500
(North-South) component and UD
1000
(Up-Down (vertical)) component
NS
500
are plotted in Fig. 5. Up to the time
0
of 13 seconds, the only very small
-500 0
15
30
45
60
accelerations were recorded in all
-1000
three components (NS, EW, UD),
and the tremor is initiated after 13 -1500
seconds. At t=15.94 seconds, the
1000
UD
500
acceleration for NS reached to
0
1141 gals and for EW to 937 gals.
-500 0
The maximum acceleration of the
15
30
45
60
-1000
seismic motion is found in the EW
component with 1676 gals at
Fig. 5. Seismogram of Chuetsu Earthquake
t=16.87 seconds. After this
maximum acceleration, the NS
acceleration becomes 932 gals at t=17.41 seconds, and the EW acceleration of 912 gals
at t=19.10 seconds.
Fig. 6 shows the Fourier spectra and the displacement response spectra of the
earthquake respectively.
100
(a) Fourier Spectra
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.01
NS
EW
UD
0.1
1
Period [sec]
(b) Response Spectra
Fig. 6. Fourier Spectra and Response Spectra of Chuetsu Earthquake
592
10

The Fourier spectra in Fig. 6a indicate that this earthquake has very dominant
component on the frequency of 0.6-0.9 Hz for the EW direction, although the components
for the NS and for the UD direction are not so large. In the result, large value is found in
EW direction of the displacement response spectrum in Fig. 6b.
In the current study, generally, the NS component of the seismic load is applied for
x-direction of the structure (the axis along the beam) and the EW component for the ydirection (perpendicular to the beam).
In the analysis, two patterns of the loadings are considered; i.e. with the loading
pattern 1, the load is applied on only LEFT column, and the load is applied on the both
LEFT and RIGHT columns in the loading pattern 2 as illustrated in Fig.7. In the loading
pattern 2, the seismic load on the RIGHT column is to be delayed of 0.1 seconds with
considering seismic wave velocity.
UD
UD
EW
NS
x (NS)
EW
NS
NS
y (EW)
LEFT
UD
EW
y (EW)
RIGHT
x (NS)
LEFT
(a) Loading pattern 1
RIGHT
(b) Loading pattern 2
Fig. 7. Loading Patterns
4.1 DISPLACEMENT BEHAVIOUR
Fig. 8 to Fig. 11 shows the displacement responses of the columns. With the seismic
load described in the prior section, displacement up to the time of 13 seconds is very
small. Therefore, in these figures, displacement responses from 13 seconds to 25 seconds
are plotted. The thick lines in these figures indicate the displacement of the LEFT column
and the thin lines the RIGHT column. In each figure, the displacement for the x (axis
along the beam) direction x is plotted in the left side, and the displacement for the y (axis
perpendicular to the beam) direction y is shown in the right box.
a) Loading Pattern 1, with rubber bearings
Fig. 8 shows the displacement of the case that the columns are subjected to the
loading pattern 1 (seismic load on only the LEFT column), and the rubber bearings are
used between the columns and the beam. In this case, the left column deforms for the x
direction x=16.1 mm at the time t=15.4 seconds, then at t=15.6 seconds, it deforms for
the alternate direction by x=18.0 mm. At t=17.5 seconds, the deformation for x
direction becomes the maximum of x=20.7 mm. The displacement for y direction, y is
reached toy=26.5 mm at t=15.5 seconds, then at t=15.8, y becomes y=35.8 mm. The
maximum displacement y is reached at t=17.2 seconds by y=58.0 mm. After the
maximum displacement is reached, displacement y=35.5mm, the maximum value for
593

the negative direction at t=17.9 seconds and y=29.2mm at t=18.6 seconds, and then
becomes smaller.
NS (mm)
EW (mm)
60
LEFT
RIGHT
20
LEFT
RIGHT
40
10
20
-10
-20
-40
-20
13
18
23
sec
13
18
23
sec
Fig. 8. Displacement of loading pattern 1, rubber bearing
Above descriptions are for the LEFT column. In contrast with the LEFT column,
displacement of the RIGHT column is very small under the loading pattern 1. The
maximum displacement of the RIGHT column is x=0.15 mm for x direction at t=23.4
seconds and y=0.24mm for y direction at t=18.0 seconds. This means that the rubber
bearing hardly transmits the seismic load.
b) Loading Pattern 1, with steel bearings
Displacement of the model with a beam supported by the steel bearing under the
loading pattern 1 is plotted in Fig.9. In this case, at t=15.4 seconds, displacement for x
direction of the LEFT column is x=6.6 mm. This displacement at t=15.4 seconds is only
41 % of the displacement with the rubber bearings indicated in a). In a), the RIGHT
column has very small displacement, however, the RIGHT column of this case has x as
x=5.2 mm.
NS (mm)
10
5
0
-5
-10
13
18
EW (mm)
50
LEFT
40
RIGHT
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
23 sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
Fig. 9. Displacement of loading pattern 1, steel bearing
After this stage, at t=15.6 seconds, x of the LEFT column becomes x=6.9 mm
and the right column x=6.0 mm, and at t=17.5 seconds, the maximum displacement is
reached and the LEFT column has x=8.6 mm and the RIGHT column x=6.1 mm. This
maximum displacement of the LEFT column is also 41 % of the maximum value of the
rubber bearing model in a).
594

The displacement for y direction of the LEFT column is y =19.0 mm at t=15.5
seconds, y =26.0 mm at t=15.8 seconds, then reached to the maximum of y =41.8 mm
at t=17.2 seconds, and y =25.1 mm at t=17.9 seconds. The maximum value is smaller
by 18 % than the case with the rubber bearing in a); i.e. the displacement is reduced to
72 % of the rubber bearing model. For y direction, the right column has very small
displacement of 0.16 in the maximum at t=17.6 seconds.
Thus, in contrast with the rubber bearing, the beam with the steel bearings transmit
the seismic load for the x direction (axis along the beam), and in the results, the
displacement for x direction is reduced to around 40 %. For the y direction, the
displacement of the LEFT column becomes also smaller than the model with the rubber
bearings, however the load cannot be transmitted to the RIGHT column.
NS (mm)
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
EW
40
(mm)
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
Fig. 10. Displacement of loading pattern 2, rubber bearing
c) Loading Pattern 2 with rubber bearings

When the structure is subjected to the loading pattern 2, i.e. the seismic load is
inputted into both the LEFT and the RIGHT columns, and the beam is supported by the
rubber bearing, the columns have behaviour as shown in Fig. 10. In Fig. 10, the
displacement for both x and y directions, two columns are shaking with almost same
magnitude and phase, with the time lag of 0.1 seconds.
The maximum displacement for the x direction of the LEFT column is x=16.1 mm
at t=17.5 seconds. This is 78% of the same model under the loading pattern 1. In the
RIGHT column, the maximum displacement is reached at t=17.6 seconds, 0.1 seconds
after the LEFT column, and the value is also x=16.1 mm.
For the y direction, the two columns have the maximum displacement y=36.4 mm
at t=17.1 seconds for the LEFT column and at t=17.2 seconds for the RIGHT column
respectively. This maximum displacement is smaller by 37 % (becomes to 67%) than the
maximum displacement under the loading pattern 1.
That is in this case, two columns behave almost independently, although the
displacement is reduced.
d) Loading Pattern 1, with steel bearings
Under the loading pattern 2 and the beam is supported by the steel bearings,
displacement of the column becomes as shown in Fig.11. For the x direction, unlike to the
previous cases, in this case, the displacement of the RIGHT column is larger than the
LEFT column. At t=15.4 seconds, x of the left column is x=9.1 mm, and at this time the
RIGHT column has x=9.8 mm. At t=17.5 seconds, x=6.9 mm is reached in the LEFT
595

column and x=10.6 mm of the right column at t=17.6 seconds. The maximum x
displacement of the RIGHT column is reached at this moment (t=17.6 seconds), although
in the left column the maximum displacement is observed at t=21.5 seconds with x=9.5
mm.
NS (mm)
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
13
18
EW (mm)
50
LEFT
40
RIGHT 30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
23 sec
13
LEFT
RIGHT
18
23
sec
Fig. 11. Displacement of loading pattern 2, steel bearing
On the other hand, the two columns have the very similar the displacement
behaviour for the y direction. The maximum displacement arises at t=17.2 seconds with
y=41.7 mm for the LEFT column and at t=17.3 seconds with y=41.9 mm for the right
column. For the y direction, both the LEFT and the RIGHT columns are shaking with
almost same displacement and the same phase with the time shift of 0.1 seconds. In
addition, this shaking behaviour is almost same to one under the loading pattern 1.
4.2 COMPARISONS WITH THE SINGLE COLUMN
NS (mm)
40
EW
120
(mm)
80
20
40
0
-20
-40
-40
-60
13
18
single
-80
connected
-120
23
sec
13
single
connected
18
23
sec
Fig. 12. Comparisons to single column, rubber bearing

(Loading pattern 2, LEFT column)
In Fig. 12 and Fig. 13, comparisons of the displacement of the connected columns
and the standing-alone (lone) column are made. In these figures, the connected columns
are subjected to the loading pattern 2, and the displacement of the LEFT column is
discussed. Therefore, the thick lines in these figures are same to those in Fig. 10 and
Fig. 11, and the displacement of the lone column indicated with the thin line in Fig. 12
and Fig. 13 are same to each other.
596

a) With rubber bearings
Within these figures, the comparisons with the displacement of the connected
columns with the beam supported by the rubber bearing are plotted in Fig.13. For the x
direction, at the time of t=15.4 seconds, the displacement of the connected column is
x=9.3 mm, although the lone column has the displacement of x=32.1 mm, then at
t=15.6 seconds, x=11.4 mm for the connected column and x=41.7 mm, the maximum
displacement for the lone column. The maximum displacement of the connected column
is x=16.1 mm at t=17.5 seconds as described in 4.1 c), and this is 40 % of the lone
column. For the y direction, the connected column has the maximum displacement at
t=17.1 seconds of y=36.4 mm, however, the maximum displacement of the single
column is reached at t=17.2 seconds with y=109.4 mm.
b) With steel bearings
On the connected column with the steel bearing, as described in the section 4.1, the
maximum x displacement is reached at t=21.5 seconds of x=9.5 mm, however, the
displacement of the lone column at this time is not so large and the displacement of x=
36.7 mm is reached at t=20.7 seconds. On the displacement for the y direction, the
maximum values are reached at the same time of t=17.2 seconds. However, the
displacement of the connected column is y=41.7 mm; this is far smaller than the single
column of y=109.4 mm.
NS (mm)
40
EW (mm)
120
80
20
40
0
-20
-40
-40
single
connected
-60
13
18
23
sec
-80
single
conneted
-120
13
18
23
sec
Fig. 13. Comparisons to single column, steel bearing

(Loading pattern 2, LEFT column)
Fig. 12 and Fig. 13 also show the difference of the behaviour of the connected
columns and the lone column; that is the shaking does not synchronize with each other. In
the earlier stage, the connected columns and the lone column are shaking toward the same
direction with keeping synchronousness. However, after 15.8 seconds for x displacement
and after 18.3 seconds for y displacement, the columns shake severally. That is, when the
columns are connected with a beam, they interfere with each other, and the shaking
behaviour is affected by the beam.
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the current paper, the dynamic analysis is made on a system of columns connected
with a beam at their top.
597

The followings are found through the numerical results of this paper.
with the rubber bearings, the seismic load is not transmitted, and the columns
behave independently.
steel bearings transmit the seismic load, and the column behaviour becomes
smaller due to the interference of the opposite column.
even if the rubber bearing, the displacement of the connected column is smaller
than the alone column. In this case, difference of the phase of shaking is found
between the connected columns and the lone column.
In the current paper, as a first step of the study on the connected columns, very
simple beam element is used to connect two columns. In the further study, the beam
corresponding with the practical superstructure should be considered. In addition, a
simple beam with one span is used for connecting the columns in the current study, and in
the results, the displacement perpendicular to the beam is not affected by the adjacent
column. However, in the practical motorway viaduct, the continuous girders are often
used as the superstructure. Therefore, three or more columns connected with the
continuous beam must be considered in the future study.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Usami,T., A Study on Development of Ultimate Earth quake-Resistance Design and

Retrofit Methods for Steel Bridge Piers, Report of Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
(A), 1998.3.
Sakimoto,T., Watanabe,H., Tomita,S., Nakashima,K., A simplified method for analysing
the ultimate behavior of steel columns subjected to cyclic horizontal load, Proceedings of
Nonlinear Numerical Analysis and Seismic Design of Steel Bridge Piers, JSCE, 1997,
pp111-116.
Iura,M., Komaki,O., Local buckling analysis of steel cylindrical shells by commercial
program, Proceedings of Nonlinear Numerical Analysis and Seismic Design of Steel
Bridge Piers, JSCE, 1997, pp217-222.
Sasaki,E., Miki,C., Ichikawa,A., Takahashi.K., Behaviour of steel bridge frame piers
during earthquakes, Journal of Structural Engineering, JSCE, Vol.50A, 2004, pp.14671477
Shimizu,S., Kameko,M. & Yamamoto,T., Post-Stiffening of Partially Concrete-Filled
Steel Box Columns, Procof Stability of Structures IXth Symposium, Zakopane, Poland,
2000, pp255-262.
Shimizu,S. & Iwamoto,N, Behaviour of a concrete filled steel box column with
considering delamination of steel-concrete interface. Procof Stability of Structures Xth
Symposium, Zakopane, Poland, 2003, pp379-384.
Shimizu,S., A Dynamic Analysis of a Partially Concrete-filled Steel Column with
Considering Delamination of the Steel-Concrete Interface, Proc. of the 8th Conference on
Shell structures theory and applications (SSTA2005), Gdansk-Jurata, Poland, 2005,
pp615-618.
Shimizu, S. & Watanabe, T., Behaviour of concrete-filled steel columns under the seismic
loading, Thin Walled Structures, No.10-11, Vol.45, 2007, pp921-926
Watanabe, T. & Shimizu, S., An Earthquake Response Analysis of Partially Concretefilled Steel Column with Considering Disbond, Steel Construction Engineering,
JSSC(Japanese Society of Steel Construction), Vol.14, 2006, pp49-58.(in Japanese)
598
ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF STABILITY

OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS WITH AN OPENING
P. STASIEWICZ, K. MAGNUCKI
Institute of Applied Mechanics, Pozna University of Technology
ul. Jana Pawa II nr 24, bud. A5, 60-965Pozna, Poland
Thin-walled structure has, by its nature is subject to loss of stability. In addition,

the shell has a cutout, which further reduces the critical load. Aim of this study is to
determine the critical stress shell under pure bending. The goal was achieved in two
ways: experimentally and analytically. Experimental studies were carried out on a
specially designed test bench using resistive strain gauge. In the analytical solution
the form of buckled shell was assumed, and then Bubnov-Galerkin
orthogonalisation method was applied.
1. INTRODUCTION
During the analysis of thin-walled structures in addition to checking the condition of
stability is particularly important to investigate its stability. There is an extensive
literature on the stability of the structure. An example of a monographic approach is
Volmir issues [10]. However, a significant part of publications concerns ideal shells . A
real structures can have a many types of imperfections. Study of stability of cylindrical
shells of variable thickness subjected to uniform external pressure is devoted to work
Staat [7] and Aghajari, and others [1]. Ahn et al [2] presented a comparison of the results
of numerical and experimental investignation of strength of bending the pipe with a local
reduction in thickness. Stability studies axially compressed shell with cutout or crack
described Limam Jullien [4], Vaziri and Estekanchi [9] and Schenk and Schueller [6].
The subject of similar studies is work Meng-Kao Yeh and others [5] and Alashti and
others [3], but in those publications a shell is subjected to bending. Wilde and others [11]
presented an analytical solution of the stability of cylindrical panel with free three edges
and one free edge simply supported subjected to compression.
The aim of the paper is investigation of a buckling of a damaged thin-walled
cylindrical shell under pure bending (Fig. 1). The damaged i.e. imperfection of the
considered shell has a shape of a circular cut-out placed on the upper (compressed)
generatrix of the cylinder. The paper consists of two main elements. The first one includes
experimental investigations. The second part is devoted to the analytical solution of the
problem.
2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGNATION
The special test stand was designed and built in order to carry out experimental
investigations of a buckling process in cylindrical shells in pure bending.The cylindrical
shell is pivoted on its ends making use of rigid grip The load is applied by the testing
599

machine through the beam in a form of two forces acting on these grips so between them
pure bending occurs with bending moment value 0.5Fa . Strain gauges are allocated near
to the cut-out. During the test the testing machine induces loading F which values
F
F 2R
2R 0
Fig. 1.
Cylindrical shell with cut-out in pure bending
are registered as a function of time, as well as indication of the strain gages, in

multichannel recorder. Except that, the rotation angle of the shell end was measured. The
dimensions of the shells were as follows: L 600 mm , a 150 mm , R 100 mm . The
shells are made of steel, aluminium alloy and brass were tested. The mechanical
properties and thickness of the shells are given in Table 1.
Fig. 2.
Test stand with the shell
600

The test stand (Fig. 2) was also equipped with a eight-channel strain gauge HBM
Spider8 amplifier with computer data acquisition system Catman. During the study two
strain gauges placed near the cutout and three inductive sensors placed in the common
base were used. An example of the relationship between load and deformation is shown in
Figure 3. As critical load it is assumed the value of force corresponding to the first
extremum of strain (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3.
Strain as a function of load
Table 1.
Mechanical properties and thickness of shells.
Material
Steel
Aluminium alloy
Brass
R p 0, 2 [MPa]
Rm [MPa]
A [%]
t [mm]
226.0
128.0
289.2
346.3
128.5
393.7
35.5
0.25
31.1
0.5
0.5
0.6
Symmetric and buckling modes are obtained, but antisymmetric form was dominant.
Figure 4 shows a typical form of loss of stability shells made of steel, brass and
aluminum.
Fig. 4.
Antisymmetric buckling mode
601

These values critical forces can be converted to the value of the critical bending
moments according to the equation:
M kr 0,5 Fkr a
(1)
or critical stress according to the formula:
kr
M kr
0,5 Fkr a
.
2
R t
R2 t
(2)
The average of three measurements (for each case) value of critical sterss is given in
Table 2.
Table 2.
The critical stress of shell with circular cut-out.

Critical stress
R0 [mm]
5
14
steel
183.3
114.6
kr
brass
203.3
117.4
MPa
aluminium
96.9
58.3
3. ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
In the analytical solution the stress distributions around a circular hole in rectangular
plates (Fig. 5) known from the literature [8] and the equation of stability of cylindrical
shells are used. The reason for doing so was that, in the case of thin shell with a small
circular hole deviation from flatness in the surrounding area is small, and besides, it
influences positively on the stiffness of a given element thus increasing the value of
critical load.
Fig. 5.
R0
Rectangular plate with a circular hole
The equations describing the stress distributions around a circular hole, in the form:
602
1
2
r o 1
1
2
o 1
1
2
4
3
1 2 4 cos 2 ,

3
1 4 cos 2 ,

r o 1
(3)
3
sin 2 ,
4
r
- dimensionless radius.
Ro
The equation of stability of cylindrical shell:
where:
2
2
2 w 1 w
N w N r w 0
D 2 2 w N r 2
2
2
r r
r r
r
r
(4)
where:
w deflection of the shell,
D stiffness of the plate,
2
1
1 2
- Laplace operator,
r 2 r r r 2 2
N r , N , N r - forces in the shell.
Deflection function is assumed in the following form:

2
1
4
1
4
R
wr , wa sin 2 sin 4
sin 6 o wa w( ) 2
2
5
3
r
(5)
where:
4
1
4
sin 2 sin 4
sin 6 ,
3
2
5
wa constant.
w( )
Following the implementation in the stability equation (3) the function of stress (2)
and the deflection function (5) the stability equation is solved by Bubnov Galerkin
method. Orthogonalization condition of equation (4) has then the form:
5 2
R , w d d 0 ,
1
1 0
where:
603
(6)
R , - left side of the equation (4),

1 5 - dimensionless radius.
After transformations of the condition (6) following equation for critical load is
obtained:
1024
E t2
10,662 o
15 12 1 2 Ro2
(7),
or
2,038
E t2
o .
12 1 2 Ro2
(8)
The obtained value o is a critical stress:
E
kr 2,038
12 1 v 2
t
.
R
o
(9)
Besides orthogonalization condition (6) two other, using the orthogonalization

factors:
wr , wa w
wr , wa w
(10)
(11)
are solved.
They take the form:
5 2
R , w d d 0 ,
1 0
5 2
R , w
1 0
(12)
d d 0 .
(13)
The solution conditions (12) and (13) gave the following expression for the critical
stress:
kr 4,09
E
12 1 2
604
t
,
R
o
(14)
kr 1,3
E
12 1 2
t

R
o
(15)
If the deflection function presented in the general form:
wr , wa w
(16)
and the numerical coefficients in formulas (9), (14) and (15) denoted by k, the general
formula for the critical stress can be written as follows:
kr k
12 1 2
t
,
R
o
(17)
where:
4.09 for n 1
k 2.04 for n 2 .
1.30 for n 3
3. CONCLUSIONS
The critical stress value (17) was determined for k 1 assuming:
for steel: E = 205000 MPa, = 0,3,
for brass E = 110000 MPa, = 0,3,
for aluminium E = 69000 MPa, = 0,33.
The Table 3 summarizes the critical stress values obtained experimentally and
analytically. The results are in accordance qualitatively but not quantitatively.
Table 3.
Critical stress of the shells. Comparison of the values obtained experimentally

and analytically
kr [MPa]
R0
[mm]
steel
brass
aluminium
Analytical
Exper.
Analytical
Exper
Analytical
Expe.
751
183.3
602
203.3
258
96.9
14
92
114.6
77
117.4
32
58.3
605

REFERENCES
[1]
Aghajari S., Abedi K., Showkati H., Buckling and post-buckling behavior of thin-walled
cylindrical steel shells with varying thickness subjected to uniform external pressure, ThinWalled Structures, Vol. 44, 2006, pp. 904909.
[2] Ahn S.H., Nam K.W., Takahashi K., Ando K., Comparison of experimental and finite
element analytical results for the strength and the deformation of pipes with local wall
thinning subjected to bending moment, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 236, 2006,
pp. 140155.
[3] Alashti R.A., Rahimi G.H., Poursaeidi E., Plastic limit load of cylindrical shells with
cutouts subject to pure bending moment, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping, Vol. 85, 2008, pp. 498506.
[4] Jullien J.F., Limam A., Effects of openings of the buckling of cylindrical shells subjected
to axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 31, 1998, pp. 187202.
[5] Meng-Kao Yeh, Ming-Chyuan Lin, Wen-Tsang Wu, Bending buckling of an elastoplastic
cylindrical shell with a cutout, Engineering Structures, Vol. 21, 1999, pp. 9961005.
[6] Schenk C.A., Schueller G.I., Buckling analysis of cylindrical shells with cutouts including
random boundary and geometric imperfections, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg,
Vol. 196, 2007, pp. 34243434.
[7] Staat M., Local and global collapse pressure of longitudinally flawed pipes and cylindrical
vessels, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping, Vol. 82, 2005, pp. 217225.
[8] Timoshenko S., Goodier J. N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, Toronto, London, 1951.
[9] Vaziri A., Estekanchi H.E., Buckling of cracked cylindrical thin shells under combined
internal pressure and axial compression, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol. 44, 2006, pp. 141
151.
[10] Volmir A.S., Stability of deformable systems, Izd. Nauka, Fiz-Mat-Lit, Moskwa 1967
(ros.).
[11] Wilde R., Zawodny P., Magnucki K., Critical state of an axially compressed cylindrical
panel with three edges simply supported and one edge free, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.
45, 2007, pp. 955959.
606
FORCED VIBRATION OF COMPOSITE CYLINDRICAL PANELS

WITH DELAMINATIONS
A. STAWIARSKI, A. MUC
al. Jana Pawa II 37, 31-684 Cracow, Poland
In this study, the finite element model is applied to characterize the dynamic
behaviour of composite cylindrical panel with a single square delamination between
laminate layers. Based on numerical results it is possible to determine the effect of
the delamination on the guided wave propagation in curved structures. The results
are used to quantify the difference of response signal in the case of perfect and
defected structures. The results indicate that the size and orientations of the defect
have a significant influence on overall dynamic behaviour and they should be taken
into account to design appropriate non-destructive damage test methods and
algorithms.
1. INTRODUCTION
Laminated composites are gaining importance in engineering structural applications
as a result of their very high strength-to-weight and high stiffness-to-weight ratios.
However, unlike isotropic metallic structures, composite thin-walled structures are prone
to various forms of damages, such as interfacial cracks and delaminations, which may
originate during fabrication, mainly due to air trapped in the resin and also to imperfect
bonding, matrix cracks or broken fibers; they may also be service-induced, as because of
impact with foreign objects and fatigue loading. During the past two decades, extensive
researches have been conducted in the area of damage detection based on structural
dynamic characteristics using different algorithms and useful databases [1] as well as on
theoretical damage modeling .The latest effort includes a generalised laminate model
featuring both weak interfacial bonding and local delamination by Shu [2]; a plasticity
model coupled with the damage and identification for carbon fibre composite laminates
by Boutaous et al. [3] and a general FEM model by Yan et al. [4]. As far as the damage
index is concerned, a good summary on vibration-based model-dependent damage
identification and health monitoring approaches for composite structures can be found in
Zou et al. [5]. Araujo dos Santos developed a damage identification technique based on
frequency response functions (FRF) sensitivities for laminated structures [6]. Non-linear
elastic wave spectroscopy was adopted for the identification of impact damage in a
sandwich plate by Meo and Zumpano [7]. Damage detection based on the structural
dynamic responses has also been extensively investigated [8, 9]. In terms of acquiring and
synthesizing information on structural damage status from damage index, owing to their
excellent pattern recognition capability, soft computing techniques such as the neural
networks [10] and genetic algorithm [11] became very popular in establishing the nonlinear mapping relationships between the structural damage index and various damage
607

statuses. Since it is rather difficult to establish an accurate dynamic model for various
complex industrial structures, the nonparameter methods based on measured vibration
data also arouse extensive interests. In this regard, Staszewski [12] investigated the
intelligent signal processing for damage detection in composite materials. Specific
techniques such as Lamb wave methods have also been explored [13]. So far, however,
most of the vibration-based methods reported in the literature only applied to simple
beam-like, plate or truss structures. The study about the impact response and damage in
laminated composite cylindrical shells has been carried out by Krishnamurthy et al. [14].
Delaminations in composite materials result typically from impact damage or
manufacturing imperfections. The presence of delaminations leads to a reduction in the
overall buckling strength of the structure. In addition, delaminations tend to grow rapidly
under post-buckling loads, causing further reduction in structural strength and leading
ultimately to fatal structural failure. The use of vibration-based monitoring techniques
based on ultrasonic guided wave propagation are one of the most efficient techniques for
detection of delamination in layered composite beam, plate and shell structures. The
characteristics of ultrasonic guided waves were gathered in many textbooks [15]-[18]. A
literature review of the most salient work in this area was presented by Rose [19].
However, it is worth to point out that in this area, the majority of experimental and
numerical works deals with the analysis of plated structures. To develop an elastic wavebased damage identification technique for laminated composite cylindrical structures, it is
essential to understand wave propagation behaviour in multilayered anisotropic media
with delaminations. For waves propagating in multi-layered composites, the wave
interactions depend upon the constituent properties, geometry, and direction of
propagation, frequency, and interfacial conditions. If the wavelengths are significantly
longer than the sizes of the constituents of composites (fiber diameters and spacing), each
lamina can be treated as an equivalent homogeneous, orthotropic or transversely isotropic
material with the symmetry axis parallel to the fibers.
Fig. 1.
Composite multilayered cylindrical panel with a single delamination
608

In the present study the finite element method is applied to characterize wave
propagation in composite cylindrical panel with a single delamination (Fig. 1). The crack
considered is an ideal mathematical crack occupying an area located in the plane z=0
the shell mid-surface. It can have an arbitrary length in the circumferential and
longitudinal directions. The objective of this study is to investigate, for the first time, the
extent to which the length, depth and orientations of a circumferential crack introduces
wave scattering in a composite shell. The numerical analysis is conducted for panels made
of woven roving materials. The work is the extension of the previous research carried out
in this area by Muc, Stawiarski [20, 21].
2. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
Nowadays the finite element method is usually applied in the analysis of various
engineering problems. The FE ANSYS package was frequently used to evaluate dynamic
behaviour of composite structures. In the present study the 3D solid95 finite element type
with a 20 nodes was used in modelling a structure. A higher order version of a classical 8node solid element with three degrees of freedom per node allows us to obtain accurate
results of the analysis. Delamination, being a debonding of neighbourhood plies in
composite laminates, is the most common and danger defect which may originate during
fabrication or utilization of a structure under out-of-plane stresses or subjected to
transverse impact. In this study from several methods of modelling of delamination the
direct model based on non-merged nodes between lamina on area of the defects was used
(Fig. 2).
Fig. 2.
The finite element model of the delamination
An appropriate finite element model of delamination has to fulfil a several

requirements which have been pointed out by Ye and Su [18]. In the considered case the
finite element mesh density features 8 nodes per wavelength. The time step for dynamic
calculation is less than the ratio of the minimum distance of any two adjoining nodes to
the maximum wave velocity. Above features of finite element model and application of
higher order element type allow us to obtain accurate characteristic of guided wave
propagation and scattering phenomena.
609

A concentrated force applied to the model of composite cylindrical panel varies with
time function and simulate the load generated by real PZT element with 100kHz
excitation frequency (Fig 3).
The excitation signal was generated by one actuator and the data from the sensors
placed after defected zone was compared with the results from an intact structure.
Fig. 3.
The form of excitation signal
3. THE WAVE PROPAGATION IN COMPOSITE CYLINDRICAL PANEL

Usually for engineering constructions the position of damage is unknown in advance.
In this area the initial research has been made with the use of the infrared thermography
by Pastuszak et al. [22]. In future we intend to join the SHM method with the infrared
thermography in order to indentify and detect precisely various forms of damages
encountered in laminates.
It is obvious that any observations of waves is strongly dependent both on the
locations of the actuator/s and sensors. To analyze deeper those effects at the beginning let
us consider the actuator and sensors configuration in the form presented in Fig. 4. Various
localization of the sensors are taken into account to determine the influence zone of
delamination on wave propagation path. A cylindrical panel was made of glass woven
roving
having
the
following
properties:
Elong=Ecircumf=13.14
[GPa],
G12=4.1 [GPa], 12=0.25, =1100 [kg/m3]. The length of a panel was equal L=310 [mm],
the mid-surface radius R=92 [mm] and thickness of the structures was t=2 [mm].
610
Fig. 4.
Top view of delaminated cylindrical panel with 20 mm square delamination and the
assumed actuator and sensor configuration
The wave propagation for construction, presented in Fig. 5, is disturbed by the

delamination. The influence of delamination on wave propagation can be observed by
comparison signal of the intact and defected structure. Figure 6 illustrates the response
signals obtained for the perfect and imperfect (with a single delamination) structures.
Fig. 5.
Fronts of propagating wave for cylindrical panel with a single square delamination
(time 8e-5s)
The most significant difference between those signals is observed by sensors s1 and
s2 as the wavefronts are going through delaminated area. For the sensors s3 and s4 the
change of the signal is much less visible. Presented results indicate that optimal design of
the location and number of piezoelectric sensors and actuators is required.
611
Fig. 6.
Comparison of normal displacements for intact and defected structures for different
location of sensors compare with Fig. 4.
To analyze the influence of the delamination size and orientation let us consider the
second configuration of the actuator and sensors - Fig. 7. The characteristic localization of
an actuator and delamination presented on Figure 7 gives a possibility to determine the
influence of curvature on dynamic behaviour of the structure. The 10mm square
delamination was considered and the localization of sensors was determined by mutual
position of an actuator and delamination.
Fig. 7.
Top view of delaminated cylindrical panel with 10 mm square delamination.
612
Fig. 8.
Fronts of propagating wave for cylindrical panel with a single square delamination
(time 8e-5s)
As it can be observed in Fig. 8 the small delamination leads also to the evident
disturbance of wave propagations. Comparison of response signals for perfect and
imperfect structure is illustrated in Fig. 9. As it may be observed the location of the
actuation with respect to the delaminated region, as well as the size of the defect have a
significant influence on the magnitude of the normal deflections. Even if the signal passes
through the whole delaminated area (the sensor s4) the difference between displacement
for the defected and intact structures is negligibly small - compare with the Fig.6 (the
sensor s1). The identical situations occur also for the sensors s3 and s5 in Fig. 9. Figure 8
shows a parabolic shape of the defect influence zone after delamination. The most
significant difference between response signals is observed by sensors placed on the edge
of this shape (the sensors s2 and s6). The signals observed by those sensors are going near
the corner of the defect. The greater distance from defected area cause a lower disturbance
of response signals.
613
Fig. 9.
Comparison of wave propagation for intact and defected structures.
4 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FURTHER WORKS

The proposed numerical model can be efficiently and successfully implemented to
detect and identify delamination region for composite panels. Presented results shows that
the damage detection methods based on dynamic characteristic can be used not only for
plated structures but also for curved composite structures. The comparison of wave
propagation signal for defected and intact, benchmark structure can indicate the
localization of the damage. It is important to point out that the greatest difference between
response signals not always indicates directly to position of the center of delamination.
For different orientation of the defect it is much more possible to detect the boundary than
the center of the delamination. It is crucial for the damage detection analysis especially in
the case of small defects detection. The reasonable and accurate detection of the size and
the location of delamination require the careful analysis and optimal design of the location
and number of piezoelectric sensors and actuators. The density the of the sensors network
influence on the size of defects which can be detected in the structure. The interesting
question is: what is the smallest defect that can be detected by vibration based method.
From practical point of view and on the basis of presented results much more important is
the question what is the largest flaw that can be missed? For such a problem it is
reasonable to introduce the probability of damage detection for defined sensor network
and type of construction.
The detailed analysis of the results demonstrates evidently that the further parametric
studies are needed in order to explain the following problems:
614
The effects of the frequency of the actuation from the literature it is well-known
that the optimal frequency always exists that corresponds to the maximal
response;
The effects of the material properties and the laminate stacking sequences; the
maximal and minimal deflections are strongly dependent on the above-mentioned
properties;
The influence of multiple delaminations and/or their interactions with other
modes of failure arising in laminated structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Polish Research Foundation PB 1174/B/T02/2009/36 is gratefully acknowledged for
financial support.
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Ewing W.M. et al., Elastic waves in layered media, McGraw W-Hill Book Co, 1957.
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[16] Achenbach J.D., Wave propagation in elastic solids, North-Holland Publ. Co., New York,
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[17] Nayfeh A.H., Wave propagation in layered anisotropic media with applications to
composites, North-Holland, Elsevier Science B.V., 1995.
[18] Ye L., Su Z., Identification of damage using Lamb waves, Springer, 2009.
[19] Rose J.L., A baseline and vision of ultrasonic guided wave inspection potential, J. Press.
Vessel Tech., Vol.124 (2002), p..273.
[20] Muc A., Stawiarski A., Modeling damage in cylindrical shells using elastic wave-based
techniques, Proceeding ICCM18 (International Conference on Composite Materials),
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[21] Muc A., Stawiarski A., Identification of damages in composite multilayered cylindrical
panels with delaminations, Composite Structures 94(5) (2012), p. 1871-1879.
[22] Chwa M., Pastuszak P., Lachendro W., Barski M., Analiza delaminacji w panelach
kompozytowych metod termografii impulsowo-fazowej, Przetwrstwo Tworzyw
Sztucznych 6(144), 2011, p. 432-437.
616
INFLUENCE OF FOAM FILLING ON DYNAMIC RESPONSE

OF HEMISPHERICAL SHELL SUBJECTED TO BLAST
PRESSURE
J. WINIARSKI, K. KOWAL-MICHALSKA
T. NIEZGODZISKI
Department of Machine Dynamics, Lodz University of Technology
The paper aims to investigate the effect of aluminium foam filling of hemispherical
steel shell on its dynamic response, accounting for the blast pressure modelling.
The structures subjected to uniformly distributed pressure, rigidly connected with
steel plate, are considered. True material stress-strain curves for shell and foam
filling are assumed in calculations. The problem is solved by FEM using ANSYS
software. The time relations of strain energy and effective stresses for different
simulations of blast pressure are determined and compared for steel shells and
shells filled with aluminium foam.
1. INTRODUCTION
Hemispherical shells due to their advantages are widely used in many constructions:
e.g. roofing of large dimensions, pressure vessels, and structures designated as explosion
protections. Modelling of structures absorbing blast energy, resulted from industrial
accident or terrorist attack, is the subject of interest of many engineers. The idea of
applying thin shells as absorbers of the explosive energy brought the research which has
been presented by authors in previous papers [4],[5]. It is well known that thin-walled
plate and shell structures are good energy absorbers.
The assessment of blast loading effects is required for design of structures to
withstand the explosion. The blast loading time relation, obtained empirically, is
exponential and consists of two phases: positive (overpressure) of duration in range of
milliseconds and negative one (subpressure) of duration in range of seconds. In the
numerical analysis of explosion protection structures this relation is often represented by a
right angle triangle and furthermore the important effects as multiple blast wave
reflections, the Mach effect, and negative phase of the blast wave are usually neglected.
Generally, it is assumed that explosions on surface or in air are free blast propagations
without any contact with the ground or adjacent structures. Neglecting reflections of the
blast wave could lead to overestimation or underestimation of structure effective stresses
and its strain energy.
It should be mentioned that the characteristics of reflected blast pressure can never
be achieved empirically but only by numerical simulations (see: [3],[6],[7]). In many
cases the interaction of explosion wave and surrounding can result in magnification of the
617

pressure impulse. The blast loading time relation may be of different character - it can be
similar to the incident wave but of higher peak value or assuming perfect ground
reflection and reflected wave overlaying the incident one, the blast loading time relation
can be obtained by superimposing additional linearly varying loading. In authors previous
works [4],[5] conical and hemisphere steel shells under blast pressure have been
considered. This paper aims to analyze the response of hemispherical shell filled with
aluminium foam under different courses of blast pressure and to find out the effect of
foam filling on strain energy and effective stress values, comparing to the response of
empty shell. The problem has been solved by finite element method using ANSYS
software.
2. ASSUMED BLAST PRESSURE RELATIONS
The exponential blast loading time relation, obtained empirically, consists of two
phases: positive (overpressure) of duration in range of milliseconds and negative one
(subpressure) of duration in range of seconds. In the numerical analysis of protection
structures this relation is often represented by a triangle of the same duration Tp and peak
value p0. From numerical reasons it has been assumed that this peak value is reached at
t = kTp where k = 0.1 (Fig. 1).
Fig.1. Blast pressure representation a) empirical b) triangular approximation
In aim to consider the effect of blast wave reflection three types of pressure
characteristics are considered (Fig.2). It has been assumed that in all cases pulse duration
is the same and kept constant and equal to 0.5 ms. For all types the peak value of blast
pressure equals p0 and the impulses are equal each other. The pulse denoted by I is a
triangle commonly used in calculations of structures subjected to blast pressure. The
pulses denoted by II and III represent the reflected blast waves in which the value of
overpressure and impulse decreases linearly until certain limit when the pressure begins to
increase due to the effects of reflections. For pulse II the maximum value of
overpressure p0 is reached at 0.05 ms and it decreases to p = 0.2p0 at t = 0.2525 ms and
next the pressure increases and equals p = 0.8p0 at t = 0.2975 ms and finally it linearly
decreases to zero at time t = Tp=0.5 ms. For pulse III the first peak value equals 0.8po
618

and it decreases to p = 0.2p0 at t = 0.2525 ms and next the pressure increases to the
maximum value p0 at t = 0.2975 ms and next linearly tends to zero at t = Tp=0.5 ms.
p
(t)
p0
pulse I
pulse II
pulse III
0.8p0
0.2p0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
time [ms]
Fig.2. Assumed simulations of reflected blast pressure [4]
3. SHELL GEOMETRICAL MODEL

The present paper deals with steel shells in shape of hemisphere (Fig. 3) that are
filled by aluminium foam. Considered shells are of the same thickness (h = 0.5mm) and
radius (40 mm) and are rigidly connected with a square plate of dimensions 80 x 80mm.
The boundary conditions are shown in Fig. 3. The plates have been used to model the
boundary conditions for shells as close as possible to real ones. The displacements in
three perpendicular directions and rotations about three perpendicular axes have been set
to zero for all nodes lying along bottom plate edges.
Fig.3. Boundary conditions of analysed hemispherical shell
The structures are loaded by blast pressure (shown in Fig. 2 pulses I, II, III)
distributed uniformly over the whole surface.
619

4. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING
To solve the problem of dynamic response of considered structures the ANSYS [8]
software based on finite element method has been employed. Solid-shell elements have
been applied in calculations. The outer surface (hemispherical steel shell) has been
modelled by eight nodes shell elements of six degrees of freedom. These elements enable
to take into account geometric nonlinearities (large deformations) and nonlinear material
properties. The foam filling has been modelled by ten nodes solid elements (tetrahedrons)
of three degrees of freedom in each node. The connection between aluminium foam filling
and steel shell has been realized on the basis of deformation compatibility. Neither
contact problem nor filling displacement versus steel shell has been accounted for.
Fig.4. Material stress-strain relation obtained in laboratory for steel in tensile test
Fig.5. Material stress-strain relation obtained in laboratory for aluminium foam in

compression test
In the calculations the material stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 4 (for steel shell)
and in Fig.5 (for aluminium foam) has been implemented with following strength
properties:
620
for steel: Youngs modulus E = 200 GPa, Poissons ratio = 0.3, density
= 7850 kg/m3, initial yield stress 0 = 200MPa.
for aluminium foam [2]: E = 200 MPa, = 0.33, =500 kg/m3, 0= 0.92 MPa.
For both the materials the multi-linear characteristics have been assumed
approximating as close as possible the true strain-stress relations obtained in the
laboratory tests.
For the assumed pressure distribution the load was applied uniformly to all elements
with the same value in a given time step.
In the numerical analysis the dynamic responses of considered structures loaded by
pulse pressure have been searched for.
In the dynamic analysis the equilibrium equation has the following form:
..
{P} [M] {u} [C] {u} [K] {u}
(1)
where [M] is a structural mass matrix, [C] is a structural damping matrix and [K] is a
stiffness matrix.
In the analysed cases the damping can be neglected and then equation (1) can be
written as follows:
..
{P} [M] {u} [K] {u}
(2)
Substituting time derivative of displacement {} by increment of displacement {u}

in consecutive discrete instant of time t the new equilibrium equations included inertia
forces are obtained in each time step. For the equation obtained the solution algorithms
used in static analysis can be employed. In ANSYS software the Newmark method is used
to perform the integration over time and for equations solution in a consecutive time step
the Newton-Raphson algorithm is applied.
The results of numerical calculations are presented in figures 6-8 showing the time
dependent plots of strain energy (Figs 6a, 7a, 8a) and effective stresses (Figs 6b, 7b, 8b)
for a steel shell (empty shell) and a structure consisting of a steel hemisphere filled with
aluminium foam, loaded by three assumed distributions of blast pressure (see section 2).
The pressure maximal value p0 equals 5.0 MPa and 5.5 MPa, respectively.
It is found that in case of pulse I (Fig. 6), when p0 increases from 5 MPa to 5.5
MPa, the shell without filling (empty shell) is destroyed being fully plastic (the
effective stresses reach the ultimate strength - compare material stress-strain curve in
Fig. 4 with effective stress plots shown in Fig. 6b). For pressure distributions denoted as
pulse II (Fig. 7) and III (Fig. 8) for p0 changing from 5 MPa to 5.5 MPa the maximal
value of strain energy increases several times and large regions become plastic. For the
third type of blast pressure distribution the plastic deformations appear in the second
stage of pulse duration (when p0 = 5.5 MPa).
Structures consisting of a hemispherical steel shell and foam filling behave quite
differently - for each type of blast pressure distribution the strain energy values vary not
very significantly and the effective stresses values stay in the elastic range.
621
Fig. 6. Strain energy a) and effective stress b) time relations for steel shell and for
foam filled shell subjected to pulse I (see Fig. 2)
Fig. 7a. Strain energy time relations for steel shell and for foam filled shell subjected to
pulse II (see Fig. 2)
622
Fig. 7b. Effective stress time relations for steel shell and for foam filled shell subjected
to pulse II (see Fig. 2)
Fig. 8. Strain energy and effective stress time relations for steel shell and for foam filled
shell subjected to pulse III (see Fig. 2)
623

6. CONCLUSIONS
It should be underlined that the assumed maximal values of pressure are in range of
a half of real peak value of blast pressure [1, 2]. At the values considered in the presented
investigations shells without filling were destroyed while the aluminium foam filling of
low strength properties have resulted in substantial decrease of effective stresses. It is
worth to mention that the foam density is small (in comparison with steel) so it does not
increase the mass of a structure in a significant way.
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[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Barnat W., Niezgoda T., Gieleta R.: Numeryczno-dowiadczalne badania wpywu

przeszkody na rozkad cinienia, Numerical and experimental research on the influence of
an obstacle on pressure distribution, (in Polish) Biuletyn WAT, 2010, 59, 1, 101-114.
Barnat W., Kiczko A., Niezgoda T., Ochelski S., Dziewulski P.: Dowiadczalno numeryczna analiza stalowo - pianowych paneli energochonnych do modernizacji barier
drogowych, Experimental numerical analysis of steel-foam energy panel absorbers for
modernisation of road barriers, (in Polish) Programy MES we Wspomaganiu Analizy,
Projektowania i Wytwarzania, Pisz, 2010, str. 39.
Dae Kwan K., Jae-Huang H., Establishment of gun blast wave model and structural
analysis for blast load, Journal of Aircraft, 43, no.4, 2006, 1159-1168.
K.Kowal-Michalska K., T.Kubiak, J. winiarski, Influence of blast pressure modeling on
the dynamic response of conical and hemispherical shells, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.49,
2011, 604-610.
Kubiak T., Kolakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K., Mania R.J, Swiniarski J., Dynamic
response of conical and spherical shell structures subjected to blast pressure, in
Proceedings of SSDSRio, 2010, eds. Batista E. , Vellasco P., de Lima L. 2010.
Le Blanc G., Adoum M., Lapoujade V., External blast load on structures Empirical
approach, 5th European LS-DYNA Conference, Ulm, Germany, 2006.
Remennikov A.M., Rose T.A., Modelling blast loads on buildings in complex city
geometries, Computers and Structures, 83, 2005, 2197-2205.
Users Guide ANSYS 11sp1, Ansys, Inc., Houston, USA.
624
OPTIMIZATION OF THE SHAPE OF A COLUMN SUBJECTED

TO A LOAD BY THE FOLLOWER FORCE DIRECTED
TOWARDS THE POSITIVE POLE WITH REGARD TO THE
CONDITION OF PERMISSIBLE STRESS OF THE SYSTEM
L. TOMSKI, J. SZMIDLA, D. YATSENKO
The results of theoretical research and numerical computations into the

optimization of the shape of a cantilever column subjected to a load by the follower
force directed towards the positive pole are presented in this paper. The equation of
the bending line and the cross-section of the considered column were derived and
an adequate boundary problem was formulated on the basis of the static criterion of
stability. The additional condition of permissible stresses of an optimized column
was assumed with regard to one of the three classes of the columns. The value of
the critical load and optimum shape of the system, which fulfils the condition of
compressive strength of the column rod for the chosen case of a load, were
determined.
1. INTRODUCTION
Theoretical research and numerical computations into the optimization of the shape
of a cantilever column subjected to the specific load, formulated by L. Tomski (comp.
[5]), are conducted in the paper. Taking into account past results of research into the
stability of slender systems subjected to the specific load, the results of theoretical
research into the optimization of the columns subjected to the follower load by a force
directed towards the positive pole [2, 3, 4] and to generalised load by a force directed
towards the positive pole [1, 3] were presented in works [1, 2, 3, 4]. A modified algorithm
of simulated annealing was used to determine the maximum value of the critical force [2,
3]. An increase in the critical parameter of the load of 40.64% (the load by the follower
force directed towards the positive pole) and of 51.74% (the generalised load by a force
directed towards the positive pole) was obtained. In work [4], the equation of motion and
cross-section of the column for the load by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole was derived and the adequate boundary conditions applying the variational
method were formulated. In considerations one of the three classes of the columns
- versatile uniformly convergence column - was taken into account. Determination of the
shape of the system for the chosen parameters of the head subjected to the load was
possible due to solution of the boundary problem. Next, considering the obtained shape,
the value of the critical load of the optimized system was determined on the basis of
courses of changes in natural frequencies of the considered column in relation to external
load. In publication [1], the column subjected to a generalised load by a force directed
625

towards the positive pole and built of two segments was examined. An increase in the
critical load of 10.3% in comparison to identical prismatic column was obtained at the
condition of constant volume and length of the system.
2. THE PHYSICAL MODEL OF THE COLUMN
The physical model of the column loaded by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole (comp. [3, 5]) in the constructional version of loading and receiving heads
built of circular elements (constant curvature) is presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. The physical model of the column loaded by the follower force directed towards the
positive pole (comp. [2, 3, 4])
The column was loaded by the force P passing through the constant point O - the
centre of loading and receiving heads. Pole O is placed in the distance R from the
free end of the column. It was assumed that elements of receiving heads are infinitely
rigid. Rod of the column was rigidly mounted from one side (x = 0) and connected to
the receiving head at the free end (x = l).
With regard to the value of a radius of curvature R of the loading head, exemplary
denotations of the considered system are introduced:
- COi(0.1) - the optimized column with the continuously changeable bending rigidity
along the system length at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*= 0.1.
- COr(0.4) - the optimized column with the discrete changeable bending rigidity along
the system length at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*= 0.4.
- CP(0.2) - prismatic column (comparative) with the constant bending rigidity along the
system length, at the parameter of loading and receiving heads R*=0.2,
where:
R*
R
.
l
626
(1)

Additionally, the following constants: total length l, volume Vobj, value of Youngs
modulus E and material density of the optimized column and corresponding
comparative column were assumed. The column was described by moment of inertia of
cross-section, cross-sectional area A(x) and transversal displacement W (x,t).
3. COi(R*) SYSTEM
The boundary problem of the column COi(R*) was formulated and solved in work
[4]. On the basis of kinetic energy (2a), potential energy (2b), Hamiltons principle (3a)
and after separation of variables of function W(x, t) in relation to variables x and t:
A x W x, t
2
dx,
0
l
(2a,b)
2
2
2
E
P
PR
V J x W x, t dx W x, t dx
W x , t x l ,
20
20
2
t2
T H dt 0,
t1
H V 1 t Vobj A x dx ,
(3a,b)
the system of equations was received, taking into account the condition of constant
volume of the column (3b):
E J x y x Py x 2 A x y x 0

,
0.5
2
2
0.5
J x 2 y x E y x 3 J x
(4a,b)
where: i(t) at iN are optional constants, while (.) is operator of variation.

For the considered case of the load, the column was rated as divergence or
divergence pseudo-flutter type of the two types of the systems (comp.[3, 5]). Therefore
the value of the critical load is obtained for the condition =0. Distribution of moment of
inertia along the column length in relation to the maximum of critical force for the
assumed criterion of the constant volume of the system was received on the basis of
relationships (4a,b). Adequate relationships were written in the parametric form:
J J o sin 4
x l B3 B2 sin 2
2
(5a,b)
where: Jo- moment of inertia in relation to the neutral bending axis in the reference point
xod=x(/2); B2, B3 integration constants.
The values of constants B2, B3 and the range of changes in parameter were
determined on the basis of the boundary conditions.
627

Exemplary forms of the optimized models are presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
The form of the optimized column COi(R*) for the chosen values of parameter R*
of the loading head (comp. [3])
4. A ROD WITH THE DISCRETE CHANGEABLE BENDING RIGIDITY COr(R*)

SYSTEM.
As a result of carried out theoretical research and numerical computations into the
optimization of the system COi(R*), the shapes of the column were obtained, which were
characterised by a presence of the zero cross-section along the length of the column
(comp. Fig. 2). To exclude this phenomenon, prof. L. Tomski proposed to introduce the
additional condition (criterion) in the model of the optimization problem, i.e. resistance
stresses of the optimised column o in relation to the critical stress of the prismatic
column (equation 6a).
o p , Amin
Pc o
o
(6a,b)
- coefficient which value is dependent on the geometrical and physical parameters of the
optimised column and adequate prismatic column.
The assumed condition (comp. equation (6a)) leads into determination of the value
of critical load (Pc)o of the optimised column and its shape with regard to minimal crosssection of the rod Amin described by a relationship (6b).
The results of numerical computations of the column COi(R*) were applied to
determine the parameters of the system COr(R*) comp. point 3. The obtained
distribution of moment of inertia described by relationships (5a,b) is a base for further
research into the optimization of the considered system.
4.1. THE BENDING LINE AND THE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS OF THE COLUMN
COr(R*)
In the case of COr(R*) system, a model of the column (Fig. 3) as a set of prismatic
segments with the discrete changeable bending rigidity was assumed. Every segment with
circular section was described by the moment of inertia Ji, length li and transversal
displacement yi(x). The following constants were accepted: total length l, total volume
Vobj, the value of Youngs modulus E of individual segments of the optimised column
COr(R*) and adequate comparative column CP(R*):
628
li xi xi 1 , Vobj Vobj .
n
i 1
(7a,b)
The potential energy of the presented model of the column is a sum of elastic strain
energy of the bending of individual segments forming the system and the potential energy
of external load (comp. [3]):
Fig. 3.
Division of the optimised column into prismatic segments (system COr(R*))

n
EJ
V i
i 1
2
2
2
2
P i
PR
y
x
dx
yi x dx
yn l .
x i
2 xi1
2
i 1
xi
(8)
Considering the determined range of changes in moment of inertia J(x) of the system
COi(R*) (comp. equation (5a,b)), the moment of inertia of the i- th segment of the rod of
the column COr(R*) was defined as follows:
Ji
1
xi xi 1
xi
J x dx .
(9)
xi 1
Equations of the bending lines (11), the boundary conditions in relations to the
mounting point (12a,b) (x0 = 0), free end of the system (12c,d) (xn = l) and the continuity
conditions between neighbouring segments of the column (12eh) (xj j = 1, 2.. n-1)
were obtained on the basis of the static criterion of stability expressed by relationship:
V 0
hence:
yiIV i yi 0,
(10)
i 1,2...n
y1 0 y1 0 0, yn 1 R* yn 1 , R* yn1 yn 1 0 ,
y j y j 1 , y j y j 1 ,
EJ j y j EJ j 1 yj 1 ,
EJ j y j EJ j 1 yj 1 .
629
(11)
(12ad)
(12eh)

Dimensionless quantities were introduced in the equations (11, 12ah):
x
l
, yi
yi x
,
l
Pl 2
.
EJ i
(13ac)
4.2. THE BOUNDARY CONDITION OF THE OPTIMISED COLUMN

Optimal shape of the column COi(R*) in relation to an independent variable
connected to the reduced parameter is presented in the point 3.
The shapes of the optimised column COi(R*) displaying the change in the moment of
inertia of section J(), presented in Fig. 2, do not fulfil the condition of resistance stresses
in all the tested range :
Pc o
0 , 1
(14)
Considering minimal value of the cross-section Amin (comp. equation (6b)), the condition
(14) can be presented as:
0 ,1
A A
min
(15)
So, the function of moment of inertia of column section resulting from the condition (15)
will be composed of:
- old J() when the condition (14) is fulfilled in the given range of independent
variable ,
- Jmin in the case when the function A() does not fulfil the condition (14) in the
given range, and for the considered column versatile uniformly convergent one can
write:
J min
2
Amin
,
4
(19)
where Jmin= Jmin(P), P= P(J()).

Solution to the boundary problem (equations (11), (12ah)) is determined
numerically by the iterative method with the assumed accuracy . The function of moment
of inertia of the system section is given by a formula (17):
4
J ow sin
J
J min
jeeli 0 ,1 2 ,3 4 , 1
jeeli 1 ,2 3 ,4
(17)
where: Jow moment of inertia in relation to neutral axis in the reference point x0 of the
column, with regard to the condition of resistance stresses o.
0, 1 - the values of variable corresponding to the mounting and loading points
of the column according to the relationship (5b).
630

After obtaining the consecutive approximation of the function J() in the given iterative
step, the value of the parameter of critical force (c)ow was determined, whereas:
c ow
Pc o l 2
EJ p
(18)
Jp - moment of inertia in relation to the neutral bending axis of the prismatic column.
In the range of changes in independent variable (comp. equation (17)) contact
points k (k N) were considered. Contact points (comp. Fig. 3) are the boundary
places, where the value of function of moment of inertia of the cross-section fulfils the
condition:
J k J min .
(19)
4.3. THE RESULTS OF NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS

Numerical computations were carried out to determine the value of critical load and
column shape in the frame of research into the considered system COr(R*). The value of
critical parameter of load (c)ow (comp. equation (18)) and the range of changes in
moment of inertia in relation to the neutral bending axis (function J()) were determined
numerically using the iterative method with regard to the volume occupied by segments
with minimal cross-section Amin in the assumed model of column. The computations were
carried out for eleven chosen parameters R* of the loading head in the range R*0, 1
and the value of resistance stresses o was assumed (comp. equation (6a)) for =3.
Fig. 4.
Change in critical parameter of load (c)ow, (c)pr in relation to function of values of

parameters R* of the systems COr(R*) for = 3 and CP(R*)
The range of changes in critical parameter of column load in relation to function of

parameter R* (comp. equation (1)) of loading head are presented in Fig. 4. The results of
numerical computations were presented in the case of the system COr(R*) with the
optimized shape (points) and prismatic column (comparable) CP(R*) with the constant
631

bending rigidity along the length of the system (solid line). For the considered values of
radius R of the loading head, the change in critical load was characterised by a presence
of the maximal value of the critical parameter of a load: (c)ow, (c)pr (comp.[2, 3]).
Fig. 5.
Percentage increase in the critical load ow in relation to function of the parameter

R* values of the system COr(R*) for = 3
Percentage increase in the critical load of the column with changeable cross-section
COr(R*) in relation to the system CP(R*) is presented in Fig. 5, whereas:
ow
c ow c pr
100 %
c pr
(20)
Shapes of the optimised columns COr(R*) for given values of radius R of loading
head were determined (Fig. 6) on the basis of the solution of the boundary problem and
relationship (17) describing the range of changes in moment of inertia in relation to the
neutral bending axis J(). Contour of the prismatic column (comparable) CP(R*) was
marked by broken lines considering the assumed criterion of the constant volume of the
system. In the case of the chosen values of parameter R*, the value of critical parameter of
load of the optimised (c)ow and prismatic (c)pr columns and a percentage increase in the
critical load ow was additionally given.
632
Fig. 6.
The shape of the optimised column COr(R*) for changeable value of parameter R*
of the loading head and = 3 : a) R*= 0, b) R*= 0.2, c) R*= 0.4, d) R*= 0.5, e)
R*= 0.6, f) R*= 0.8, g) R*= 1
5. SUMMARY
The problems connected with the optimization of the shape of a column subjected to
a load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole were analysed and
examined in this paper. Functional of potential energy with the added side condition of
the constant volume of the system was described with regard to the static criterion of
stability. The system of equations for the bending line and function of the cross-section
was determined and the adequate boundary conditions were obtained. The circular section
of the considered column was taken into consideration (versatile uniformly convergence
system). The shape of the column with a zero cross-section along the length of the column
was obtained as a result of the conducted theoretical research and numerical
computations. The location of the discussed points depends on the value of the
geometrical parameter of the head realising the considered case of the load. To exclude
the discussed phenomenon, the introduction of the additional condition into the model of
the optimization problem, i.e. resistance stresses of the optimised column, was proposed.
The values of the critical load and shapes of the system with regard to the minimal crosssection of rod Amin were obtained considering the assumed criterion. An increase in the
critical load from 31.83% to 38.17% in comparison to the critical load of a comparable
column was obtained in dependence on the geometry of the loading and receiving heads.
Additionally, it was stated that there is a value of the geometrical parameter of the head
for which the maximal value of critical parameter of the load (R*= 0.5) is received.
633

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study has been carried out within the statutory funds of the Czestochowa
REFERENCES
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Bogacz R., Imieowski Sz., Tomski L., Optymalization and Stability of Columns on
Example of Conservative and Nonconservative Systems, Machine Dynamics Problems, 20,
1998, 35 47.
Szmidla J., Optymalny ksztat kolumny obcionej si ledzc skierowan do bieguna
dodatniego, Stability of Structures XII-th Symposium Zakopane 2009, 387 394.
Szmidla J., Drgania swobodne i stateczno ukadw smukych poddanych obcieniu
swoistemu. Seria Monografie, Nr 165, Wydawnictwo Politechniki Czstochowskiej,
Czstochowa, 2009.
Szmidla J., Yatsenko D., The free vibrations and optimization of the shape of a column
subjected to a load by a follower force directed towards the positive pole applying the
variational method, Vibrations in Physical Systems, Vol. 25, 2012 (w druku).
Tomski L., Obcienia ukadw oraz ukady swoiste. Rozdzia 1: Drgania swobodne
i stateczno obiektw smukych jako ukadw liniowych lub nieliniowych. Praca
zbiorowa wykonana pod kierunkiem naukowym i redakcj L. Tomskiego, WNT, Fundacja
Ksika Naukowo-Techniczna, Warszawa (2007) 17 46.
634
REALISATION OF A SPECIFIC LOAD WITH REGARD TO

A CONSTRUCTIONAL SOLUTION CONSTISTING OF
CIRCULAR ELEMENTS
L. TOMSKI, S. UZNY
Research into columns subjected to a specific load considering a constructional

solution consisting of circular elements is an aim of the paper. The boundary
problem of stability and free vibrations of the considered system for a generalised
load by a force directed towards the positive pole was formulated on the basis of
Hamiltons principle. The boundary conditions concerning the load by a follower
force directed towards the positive pole were deduced on the basis of the boundary
conditions of the column subjected to a generalised load by a force directed towards
the positive pole. In this paper, the load by the follower force was treated as a
special case of the generalised load by a force directed towards the positive pole.
Apart from the formulation of and solution to the boundary problem of the columns
subjected to the specific load, the results of numerical computations connected to
the static problem and free vibrations of the considered systems were also
presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
In relevant literature one can find many works dedicated to slender systems.
Different types of loads, both a conservative and non-conservative, were studied by
authors of these works. Eulers load [9, 11, 15, 24], generalised load) [3, 4, 6] and a
specific load [12-14, 16-19, 21, 22, 24] can be classed as conservative loads while Becks
load (load by a follower force), generalised Becks load (with follower load factor) and
loads coupled with them, that is Reuts load and generalised Reuts load, can be classes as
non-conservative loads [1, 2, 8, 10, 20]. Further part of introduction was limited to the
specific load which is a topic of considerations carried out in the frame of this
elaboration.
The conservative load was formulated and introduced by L. Tomski (comp. [12])
can be realised through loading structures made of curvilinear elements (characterised by
circular contour [14, 16, 17, 19, 21] or parabolic contour [22] or linear elements [12, 13,
14, 18, 23, 24]. Two basic types of a specific load can be distinguished: generalised load
with the force directed towards the pole (positive or negative) [12. 13, 16, 18, 21, 24],
and a load generated by the follower force directed towards the pole (positive or negative)
[14, 17, 18, 19, 23]. Letter denotations of these two basic types of a specific load are
introduced in the further part of the paper. Denotation SG corresponds to generalised load
by a force directed towards the positive pole whereas denotation SF is connected to the
load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole. The positive pole is located
635

below the loaded end of the column. The specific loads SG and SF are characterised by the
other boundary conditions. In the case of the system SG, two natural boundary conditions
are distinguished at the loaded end of this system and in the case of the system SF
geometrical and natural boundary condition is present. Deflection is connected to
deflection angle of the column through the geometrical boundary condition for the load
SF.
Fig. 1.
A specific load considering technical realisation consisting of linear elements: a)

without a rotational spring between rigid bolts, b) with a rotational spring between
rigid bolts
Loading structure (built of linear elements) realising the specific load SG consists of
two rigid bolts of lD and lC in length (Fig. 1), respectively. Such a construction of loading
heads makes it possible to obtain the load SF on the basis of the load SG in two ways. The
length of element lD must be assumed as equal zero to obtain the load SF in the first
method (Fig. 1a). In the second method (Fig. 1b), which was considered in work [18], a
rotational spring between bolts of lD and lC in length was taken into account. In work [18]
it was proved that for heads built of linear elements the load SF is a special case of the
load SG (when applying infinitely high rigidity of a rotational spring).
An aim of this paper is research into column subjected to the load SG considering
also its special case that is the load SF. The construction, built of circular elements, is
taken into account in this work too (contrary to work [18]).
2. THE FORMULATION OF THE BOUNDARY PROBLEM OF THE CONSIDERED
SYSTEM
The considered slender system (column) is presented in Fig. 2. The column is built
as a flat frame consisting of two identical rods symmetrically placed towards the axis of
the system. In this case a specific load is generated by the loading heads made of circular
636

elements. The column subjected to the generalised load by a force directed towards the
positive pole is presented in Fig. 2a. Loading system consists of loading head
(characterised by radius of curvature R) and receiving head (characterised by radius of
curvature r). Rods of the column with rolling element of radius r were connected by the
rigid bolts of l0 in length. The boundary case of the load SG for r = R (Fig. 2b), which is
the load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole (the load S F), is
presented in Fig. 2. The remaining special cases of the load S G are presented in Fig. 2c
(the column denoted by E1 (l0 = R)) and Fig. 2d (the column denoted by E2 (r = R and
1/R = 0)).
Fig. 2.
Columns with the loading systems: a) the column subjected to generalised load by a
force directed towards the positive pole, b) the column subjected to a load by the
follower force directed towards the positive pole, c), d) the column subjected to the
Eulers load
The following denotations were accepted regarding the geometrical and physical
quantities of the considered systems: Wi(x,t) transversal displacement of the column
rods corresponding to coordinate x and time t, (EJ)i bending rigidity of the i th rod of
the column, (0A)i mass per unit length of the column rod, P - external force loading the
column, - the natural frequency.
At the ends of the considered column (unbiased (x = 0) and loaded (x = l)) the
geometrical boundary conditions are as follows:
W1 0, t W2 0, t
W1 x, t
W2 x, t
0
x
x
x 0
x 0
W1 l , t W2 l , t ,
W1 x, t
x
637
x l
W2 x, t
x
(1a-d)
x l
(1e,f)

In the case of taking into account a special case of the load SG it means the load SF
(Fig. 2b) there is one more boundary condition present in the system, by which the
bending of loaded end of the column is dependent on the bending angle of this end. This
geometrical condition can be presented as follows:
W1 x, t
x
x l
R l0 W1 l , t 0
(2)
In this work the boundary problem of the considered systems is deduced on the basis
of Hamiltons principle taking into account the load of SG type. The boundary conditions
in relation to SF load (for r = R) are determined on the basis of the boundary problem.
For the conservative systems the Hamiltons principle is in the following form:
t2
T V dt 0
(3)
t1
Energies: the kinetic T and the potential V of the system subjected to the load (Fig.
2a) are as follows:
1
T
2
1
V
2
2
x l
Wi x, t
1 Wi x, t
0 Ai
dx m
t
2 t
i 1
(4)
EJ i Wi 2x, t dx P 1 W1 x, t dx
2
x
x
i 1
0
0
2
2
2
x l
W x, t x l
1
1 W1 x, t
1
1
P r
2 PW *
Pl0
2
2 x
x
(5)
where:
x l
1
W x, t
W1 l , t l0 r 1
R r
x
W * W1 l , t
W1 x, t
x
xl
l0 r r
(6a)
(6b)
By substituting the energies written by equations (4) and (5) into Hamiltons
principle and applying the geometrical boundary conditions (4) one can obtain:
the differential equation of the motion in transversal direction:
EJ i Wi 4x, t P Wi 2x, t Ai Wi 2x, t 0

4
638
(7)

natural boundary conditions:
2
EJ i Wi 2x, t
x
i 1
2
W x, t
EJ i i 3
2
xl
i 1
x l
r l0
0
Rr
2
1
m W1 2x, t
Rr
t
(8a)
xl
(8b)
There is no necessity to deduce the boundary conditions corresponding to the load F

on the basis of Hamiltons principle. The boundary conditions present for the load can be
derived on the basis of conditions (8) because the load SF is a special case of the load SG.
Considering the load SF (when r = R (Fig.2b)) the condition (2) is taken into account. The
quantity (2), dependent on bending and bending angle of the loaded end, is also present
in the derived boundary conditions in relation to the load SG (conditions (8a) and (8b)).
To obtain the natural boundary condition connected to the load SF , one must determine
the quantity from the equation (8a) and then substitute it into the equation (8b). The
natural boundary condition for the load by the follower force directed towards the positive
pole is written as:
3
EJ i Wi 3x, t
x
i 1
2
x l
R l0
2
EJ i Wi 2x, t
x
i 1
2
x l
2W1 x, t
m
t 2
x l
(9)
3. SOLUTION TO THE BOUNDARY PROBLEM

A harmonic solution to the differential equations (7) is accepted:
Wi x, t yi x cos t
(10)
Considering solution (10), the differential equations of motion in transversal

direction are modified to the form:
EJ i d
yi x P d 2 yi x
Ai 2 yi x 0
2 dx 2
dx 4
(11)
The boundary conditions corresponding to adequate case of load S G or SF can be

written in the similar way.
The solutions of differential equations (11) are functions:
yi x Di1 cosh i1 x Di 2 sinh i1 x Di3 cos i 2 x Di 4 sin i 2 x

where:
639
(12)

ij
P
1 P
2 EJ i
4 EJ i
1 j 1
2 Ai

EJ i
(13)
Substitution of equation (12) into the boundary conditions, after separation of

variables, leads into the following system of equations:
aij colD11, D12, D13, D14, D21, D22, D23, D24 0
(14)
The determinant of coefficients matrix of this system is the transcendental equation

for the natural frequency of the column :
aij 0
(15)
4. THE RESULTS OF NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS

The results of numerical computations are presented with regard to the
dimensionless quantities defined in the following way:
cr
l
R
r
; B ; C 0 ; D
l
R
R
Pcr l 2
EJ i
i
Pl 2
EJ i
i
(16a-d)
Ail
i
2
A l
EJ
(16e-g)
Dimensionless parameter of the critical load cr in relation to parameter of the

loading head radius A is presented in Figs. 3 and 4. Numerical computations
(corresponding to the column SG) were carried out for different values of parameter B
and C = 0.5. Their results are presented in Fig. 3.
The results of numerical computations in relation to the system SF (B = 1.0 Fig. 4)
are presented for different values of parameter C. In Figs. 3 and 4, curves corresponding
to the special cases of the considered loads are denoted by different type of line and by
point A. The special cases of the column SG are as follows: column SF (Fig. 2b (r = R
B = 1)), column E1 (Fig. 2c (R = 0 A = 0)). The special cases of the column SF are as
follows: column E1 (Fig. 2c (R = 0 A = 0) and (l0 = R C = 1.0)), column E2 (Fig.
2d (1/R = 0 1/A = 0)).
The column SG is characterised by the highest value of the critical load if r = R (B =
1.0) what corresponds to the column SF (Fig. 3 dashed curve). The parameters of the
considered systems can be selected in such a way that the highest critical load can be
obtained.
640
Fig. 3.
Parameter of the critical load cr in relation to parameter A for different values of

parameter B (B = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0) and for C = 0.5
Fig. 4.
Parameter of the critical load cr in relation to parameter A for different values of

parameter C (C = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0) and for B = 1.0
The critical load of the considered systems was determined on the basis of the
kinetic criterion of stability. To that end the characteristic curves in the plane: load natural
frequency was determined. Taking into account the characteristic curves, the critical load
corresponds to zero value of natural frequency. Exemplary characteristic curves
corresponding to the system SF are presented in Figs. 5a i 5b. Numerical computations
were carried out for different values of the parameter A (Fig. 5a A 0, 0.5, Fig. 5b
A 0.5,1.0) and C = 0, D = 0.5. In the case of a specific load (such the load is
considered in this work) two types of characteristic curves can be obtained which differ in
slope angle for the zero value of external load. If the slope is negative, the characteristic
curves are of divergence type. The characteristic curves corresponding to positive slope
641

for the zero value of external load are of divergence pseudo-flutter type. The divergence
curves are present for lower and higher value of the parameter A (A = 0, 0.1, 0.15, 0.9,
1.0).
Fig. 5.
The characteristic curves corresponding to the column subjected to a load by the

follower force directed towards the positive pole.
6. SUMMARY
A geometrically linear slender system subjected to a specific load: generalised by a
force directed towards the positive pole and by a follower force directed towards the
positive pole was considered in the paper. The specific load was realised by loading
systems built of circular elements. The boundary problem of free vibrations for a
generalised load by a force directed towards the positive pole was formulated on the basis
of Hamiltons principle. The load by the follower force directed towards the positive pole
was treated as a special case of the generalised load by a force directed towards the
642

positive pole. The critical load of the considered systems was determined on the basis of
the kinetic criterion of stability. Special cases of the tested columns, present for the
boundary values of the parameters of the loading systems, were given in this paper. The
results of numerical computations connected to the critical load and characteristic curves
were carried out for different values of the parameters of the systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study has been carried out within the statutory funds from the Czestochowa
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643

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644

SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION ANALYSIS IN THE TIME DOMAIN WITH
TIME-LAG SPRINGS AND DASHPOTS
A. G. TYAPIN
(Atomenergoproject, Moscow, Russia)
The author proposes to use special platform model with soil springs and dashpots
with certain time lags in addition to the conventional springs and dashpots. The
parameters are set up to achieve the best fit of the dynamic stiffness with the wave
solution in the frequency domain.
1. INTRODUCTION
To perform a structural dynamic stability analysis for seismic excitation one has to
know the motion of the basement. It is often assumed similar to the so-called free-field
motion - i.e. seismic motion recorded on the free ground surface without structure.
However, for certain cases (heavy structures, pile foundations, etc.) the response motion
of the basement is different from the free-field ground motion. They say that in such
cases the motion of the basement is controlled by the soil-structure interaction (SSI)
effects [1-3].
SSI problems are studied by a special branch of the earthquake engineering. SSI
effects have essentially wave nature (soil flexibility combined with soil inertia cause
wave propagation in the half-infinite soil medium). The attempts to model the infinite soil
foundation were more or less successful so far only in the frequency domain (see
transmitting boundaries [4]); hence, all dynamic stiffness matrices describing the
foundation are frequency-dependent. As a result, SSI problem is usually solved in the
frequency domain: first the excitation time history is transferred into the frequency
domain using the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) technique; then the response of the linear
system is calculated using frequency-dependent complex transfer functions; finally this
response is transferred back into the time domain using inverse FFT [5]. Such an
approach cannot be applied for the non-linear analysis (e.g., for the dynamic buckling
analysis).
The author proposes to use special platform model with soil springs and dashpots
with certain time lags in addition to the conventional springs and dashpots. The
parameters are set up to achieve the best fit of the dynamic stiffness with the wave
solution in the frequency domain.
2. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION
The simplest example of the soil-structure model is a platform model with rigid
basement. Structural model with rigid base mat is put on the rigid platform using socalled soil springs and dashpots. Then kinematical excitation u0 taken from the free
field is applied to the platform, as shown in Fig. 1.
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Such a model is accurate in case of the surface basement and in-phase free-field
ground motion (e.g., vertical seismic wave in the homogeneous or horizontally layered
soil). The last and the most important requirement is that soil springs and dashpots under
the base mat accurately reproduce the real soil dynamic stiffness matrix G of size 6 x 6.
For a full contact of stamp with soil and for linear soil this is a matrix of linear operators.
In the frequency domain these operators turn into complex frequency-dependent stiffness
coefficients called impedances, so the whole matrix is called impedance matrix.
u0
u0
Fig. 1. Scheme of the platform model for SSI analysis
The simplest structure of the soil support is just six spring/dashpot pairs along
each of six degrees of freedom of rigid base mat. In the frequency domain it leads to the
diagonal impedance matrix. Real parts of all the impedances are constant (i.e. frequencyindependent) and equal to the stiffness of each spring. Imaginary parts of impedances are
proportional to the frequency (linearity coefficients are equal to the viscosity parameters
of each dashpot). Such a model is still used sometimes for the time-domain SSI analyses.
For homogeneous soil and simple base mat shape (circular or rectangular) there exist
some semi-empirical formulas for soil springs and dashpots (see, for example, [6]).
The trouble is, however, that even for homogeneous half space such an approach is
non-accurate (especially for vertical and angular impedances): wave solutions
demonstrate substantial frequency dependence of real parts and non-linear dependencies
of imaginary parts. For the non-homogeneous soil (generally a real world soil is layered)
the situation is even worse: all six diagonal impedances have sophisticated frequency
dependencies. The example will be shown later in this paper.
For the frequency domain solution procedure (performed frequency by frequency) it
is no problem: impedances can be changed along with frequency. But then we cannot
treat non-linearity in the structure. So, the goal is to couple frequencydependent
dynamic stiffness of the linear soil with potentially non-linear structural part of the
model. This may be done only in the time domain.
646

3. PROPOSED APPROACH
The author proposes to use special platform model, where soil springs and
dashpots with certain time lags are added to the conventional springs and dashpots. The
parameters of all springs and dashpots are set up to achieve the best fit of the platform
dynamic stiffness with the wave solution in the frequency domain.
Let us consider 1D impedance modelled by conventional spring/dashpot pair and
parallel additional spring/dashpot pair with time lag . The response force F(t) impacting
the basement from the soil is controlled by relative displacement u(t) and relative
velocity:
F (t ) A0u(t ) B0u(t ) A1u(t ) B1u(t )
(1)
In the frequency domain (1) corresponds to the impedance D():
F ( ) D( ) U ( ) exp(i t ) d
(2)
This impedance may be written as
D() A0 i B0 exp( i) A1 i exp( i) B1 P() A
(3)
Here A is a column matrix of four real terms (A0, B0, A1, B1)T; P() is a line matrix of
four complex frequency-dependent functions pj():
p1() 1;
p2 () i ;
p3 () exp( i) ;
p4 () i exp( i) (4)
Wave impedance C() is known apriori (e.g., calculated in the frequency domain
using CLASSI [7] or SASSI [5] codes). Then we can apply a best fit procedure to find
optimal parameters A providing minimum effective difference between exact and
approximate response forces. If V() describes relative displacement in the frequency
domain, then response forces in the frequency domain are described by D()V() in
approximate solution and C()V() in wave solution. The functional to be minimized is
D() V () C() V ()
AT { [(Re PV )T (Re PV ) (Im PV )T (Im PV )] d}A
2{ [Re( PV ) Re(CV ) Im(PV ) Im(CV )]d}A CV d
(5)
The best fit parameters A can be obtained from the system

H AG
647
(6)

Here H can be written via line matrix P and scalar V as
H [(Re PV )T (Re PV ) (Im PV )T (Im PV )] d
(7)
[(Re P)T (Re P) (Im P)T (Im P)] V d
Right-hand part of (6) can be written via line matrix P and scalars V and C as
G [Re( PV )T Re(CV ) Im(PV )T Im(CV )] d
(8)
For the time lag the author suggests an empirical formula
1/(2f )
(9)
Here f is the difference between frequencies of the first local maximum and the first
local minimum of the real part of C(). The first local maximum is usually at the zero
frequency, so f is just the frequency of the first local minimum.
In (1) only one additional spring/dashpot pair was used, but the same approach can
we used with several pairs (corresponding to different time lags). For 6D case the author
suggests to use generally three additional pairs, choosing three values so as to match
local minimums of real parts in the frequency domain along three translational
coordinates.
To choose V the author suggests an empirical formula
V ( f ) [ f (2 f0 f )] ,
f 2 f0 ; V ( f ) 0,
f 2 f0
(10)
Here f0 is a frequency where we require the best fit of D() and C(). It corresponds to
the spectral peak of the relative displacements. Empirical value suggested by the author is
6 Hz.
4. SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF THE SOIL-STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Let us consider a sample structure with rigid base mat resting on the surface of
horizontally layered soil. Base mat is quadratic in shape with a side 30.6 m. Soil layer 26
m thick is resting on the homogeneous half space. Soil density in the layer is 2 t/m3;
secondary and primary wave velocities are Vs=400 m/s and Vp=1100 m/s. Material
damping is 5%. For the half space Vs=800 m/s, Vp=2100 m/s. Soil density and damping
for half space are the same as for the upper soil layer.
As both sides of rectangular mat are equal, two horizontal diagonal impedances are
similar and the number of non-zero time lags will be only two (first one from both
horizontal impedances, another one - from vertical impedance). Let us speak about total
three time lags, adding a zero time lag in conventional spring/dashpot pair to those two
mentioned above. Wave impedance matrix () is 6 x 6 in size. System (6) is solved for
each element (matrix H in (6) is the same; right-hand parts G are different for different
elements), providing six optimal coefficients A for each element. As a result, we get six
648

real matrices 6 x 6 in size: three stiffness matrices and three damping matrices
corresponding to three time lags. Each real matrix has the same structure as (): only
four different non-zero elements correspond to horizontal and vertical translational
impedances, rocking and torsion angular impedances - these are the diagonal elements of
matrix (). The fifth non-zero element of the impedance matrix is an off-diagonal one:
it links rocking response with horizontal motion and vice versa.
Vertical impedances
Horizontal impedances
2,0E+08
8,0E+07
ReCz Wave
7,0E+07
ImCz Wave
1,5E+08
6,0E+07
ReCz 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
5,0E+07
ImCz 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
1,0E+08
4,0E+07
3,0E+07
5,0E+07
2,0E+07
ReCx Wave
1,0E+07
ImCx Wave
0,0E+00
0,0E+00
ReCx 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
-1,0E+07
ImCx 0.045;0.110 s. F0=6Hz
-5,0E+07
-2,0E+07
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Torsion impedances
Rocking impedances
2,5E+10
2,5E+10
ReCyy Wave
2,0E+10
ReCzz Wave
ImCyy Wave
2,0E+10
ImCzz Wave
ReCyy 0.045;0.110
1,5E+10
ReCzz 0.045;0.110
ImCyy 0.045;0.110
1,5E+10
ImCzz 0.045;0.110
1,0E+10
1,0E+10
5,0E+09
5,0E+09
0,0E+00
0,0E+00
-5,0E+09
0
10
12
14
16
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Frequency, Hz
Off-diagonal horizontal/rocking impedances

2,5E+08
ReCx,yy. Wave
2,0E+08
ImCx,yy. Wave
1,5E+08
ReCx,yy. 0.045;0.110
1,0E+08
ImCx,yy. 0.045;0.110
5,0E+07
0,0E+00
-5,0E+07
-1,0E+08
-1,5E+08
-2,0E+08
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Fig. 2. Comparison of wave impedances with their six-term approximations (3) in the
frequency domain
For the given soil properties and base mat shape the wave impedances in the
frequency domain were obtained using SASSI code and shown in Fig. 2 below. First let
us define non-zero time lags using wave curves of real parts from Fig. 2. For vertical
649

impedance the first local minimum is at frequency around 11 Hz, which corresponds to
the time lag 0.045 s according to (9). For horizontal impedance the first local minimum is
at frequency around 4.5 Hz, which corresponds to the time lag 0.111 s. If we use time
step 0.005 s in our time-domain integration scheme, non-zero time lags will be 9 and 22
time steps.
Fig. 2 shows the comparison of five non-zero elements of () listed above with
their approximations of the type (3), composed of six terms instead of four terms in (3).
Transfer functions from vertical excitation to the vertical response
2,0
ReZ(Z) Wave
1,5
ImZ(Z) Wave
ReZ(Z) 0.045;0.110 s
1,0
ImZ(Z) 0.045;0.110 s
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Transfer functions from horizontal excitation to the horizontal response

2,0
ReX(X) Wave
1,5
ImX(X) Wave
ReX(X) 0.045;0.110 s
1,0
ImX(X) 0.045;0.110 s
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Transfer functions from horizontal excitation to rocking response

0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,00
-0,01
-0,02
ReYY(X) Wave
-0,03
ImYY(X) Wave
-0,04
ReYY(X) 0.045;0.110 s
-0,05
ImYY(X) 0.045;0.110 s
-0,06
-0,07
0
10
12
14
16
Frequency, Hz
Fig.3. Comparison of the transfer functions from the free-field motion to the base mat
response
650

The approximation is not ideal. In the low-frequency range imaginary parts of
approximate impedances go to zero following (4), whereas imaginary parts of wave
impedances remain non-zero following the material damping. This inevitable difference
leads to some difference in real parts as well. Further on in the frequency range from 2 to
10 Hz matching is really nice. When frequency rises above 10 Hz, matching becomes
worse. Anyhow, this approximation is far better than any possible attempt to approximate
real parts of the impedances by constants and imaginary parts of impedances by linear
functions of frequency.
Horizontal response to horizontal excitation
5
X(X). Wave
4
X(X). Approx 0.045;0.110
3
X(X). ABAQUS. 0.045;0.110
Accelerations, m/s 2
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
Vertical response to vertical excitation

3
-1
Z(Z). Wave
-2
Z(Z). Approx 0.045;0.110

Z(Z). ABAQUS. 0.045; 0.110
-3
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
Rocking response to horizontal excitation

0,20
0,15
0,10
0,05
0,00
-0,05
-0,10
YY(X)*1m. Wave
-0,15
YY(X)*1m. Approx 0.045;0.110
-0,20
YY(X)*1m. ABAQUS. 0.045;0.110
-0,25
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Time, s
Fig.4. Comparison of the base mat response time histories obtained in the frequency domain
and in the time domain
651

How important are the remaining discrepancies for the seismic response? In the
low-frequency range all transfer functions go to units and zeroes independent of any error
in impedances. Fig. 3 shows the transfer functions from the free-field ground translation
to the base mat translation and rocking. Transfer functions obtained using wave
impedances are compared to those obtained using approximate impedances shown in
Fig. 2. To get these transfer functions certain structural properties were set in addition to
the soil and base mat properties mentioned above.
We see that in the low-frequency range matching in Fig. 3 is very nice, in spite of
discrepancies in Fig. 2.
In the high-frequency range matching is worse. However, the frequency content of
seismic excitation is usually comparatively low in the high-frequency range. So, if
function (10) covers the main range of seismic excitation, we still can get more or less
accurate results.
Let us now compare seismic response in the time domain for certain excitation time
histories. Each of plots in Fig. 4 presents the comparison of three response time histories
in the centre of base mat. The first one (marked as wave) was obtained using wave
transfer functions from Fig. 3 and FFT technique mentioned above. The second time
history (marked as approx) was obtained in the similar way, but with approximate
transfer functions from Fig. 3. The third time history (marked ABAQUS) was obtained
in completely different way. Time integration was performed using ABAQUS code [8]
with time step 0.005 s. Neither transfer functions, nor FFT was used. This solution could
be performed for non-linear system as well, but we wanted to have benchmark solution,
available for linear system only. Note that springs and dashpots with non-zero time lags
during the time integration procedure contribute to the loads only, because for each
current time step the past responses are already known.
The first plot of Fig. 4 shows horizontal response to the horizontal excitation; the
second plot shows vertical response to the vertical excitation; the third plot shows
rocking response to the horizontal excitation (angular accelerations are multiplied by
1 m).
We see that the difference in the transfer functions in Fig. 3 did not spoil fine
matching in Fig. 4.
The last comparison is for the time histories from Fig. 4, but in the response spectra
format, commonly used in earthquake engineering. Damping in oscillators is 2%
(corresponding to steel substructures and equipment resting on the mat).
We see certain discrepancies, but they appear above 12 Hz (note that weight
function (9) does not cover high-frequency range).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusion is that the springs and dashpots with time lags enable the timedomain analysis of complex models including some parts described by impedances in the
frequency domain.
This may help to couple wave effects in the linear soil with non-linearity in the
structure, e.g. dynamic buckling, in order to analyze the non-linear (e.g., post-buckling)
behaviour of structure.
652

So far only linear analysis was performed to check the accuracy of the proposed
approach. The next step will be to implement real structural non-linearity.
Horizontal response to horizontal excitation
25
20
X(X). Wave
X(X). Approximate
15
X(X). ABAQUS
10
0
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
Frequency, Hz
Vertical response to vertical excitation

14
12
10
Z(Z). Wave
Z(Z). Approximate
8
Z(Z). ABAQUS
0
0
12
15
18
21
24
27
21
24
27
Frequency, Hz
Rocking response to horizontal excitation

1,2
1
YY(X). Wave
0,8
YY(X). Approximate
YY(X). ABAQUS
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
12
15
18
Frequency, Hz
Fig.5. Comparison of acceleration response spectra corresponding to the time histories in

Fig. 4
653

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Seed H., Lysmer J., (1977) Soil-Structure Interaction Analysis by Finite Element Method.
State of the Art. Transactions of the International Conference on Structural Mechanics in
Reactor Technology (SMiRT-4). San Francisco. Vol.K. K2/1.
Luco J.E., (1982) Linear Soil-Structure Interaction: A Review. Earthquake Ground
Motions and its Effects on Structures. Applied Mechanics Division, ASME 53: 41-57.
Gulkan P., Clough R /Editors (1993) Developments in dynamic soil-structure interaction.
NATO Advanced Institutes Series. Series C: Mathematical and Physical Sciences.
Vol.390. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 439 p.
Lysmer J., Waas G., (1972) Shear Waves in Plane Infinite Structures. J. of Engineering
Mechanics Div., ASCE. 98. EM1: 85-105.
Lysmer J., Tabatabaie R., Tajirian F., Vahdani S., Ostadan F., (1981) SASSI - A System
for Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction. Research Report GT 81-02. University of
California, Berkeley.
Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Structures and Commentary. ASCE4-98.
Reston, Virginia, USA. 1999.
Luco J., (1976) Vibrations of a Rigid Disc on a Layered Viscoelastic Medium. Nuclear
Engineering and Design. 36: 325-340.
ABAQUS. Version 6.8. Dassault Systmes Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA. 2008.
654
SENSITIVITY TO IMPERFECTIONS OF
PERFORATED PALLET RACK SECTIONS
V. UNGUREANU1,2, D. DUBINA1,2
Department of Steel Structures and Structural Mechanics, Civil Engineering Faculty,
Politehnica University of Timisoara, Ioan Curea 1, 300224 Timisoara, Romania
2
Laboratory of Steel Structures, Romanian Academy Timisoara Branch,
Mihai Viteazu 24, 300223 Timisoara, Romania
The paper analyses the influence of imperfections on the behaviour of perforated

pallet rack members in compression using non-linear FE simulations. The effect of
imperfections, perforations and buckling modes, reduces significantly the capacity
of perforated members in compression, especially in the coupling range due to
interaction. A sensitivity analysis done using calibrated and validated numerical
models can be done in order to determine the most detrimental combinations of
imperfections to be considered for numerical simulations. The ECBL approach can
be successfully applied to perform a sensitivity analysis via numerical simulations,
using a limited number of experimental tests.
1.
INTRODUCTION
All structures are in reality imperfect. The imperfections refer to cross-section and
member geometry, to residual stresses and to yield strength distribution across the section,
to supporting conditions of the members and to load introduction. Excepting the last two
types of imperfections, which are of mechanical type, a lot of work has been done to
analyse, classify and codify the material and geometrical imperfections [1-6].
It was observed the different nature of imperfections, associated with the slenderness
of component walls, leads to different instability behaviour of cold-formed sections
compared to hot-rolled ones [1]. As a consequence, specific buckling curves should be
provided for cold-formed steel sections instead of using European buckling curves
obtained for hot-rolled ones.
Due to the local and distortional instability phenomena, and their coupling with
overall buckling modes, the post-critical behaviour of thin-walled cold-formed steel
members is highly non-linear, being very difficult to be predicted using analytical
methods. Numerical non-linear analysis can be successfully used to simulate the real
behaviour of cold-formed steel sections. Initial imperfections as equivalent sine shapes,
with half-wave lengths corresponding to relevant buckling modes are used as geometric
non-linearity. Rasmussen & Hancock [7] and Schafer & Pekz [2] proposed numerical
models, to generate automatically geometrical imperfection modes into the non-linear
analysis. To define the relevant sine imperfection modes, Schafer et al. [8] used the
probabilistic analysis in order to evaluate the frequency and magnitude of imperfections.
Related to numerical models and methods applied in the simulation, two general
reports, presented in two editions of Coupled Instability in Metal Structures conferences,
655

CIMS 1996 and CIMS 2000, by Rasmussen [9] and Sridharan [10], reviewed the main
contributions and milestones in the progress at the date. They concluded the most used
computational models are the ones applying the semi-analytical and spline finite strip and
the finite element methods. At CIMS 2008, summarizing the advances and developments
of computational modelling of cold-formed steel elements, Schafer [11] emphasized that
the primarily focus is the use of semi-analytical finite strip method, considering the
implementation of the constrained finite strip method (cFSM) [12]. This method allows
for discrete separation of local, distortional and global deformations, and collapse
modelling using shell finite elements.
A good alternative to that is the application of modal decomposition via Generalised
Beam Theory (GBT), method which achieved a significant development in the last decade
by works of the Lisbon team led by Camotim [13], which makes possible to select the
deformation modes to be considered in the analysis.
Camotim et al. [14] summarise the main concepts and procedures involved in
performing a GBT buckling analysis together with the development and numerical
implementation of a GBT-based beam finite element formulation, which includes local,
distortional and global deformation modes and can handle general loadings. Camotim and
Dinis [15] have performed extended numerical studies, using FEM and GBT, to study the
elastic post-buckling behaviour of cold-formed steel columns affected by mode
interaction phenomena involving distortional buckling, namely local/distortional,
distortional/overall (flexural-torsional) and local/distortional/overall mode interaction and
also sensitivity to imperfections of thin-walled cold-formed steel members.
Loughlan et al. [16] analysed the behaviour of lipped channel profiles in
compression considering the local-distortional interaction, including material yielding and
yield propagation to ultimate conditions and then to elastic-plastic unloading. The effects
of geometric imperfections were also considered in the numerical simulations.
Based on numerical simulations Dubina & Ungureanu [5,6] have systematically
studied the influence of size and shape of sectional geometrical imperfections and the
erosion of theoretical buckling strength on the behaviour of cold-formed steel plain and
lipped channel sections., both in compression and bending.
However, despite this numerical progress and, even if there is an important number
of existing investigations devoted to the effect of holes on cold-formed steel members,
there is not yet an analytical design procedure for pallet rack columns to be accepted by
the professional community. In what concerns the possibility to apply numerical methods
used, at this moment GBT and FSM cannot model members with perforated walls, except
if using an equivalent thickness; in such circumstances FEM remains the only approach
available to model perforated walls, but with the price of a costly work.
Casafont et al. [17] present an investigation on the use of the Finite Strip Method to
calculate elastic buckling loads of perforated cold-formed storage rack columns. Due to
the fact that holes cannot be directly modelled with FSM, the concept of the reduced
thickness of the perforated strip was applied to take into account their effect. A
formulation was presented for the reduced thickness that has been calibrated with loads
obtained in eigen-buckling FEM analyses. Bonada et al. [18] presented three numerical
methodologies to predict the compression load carrying capacity of cold-formed steel
rack section without perforations. The three methodologies allow for different
imperfection shapes. The first one uses the critical mode shape (the first buckling mode).
656

The second corresponds to an iterative methodology in which the shape that leads to the
lowest ultimate load is used. These two first methodologies use exclusively the finite
element method (FEM). The third one combines the finite element analysis with the
generalised beam theory (GBT) in order to determine the modal participation of the FEM
buckling mode and generate a particular combined geometric imperfection.
Besides stability problems, the material changes due to cold-forming influences the
ultimate capacity of pallet rack upright sections. Armani et al. [19] investigated, by
numerical simulations, the effects of local changes of the material properties due to the
strain-hardening associated with cold-forming and the role of the initial geometrical
imperfections when the uprights are subject to axial load.
Present paper presents the numerical approach for the study of buckling modes
interaction (distortional and overall) for pallet rack members in compression. A numerical
imperfection sensitivity study was conducted in order to determine the maximum erosion
of critical bifurcation load due to mode coupling, imperfections and perforations. Using
the ECBL approach [20] the maximum value of erosion was computed and based on its
value, a corresponding imperfection factor, in order to adapt the actual European
buckling curves for cold-formed pallet rack sections.
2.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
An intensive experimental study on pallet rack uprights in compression has been

carried out at the Politehnica University of Timisoara. The experimental program was
extensively presented by the authors in [21,22].
Both perforated and unperforated section specimens have been tested, of calibrated
lengths for: stub columns (s) [24]; upright member specimens for distortional buckling (u)
[24]; specimens of lengths equal with the half-wave length for distortional buckling (d);
specimens of lengths corresponding to interactive buckling range (c). Two cross-sections
of the same typology but different sizes, RS1253.2 and RS952.6, have been
considered, of perforated-to-brut cross-section ratios (AN/AB) of 0.806 and 0.760,
respectively. Their brut and perforated (i.e. net) sections are shown in Fig. 1 together with
the perforations details. The pitch is 50mm for both studied sections.
Fig. 1. (a) Brut and perforated specimen cross-section; (b) perforation details
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The test setup was the same for all tested specimens. The test setup for stub column
test is presented in detail in Fig. 2. The ball bearing was positioned on the symmetry axis
of the cross-section in between the position of gross and the minimum cross-section
centres of gravity. Additional restraints were foreseen for specimens of lengths
corresponding to interactive buckling range (c) in order to restrain the torsion.
Fig. 2. Stub column test setup
Table 1 presents the failure modes for each type of the tested specimen/section. The
following notations were used: S Squash, DS symmetrical distortional buckling, FT
flexural-torsional buckling, F flexural buckling.
Table 1. Failure modes for tested sections
Section
Test type
Stub (s)
Distortional (d)
Upright (u)
Interactive buckling (c)
RS952.6
brut
S
DS
F or FT
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS952.6
perforated
S/DS
DS
F or FT
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS1253.2
brut
DS
DS
DS
DS+F or
DS+FT
RS1253.2
perforated
DS
DS
DS
DS+F or
DS+FT
Additional experimental tests have been done in order to determine the mechanical
properties of the material. A set of samples were tested from the base material. Due to
cold-forming process of the cross-section, the material properties are modified. New
series of tests on coupons cut over the cross-section of specimens without perforations
was done for both types of sections, in order to determine the increase of yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength and residual stresses [21, 22]. Fig. 3 shows, as an example, the
measured values of yield strength and residual stresses distributions for RS1253.2 brut
cross-section, as percent of yield strength of base material.
In what concerns the geometric imperfections, all tested specimens were measured.
Two types of imperfections were recorded, i.e. (a) sectional and (b) global [21, 22]. The
sectional geometric imperfections range for RS1253.2 cross-section, between 3.10mm
+1.64mm, while for RS952.6 cross-section between 2.93mm +2.74mm. Similar
values for this type of imperfection were mentioned by Schafer & Pekz [2] in their
658

studies. The global imperfections, represented by the mid span deflections, on both y and
z direction, were obtained matching the measured deflection with a half-wave sine
equivalent (see Fig. 6). The maximum recorded values of global imperfections in z
direction were L/1416 for RS952.6 cross-section and L/1651 for RS1253.2 one, while
in y direction the maximum values were found to be less than L/3500 for both sections,
with and without perforations. The measured global imperfection (overall sinusoidal
imperfections) are significantly lower than the less conservative value, of L/1000,
proposed by ECCS Recommendation [25] and considered for European buckling curves.
On the other hand, the corresponding tolerance accepted by EN1090-2 [26] is L/750.
Fig. 3. (a) Yield strength distribution (%fy); (b) Residual stress distribution (%fy)
represented on the compressed side of the strip (RS125 brut cross-section)
3.
NUMERICAL MODEL CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
Numerical models applied to simulate the behaviour of studied sections, have been
created using the commercial FE program ABAQUS/CAE. The numerical models were
calibrated to replicate the physical experimental tests. Rectangular 4-noded shell elements
with reduced integration (S4R) were used to model the thin-walled cold-formed members.
In order to create a reliable mesh and to account the holes present along the specimens
length a mesh size of about 55mm was chosen. In the calibration process it was found
that the influence of residual stress is small (less than 3%) and their effects will be
ignored further in the analysis [21, 23].
The base plates and pressure pads were modelled using RIGID BODY with
PINNED nodes constraints. The reference point for the constraints was considered the
centre of the ball bearings (55 mm outside the profile), in the gravity centre of the crosssection. For numerical simulations, the specimens were considered pinned at one end and
simply supported at the other one. For the pinned end, all three translations together with
the rotation along the longitudinal axis of the profile were restrained, while the rotations
about maximum and minimum inertia axes were free. For the simply supported end, the
translations along section axis and the rotation about longitudinal profiles axis were
restrained, while the rotations about major and minor inertia axis together with
longitudinal translation were allowed. For the tested specimens the rotation about
longitudinal axis was prevented by friction, while in numerical model the rotation was
restrained, to remove rigid body displacements.
The analysis was conducted into two steps. The first step consists into an eigen
buckling analysis (LBA), in order to find a buckling mode or combination of buckling
modes, affine with the relevant measured imperfections. After, imposing the initial
659

geometric imperfection, obtained as a linear combination of eigen-buckling modes from
the previous step, a GMNIA analysis with arc-length (static, Riks) solver was used to
determine the ultimate capacity of pallet rack members in compression. A unit
displacement was applied at the simply supported end, incremented during the analysis, in
order to simulate a displacement controlled experimental test.
Table 2. Ultimate load [kN] Experimental vs. FEM
RSBs1253.2
RSNs1253.2
RSBs952.6
RSNs952.6
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
487.05 486.13 411.02
422.98
338.88
335.15
274.33
272.01
RSBd1253.2
RSNd1253.2
RSBd952.6
RSNd952.6
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
440.79 440.78 394.62
397.04
325.10
331.05
262.67
255.47
RSBu1253.2
RSNu1253.2
RSBu952.6
RSNu952.6
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
386.72 384.40 347.26
344.00
279.65
285.96
223.33
231.89
RSBc1253.2
RSBc1253.2
RSBc952.6
RSBc952.6
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
EXP
FEM
317.89 316.67 293.62
292.9
220.29
220.26
168.88
177.11
(s) Stub columns; (d) Specimens of lengths equal with the half-wave length of
distortional buckling; (u) Upright member specimens; (c) Specimens of lengths
corresponding to interactive buckling range. N/B perforated/brut
RSBs 1253.2
RSNd 1253.2
RSNu 952.6
RSBc952.6
Fig. 4. Failure modes Experimental vs. FE models
It must be underlined that for all considered numerical models, the failure modes
were in accordance with the failure modes observed in experimental tests (see Fig. 4). The
calibrated numerical model was validated against experimental tests for all tested sets of
profiles. Table 2 presents the values of ultimate load from numerical simulations and the
660

experimental ones for all types of members ((s), (u), (d), (c)), for both RS1253.2 and
RS952.6 cross-sections, with and without perforations.
Based on the results obtained from numerical simulations, it can be noted that from
the point of view of maximum load, the numerical model is able to accurately replicate
the experimental tests. For specimens with increased length, where global and sectional
imperfections are of same importance, a more complex imperfections measurement is
recommended. The measurements should allow the decomposition of geometric
imperfections into sectional and global components that can afterwards be used to
reconstruct the initial deformed shape.
4.
IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
4.1
DETERMINATION OF COUPLING POINT USING ECBL APPROACH
The interactive buckling approach based on ECBL method was largely presented in
[20]. The principle of this method is summarized here only. Assuming the two theoretical
simple instability modes that couple, in a thin-walled compression member, are the Euler
2
bar instability mode, N E 1/ ( = relative member slenderness) and the distortional
instability mode described by means of the reducing factor of area N D . The resulting
eroded curve for coupled instability mode is N ( , N D , ) (see Fig. 5).
N
ND
Distortional mode: ND
M
Coupled instability
mode: N(,ND)
ND
Bar instability
mode: NEULER=1/2
N(,ND)=(1-)ND
1/ND0.5
Fig. 5. The interactive buckling model based on the ECBL theory
The maximum erosion of critical load, due both to the imperfections and coupling
effect, occurs in the interaction point, M ( 1/ N D ) where, the erosion coefficient is
defined as:
ND N
(1)
in which N ( , N D , ) is the relative interactive buckling load and N D N D / f y A ; A = is

the cross-section area; ND = is the ultimate capacity corresponding to distortional
buckling; N N / f y A is the relative axial load; N = is the axial load.
661

If 1/ N D is introduced, it results an imperfection factor corresponding to
distortional-global buckling:
2
ND
1 1 0.2 N D
(2)
Eqn. (2) represents the new formula of imperfection factor which should be
introduced in European buckling curves in order to adapt these curves to distortionaloverall interactive buckling.
The coupling point between distortional (D) and global (F) buckling modes is
determined following the ECBL approach as shown in Fig. 4. On this purpose, FE
analyses were performed to simulate the influence of different types of imperfections in
the coupling point. Because the interest is to observe the erosion of critical bifurcation
load, the ECBL approach is applied considering the distortional critical load, obtained for
the relevant section by an eigen-buckling analysis (Linear Buckling Analysis (LBA) using
ABAQUS), in interaction with Euler buckling of the corresponding bar member. Table 3
shows the reference values for critical and ultimate sectional loads obtained numerically
and experimentally for the studied sections.
Table 3. Sectional capacity and distortional buckling load
Section
RSN1253.2
RSN952.6
Length [mm]
600
500
Distortional buckling load*
370.48
340.78
(Ncr,D) [kN]
Distortional ultimate load**
388.35
--(ND,u) [kN]
Stub ultimate load***
407.79
279.27
(NS,u) [kN]
Squash load****
480.94
286.72
(Npl) [kN]
* distortional buckling load determined using LBA; ** experimental failure load
corresponding to distortional specimens mean values; *** experimental failure load
corresponding cu stub column specimens mean values; **** Npl=A.fy
Table 4 presents the lengths corresponding to the theoretical interactive buckling

loads (e.g. in the point of 1/ N D , N D N cr , D ) determined via the ECBL approach,
in the interactive buckling point, M, for each section.
Table 4. Lengths corresponding to the theoretical interactive buckling
Profile
Ncr,D [kN]
Npl [kN]
ND
Coupling length [mm]
RSN125
RSN95
370.48
340.78
480.94
286.72
0.770
1.000
2559
1667
It can be observed that for RS95N cross-sections, the critical load corresponding to
distortional buckling is greater than the cross-section squash load. In this case the N D
value has to be limited to 1.00. Based on this limitation, for RS95 section, with and
662

without perforation, there is no classical interactive buckling, but we could speak about a
local plastic - elastic buckling interaction.
4.2
IMPERFECTION SENSITIVITY STUDY
On the following, the study focuses on the sensitivity to imperfections of pallet rack
sections in compression, having the member length equal to the interactive buckling
length, established according to ECBL approach, presented in the previous subchapter.
CG
f+
CG
CG
CG
z Load Ecc. z
Ecc. y
d+
Fig. 6. Example of considered simple imperfections (f and d)
An imperfection sensitivity analysis was conducted in order to identify the most

critical imperfection or combination of imperfections. Fig. 6 shows the types of
geometrical imperfections considered in the analysis, i.e. distortional (d ), flexural about
the minor axis (f ), and coupling of these two (f d ). Also, load eccentricities, located
on the axis of symmetry, were taken into consideration, with different amplitudes. In case
of flexural-torsional buckling (FT), both initial deflection and initial twisting imperfection
(ft) were considered together, according to Australian Standard AS4100 [23,27].
Table 5. erosion coefficients and imperfection factors for simple imperfections
Imperfection
ds 0.5 t
ds 1.0 t
ds 1.5 t
da 0.5 t
da 1.0 t
da 1.5 t
f L/750
f L/1000
f L/1500
ft
EY +2
EY +4
EY +6
RSN1253.2
0.236
0.078
0.339
0.185
0.398
0.280
0.152
0.029
0.245
0.085
0.321
0.162
0.240
0.081
0.216
0.063
0.181
0.043
0.240
0.081
0.169
0.037
0.196
0.051
0.224
0.069
Imperfection
EZ -6
EZ -4
EZ -2
EZ +2
EZ +4
EZ +6
EY-EZ 0
EY-EZ +6
EY-EZ +4
EY-EZ +2
EY-EZ -2
EY-EZ -4
EY-EZ -6
RSN1253.2
0.313
0.152
0.272
0.108
0.210
0.059
0.216
0.063
0.255
0.093
0.285
0.121
0.157
0.031
0.321
0.162
0.276
0.112
0.215
0.063
0.223
0.068
0.270
0.106
0.307
0.145
Detailing, the imperfections used for this study are: distortional symmetric
imperfection (ds), distortional asymmetric imperfection (da) (only for RSN1253.2
section), flexural bow imperfection about the minor inertia axis (f), loading eccentricities
on both axes (independent and coupled, i.e. EY, EZ, EY-EZ) and flexural-torsional
663

imperfection (ft). The distortional imperfection, symmetric and asymmetric, was scaled to
0.5t, 1.0t and 1.5t, the flexural bow imperfection was scaled to L/750, L/1000 and L/1500,
while the flexural-torsional imperfection was considered in accordance with the
provisions of Australian Standard [27]. The loading eccentricities were varied on both
sectional axes (2mm; 4mm; 6mm), independently and together, as an oblique
eccentricity.
As observed in Table 4, for RS952.6 section there is no classical buckling mode
interaction. Further, the present imperfection study will be focused on RSN1253.2 only.
Table 5 presents the considered simple imperfections, sectional, global and loading
eccentricities for RSN1253.2 section together with erosion coefficient and
imperfection factors for simple imperfections.
In Table 5 can be easily observed that, for simple imperfections, symmetric
distortion imperfection and major axis eccentricities give higher values for erosion
coefficient than those corresponding to flexural and flexural-torsional imperfections.
Table 6 presents the coupled imperfections considered for the RSN1253.2 section,
i.e. f L/750, ds 0.5t; f L/750, ds 1.5t; f L/1500, ds 0.5t and f L/1500, ds
1.5t, combinations coupled with various types of eccentricities. It is easy to observe that
the combination (f L/750, ds 1.5t) of imperfections is the most critical one. However,
statistically is not recommended to combine all imperfections to cumulate their negative
effects, because their random compensation.
Table 6. erosion coefficients and imperfection factors for coupled imperfections
Imperfection
EY 2
EY 4
EY 6
EZ 6
EZ 4
EZ 2
EZ -2
EZ -4
EZ -6
EY-EZ 0
EY-EZ 6
EY-EZ 4
EY-EZ 2
EY-EZ -2
EY-EZ -4
EY-EZ -6
f L/750, ds 0.5t
0.339
0.185
0.342
0.189
0.346
0.195
0.425
0.334
0.404
0.292
0.376
0.241
0.279
0.115
0.194
0.050
0.240
0.081
0.240
0.081
0.430
0.345
0.406
0.295
0.377
0.243
0.280
0.116
0.218
0.065
0.271
0.107
f L/750, ds 1.5t
0.440
0.368
0.442
0.373
0.443
0.375
0.493
0.510
0.479
0.469
0.461
0.420
0.413
0.309
0.374
0.238
0.276
0.112
0.440
0.368
0.495
0.517
0.480
0.472
0.462
0.422
0.413
0.309
0.376
0.241
0.298
0.135
f L/1500, ds 0.5t
0.302
0.139
0.305
0.142
0.310
0.148
0.411
0.305
0.384
0.255
0.350
0.201
0.174
0.039
0.228
0.072
0.264
0.101
0.301
0.138
0.414
0.311
0.386
0.258
0.351
0.202
0.182
0.043
0.247
0.086
0.289
0.125
f L/1500, ds 1.5t
0.422
0.328
0.423
0.330
0.425
0.334
0.483
0.480
0.467
0.436
0.447
0.385
0.387
0.260
0.326
0.168
0.261
0.098
0.421
0.326
0.485
0.486
0.467
0.436
0.447
0.385
0.387
0.260
0.330
0.173
0.285
0.121
A precise framing for coupled instabilities is very important in order to choose a

suitable design strategy. For weak and moderate interaction class, simple design methods
based on safety coefficients can be used. In case of strong and very strong interaction,
special design methods must be developed [20]. It can be observed that for the case of
RSN1253.2 pallet rack section, the computed erosion can classify the section into
medium up to very strong interaction, depending on the considered imperfection.
664

5.
CONCLUSIONS
Both experimental tests and numerical simulations have proven the negative
influence of both interaction between distortional and overall buckling and geometrical
imperfections on the ultimate capacity of perforated pallet rack sections in compression in
the interactive range, especially for the case of sections analysed in this paper.
The ECBL approach is an excellent method that allows for the evaluation of
erosion coefficients and imperfection factors, as result of interactive buckling. It applies
for the interaction of sectional (local or distortional buckling) with global (flexural or
flexural-torsional) instability modes, using a limited number of experimental tests.
In order to reduce the number of experimental tests, a rational sensitivity analysis
done using calibrated and validated numerical models can be used in order to determine
the most detrimental imperfections to be considered for the numerical modelling.
Moreover, using correctly calibrated numerical models, ECBL is a perfect method to
perform a sensitivity analysis and to obtain the maximum erosion coefficient and
corresponding imperfection factor for a given section, with or without perforations.
Performing a sensitivity analysis for RSN1253.2 cross-section, it is easy to observe
that for uncoupled imperfections, symmetric distortion imperfection and major axis
eccentricities give higher values for erosion coefficient than those corresponding to
flexural and flexural-torsional imperfections. For the case of coupled imperfections, it is
easy to observe that (f L/750, ds 1.5t) combination of imperfections is the most critical
one. However, statistically is not recommended to combine all imperfections to cumulate
their negative effects, because their random compensation.
In conclusion, related to the imperfection scenarios to be adopted in numerical
simulations, it is compulsory to be estimated by means of reliability analysis, in order to
get results for a given failure probability. On this purpose, future research should be done
in order to find values for reliability index that could be associated with the erosion
classes of mode interaction.
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666
DYNAMIC BUCKLING OF THIN-WALLED BEAM-COLUMNS

WITH CHANNEL CROSS-SECTION SUBJECTED TO BENDING
M. URBANIAK, T. KUBIAK
Department of Strength of Materials, Lodz University of Technology,
This paper deals with dynamic buckling of thin-walled beam-columns with channel
cross-section subjected to pure bending. Different length of beams was taken into
account. Assumed boundary conditions correspond to a simple support. The
problem was solved by finite element method and analytical-numerical method. In
order to determine the critical load pulse amplitudes there were used criteria defined
by Volmir and Budiansky-Hutchinson. The results obtained from both methods
were compared.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled structures are commonly used as components for cars, boats,
aeroplanes, cranes and warehouses. The stability loss of thin-walled structures subjected
to static load is a very well-known phenomenon and its investigations have been
discussed extensively in the world literature. First studies on dynamic buckling can be
found in publications performed by Volmir [18] and Budiansky [2], [6]. Volmir [18]
Weller, Abramovich and Yaffe'a [19], Abramovich and Grunwald [2], Ari-Gur and
Simonetta [3] in their works investigated dynamic response of thin plates. The dynamic
buckling phenomenon of thin plates and thin-walled columns with plated walls can be
found in [12] and [13]. The dynamic response is described by strengthening the
amplitude of initial geometrical imperfection. Response of thin-walled structures to pulse
loading depends on the type of structure (rod, plate, shell), the value of the load
amplitude, pulse shape and its duration. For a pulse with a very short duration and high
load amplitude we are dealing with the impact phenomenon. In the case of the pulse of
low load amplitude and a very long duration time the problem becomes quasi-static.
When the pulse load amplitude is comparable with the static critical load and the pulse
duration corresponds to the period of natural vibration frequencies, it can be said the
dynamic buckling problem occurs. In the dynamic buckling analysis the effects of
dumping are often neglected [11]. It is well known that equilibrium path for plates with
initial geometrical imperfection have no bifurcation points, so the critical buckling
dynamic characteristic quantity cannot be clearly defined. Therefore, it is necessary to
define the criteria [16] allowing to designate critical amplitude of the pulse load. Author
decided to use three criteria due to the easiest way of their application.
Volmir [18] was one of the first scientists who had analysed buckling of thin plates
subjected to pulse loading. His criterion state that:
Dynamic critical load corresponds to the amplitude of pulse load (of constant
duration) at which the maximum plate deflection is equal to some constant value k (k half or one plate thickness).
667

Budiansky and Hutchinson[5], [6], [8] formulated criterion for shell structures but
also it can be used for plate structures [4], [14], [15], [17] and stated that:
Dynamic stability loss occurs when the maximum deflection grows rapidly with the
small variation of the load amplitude.
The applied analytical-numerical method is based on the asymptotic Koiters theory
for conservative systems for the second-order approximation. In order to obtain equations
of motion, the non-linear theory of orthotropic thin-walled plates has been modified in
such a way that additionally it accounts for all components of inertia forces.
Fig. 1.
Cross-section of the beam under analysis

The numerical calculations were performed for exemplary thin-walled girder with
C-shape cross-section (Fig.1) with the following dimensions: b1 = 50mm, b2 = 25mm,
h = 0.5mm, and different length of the column L (39mm, 78mm, 117mm, 156mm). The
assumed above lengths L are corresponded to the case with the minimal buckling load for
number of half waves m equal 1, 2, 3 and 4. The material properties were assumed to be
the same as for steel: E = 2105MPa, = 0.3. The problem was solved in the elastic range.
Rectangular pulse shape was taken into consideration because this shape is most
dangerous [21]. Similarly to the other works that deal with dynamic buckling the
dynamic load factor DLF defined as the ratio of the pulse amplitude to the static buckling
load was introduced.
Fig. 2.
Loading scheme
The scheme of load is presented in Fig. 2, considered loading is bending. It was

assumed that the bending occurs round an axis, for which the second moment of area is
smallest. Therefore, the FEM model is prepared in such a way that on the neutral axis of
bending in the ending sections there were nodes, for which the displacement in the x
668

direction was set to zero (Fig. 3). Boundary condition of the loaded edges is provided by
requiring the uniform displacements in the direction normal to the wall of the girder, of
all nodes located on the edge of the girder (Fig. 3). To ensure that deformations are
compatible with the deflection in bending the edges normal to the neutral axis remained
straight in the plane containing the wall of the column. Additionally, for all nodes located
on these edges the constant rotation around the axis parallel to the neutral axis was
assumed.
Fig. 3.
Boundary conditions
2. SOLUTION METHOD
The problem was solved by analytical-numerical method (ANM) and the Finite
Element Method (FEM) for comparison. ANSYS software [1] based on the Finite
Element Method was used to conduct numerical calculations allowing to find dynamic
response of girder segments subjected to pulse loading. The pulse duration Tp was set
based on period of natural vibration. The critical load in this case the critical bending
moment (Mbcr) was used to determine the dynamic load factor DLF. The buckling or
modal mode was used to set the initial imperfection with the amplitude corresponding to
the thickness of the considered girder wall. The dimensionless amplitude of initial
imperfection was assumed as * = 0.01 wmax/h (where wmax is the maximal normal to the
wall displacement and h is the girder wall thickness). The results of these calculations
were used as input to the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the structure in time,
during and immediately after exposure of pulsed load. In the analysis of the dynamic
response the equilibrium equation is supplemented by the dynamic blocks, and takes the
form:
..
{P} [M] {u} [C] {u} [K] {u} ,
(1)
where {P} is the vector of nodal forces, [M] is the mass matrix, [C] is a damping matrix
and {u} is the vector of nodal displacements.
As it has been shown in many studies (for example [7]) for the short-term load the
damping effect can be neglected what leads to the simplification of equation (1) to the
form:
669

..
{P} [M] {u} [K] {u} .
(2)
After replacing the time derivatives of displacements {} by differences

displacement {u} in successive discrete moments of time t, the new static equilibrium
equation taking into account the inertia forces [M] {} is obtained for the each time step
and therefore it is possible to apply the algorithms used in the analysis of static. Time
integration in the ANSYS program is done using the Newmark method and solution of
equations in successive time steps is made by Newton-Raphson algorithm.
This approach allows analysing the behaviour of the structure subjected to pulse
loading. Discretisation of thin-walled girders was performed with the quadrilateral; four
nodes shell elements (Fig. 4) with six degrees of freedom (three orthogonal
displacements and three rotations around the axis in the plane of the element) at each
node.
Fig. 4.
Shell element [1]
The analytical-numerical method [10], [14] which allows one to analyse the static
buckling, postbuckling behaviour and dynamic responses of thin-walled structures
composed of plates, made of isotropic or orthotropic materials was employed. The
problem was solved in the elastic range. It is assumed that the loaded edges remain
straight and parallel during loading. Additionally, it is assumed that normal and shear
forces disappear along the not loaded edges.
For each plate (i-th girder wall) geometrical relationships (3) are assumed in order to
enable the consideration of both out-of-plane and in-plane bending:
ix ui , x 12 ( wi2,x ui2,x vi2,x )

iy vi , y 12 ( wi2, y ui2, y vi2, y )
(3)
2 ixy ixy ui , y vi , x wi , x wi , y ui , xui , y vi , x vi , y
where: ui, vi, wi - displacement components of the middle surface of the i-th wall (Fig. 5)
in the xi, yi, and zi directions, respectively.
The Hamiltons Principle, taking into account Lagranges description, full Greens
strain tensor for thin plates and Kirchhoffs stress tensor, were employed to obtain the
differential equations of motion (4).
670
Fig. 5.
Plate model for each girder wall [12]
..
i hi u i N xi , x N xyi , y N yi ui , y
, y N xiui,x , x N xyiui,x , y N xyi ui, y , x 0
..
i hi v i N xyi , x N yi , y N xi vi , x , x N yi vi , y
..
, y N xyi vi,x , y N xyi vi, y , x 0
(4)
i hi wi N xi , x N xyi , y wi , x N yi , y N xyi , x wi , y N xi wi , xx N yi wi , yy
2 N xyi wi , xy M xi , xx 2M xyi , xy M yi , yy 0
The expansion of the dynamic displacement field [9] has been assumed as follows:
U (u, v, w) Ui(0) U i(1) 2Ui(2) ,
(5)
where: is a load factor; = w/h1 is a mode amplitude (normalized, in the given case, by
the condition of equality of the maximal deflection to the thickness of the first component
plate h1); Ui(0) is a displacement field for the prebuckling state; Ui(1) are linear buckling
modes; Ui(2) are second-order displacement fields.
The static part (inertia forces have been neglected) of the system of ordinary
differential equilibrium equations (4), the first and second order approximations in the xy
plane (Fig. 5) have been solved with a modified transition matrix method. The state
vector at the final edge based on the state vector at the initial edge has been found by a
numerical integration of differential equations (4) along the transverse direction, using
the Runge-Kutta formulae by means of the Godunov orthogonalization method [10], [14],
[20]. The above-mentioned method allows for finding the nonlinear postbuckling
coefficients: a0, a1, a111, a1111 applied in the equation describing the postbuckling
equilibrium path [10].
In the dynamic analysis (while finding the frequency of natural vibration [20]), the
independent non-dimensional displacement and the load factor become a function
dependent on time. Then, Lagranges equations are as follows:
1
02
,tt 1
min
b111 2 b1111 3 ... *

,
min
(6)
where: min is the critical load factor corresponding to the first buckling mode (minimal
buckling load), and:
671
02
a1
,
m
b111
a111
,
a1
b1111
a1111
,
a1
Tp
(7)
The initial conditions are of the form:
(t 0) 0 .
t
(t 0) 0 ;
(8)
The equations of motion (6) are solved with the numerical Runge-Kutta method.
Assumed lengths of the analyzed beams were obtained from stability analysis
(eigenvalue method) as length where critical value of bending moment were minimum
(Fig. 6). Following critical lengths (Lcr) correspond to increasing number of half-waves
(m) on web of the beam. Values of length and correspond to them pulse duration and
bending moment are presented in Table 1. Critical values of bending moment obtained
from both methods are similar, differences between values are about 4%.
60
Mbcr [Nm]
58
56
54
52
50
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
L [mm]
Fig. 6.
Critical value of bending moment (Mbcr) versus length of the beam
The dynamic buckling of thin-walled channel cross-section girders was analysed

based on dimensionless deflection ( = w/h, where w deflection) as a function of
dynamic load factor. The deflection w was measured in the same point in all cases on
the middle of the length and in the middle of the width of the beams web and on node
placed on the middle of first half-wave of buckling mode.
The results of numerical calculations are presented on Fig. 7 when displacements
were measured on the middle of the web of the beam. It can be noted that with increasing
length of the beam, the curve of dynamic response of structure are flattening. Straight line
representing nondimensional displacement vs. dynamic load factor (Fig. 7) means that
dynamic response of the structure is not corresponding the local, global or even coupled
buckling but it is linearly change of the maximal deflections for applied amplitude of
672

pulse loading (the structure is bended). In that the critical value of load case cannot be
determined from well know criteria (except of Volmir criterion).
Table 1. Lengths of the analyzed beams and critical values of bending moment and pulse
duration corresponding to them
Lcr [mm]
Mbcr [Nm]
(FEM)
Mbcr [Nm]
(AN)
Tp [ms]
m=1
39
m=2
78
m=3
117
m=4
156
51.28
51.45
51.50
51.53
53,66
53,66
53,66
53,66
0.86
1.89
2.55
2.94
6
C39
C78
4
C117
C156
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 7.
Dimensionless displacement vs. dynamic load factor curves for different lengths of
beam (displacement measured on middle of the web)
6
C39
5
C78
C117
C156
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 8.
beam obtained from analytical-numerical method
673

The results of calculations obtained from AN method are presented in Fig. 8. It can
be noted that for each lengths of beams dynamic responses are the same. These results are
obtained with local buckling and corresponding number of half-waves assumption (the
longitudinal edges deflections were not taken into account), what explain above statement
and results presented in Fig. 8.
7
C39
C78
C117
AN
3
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
DLF
Fig. 9.
beam (displacement measured on node placed on the middle of first half-wave of
buckling mode)
In Fig. 9 the results of calculations for case when displacement is measured on node
located on the middle of first half-wave of buckling mode and results obtained from
analytical-numerical method are presented. Similarity of curves obtained from both
methods can be noted. Critical values of DLF determined from FEM method for every
length of beams are equal and value obtained from AN is similar to them (
Table 2).
Table 2.
Critical values of DLF for analysed beams
Volmir criterion
Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion
C39
1.1
1.0-1.2
C78
1.1
1.0-1.2
C117
1.1
1.0-1.2
AN
1.1
1.2-1.4
4. CONCLUSIONS
Taking into consideration presented results of calculations, it can be said that only
local dynamic buckling for beams subjected to pure bending is possible to determine.
Dynamic response corresponding to local buckling can be observed when displacement is
measured on node placed on the middle of first half-wave of buckling mode. For long
beams dynamically loaded with bending moment response of the structure is not
corresponding to local, global or coupled buckling, there is no rapid grow of deflection
with the small variation of load amplitude (structure is bended). Therefore none of known
criteria can be used to determine critical value of load amplitude. Results obtained from
674

analytical-numerical method has a good agreement with results obtained from FEM when
displacement is measured on node placed on the middle of first half-wave of buckling.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERNECES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
ANSYS Users Guide rev. 12.1, Ansys, Inc, 2011.

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Structure, 32, 1995, pp.151158.
Ari-Gur J., Simonetta S.R., Dynamic pulse buckling of rectangular composite plates,
Composites Part B, 28B, 1997, pp. 301-308.
Bisagni C., Dynamic buckling of fiber composite shells under impulsive axial
compression, Thin-Walled Structures 43, 2005, 499514.
Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling of elastic structures: criteria and estimates, Report SM-7,
NASA CR-66072, 1965.
Budiansky B., Hutchinson J.W., Dynamic buckling of imperfection-sensitive structures,
Proceedings of the Eleventh International Congress of Applied Mechanics, Goetler H.
(Ed.), Munich,1966, pp. 636-651.
Cui S., Hao H., Cheng H.K., Theoretical study of dynamic elastic buckling of columns
subjected to intermediate velocity impact loads, Int. J. of Mechanical Science, 44, 2002,
pp. 687-702.
Hutchinson J.W., Budiansky B., Dynamic buckling estimates, AIAA Journal, 4(3), 1966,
pp. 525-530.
Koiter T., Elastic stability and post-buckling behaviour, Proceedings of the Symposium on
Nonlinear Problems, Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsin, 1963, pp. 257-275.
Kolakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K. (eds.), Selected Problems of Instabilities in
Composite Structures, A Series of Monographs, Technical University of Lodz, 1999.
Kounadis A.N., Gantes C., Simitses G., Nonlinear dynamic buckling of multi-dof
structural dissipative system under impact loading, Int. J. Impact Engineering, 19(1), 1997,
pp. 63-80.
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Stateczno dynamiczna kompozytowych konstrukcji pytowych), WNT, Warszawa, 2007.
Krlak M., Mania R.J. (ed.), Stability of Thin-Walled Plate Structures, Technical
University of Lodz, 2011.
Kubiak T., Dynamic buckling of thin-walled composite plates with varying widthwise
material properties, Int. J. of Solid and Structures, 45, 2005, pp. 5555 5567.
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675

[16] Kubiak T., Criteria for dynamic buckling estimation of thin-walled structures, Thin-Walled
Structures, Vol. 45 (10-11), 2007, pp. 888-892.
[17] Petry D., Fahlbusch G., Dynamic buckling of thin isotropic plates subjected to in-plane
impact, Thin-Walled Structures 38, 2000, pp. 267-283.
[18] Volmir S.A., Nonlinear Dynamics of Plates and Shells, Science, Moscow, 1972.
[19] Weller T., Abramovich H., Yaffe R., Dynamic buckling of beams and plates subjected to
axial impact, Computers &Structures, 37, 1989, pp. 835-851.
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291-316.
[21] Urbaniak M., Kubiak T., Local dynamic buckling of C-shape profile subjected to bending,
Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 15, No 1, 2011, pp. 131-144
676
STABILITY OF CROSS-PLY COMPOSITE PLATE WITH

PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATORS
P. WUKA, T. KUBIAK
In this paper a model of a cross-ply composite plate with piezoelectric actuators has
been presented. The model has been built up by making use of the finite element
method (FEM). Analysis of piezoelectric composite plate has concentrated on the
effects of forces that are formed as a result of activation of piezoelectric layer. The
forces cause changes in displacement, stresses, strains and deflection as well.
Numerical calculations have provided insight into static nonlinear responses of the
investigated structure under compression, thus enabling the evaluation of critical
force.
1. INTRODUCTION
Applications of piezoelectric materials have a great deal of attention these days. The
advantages of using active materials in mechanical structures are mainly due to their
structural functioning. The active material functions as an embedded actuator that
responds to electric loads and generates strains, deformations and forces. Moreover, they
also function as an integrated part of the structural skeleton and contribute to the
mechanical load carrying mechanism. This advantage is even more significant in the
design and construction of composites with the piezoelectric materials. The theory of
piezoelectricity was discussed by Yang [25]. Not to mention the fact that there have been
number of PhD thesis concerning smart materials [3, 11, 12, 13]. Although very few
problems in piezoelectric structures can be directly analysed by the three-dimensional
theory, in order to obtain results useful for device applications. Usually numerical
methods have to be used. As a consequence plenty of works published by scientists are
focused on numerical analysis. The investigation of deflection control of plates with
piezoelectric actuators has received a lot of attention [2, 7, 10, 15, 17, 20, 22,23]. Mostly
the dynamic responses of the structures with piezoelectric are considered. Many of works
have focused on the influence of the electrical actuation on the buckling and postbuckling behaviour of the active plate and investigated the ability to control and enhance
the buckling load of the active structure [5, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21].
The present work investigated the stability of composite plate with piezoelectric
actuators. The proposed method is an extension of model derived by Her Shiuh-Chuan
and Lin Chi-Sheng [6]. The model consists of two piezoelectric actuators symmetrically
surface bonded on a cross-ply simply supported composite plate subjected to
compression. The effects of voltage applied to the piezoelectric actuators, initial
imperfections and different numerical conditions on the stability of the composite plate
are presented. The feasibility of controlling the stability of the plate is illustrated by
application of appropriate voltage to the piezoelectric actuators.
677

2. SOLUTION METHOD
Stability analysis of composite plates with piezoelectric actuators has been carried
out using finite element method. Piezoelectric FEM equations can be written in term of
nodal displacement {u} and nodal electrical potential {V} The mechanical efforts are
expressed by {F} and the nodal electric loads {L}. The elemental equilibrium equation in
matrix form for coupled mechanic and electric field is as follows [1]:
[K]
z T
[K ]
[K z ] {u} {F}
,
[K d ] {V} {L}
(1)
where:
[K] [B]T [c][B]d mechanical stiffness matrix;
[K z ] [B]T [e][B]d piezoelectric coupling matrix;
[K d ] [B]T [ ][B]d dielectric permittivity coefficient matrix;
{u} vector of nodal displacements;

{V} vector of nodal voltage;
{F} vector of nodal forces;
{L} vector of nodal, surface, and body charges;
[B] strain displacement matrix (geometrical matrix);
[c] elasticity matrix,
In linear piezoelectricity the equations of elasticity (constitutive equations of
piezoelectricity) are coupled to the charge equation of electrostatics by means of
piezoelectric constants:
{ } [c]
T
{D} [e]
where:
{D} Dx
{S} x
{E} E x
{ } xx
[e] {S}
,
[ ] {E}
yy zz xy yz zx T stress vector;
Dy
Dz
Ey
Ez
electric flux density vector;
y z xy yz zx T strain vector;
electric field intensity vector.
The elasticity matrix for an orthotropic piezoelectric layer is:

678
(2)
(1 23 32 ) E11
( ) E
12 13 32 22
( 13 12 23 ) E33
[c]
( 12 13 32 ) E22
(1 31 13 ) E22
( 23 21 13 ) E33
( 13 12 23 ) E33
( 23 21 13 ) E33
(1 12 21) E33
0
0
0
0
G23
0
0
0
0
0
0
G13
0
0 ,
0
0
G12
where: 1 12 21 23 32 13 31 21213 32 and according to Betty-Maxwell the

following relations are fulfilled:
12 21
E11 E22 ;
23 32
13 31
E22 E33 ; E11 E33 ;
0 e31
0
0
0 e31
0
0 e33
[e]
- piezoelectric stress matrix;
0 e15 0
e15 0
0
0
0
0
0
11 0
[ ] 0 22 0 - dielectric matrix
0
0 33
3. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL OF THE PLATE
The analysed cross-ply composite plate is presented in Fig.1. Three dimensional
solid elements SOLID 45 with eight nodes and three degree of freedom at each node are
used for the composite part and solid elements SOLID 5 with 8 nodes and four DoF at
each node for piezoelectric part of the structure. The composite material is carbon/epoxy
with stacking sequence [0/90/90/0]. Material properties of the composite layer have been
assumed as: E11= 108 GPa, E22 =E33= 10.3 GPa, G23=4.02 GPa, G13=G12= 7.13 GPa,
23= 13= 12= 0.28. Material and electric properties of the piezoelectric actuators are:
E11= E22 =E33= 63 GPa, G23= G13=G12= 24.2 GPa, 23= 13= 12= 0.3, d13 = 1.910-10
m/V; 11/0 = 22/0= 33/0= 1780. Dimensions of the plate are: A=380 mm,
B=300 mm, tp=1.5876 mm. The piezoelectric actuators are bonded on the top and bottom
surfaces of the composite plate, located in the centre of the plate with dimensions 6 x 4
mm, thickness of tpe=0.15867 mm.
679
Fig. 1. Geometry of the plate
The plate is simply supported on each edge. Equal electric field is applied across
thickness of the actuators, but with the opposite sign, resulting the deflections (upper layer
is compressed and bottom layer is tensed) corresponding to bending.
4. RESULTS OF THE CALCULATIONS
The static nonlinear response of the analysed structure versus middle point
deflection is presented in Fig. 2. The problem is solved using the Newton-Raphson
method and initial imperfection of 0.1 of plate thickness (including piezoelectric actuators
thickness) is applied. The force increment is 15 N in the first case of analysis. The results
are compared with different actuations. These curves show the plate exhibits stiffening
control behaviour with the variation of the applied voltage. For 15V the solution of the
problem unconverged and further analysis was required. With the increase of number of
subsets the solution converged and the results are depicted in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.01 of thickness (number of
subsets 100)
680
Fig. 3. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.01 of thickness (number of
subsets 500)
Fig.4. Identification of critical load with (Force-w2) method
In order to identify the critical load load based on the results of experimental
investigation the alternative (Force-w2) [25] and inflection point (Force-w) [4] methods
have been used. This alternative method is based on drawing a tangent to the imperfect
curve at an arbitrary value of deflection beyond the small deflection range. The tangent
line intersects Force-axis and corresponds to the critical load value. Identification of the
inflection point is carried out by examination of the load-deflection curve. The results are
depicted in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The aforementioned methods were used to evaluate critical
loads and the results are listed in Table 1.
681

Table 1. Evaluation of critical load with different methods for plate with initial imperfection
0.01 of plate thickness
Voltage [V]
15
10
0
-10
-15
Inflection
method
Critical
load [N]
919
829
817
799
790
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
894
872
865
858
855
Fig. 5. Static response of plate for high value of voltage

Table 2. Comparison of critical loads for two different actuations
Inflection
method
Critical
Voltage [V] load [N]
50
903
15
919
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
864
894
Unwilling phenomenon has appeared for high value of voltage. Precisely speaking
the position and geometry of the actuator at higher value of voltages changes plate initial
imperfection and starts to lose its stability towards opposite direction (Fig.5 ). In such
case actuation of the piezoelectric element firstly counteracts the effects of stress and
tension but after the change of initial imperfection it advances the loss of stability. The
results presented in Table 2 confirm this phenomenon.
682

In terms of numerical approach, the influence of initial imperfections has been
analysed. Fig.6 and Fig. 7 show calculations for plate with initial imperfection of 0.1 of
the plate thickness (excluding thickness of piezoelectric actuators). The analysis has been
conducted for different voltage actuations.
Fig. 6. Static response of plate with initial imperfection of 0.1 of plate thickness
Fig.7. Identification of critical load with (Force-w2) method
Buckling has been identified with the same alternative (Force-w2) and inflection
method (Force-w) as for the case where the plate had initial imperfection of 0.01 of its
thickness and the results are shown in Table 3.
683

Table 3. Evaluation of critical load with different methods for plate with initial imperfection
0.1 of plate thickness
Inflection
method
Critical
Voltage [V] load [N]
50
873
15
839
0
826
-15
812
Alternative
method
Critical load
[N]
824
807
800
793
Additional results in terms of the static nonlinear response of the analysed structure
versus middle point deflection are presented in Fig. 6. The curves reveal that different
increment of the force applied in nonlinear analysis does not affect the results.
Fig. 7. Comparison of static responses of the plate for different number of subsets at constant
value of voltage
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this work stability of cross-ply composite plate with piezoelectric actuators is
studied. It is concluded that:
The piezoelectric actuators induce bending moment acting on the composite

plate by applying negative or positive voltages which may significantly
enhance the buckling capabilities of structures.
Appropriate voltage actuation increases the critical force in nonlinear

buckling analysis.
The choice of force increment and initial imperfections in nonlinear

buckling analysis does not affect the results.
684
The actuation of the piezoelectric elements may change the initial

imperfection and the structure starts to buckle in an opposite direction
Further analysis should be carried out for checking the influence of distribution and
size of piezoelectric actuators in controlled plate on the critical load.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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plates using smart technology, Thin-Walled Structures, 36, 231-263, 2000.
[20] Varelis D., Saravanos D. A., Coupled buckling and postbuckling analysis of active
laminated piezoelectric composite plates, International Journal of Solids and Structures,
41, 151938, 2004.
[21] Varelis D. , Saravanos D. A., Nonlinear coupled mechanics and initial buckling of
composite plates with piezoelectric actuators and sensors, Smart Materials and Structures,
11, 3306, 2002.
[22] Vel S. S., Mewer R. C., Batra R. C., Analytical solution for the cylindrical bending
vibration of piezoelectric composite plates, International Journal of Solids and Structures,
41, 162543, 2004.
[23] Vel S. S.,Batra R. C., Exact solution for rectangular sandwich plates with embedded
piezoelectric shear actuators, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal,
39, 136373, 2001.
[24] Venkataramaiah K. R., Roorda J., Analysis of local plate buckling experimental data,
Report, 1982.
[25] Yang J., The Mechanics of Piezoelectric Structures, World Scientific, 2006.
686
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF THIN-WALLED GIRDERS

SUBJECTED TO COMBINED LOAD
P. WUKA, M. URBANIAK, T. KUBIAK
This paper deals with dynamic response of thin-walled girders subjected to
combined load (bending and/or twisting). The load was assumed as stepped
dynamic pulse of finite duration. Numerical analysis was conducted with finite
element method (FEM). Analysis has concentrated on thin-walled girders of length
200 mm and squared cross-section (100x100 mm) with 1mm wall thickness.
Different numerical models were compared and investigation of dynamic response
of the structure under combined load was performed for different boundary
conditions. The critical values of load were determined according to well-known
criteria (Volmir, Budiansky-Hutchinson, Ari-Guru-Simonetta criterion).
1. INTRODUCTION
Wide range of application of thin-walled elements and increasing demand for new
enhanced solution affect development of theories and experimental investigations on
stability of such structures as well as on the dynamic response of thin-walled structures.
The problem of dynamic response of thin-walled girders subjected to combined load
is a complex matter. In order to perform such analysis a well-known finite element
method is used to derive solution. Several works concerning the stability, post-buckling
in the elastic and elasto-plastic range as well as the load-carrying capacity of thin-walled
girders subjected to either simple or combined load is widely discussed in two complete
editions by Krlak [4, 5]. Particular insight into stability of structures with the debate
about theoretical foundations and solutions of such problem is presented in edition by
Koakowski, Kowal-Michalska [3]. Even though that majority of papers deal with thinwalled girders, one can find only a few concerning combined load.
This work shows that the analysis of dynamic response of thin-walled girders
subjected to combined load is of huge importance and describes different aspects of
analysis of stability with the use of Finite Element Method.
2. SOLUTION METHOD
The problem was solved using finite element method, employing commercial
software ANSYS. At first step the eigenvalue problem was solved for different bending to
torsion ratios. The pulse duration Tp was set based on first period of natural vibration.
The critical load - in this case the critical bending moment (Mbcr) and torsional moment
(Mtcr) was used to determine the dynamic load factor DLF. Shape of first buckling or
modal mode represents the initial imperfection with the amplitude relative to the
thickness of the considered girder wall was assumed. The dimensionless amplitude of
initial imperfection as * = 0.01 wmax/h (where wmax is the maximal normal to the wall
687

displacement and h is the girder wall thickness) were adopted. The results of these
calculations were used as input to the analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the structure,
during and immediately after exposure of pulse loads. In the analysis of the dynamic
response the equilibrium equation is supplemented by the dynamic blocks, and takes the
form:
..
{P} [M] {u} [C] {u} [K] {u} ,
(1)
where {P} is the vector of generalized nodal forces, [M] is the mass matrix, [C] is a
damping matrix and {u} is the vector of generalized nodal displacements.
As it has been shown in many studies (for example [2]) for the short-term load the
damping effect can be neglected what leads to the simplification of equation (1) to the
form:
..
{P} [M] {u} [K] {u} .
(2)
After replacing the time derivatives of displacements {} by differences

displacement {u} in successive discrete moments of time t, the new static equilibrium
equation taking into account the inertia forces [M] {} is obtained for the each time step
and therefore it is possible to apply the algorithms used in the static analysis. Time
integration in the ANSYS program is done using the Newmark method and solution of
equations in successive time steps is made by Newton-Raphson algorithm.
This approach allows analysing the behaviour of the structure subjected to pulse
load. Discretization of thin-walled girders was performed with the quadrilateral, four
nodes shell elements (Fig. 1) with six degrees of freedom (three orthogonal
displacements and three rotations around the axis in the plane of the element) at each
node.
Fig. 1. Shell element [1]
Analyzed thin-walled girder of length l=200 mm and squared cross-section (a=100,
b=100 mm) with 1mm wall thickness was subjected to combined load. The structure with
loading scheme is shown in Fig. 2. The thin-walled girders material was assumed as
isotropic with following material properties: E=2105 MPa, =0.3.
In order to obtain results comparable to the real structure, two numerical models
were taken into consideration for analysis of the stability (eigenvalue method) for
different bending to torsional moment ratios. In order to assure the linearity of loaded
688

edges in first example two plates of relatively high stiffness were added to the ends of the
girder (Model 1). In second example the same linearity of the loaded edges were obtained
by the use of beam elements (Model 2). The models are presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Dimensions and loading scheme of analyzed girder
Fig. 3.
FEM models: a) plate model (Model 1), b) beam model (Model 2)
3. RESULTS OF NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS

The results of eigenvalue analysis for different bending to torsion ratios are depicted
in Fig. 4. The figure shows that both models give similar results. Critical values of
bending and torsional moments are presented in Table 1. The buckling modes were the
same for both models (Fig. 5).
Table 1.
Critical values of bending moment and torsion for both considered models
Mb/Mt
3
1
0,333
0
Model 1
Mbcr [Nm]
Mtcr [Nm]
0,725
0
0,710
0,237
0,621
0,621
0,377
1,132
0
1,512
689
Model 2
Mbcr [Nm]
Mtcr [Nm]
0,732
0
0,711
0,237
0,604
0,604
0,348
1,045
0
1,335
Fig. 4. Comparison of the results obtained for different models
After preliminary studies the beam model was dismissed because of the difficulties
with convergence of the dynamic solution. This was caused by formation of stress
concentration at the corners which mainly were due to modelling method of boundary
conditions. The pulse duration Tp was obtain on the basis of modal analysis as equal to
period of natural vibration and set to Tp=0.003s. The deflection of middle node of the
upper plate of the given girder in time for different values of DLF is presented in Fig. 6.
It can be noted that for DLF higher than 2.4 change of buckling mode occurred.
Fig. 5.
Shape of the local buckling modes: a) Mt/Mb=0, b) Mb/Mt=1, Mb/Mt=0
The dynamic response of the structure as the function of - DLF is shown in

Fig. 7. Two approaches to obtain results of the solution were assumed. One of the curves
corresponds to the values of the dimensionless deflection measured in the middle of the
upper plate of the girder (mid) and the second relates to the maximum values of
690

dimensionless deflection in whole structure (max). Critical values of dynamic load factor
obtained based on different criteria are presented in Table 2.
Table 2.
Critical values of dynamic load factor
Volmir criterion
Budiansky-Hutchinson criterion
Ari-Gur Simonetta criterion
Middle node
1.7
1.6-1.8
1.8
Maximum deflection
1.3
1.4-1.6
2
Fig. 6. Displacement of middle node of upper plate of the girder in time for different DLF
Fig. 7.
Dimensionless deflections versus DLF for Mb/Mt=1
A change of mode shape occurs with the increase of dynamic load factor. This
phenomenon is shown in Fig. 8. The results are given for different DLF values with
respect to the position along the diagonal of the upper wall and the change of mode shape
appears between DLF=1 and DLF=1.2.
691
Fig.8. Dimensionless deflections along the diagonal of the upper wall for different DLF
3. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents dynamic response of thin walled girders subjected to combined
load. According to the analysis it is concluded that:
suitable choice of elements is crucial in obtaining appropriate results
value of the deflection for dynamic calculations might be gathered with two
different approaches: from middle node of upper plate of the girder or maximum
value in a whole structure
for combined load it is difficult to chose the proper criterion to determining the
DLFcr
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
ANSYS Users Guide rev. 12.1, Ansys, Inc, 2011

Cui S., Hao H., Cheng H.K., Theoretical study of dynamic elastic buckling of columns
subjected to intermediate velocity impact loads, Int. J. of Mechanical Science, 44, 2002,
pp. 687-702.
Koakowski Z., Kowal-Michalska K., Selected Problems of Instabilities in Composite
Structures, Technical University of Lodz, 1999.
Krlak M. , Post-Buckling Behaviour and Load Carrying Capacity of Thin Walled Plate
Girders, PWN, Warsaw-d, 1990 (in Polish).
Krlak M., Stability, Post-Buckling Behaviour and Load Carrying Capacity of Thin,
Orthotropic Flat-Walled Structures, Technical University of Lodz, 1995 (in Polish).
692
FREE VIBRATIONS OF AN UNBOUNDED PERIODICALLY

REINFORCED ELASTIC LAYER
CZ. WONIAK
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Environmental Engineering,
Lodz University of Technology, Al. Politechniki 6, 90-924 d, Poland
M. WGROWSKA, O. SZLACHETKA, J. WITKOWSKA-DOBREV
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences
Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
The object of analysis is an unbounded layer made of two isotropic, linear elastic
materials and periodically laminated along the Ox1 axis (cf. Fig.1). The layer is
resting on the rigid base. It is assumed that the laminas are homogeneous and their
number is very large. Hence we deal with a certain microstructured layer. The aim
of this contribution is to propose a certain mass discretized model for the analysis
of vibrations of the layer. It is shown that there exist two kinds of these vibrations
which are independent of x 2 and x 3 coordinates.
1. OBJECT OF ANALYSIS
Let Ox1 x 2 x 3 be the inertial coordinate system of Cartesian coordinates in the
physical space. The elastic layer under considerations in its natural state occupies the
region bounded by coordinate planes x1 0 and x1 L . The layer is made of a very
large number of thin laminas with a constant thickness l / 2 , where l / L is negligibly
small when compared to 1. Hence l stands for the period of the structure and by means of
Fig. 1. Scheme of a part of the layer for x3 0

693
l / L 1 this structure can be referred to as microperiodic. The number of laminas is

denoted by p , where 1 / p 1 . The scheme of the layer is shown in Figure 1.
The material properties of every lamina are determined by mass densities M , R ,
Young moduli EM , ER and Kirchhoff moduli GM , GR in the matrix and reinforcement
materials, respectively. The object of consideration is the analysis of the free vibrations of
the layer.
2. AIM OF THE CONTRIBUTION
The aim of contribution is to propose and apply a certain mass discretized model of
the microstructured layer under consideration.
Free vibrations of the layer will be investigated under simplifying assumption that
the piece wise constant mass distribution across the layer is approximated by masses
concentrated exclusively on the interfaces between laminas. These masses are equal to
M R l / 2 per unit area.
The main feature of the proposed model is that it describes the effect of the period
length l on the values of free vibration frequencies. Obviously the proposed model has a
physical sense if it describes wave lengths in the Ox 1 - axis direction sufficiently large
when compared to the microstructure period l .
3. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
3.1 LAMINATED SPACE
The subsequent considerations will start with the concept of laminated space
interpreted as 3D-space obtained by the formal extension of microstructure from interval
0, L to the whole Ox 1 - axis. The scheme of the fragment of the space is shown in
Figure 2.
Fig. 2.
A fragment of the space for x 3 0
694

In the vibration problem for the laminated space we shall independently deal with
longitudinal or transversal waves along Ox 1 - axis.
l
Let x xn n , n 0,1,2,... stand for a system of interfaces between adjacent
2
laminas for the laminated space under consideration. Let H R , H M stand respectively
either for ER , EM or GR , GM . Tripled w, H R , H M will be subsequently related
either to longitudinal or to transversal waves. The corresponding displacement
components, related to Ox 1 x 2 x 3 system will be denoted by w1, w2 , w3 .
Consideration will be restricted to 1-D model of the laminated space by the assumption
that w wx, t , where x x1 , x1 R , t R and w w1, w2 , w3 .
3.2 MASS DISCRETIZATION
The mass discretization will be formulated for the laminated space introduced
above. The mass discretization assumption, introduced in this Section, will be extended
on the whole laminated space. The displacement assigned to the n-th interface will be
denoted by wn wxn , t , t R .
From the equilibrium equations for an arbitrary lamina we obtain:
w2 n w2n 1
x x2n 1 if x x2n 1 , x2n ,
2
l
wx,t
2 w2 n 1 w2 n x x if x x , x
2n
2 n 2 n 1 .
(1)
It has to be remembered that for laminated space, n 0,1,2,...
12 13
11 12 13
Let us denote by s R s 11
stress components s11 , s12 ,
R , s R , s R , sM sM , sM , sM
13
in reinforcement and matrix material, respectively. Hence
w2 n w2 n 1
in x 2n 1 , x 2n ,
l
w
w2 n
s M 2 H M 2 n 1
in x 2 n , x 2 n 1 ,
l
n 0,1,2,...
s R 2H R
(2)
At the same time at every interface x x n , n 0,1,2,... the following dynamic

equilibrium conditions hold:
695
4 H M w2n 1 w2n H R w2n w2n 1
l
R M w 2n ,
2
l
2n 1 ,
(3)
4 H R w2n 2 w2n 1 H M w2n 1 w2n R M w
2
n 0,1,2,...
Equations (1)-(3) represent the mass discretized model equations for the elastic laminated
space under consideration.
It has to be emphasized that the model equations (1)-(3) have a physical sense only
if the mass discretization assumption is reliable. This situation takes place only if the
wave lengths are large when compared to the period l .
3.3 DISPERSION RELATION
In order to describe the wave propagation along Ox1 axis in a laminated space we
have to introduce the concept of the wave length which will be denoted by . We also
2
2l
introduce the wave number
and the dimensionless wave number k
l .
The above terminology is based on that introduced in Brillouin [1] and many related
papers. Following the line of approach given in Brillouin [1] we look for the solution of
Equations (3) for wn , n 0,1,2,... in the form:
w2 n Aexpi t - nk ,
k
w2 n 1 Bexpi t - 2n 1 ,
2
n 0, 1, 2,...
(4)
where A, B are arbitrary constants.

The non trivial solution to this system exists only if the following dispersion relation
holds:
R M l 2 -2 16H R H M sin 2
R M l 2 2 16H R H M
k
,
4
cos 2 k ,
4
(5)
where and are allowable free vibration frequencies.

After denotation a 2
16
H R H M the diagram of dispersion relation is
l R M
2
shown in Figure 3.
696
Fig.3.
Diagram of dispersion relation
From the physical reliability off the mass discretization assumption it follows that
formula (5) and the corresponding diagram have the physical meaning only for small
values of parameter k with respect to 1.
3.4 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Now assume that the constants A, B in (4) are imaginary. In this case:
w2 n A sin t sin kn ,
2n 1
w2 n 1 B sin t sin k
,
2
n 0,1,2,...
(6)
Subsequently we shall restrict considerations to the layer made of p laminas; we

recall that 1/ p 1 . If the number p of laminas is even then the formula (6)1 takes place
p
for n 0,1,..., . If the number p of laminas is odd then the formula (6)2 takes place for
2
p 1
n 0,1,...,
.
2
Since the layer rests on the rigid base, for x1 0 we obtain w0, t w0 0 . At the
same time the upper bound x1 L pl is free of tractions w p w p 1 0 . Hence the
value of s is equal to zero in the interval x p 1 , x p .

Condition on the upper boundary implies that:
p
p 1
B sin k
0,
2
2
p
p 1
0.
2. If a number p of lamina is odd then B sin k A sin k
2
2
The boundary condition on the plane x1 0 is satisfied identically.
1. If a number p of laminas is even then A sin k
697

The above boundary conditions are represented by the interrelation between real
constants (vibration amplitudes) A and B and take place for the 1-D model of the
laminated layer under consideration.
4. MODELLING RESULTS
The model of free vibrations is obtained directly from the dispersion relation. For
free vibration frequencies we obtain the following formulas:
16H R H M 2 k
,
sin
4
l 2 R M
16H R H M
l
R M
cos 2
k
.
4
(7)
We recall that the above formulas have a physical sense only if the dimensionless wave
number k is not large when compared to 1.
For k 1 , the formula (7) can be rewritten in the asymptotic form:
H R H M 2 o 2 ,
R M
16H R H M
O 2 .
l 2 R M
(8)
The first terms on the right hand side of the following formulas represent the asymptotic
approximation of higher and lower free vibration frequencies.
For a homogeneous layer we obtain R M , H H R H M and formula
(8) takes the form:
16 H
2 o2 ,
16 H
l 2
O 2 .
(9)
Formulas (7)-(9) represent the final results of the 1-D modelling procedure proposed in
this contribution.
The characteristic feature of the free vibration analysis are two independent simple
formulas for the lower frequency and higher frequency .
It can be seen that the obtained general results depend on the microstructure
parameter l . The asymptotic formulas for the lower free vibrations for sufficiently
large wave length (eg. for L ) are dispersion less e.a. they are independent on l ,
while the upper frequencies are constant and very large.
REFERENCES
[1]
Brillouin L., Wave propagations in periodic structures, 1946, Mc Graw-Hill Books

Company, Inc. Second Edition.
698

INDEX of AUTHORS
Akhavan H. 579
Bana A. 521
Baranowski P. 459
baranowski@wat.edu.pl
Barski M. 177
mbar@mech.pk.edu.pl
Bartholome S. 547
susanne.bartholome@tu-cottbus.de
Baejewski P. 185
P.Blazejewski@uz.zgora.pl
Chodorowska D. 363
d.chodorowska@wp.pl
Chybiski M. 193
marcin.chybinski@put.poznan.pl
Chwa M. 521
mchwal@pk.edu.pl
Cicho C. 195
Czeslaw.Cichon@tu.kielce.pl
Czechowski L. 203
leszek.czechowski@p.lodz.pl
Damaziak K. 459
kdamaziak@wat.edu.pl
Dbski H. 211, 221
h.debski@pollub.pl
Domagalski L. 231
l.domagalski@gmail.com
Dubina D. 655
dan.dubina@ct.upt.ro
Dyk K. 241
Ferdynus M. 251
m.ferdynus@pollub.pl
Fory P. 257
pforys@pk.edu.pl
Fujita G. 467
Fukasawa S. 589
Garstecki A. 193
andrzej.garstecki@ikb.poznan.pl
Gottvald J. 267
Hussain N. 423
Iwicki P. 275, 283
piwicki@pg.gda.pl
Jachimowicz J. 495
jjachimowicz@wat.edu.pl
Jankowski J. 289
jjankows@p.lodz.pl
Jasion P. 295, 301
pawe.jasion@put.poznan.pl
Jdrysiak J. 231, 321
jarek@p.lodz.pl
Kala Z. 267, 309
kala.z@fce.vutbr.cz
Karasev A.G. 315
Karasev G.G. 315
Kazmierczak M. 321
magda.kazmierczak@p.lodz.pl
Kdziora P. 177, 327
kedziora@mech.pk.edu.pl
Klasztorny M. 459
mklasztorny@wat.edu.pl
Koczubiej S. 195
Slawomir.Koczubiej@tu.kielce.pl
Kolesnikov M.V. 383
Koakowski Z. 337
zbigniew.kolakowski@p.lodz.pl
Kopecki H. 347
hkopecki@prz.edu.pl
Kopecki T. 355, 363
tkopecki@prz.edu.pl
Koteko M. 85, 415
Maria.Kotelko@p.lodz.pl
Kowal-Michalska K. 373, 397, 617
katarzyna.kowalmichalska@p.lodz.pl
Krajewski M. 275
marcin.krajewski@wilis.pg.gda.pl
Krasovsky V.L. 383, 389
stmeh@inbox.ru
Krlak M. 17
mkrolak@p.lodz.pl
Kubiak T. 221, 397, 667, 677, 687
tomasz.kubiak@p.lodz.pl
Kujawa M. 407
mark@pg.gda.pl
Kulatuanga M.P. 441
Lis P. 415
699

Loughlan J. 25, 423
J.Loughlan@lboro.ac.uk
Lykhachova O.V. 435
Macdonald M. 85, 441
M.Macdonald@gcal.ac.uk
Magnucka-Blandzi E. 449
ewa.magnuckablandzi@put.poznan.pl
Magnucki K. 295, 301, 599, 607
krzysztof.magnucki@put.poznan.pl
Maachowski J. 459
jerzy.maachowski@wat.edu.pl
Manevich A.I. 43
amanevich@yandex.ru
Mania R.J. 17, 373
Radosaw.Mania@p.lodz.pl
Marchenko V.A. 389
Marcinowski J. 185
J.Marcinowski@ib.uz.zgora.pl
Matoge Y. 467
12tm317b@shinshu-u.ac.jp
Mazurek P. 355, 363
pmazurek@prz.edu.pl
Mazurkiewicz L. 459
lmazurkiewicz@ wat.edu.pl
Michalak B. 477, 483
bmichala@p.lodz.pl
Miedziska D. 495
dmiedzinska@wat.edu.pl
Morzuch W. 501, 507
waldemar.morzuch@pwr.wroc.pl
Mrz A. 513
andrzej.mroz.pl@gmail.com
Muc A. 177, 327, 521, 607
olekmuc@mech.pk.edu.pl
Nagyov M. 531
monika.nagyuova@stuba.sk
Niezgoda T. 495
t.niezgoda@wme.wat.edu.pl
Niezgodziski T. 617
Tadeusz.Niezgodzinski@p.lodz.pl
Paczos P. 539
piotr.paczos@put.poznan.pl
Pasternak H. 547
hartmut.pasternak@tu-cottbus.de
Pawlus D. 561
doro@ath.bielsko.pl
Psotn M. 571
martin.psotny@stuba.sk
Ravinger J. 63, 531, 571
smravi@svf.stuba.sk
Rhodes J. 85
jim.rhodes@strath.ac.uk
Ribeiro P. 579
Rzeszut K. 193
katarzyna.rzeszut@ikb.poznan.pl
Shimizu S. 93, 467, 589
shims00@gipwc.shinshu-u.ac.jp
Sondej M. 283
mateusz.sondej@wilis.pg.gda.pl
Stasiewicz P. 599
piotr.stasiewicz@put.poznan.pl
Stawiarski A. 607
Szlachetka O. 693
Szmidla J. 129,
szmidla@imipkm.pcz.czest.pl
Schmidt R. 383, 389, 435, 625
schmidt@iam.rwth-aachen.de
Szymczak Cz. 111, 407
szymcze@pg.gda.pl
wich . 347
l_swiech@prz.edu.pl
winiarski J. 617
jacek.swiniarski@mail.p.lodz.pl
Taczaa M. 241
mike@zut.edu.pl
Tanaka N. 467
Teter A. 221, 337, 579
a.teter@pollub.pl
Tomski L. 129, 625,
sekr@imipkm.pcz.czest.pl
Tyapin A.G. 645
atyapin@bvcp.ru
Ungureanu V. 655
viorel.ungureanu@ct.upt.ro
Urbaniak M. 667, 687
mariusz.urbaniak.mu@gmail.com
Uzny S. 129, 635
sekr@imipkm.pcz.czest.pl
Varianichko M.A. 315
varianichko_mari@mail.ru
Volchok D.L. 435
700

Warmiski J. 579
jwarminski@pollub.pl
Wasilewicz P. 301
piotr.wasilewicz@put.poznan.pl
Wgrowska M. 693
monika_wagrowska@sggw.pl
Witkowska-Dobrev J. 693
Joanna_Witkowska@sggw.pl
Wuka P. 677, 687
Woniak Cz. 487, 693
czesaw.wozniak@guest.p.lodz.pl
Yamasaki Y. 467
11ta341h@shinshu-u.ac.jp
Yatsenko D. 625
Yidris N. 25
Zajc K. 449
Zara J. 85
jan.zaras@p.lodz.pl
Zielnica J. 153
jerzy.zielnica@put.poznan.pl
701

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STABILITY OF STRUCTURES

ZAKOPANE 17 - 21. 09. 2012

Under the auspices of

Department of Strength of Materials, Lodz University of Technology

Zakopane, September, 17-21, 2012

STABILITY OF STRUCTURES XIIIth SYMPOSIUM

Professor Marian Krlak

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

LOCAL BUCKLING AND LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 1. One cell - box girder dimensions

The research of buckling and post-buckling states of thin-walled multi-cell

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 2. Multi-cell beam cross section with dimensions description

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Geometrical parameters of multi-cell beams

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 3. Equivalent stress distribution in discrete model of multi-cell beam

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 4. Buckling modes in box girder and multi-cell beam of n = 3

t0 1.5 mm. The other analyzed multi-cell beams were of dimensions

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

THE LOCAL-FLEXURAL-DISTORTIONAL ELASTO-PLASTIC

J. LOUGHLAN a), N. YIDRIS

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 1. Geometric details of the lipped channel-sections

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 2. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit post-local

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 3. Displacement boundary conditions at section junctions which permit local-flexural

As mentioned previously there is an immediate interaction between local buckling

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS AND SOME COMPARISONS WITH TEST

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

The constrained and natural post buckling interactions of column 4

Figure 5 shows the constrained and natural post-buckling interactions of column 4.

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 6. The natural interactive deformations and failure mechanics of column 4

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 7. The constrained and natural post buckling interactions of column 8

The elastic and elasto-plastic constrained and natural post-buckling interactions of

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

The natural interactive deformations and failure mechanics of column 8

Stability of Structures XIII-th Symposium Zakopane 2012

Fig. 9. Comparison between simulation and test for column 8