Topic X The Educational

Research Process

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define what research is;
2. Explain the characteristics of research;
3. Define what educational research is;
4. Describe the steps involved in the research process; and
5. Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research.

INTRODUCTION

The word research has been used in many different ways, sometimes rather loosely,
giving rise to confusion, and at times with the intention to deceive. This is illustrated in
the following circumstances:
(i)

Research has shown that four out of five dentists interviewed used Plantoid Herbal
Toothpaste. The claim that the majority of dentists used the particular brand of
toothpaste is misleading as there is no mention of the total number of dentists
interviewed and whether they were representative of all dentists in the country.

(ii)

Years of research have shown that SlimTex Capsules reduce ones weight in a
matter of weeks. Research on the use of various types of medicine and
supplements by humans tends to be inconclusive. In relation to the advertisement
on slimming pills, it would be difficult to make a claim that the pills reduce weight
as there are many other contributory factors such as gender, level of health and diet.

(iii) Azlan does research by browsing through consumer reports, catalogues, brochures
and market surveys before deciding what car to buy and Kong
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Beng surfs the Internet to do research on the symptoms of HIV/AIDS. In the

strictest sense of the term, what Azlan and Kong Beng are doing is not research.
Looking up facts and writing them down are nothing more than fact finding and
fact transcribing. There is even the tendency to call the written work a "research
report", which is not accurate. It may be a report but it is not a research report.
There needs to be a distinction between true research and the accumulation of facts.
Research is a way of thinking; it involves thinking what we want to study, how we go
about collecting data, analysing the data and deriving conclusions.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Identify the different ways in which the word research has been used in the
statements above.

1.1

RESEARCH DEFINED

According to the Websters dictionary, a research is a diligent scientific search or inquiry

to discover facts. Kerlinger (1973) defines research as the systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and
hypotheses about the presumed relations among the phenomena. You will notice certain
keywords in these definitions of research:

Scientific

Controlled

Systematic

Theory and hypotheses

Empirical and critical investigation

Presumed relations

Natural phenomena

Discover facts

Research is thus a scientific (or systematic) process of gathering information about the
hypothesised relations between phenomena, such as to investigate whether there is a
relationship between a students attitude towards mathematics and his or her
performance in mathematics. The scientific method, popularised by John Dewey in 1933,
lists the following steps:
(a)

Formulate a hypothesis (a tentative statement about the relation between two or

more theoretical constructs such as attitude and mathematics performance);

(b)

Test the hypothesis (design a study to establish whether the relationship between
the constructs is as hypothesised);
Copyright Open University
Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

(c)

Collect data (e.g. on attitude towards mathematics and mathematics performance);

and

(d)

Decide to accept or reject the hypothesis (e.g. correlation between attitude towards
mathematics and mathematics performance).

The purpose of using the scientific method is to enable the researcher to describe (the
relations between factors); to predict (given what is known, we can predict what might
happen); to control (when certain variables are manipulated, does it lead to a particular
condition), and to explain (can a theory be formulated to explain the phenomena being
investigated).

1.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research is a way of thinking. To qualify as a research, it needs to have certain

characteristics such as the following:
(a)

Research begins with a question in the mind of the researcher.

You need only look around, and everywhere you see phenomena which will arouse
your curiosity. For example, why are children in a school unable to read? Why are
girls performing better than boys? These are situations you may have difficulty
comprehending. By asking relevant questions, we create an inquisitive environment
which is the prerequisite for research. Research arises from a question that is
intelligently asked about a phenomenon that the researcher observes and is puzzling
him or her.

(b)

Research requires a plan.

One does not discover the truth or explanation about a phenomenon without serious
and meticulous planning. Research is not looking something up in the hope of
coming across the solution to your problem. Rather, it entails a definite plan,
direction and design.

(c)

Research demands a clear statement of the problem.

Successful research begins with a clear, simple statement of the problem. The
statement of the problem should be stated precisely and in a grammatically correct
manner. It should also set forth what it seeks to discover and enable one to see what
one is attempting to research.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(d)

Research deals with the main problem through sub-problems.

Divide the main problem into appropriate sub-problems, which, when resolved, will
result in the solution of the main research problem.

(e)

Research seeks direction through appropriate research questions and

hypotheses.
Express the sub-problems in the form of research questions or hypotheses. A
research question or a hypothesis which states the relationship between variables to
be investigated is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess or an educated
conjecture which may give direction to thinking with respect to the problem, and,
thus, aid in solving it.

(f)

Research deals with facts and their meaning.

Having defined the problem and the sub-problems and developed the research
questions and hypotheses, the next step is to collect whatever facts are pertinent to
the problem. The data collected needs to be organised into a form that is potentially
meaningful.

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Define research in your own words.
2. Identify the steps in gaining knowledge through the use of scientific
method.
3. What are some characteristics of research?

1.3

WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH?

What is educational research? Generally, an educational research is defined as a research

that investigates the behaviour of students, teachers, administrators, parents and other
members of the community who interact with educational institutions. The word
behaviour is taken broadly to mean such phenomena as learning, attitudes, aptitudes,
abilities, interests, practices, processes and emotions.
What is the purpose of educational research? Since education is fundamentally the
development of individuals, the central purpose of educational research is to find ways to
improve student learning. It has been argued that educational research without this as its
ultimate motivation and objective is not educational research. Anyone who is engaged in
a systematic search of ways to improve student learning is doing educational research.
For example, a classroom teacher

Copyright Open University

Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

experimenting with alternative ways of explaining the laws of physics and a full-time
researcher comparing the effectiveness of different reading methods in early literacy
programmes are both engaged in finding ways to improve student learning, and, in this
sense, are engaged in educational research. The leadership styles of the school principal
will influence teacher morale and job satisfaction, which will affect how teachers play
their role in the classroom. Thus, the approach adopted by school principals and
headmasters can influence student learning and attitudes.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Do you agree with the statement the central purpose of educational
research is to find ways to improve student learning?
2. Give some examples of findings from educational research in your area of
interest.
3. A graduate student is conducting a research on the effects of ISO
implementation on the work performance of Education Department staff. Is
he conducting an educational research? Discuss.

1.4

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

As discussed earlier, research is a systematic process, which means there are definite
steps involved. Figure 1.1 lists the seven steps involved in the research process.

Figure 1.1: The seven steps of the research process

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.4.1

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Generate Research Ideas

Many beginning researchers and graduate students face the problem of finding a
problem". There are cases of graduate students who have completed all coursework
requirements and "get stuck" at the thesis stage, while some never graduate. Hence, it is
advisable that students start early and search for a suitable problem which they can
explore throughout their coursework. The word problem often means there is dispute,
controversy, debate or disagreement that needs to be addressed and solved. For example,
why do young learners have more difficulty solving multiplication and division
operations than addition and subtraction operations in mathematics?
Where does one find research problems in education? They are all around you! There are
a host of research problems or unresolved issues everywhere. Look at the 14-year-old
who says, I hate history. Do you know why? Do you want to know why? In fact,
whatever that arouses your interest for which there are as yet no answers or are
inconclusive have the potential of being a research problem. Often, one starts with a
rather general, diffuse and even confused notion of the problem. Do not worry as this is
the nature and complexity of the research process. It is the first step that helps you
towards becoming a mature researcher. The following steps are to help you obtain a
research problem:
(a)

Step 1: Identify a Broad Problem in Your Area that is of interest to you and
related to your professional goals. You should build sizeable knowledge in your
area of interest for the long term. For example, you may be interested in how young
children learn mathematics, how to get teenagers interested in science, how to
enhance the teaching of moral education, how to improve training in the corporate
sector using e-learning, and the relationship between headmasters leadership style
and teacher morale.

(b)

Step 2: Systematic Programme of Reading within your broad area of study. For
example, if you are interested in why children have difficulty learning mathematics,
you can start with textbooks in the area. These textbooks explain the basic concepts
and facts related to the issue and may cite research in the references section
which you can further explore. Journals such as the Review of Research in
Education and the Review of Educational Research provide valuable information
about a particular field as they review related literature. Next, read articles in the
relevant journals in the field. For example, if you are interested in reading about
research, you may want to read the Journal of Reading and the Reading Research
Quarterly. You can also look through the catalogue both in the library and online,
and identify the journals in your field.

Copyright Open University

Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

(c)

Students often do not adequately refer to journals in the field but, instead, tend to
cite from popular sources such as newspapers, magazines and speeches. Journals
report empirical evidence on the field you are interested in, reflect the current
thinking about research and indicate the trend of research efforts in the field. This
will give you a grasp of leading edge research in the United States, Britain, Europe
and Australia and how you can do the same in Malaysia.

(d)

Step 3: Relate Your Research Problem to a Theory in the field. A theory is an

explanation of events, phenomena or behaviour. For example, if you are interested
in finding out whether providing children with multimedia presentations on science
concepts will enhance understanding, you may want to explore the underlying
theories of visual learning. Many phenomena in education are explained by
drawing upon theories from cognitive psychology, sociology, psycholinguistics,
management, computer science and so forth. It should be remembered that theory
provides the direction of the research. We will discuss in more detail the role of
theory in Topic 2.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. How do you go about finding a research problem in education?
2. What other sources provide research problems in education?

1.4.2

Formulate a Research Problem

Upon having a broad idea of what you want to investigate, the next step is to formulate
the problem simply, clearly and completely. This is what we mean by statement of the
problem. An adequate statement of the research problem is an important step in the
research process. Obviously, if you want to solve a problem, you must know what the
problem is. What is a good problem statement? Although research problems differ greatly,
and there is no one right way to state one, certain characteristics of problems and
problem statements can be learned and used to good advantage. Let us see an example.
Example: The relationship between attitudes towards science and academic
performance in science among primary school pupils.
This is an example of a research problem stating the relation between two factors or
variables (attitudes and academic performance) and an indication of population. A
problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

relation exists between the variables? The answer to this question will be sought by
conducting the research.

Three Criteria of Good Problem Statements

1.

The problem should express a relation between two or more variables

Is A related to B?
How are A and B related?
How is A related to B under condition C?
Is there a difference between A and B in terms of C?

2.

The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously, preferably in question form.
Instead of saying, "The problem is ....", or The purpose of this study is....", ask a question.
Questions have the advantage of posing problems directly. The purpose of a study, on the
other hand, does not necessarily reflect the problem of the study. For example, the question,
Is self-esteem related to academic performance? states the problem more effectively
than the purpose of the study, which is presented thus: to throw light on the relationship
between academic performance and self-esteem.

3.

The problem should imply possibilities of empirical testing . A problem that does not
contain implications for testing its relationship or relations is not a scientific problem. So, if
you can measure the constructs of self-esteem and academic performance, then the problem
is considered a good problem.

One critical issue to consider when you look for a problem is problem importance i.e.
how important the problem is and why the problem is worth your attention. As the
problem limits the scope of your study by focusing on some variables and not others, it
also provides an opportunity for you to demonstrate why these variables are important.
You can use the following questions as a guide to assess the importance of your problem:

Is the problem of current interest?

Will the problem continue in the future?

Will gathering more information about the problem have any practical application?

Will gathering more information about the problem have any theoretical importance?

How big and influential is the population affected by the problem?

Would research into the problem substantially revise or extend existing knowledge?
Copyright Open University
Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Would research into the problem create or improve an instrument of some utility?

Would research findings lead to some useful change in best practices?

Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to support the need for this
research?

Besides, you should evaluate if your literature review is adequate in solving your research
problem. If it cannot do so, then your research into the problem is worthwhile.

SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What is a good problem statement?
2. Why do graduate students have difficulty in stating research problems?

1.4.3

Develop Research Questions Or Hypotheses

Your car will not start. You put forward the hypothesis that the car does not start because
there is no petrol. You check the fuel gauge to either reject or accept the hypothesis. If
you find there is petrol, you reject the hypothesis.
Next, you hypothesise that the car does not start because the spark plugs are dirty. You
check the spark plugs to determine whether they are dirty and accept or reject the
hypothesis accordingly.
Similarly, in educational research, you have to put forward research questions or
hypotheses that state a relationship between the variables or constructs you are studying.
After having established the research problem or area that you plan to investigate, the
next step is to break down the problem into sub-problems. These sub-problems are
expressed in research questions or hypotheses. A research question or hypothesis is an
"educated guess" or a hunch about possible relationships or differences. The research
question or hypothesis guides the selection of appropriate research method, data
collection techniques, data analysis techniques (e.g. the statistical analysis to be used) and
so forth.
Research questions and hypotheses are closely related statements in quantitative research.
For example, you may begin a study with a research question, What is the role of
preschool childrens perception of themselves in their process of learning to read?
Your hypothesis might read, There is a positive relationship between preschool
childrens perception of themselves and their reading achievement. However,
hypotheses are not absolutely essential in all research
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

10

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

studies. For example, in exploratory research, where there is little accumulated

background information, hypotheses are often absent.

1.4.4

Design Study to Answer Research Questions

or Test Hypotheses

Having determined the hypotheses or research questions, the next step is to design the
study. We often hear graduate students say they want to do an experiment or a survey. But
they are unable to state with clarity and precision the hypotheses or research questions
they intend to answer. It is like putting the cart before the horse. Hypotheses or research
questions determine the design of a study. If you intend to test the effectiveness of an
educational phenomenon such as a teaching method or a counselling technique, the
logical choice would be to design an experiment. If you intend to find out whether
teachers are satisfied with their profession or how they perceive their principals, a survey
would be the appropriate research design. If your intention is to study interracial mixing
among students in the school canteen, then a qualitative approach using the observation
technique might be more appropriate.
Hence, the decision on which methodology to use will depend on the research problem
and the research questions or hypotheses. It is not good practice to decide on a
methodology and then work on the research questions. You have to be able to state clearly
what you intend to study and then decide on an appropriate methodology. If you are clear
about your research problem and research questions, you will find it easy to get assistance
from your supervisor and other students in designing a study to obtain answers to your
research questions.

ACTIVITY 1.3
The following research problems are taken from research literature. Study them
carefully and construct one or two hypotheses or research questions based on
them.
(a)

The influence of self-esteem and level of aspiration on academic

achievement.

(b)

The effectiveness of graphic organisers in enhancing the understanding of

science text material learners.

(c)

The effects of organisational climate in schools on teacher satisfaction and

morale.

Copyright Open University

Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

1.4.5

11

Collect Data

The research question determines the design of a study and method of data collection. For
example, one of your research questions is determined based on whether there are
differences in self-esteem between 16-year-old male and female students in secondary
schools. To answer this question, you have to collect data on the self-esteem of students.
This may be done by developing a self-esteem instrument or using an available
instrument and administering it to a sample of secondary school students. The sample will
have to be representative of 16-year-old students in secondary schools to allow you to
generalise the results obtained to the population. Here, you are using quantitative data
collection methods.
On the other hand, if you are interested in studying student-teacher interaction, you may
have to spend time in classrooms. You can use a structured observation checklist or leave
it open-ended and record all the processes that occur in the classroom. Here, you are
using qualitative data collection methods.

ACTIVITY 1.4
You stopped at a junction because the lights had just turned red. But, on your
left, a motorcyclist and a car beat the red light. You were most annoyed.
Being a good social scientist, you asked yourself why people did that. If you
were to convert the problem into a hypothesis, which of the following would
be the best hypothesis? Explain your answer.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

1.4.6

Some people beat the red light more frequently than others.
People who beat the red light are a danger to themselves and other
road users.
Beating the red light is common in crowded cities.
Road users are more likely to beat the red light when traffic is light
than when traffic is heavy.

Analyse and Interpret Data

Data collected from subjects such as students, teachers and school administrators have to
be analysed. If your study involves quantitative data, statistical procedures will be used to
analyse the data. The analysed data is usually presented in tables and graphs. Based on
the statistical analysis, the researcher interprets the data in relation to the research
questions or hypotheses. In the case of qualitative data, information is coded and
presented anecdotally. Instead of
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

12

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

numbers, data is presented in the form of words and sentences. Similarly, the data is
interpreted in relation to the research questions or objectives of the study.

1.4.7

Communicate Results

Data that has been analysed and interpreted has to be communicated to the community of
fellow researchers and practitioners. The results of a study are most commonly
communicated to interested parties through journals. There are numerous journals in
education reporting the findings of studies in the many fields of education (e.g. early
childhood, reading, second language learning, educational psychology, adolescents and
mathematics teaching). If you are a graduate student, you will most probably be
communicating the results of your study in the form of a thesis, dissertation or even a
research practicum. There is an established format of presenting the findings of your
study, which will be discussed in detail in Topic 10.

ACTIVITY 1.5

1.5

1.

Identify a research problem that you are interested in investigating.

2.

Formulate two research questions or hypotheses based on the research

problem.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE

AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN
EDUCATION

Educational research is typically divided into two broad categories: quantitative and
qualitative research. You will find that the discussion so far has focused more on the
characteristics of research that are typical of the quantitative research paradigm. What are
the differences between the two research paradigms?
(a)

Quantitative and qualitative research stem from different philosophical assumptions

that determine how researchers approach problems and collect and analyse data.
Quantitative research originated in positivism, which believes that knowledge can
only come from positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific methods. In
other words, it typically involves testing theories and hypotheses, and emphasises
gathering and analysing data with objective techniques such as the statistical
analysis of

Copyright Open University

Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

13

numeric data as the best way to answer questions and to explain and predict
behaviour. The purpose of the research is to study relationship and cause and effect.
The result is research that is systematic and open to replication by other
researchers. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is rooted in phenomenology,
which believes that knowledge is discovered through open and unbiased description
of experiences in a natural setting. The result of this type of research is a narrative
report so comprehensive that one can understand the social reality experienced by
the participants of the research. The purpose of the research is thus to understand
social phenomena in their natural settings. Furthermore, because researchers do not
know in advance how naturally occurring events will unfold or what variables may
be important, they do not begin a study with hypotheses. In this sense, the research
designs in qualitative research normally evolve during the study. As quantitative
researchers know exactly what variables to investigate and how they should be
investigated, the research designs are more structured and predetermined before the
study begins.
(b) Quantitative research adopts the deductive approach. The researcher begins by
formulating research questions and/or hypotheses based on an available theory or
theories. He/she then designs an empirical study to test the hypotheses and/or answer
the research questions. Next, he/she conducts the study to gather relevant data.
Based on the hypotheses tested and/or answers to the research questions, the
researcher confirms or revises the theory or theories. On the contrary, qualitative
research adopts the inductive approach. Normally, such research is conducted
because there is a lack of theory or existing theories are unable to explain a
phenomenon convincingly. Due to this, no hypotheses are put forward to guide the
research. The qualitative researcher begins by observing the phenomenon and
continues to find patterns in the form of themes, categories, concepts and typologies
that emerge. Tentative hypotheses are introduced and additional information is
collected to explain the phenomenon. Thus, quantitative research is theory-driven
while qualitative research is data-driven. Figure 1.2 summarises the general research
procedures in the two approaches.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

14

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Figure 1.2: General research procedures in deductive and inductive approaches

(c)

In quantitative research, the researcher uses carefully designed instruments such as

questionnaires, rating scales, inventories and tests to collect data. For example, to
study the attitudes of secondary school students towards learning Mathematics in
English, he can use the questionnaire constructed as an attitude scale. Likewise, to
measure the students performance in Mathematics, the researcher can opt for selfdevised or standardised tests. In qualitative research, the researcher, however, is the
main instrument in data collection. Being so, the researcher is more responsive to
the situation, and he or she is able to adapt to the changing conditions. For example,
in a face-to-face interview, a common technique in data collection, the researcher is
more sensitive to reactions of participants and the data can be immediately
processed, and he or she is able to take whatever action to check and confirm with
the participants if there are any doubts or uncertainties.

(d)

Quantitative research focuses on the perspective of the researcher rather than that of
the participants in the research. This has been termed as etic or the outsiders
perspective, as against the emic or insiders perspective. Table 1.1 illustrates the
differences in the questions focused on in the two perspectives.

Copyright Open University

Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

15

Table 1.1: Different Focus Questions in Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Etic Perspective (Quantitative)

Emic Perspective (Qualitative)

1. What do I know about a problem that

will allow me to formulate and test a
hypothesis?

1. What do my informants know about

their culture that I can discover?

2. What concepts can I use to test this

hypothesis?

2. What concepts do my informants use

to classify their experiences?

3. How can I operationally define these

concepts?

3. How do my informants define these

concepts?

4. What scientific theory can explain the

data?

4. What folk theory do my informants use

to explain their experience?

5. How can I interpret the results and

report them in the language of my
colleagues?

5. How can I translate the cultural

knowledge of my informants into a
cultural description my colleagues will
understand?

ACTIVITY 1.6

Examine the two research studies on reasons for discipline problems in

schools. Then, state which is quantitative research and which is qualitative
research. Justify your answers.
Researcher A identifies factors
that influence/affect discipline,
develops
an inventory
and
administers it to a sample of
problematic students. He
then
analyses the data and identifies
significant factors or ranks the
factors in order of dominance.

Researcher B interviews a sample of

problematic students individually.
He interacts with them and observes
their behaviour. He examines
counsellors reports
and school
discipline reports. He records all the
information and analyses it for
factors that emerge.

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

16

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

ACTIVITY 1.7
1. Write down your definition of research.
2. Suggest how you will go about finding a research problem that you
propose to investigate.
3. Discuss some educational research you have read. (Go to OUMs
Digital Library and click on ProQuest, which has a good collection of
journals in education.)
4. List the current thinking on research in your area of interest.

The word research has been used in many different ways, sometimes rather
loosely, giving rise to confusion, and at times with the intention to deceive.

Knowledge can be acquired through six ways - beliefs, intuition, authority,

empiricism, rationalism and science.

Research is the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural

phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among the
phenomena.

The purpose of the scientific method is to describe, explain, control and predict
phenomena.

Educational research investigates the behaviour of students, teachers, administrators,

parents and other members of the educational community.

The seven steps of the educational research process are useful guides for beginning
researchers.

A good research problem is stated clearly, expresses a relationship between variables

and can be tested empirically.

Copyright Open University Malaysia

(OUM)

TOPIC 1 THE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH PROCESS

Educational research

Research process

Hypothesis

Research question

Research

Scientific method

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

17