CHAPTER 4

MICROPROCESSOR CONCEPTS
Characteristics of Microprocessor:
Instruction Set: It is the set of instructions that a microprocessor executes.
Word length: the number of bits processed in a single instruction is called word length.
Depending upon the number of bits that can be processed at a time, processors are classified as
follows:
16 bit processor: capable of processing 16 bits at a time.
32 bit processor: capable of processing 32 bits at a time.
64 bit processor: capable of processing 64 bits at a time.
128 bit processor: capable of processing 128 bits at a time.
System clock speed: The number of pulses generated by the clock per unit of time is called its
clock speed. Each microprocessor is characterized by its clock speed. The CPU uses this clock
speed to control sequencing and execution of various operations in the computer.
The units to measure clock speed are: Mega hertz and Giga hertz.
Types of microprocessor: CISC, RISC and EPIC
Difference between RISC and CISC:
CISC(Complex
Instruction
Set RISC(Reduced
Instruction
Set
Computers)
Computers)
1. Large number of instructions.
1. Reduced number of instructions.
2. Less number of general purpose 2.More number of general purpose
registers.
registers.
3. Variable instruction length.
3. Uniform instruction length.
4. Program size is small.
4. Program size is large.
5. Processor is difficult to design.
5. Processor is easy to design.
6. High cost
6. Low cost
Eg. Pentium chips, Intel 8086.
Eg. SPARC, POWER PC etc.
EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing): it combines the features of RISC and CISC.
It aims at parallel processing of instructions. It is more efficient than RISC and CISC architecture.
IA-64(Intel Architecture-64) is a 64 bit processor based on EPIC.
Memory Concepts:
Memory stores data and instructions. The data is stored in the form of bits bytes.

Units of memory:
Smallest unit of memory is a bit.
Other units of memory are:
Nibble: group of 4 bits.
Byte: group of 8 bits.
Kilo Byte (KB) = 1024 or 210 bytes.
Mega Byte (MB) = 1024 or 210 KB.
Giga Byte (GB) = 1024 or 210 MB.
Tera Byte (TB)= 1024 or 210 GB.
Peta Byte (PB) = 1024 or 210 TB.
Exa Byte (EB) = 1024 or 210 PB.
Zetta Byte (ZB) = 1024 or 210 EB.
Yotta Byte (YB) = 1024 or 210 ZB.
Q. How many bytes are there in 1 Peta byte?
Ans. 250 bytes.

Q. How many Mega bytes are there in I Yotta byte? Ans. 260 Mega bytes.
Computer memories can be divided into the following categories:
Primary Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Differentiate between Primary memory and Secondary memory.
Primary Memory
Secondary Memory
1)
Holds data and instructions as well as 1) This is a permanent memory. It can store
intermediate output while processing.
large volume of information permanently.
This is temporary in nature.
It is directly accessible to the CPU.

2)

It is not directly accessible by the CPU.

3)

It has limited capacity.

3) The size of the Secondary memory is in the

range of GB and TB.

4)

It has more speed and high cost.

4) Compared to primary memory, the

secondary memory has less speed and less
cost.

How many parts of Primary memory are there?

Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM
ROM
Data in the RAM can be modified
Data cannot be modified.
ie. edited, deleted.
RAM is volatile memory.
ROM is non volatile memory.
Keeps the operating system
Contains program booting up the
program, application program in
computer.
use.
ROM is expensive.
RAM is cheaper.
Name the different types of RAM and differentiate them.
RAM is broadly classified into two categories: Static Ram (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM).
SRAM
DRAM
It consists of flip flops to store data It consists of a transistor and a capacitor to
store data
It does not require any refreshing
It needs to be refreshed again and again

It is faster than DRAM

It is slower than SRAM
It is expensive
It is cheap
Takes up much more space than Takes up less space than SRAM
DRAM
What are the different types of ROM?
The different types of ROM are:
1) Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): This type of ROM can be programmed even
after its manufacture by a PROM programmer circuit. But once programmed it cannot be
changed.
2) Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM): The contents of this type of ROM
can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.

3) Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM): The contents of

this type of ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electric signals.
Cache Memory: Cache is a high speed storage mechanism. Accessing cache is much faster
than accessing memory. Whenever some data is required, the CPU first looks in the cache if it is
there or not. If the data is found in cache, CPU does not access memory and hence the process
becomes very fast.
What are the two types of cache memory?
L1 Cache
1. Built inside the CPU
2. Smaller in size
3. It is faster than L2 Cache.

L2 cache
1. Resides on the mother board
2.Larger in size
3.It is slower than L1 Cache.

What is the need of Secondary Memory?

For permanence: Information stored in secondary memory is not lost when electricity is
turned off, ie. It is permanent.
For Portability: Secondary storage devices can be used to transport data from one
computer to another.
The main types of secondary storage media are:
Magnetic storage media: eg. Hard disks, floppy disks and magnetic tapes.
Optical storage media: eg. CDs and DVDs.
Solid state memories: eg. pen drives and digital cameras.
Hard Disk: - It is a permanent storage media.
Advantages: Large storage capacity stores and retrieves data much faster than floppy disk or
CDROM. Usually fixed inside the computer.
Disadvantages: Slower than RAM/ROM. The disc is fixed inside the computer and cannot be
easily transferred to another computer.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) :- Data is written on these disks at the time of
manufacture. Thereafter these data cannot be changed but can only be read by a laser beam.
Used for text, audio and video distributions like games, encyclopedias and application software.
CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable): Data can be recorded on these disks only once.
CD-RW (Compact Disk-Rewritable): It can be read or written multiple times with the help of a
CD-RW drive.
DVD (Digital Versatile Disk): It looks just like a CD but can hold about 15 times as much
information and transfer it to the computer about 20 times as fast as a CD-ROM.
DVDs come in three varieties:
DVD-ROM
DVD-R
DVD-RW
Blue Ray Disk: (also known as Blu-ray or BD) is used to store high definition audio and video. It
uses a blue laser to read/write data on a disk.
Pen drives: also referred to as thumb drive or flash drive is a portable USB flash memory device
that can be used to quickly transfer audio, video and data files from the hard drive of one
computer to another. They have a capacity smaller than hard disk but greater than a CD.

Input / Output Ports or Connections

Port is an interface between the mother board and an external device.
What is the difference between Serial and Parallel Ports?
Serial Port: Data transmitted through a serial port travels one bit at a time through a single
wire. Data transmission speed is slow. It is used to connect devices like mouse and modem.
Parallel Port: it can send 8 bits at a time simultaneously. Hence data transmission is faster.
Parallel ports are to connect printers, scanners, CD writers etc.
PS/2 ports are basic serial interfaces that are ideal for connecting keyboards and mouse.
USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port: It is a single, low cost, plug n play connector. The operating
system automatically detects the device connected through the USB port. Flash drives, digital
cameras, printers, scanners are some of the devices connected through the USB port.
Infrared Port: In this port data is transmitted through infrared waves. For infrared transmission,
the device and the computer both must have infrared ports. Infrared ports are used for wireless
data communication between computers and peripheral devices.
Bluetooth: It is used to connect mobile phones, computers and PDAs using a short range
wireless connection. It uses radio waves to transmit data between any two devices. Data can be
exchanged at the rate of 2 megabit per second.
Fire Wire Port: It is a high speed interface for connecting peripherals like digital video cameras,
audio interfaces and MP3 players to the computer. It can transfer data at the rate of 400 Mbps
which is 30 times faster than USB.

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