These include prescriptions for ways to act (be tough, stay in control, etc), attitudes to hold (work is very

important,
women should be be primary caregivers to children, etc), and ways to look (wear pants and suits, wear hair short,
etc). It also includes proscriptions for ways not to act (dont cry, dont be a wimp, etc), attitudes not to hold (want to be
a stay-at-home dad, its OK for my wife to earn more money than me, etc), and ways not to present oneself (dont
wear a dress, dont have long hair, etc).

In reading a variety of work on these characteristics (most of which are outlined below), I believe that this
work is in need of a more flexible organizing framework, and this can be used to understand the
remaining concepts on this site. Therefore, I use the following three themes that make up male gender
roles:
1. Strength: emotional toughness, courage, self-reliance, rationality
2. Honor: duty, loyalty, responsibility, integrity, selflessness, compassion, generativity
3. Action: competitiveness, ambition, risk-taking, agency, volition
Using this model, we can also examine different levels of them. If the above might represent a positive or
balanced masculinity (male gender role presentation), below we can see levels of hypomasculinity and
hypermasculinity. These clusters are generally viewed as the less healthy masculinity characteristics in
the US, and many other societies.
Hypomasculinity
1. Weakness: emotional fragility, excessive fear, dependence, irrationality
2. Ambivalence: unreliability, irresponsibility, being non-committal
3. Inactivity: lethargy, submissiveness, complacency
Hypermasculinity
1. Coldness: stoicism, relational cutoff, fearlessness
2. Sociopathy: vanity, arrogance, manipulation, selfishness, lack of conscience
3. Hostility: violence, life endangering risks, hyper-aggression
Other Works
Some researchers have also tried to explore whether there is a universal masculine gender role, that
can be seen in all cultures during all times. This proves to be quite difficult, but there are several types of
social roles that have been highlighted (Gregor, 1985). Specifically, those are:
(1) Provider: Secure and provide resources
(2) Protector: Defend others and territory
Other researchers examine larger cultural trends of male gender roles. Some notable work on this
includes Levant et al (1992), who summarized traditional (hegemonic) American masculinity into seven
principles. It is important to note that although these are a general trajectory for many men, that there are
many different configurations of expression of these depending on individual and sub-cultural differences.

(1) restrict emotions

(2) avoid being feminine
(3) focus on toughness and aggression
(4) be self-reliant
(5) make achievement the top priority
(6) be non-relational
(7) objectify sex
(8) be homophobic
Another popular structuring of this was by David & Brannon (1976), who described the four standards of
the traditional American masculinity:
(1) no sissy stuff
Distance self from femininity, homophobia, avoid emotions
(2) be a big wheel
Strive for achievement and success, focus on competition
(3) be a sturdy oak
Avoid vulnerability, stay composed and in control, be tough
(4) give em hell
Act aggressively to become dominant
In contrast to what is often viewed as a negative angle on masculinity, a set of studies and papers has
been focusing on positive traits associated with traditional concepts of masculinity (Hammer & Good,
2010; Kiselica et al, 2008; ONeil, 2008; Levant, 1992). A recently presented framework for this focuses
on the following 10 strengths of masculinity (Kiselica & Englar-Carlson, 2010):
1. Male relational styles: males form relationships through shared instrumental activities
2. Male ways of caring: protecting others and action-empathy
3. Generative fathering: engaging and responding to a childs needs while attending to larger
development
4. Male self-reliance: using resources to overcome adversity and be your own man
5. Worker/provider tradition: having meaningful work that provides for others
6. Group orientation: males tend to collaborate and associate in larger networks
7. Male courage: males can achieve great things through daring and risk-taking
8. Humanitarian service: fraternal organizations have a strong history of service for others
9. Mens use of humor: this can be a means for connecting to others and coping with stress
10. Male heroism: heroic acts have a long tradition as part of manhood.