25NOV14 Fluids Notes v16 1

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
307
!""#$%&'$
()*+,$!-./01+.2$
$
345"6$
16
"#$%!
!
!
&'()*!+'((,-.*!
+,/'0.!1-2")0*234!
5'66!%7$8!
!
!
503'#7!D#3-:$+'$6(!
*33E7+'$6(3!
Q67#86:;!I:.G$(%!RE/:$-!.(G!5-.,#!
"#$%&'$(%)!
*++,$-./$,$'0!
1!2!*/3#('!
4!2!567#8&.'!
6(!9:.-;!
<!2!=(!9:.-;!
>!2!?:6@$-$#('!
A!2!BC#7+,.:0!
"#!
$%&&%'(!
&)&*+$!
,%-(.-$!
$%&&%'(!
/0$10'+'*&!02!
&)&*+$!,%-(.-$!
-33!/0$10'+'*&!
%,+'*%2%+,!%'!
&)&*+$!,%-(.-$!
-33!/0$10'+'*&!
%,+'*%2%+,!-',!
3%'4+,!%'!&)&*+$!
,%-(.-$!
%'&%(5*263!&)&*+$!
,%-(.-$!
"#!
'0'+!0.!
%'/0..+/*!
%$13%/%*!-',!
%'/0$13+*+!
+913%/%*!-',!
/0$13+*+!
+913%/%*:!/0$13+*+:!
;6&*%2%+,!
/0$13+*+3)!
%,+'*%2%+,!-',!
$0&*3)!3-=+3+,!
/0$13+*+3)!%,+'*%2%+,!
-',!3-=+3+,!
7%$13%/%*!-',!
/0$13+*+8!0.!
7+913%/%*!-',!
%'/0$13+*+8!
/0$13+*+3)!
%,+'*%2%+,!-',!
/.)1*%/-33)!
3-=+3+,!
/0$13+*+!&+*:!
%'/0'>+'%+'*!
20.$!20.!&036*%0'!
30(%/-3!@%*5!
$%'0.!23-@&!
F(68(3!.(G!H(;(68(3!
"<!
'0*!%,+'*%2%+,!
%'/0$13+*+3)!
%,+'*%2%+,!
I6J#:($(%!#KE.'$6(3!
"<!
$%&&%'(!
1-.*%-3!&+*!
1-.*%-3!&+*!
56,E'$6(!L#'&6G!73%'+!02!
.+-&0'%'(8!
?#!
$%&&%'(!
100.3)!0.,+.+,!
*(38#:!7=09+,:!/0..+/*:!6'%*&:!
&%(!2%(6.+&8!
"<!
$%&&%'(!-33!
-**.%=6*+&!
=09+,!
=09+,!-',!6'%*&!
=09+,:!6'%*&:!-',!
/0..+/*!
M.,$G.'$6(!76'%*!/0'&%&*+'/):!
0.,+.!02!$-('%*6,+:!
%',+1+',+'*!>+.%2%/-*%0'!
<!
'0!+220.*!*0!
>-3%,-*+!
%'/0..+/*!6'%*!
/5+/4!
6'%*&!/5+/4+,!
6'%*&!/5+/4+,:!
$-('%*6,+!
/5+/4+,!
9#-&($-.,!N677E($-.'$6(!
73+(%=%3%*):!3-)06*:!20.$-**+,!
*-=3+&:!(.-15!3-=+3&:!+*/A8!
"#!
$%&&%'(!
/0$10'+'*&!
'0*!0.(-'%B+,!
0.(-'%B+,!20.!
.+6&+!=)!*5+!
-6*50.!
0.(-'%B+,!20.!
.+6&+!=)!-!*5%.,!
1-.*)!
H0$+@0.4!I/-3+!
CAC#!D!EA##!
?AC#!D!CA?F!
"AC#!D!?A?F!
"A##!D!"A?F!
G!"A##!
*!
O!
N!
D!
P!
/0$13+*+!&+*:!
/0'>+'%+'*!20.$!
20.!&036*%0'!
30(%/-3!-',!
/0..+/*!
-''0*-*+,!/0$13+*+!
&+*!
01*%$-3!
=09+,:!6'%*&:!/0..+/*:!
-',!&%('%2%/-'*!
2%(6.+&!
6'%*&!/5+/4+,:!
$-('%*6,+!/5+/4+,:!
/5+/4+,!-(-%'&*!
-3*+.'-*%>+!&036*%0'!
&6%*-=3+!20.!
1.02+&&%0'-3!
,%&&+$%'-*%0'!
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&
!"#$%&
.*(/01%2,+0$)&
-3+3(&14&0+5(/&
'()*+,$)-&
6!1/)(-&3*+3&+)3&1,&3*(&0+5(/&
67$-8"+)(0(,3-&14&3*(&0+5(/&
.=1&328(-&14&41/)(-&
0+5(/&
93+:)&!1/)(-&+)3&1,&0+5(/;&<#3&%1&,13&%$-8"+)(&
0+5(/&<()+#-(&3*(&41/)(-&+/(&<+"+,)(%&
72,+0$)&!1/)(-&%$-8"+)(&0+5(/&<()+#-(&3*(&
41/)(-&+/(&$0<+"+,)(%&
+,-#./)!*
&'#()!*
56+#*7%&'8)2%-/'#2-'
7*,#3#+%-4'/)'"0-'
9.74'*#:-2'7/'*);7+<'
12)*')+-'!"#$%'")'
#+)"0-2='
56+#*7%&'>*,#3#+%-/'
%#./-'2)"#$)+#3'
*)$)+'
!"#$%&'()'*)$)+'
,-%#./-'"0-'1)2%-/'
#2-',#3#+%-4'
56+#*7%&'>*,#3#+%-'
%#./-/'"2#+/3#$)+#3'
*)$)+'
?0-'-@.#$)+'A-'./-'")'
4-/%27,-'"07/'7/&'
'
'
!
!F = 0
?0-'-@.#$)+'A-'./-'")'
4-/%27,-'"07/'7/&'
'
'
! F = ma
!"#$%&'()*+,&-.(/0%#+*0.1&2)(3/&$.&)&'$"$+)&
4#53&'#//0#.%3%&56&7$/&
i=1
i=3
i=2
!"#$%"&'($"$%)*(+,(-&#$%(.+'$/0'$(
&#(12(&3+0#(4567(89:.+'(
i=4
i = 24
;*<%+)$"(3+"<(<122+/1&=+"($"$%)*(12(
>?(89:.+'5(@$22(#A&"(-&#$%B2(1"#$%"&'(
$"$%)*5(
C+D&'$"#(EFG;H(3+"<(<122+/1&=+"(
$"$%)*(12(&3+0#(7IJ(89:.+'5(K0/A('$22(
#A&"(-&#$%B2(1"#$%"&'($"$%)*5(
!"#$%"&'($"$%)*(+,(O>(.+'$/0'$2(12(
&3+0#(I5>>(89:.+'(&#(%++.(
#$.N$%&#0%$P(30#(0"3+0"<5(
L%$220%$(&2($M$%#$<(3*(N&%=/'$(/+''121+"2(
1"21<$(&(/'+2$<(/+"#&1"$%5(!"#"$%&"'(
!"#$%&'()*+,&-.(/0%#+*0.1&!0/+2,&0.&30"2+#"2&42"05&,#/6)+2&
FLoad + FTension;Bond1 + FTension;Bond 2 + FTension;Bond 3 + FTension;Bond 4 + WMolecule + FNormal = 0
z : FLoad + FTension;Bond1 ! FTension;Bond 3 + WMolecule + FNormal = 0
x : FTension;Bond 2 ! FTension;Bond 4 = 0
FTension;Bond1 = FTension;Bond 2 = FTension;Bond 3 = FTension;Bond 4 = FTension
z : FNormal = FLoad + WMolecule
!"#$%&'()*+,&-.(/0%#+*0.1&!0/+2,&0.&30"2+#"2&)(&,#/6)+2&
FPr essure + FTension;Bond1 + FTension;Bond 2 + FTension;Bond 3 + WMolecule + FNormal = 0
z
z
z : FPressure ! FTension;Bond
2 + FTension;Bond 3 ! FTension;Bond 4 + WMolecule ! FNormal = 0
x
x
x : FTension;Bond
2 ! FTension;Bond 4 = 0
x
x
x
FTension;Bond
2 = FTension;Bond 4 = FTension
z
z : FNormal = FLoad + WMolecule ! FTension
+ FTension
Chapter 2
Fluid Statics
In this chapter we will learn how engineers solve problems involving fluids that are not moving,
in other words fluids at rest. These types of problems include those involving 1) manometers
and 2) walls. Lets start our discussion by examining the learning objectives associated with
manometer problems.
2.1
2.1.1
MANOMETER PROBLEMS
Learning Objectives
The learning objectives are organized based on the Problem Solving Rubric:
System Description
1. Students will draw direction of force component for manometer problem
2. Students will draw system property components
Assumptions
1. Students will recognize the fluid in a manometer problem as a fluid at rest
2. Students will recognize that the density of fluids in manometer is constant
Known and Unknowns
1. Students will list the given information on pressures, material properties, and fluid
heights (Knowns)
2. Students will list unknown quantities necessary to obtain problem solution (Unknowns)
3
4
Governing Equations
1. Students will list governing equations that show relationship between knowns and
unknown. For manometer problems these equations MAY include:
(a) Hydrostatic equation for constant density
(b) Formula for gauge pressure
2. Students will check that all knowns and unknowns are represented in the governing
equations listed
Solution Method
1. Students will show logical development of final solution
Answer
1. Students will box final answer
2. Students will write the correct units for final solutions
3. Students will write final answer only using the significant figures (digits)
Validation
1. Students will check that the units are consistent
2. Students will check that magnitude of the solution is reasonable
2.1.2
The Hydrostatic Equation
Before we are able to practice solving a manometer problem, we will address the Governing
Equations learning objective. For the manometer case, a key equation is the hydrostatic equation.
To derive the hydrostatic equation
We consider a small fluid element of a fluid at rest
We orientate our z-axis to point in a direction opposite to the direction of gravity
We only consider the force of gravity and forces due to pressure differences
Now we use a Taylor Series expansion to express the pressure on the faces of the element. Lets
consider the picture shown in Fig. 2.1 and start with the top and bottom face:
ptop (z) = p0 +
z dp
2 dz
(2.1)
0
Figure 2.1: Small fluid element in static equilibrium aected by the forces of gravity and pressure
dierences.
where we have neglected higher order terms, p0 is the pressure at the center of element shown in
the figure, and 0 denotes operations occurring at center of element. On the bottom face we have
z dp
2 dz
pbot (z) = p0
(2.2)
0
As the volume becomes infinitesimally small, the resultant force due to pressure is
Fpress = (pbot
=
dp
dz
ptop )dxdy
(2.3)
dxdyz
(2.4)
and as we force the volume to be infinitesimally small z dz and Eq. 2.4 becomes
Fpress =
dp
dz
dxdydz
(2.5)
Equation 2.5 gives the force on the element due to the pressure dierence. Now we need an
expression for the force due to the weight of the fluid element. We start by assuming that the
weight force is only a function of z and we write
Fweight =
=
=
bot
(z)gdxdydz
top
gdxdy
(2.6)
bot
(z)dz
(2.7)
top
1
gdxdy (top + bot )dz
2
(2.8)
where g is the acceleration of gravity, and Eq. 2.8 reflects the assumption that the density varies
linearly within the infinitesimally small element. Now we use a Taylor Series expansion to write
the density at the top and bottom of the element as
top (z) = 0 +
bot (z) = 0
z d
2 dz
z d
2 dz
(2.9)
(2.10)
Now, plugging Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10 into Eq. 2.8 yields an expression for the force due to the weight
of the fluid as
Fweight =
0 gdxdydz
(2.11)
where the As noted above, the fluid element is at rest, and therefore not accelerating. This
observation is important because it helps us analyze the forces acting on the element. Newtons
P
second law ( F = ma) gives us our framework for analyzing the forces. In the case of a fluid at
rest, the acceleration, a = 0, and considering only the forces in the z-direction, Newtons second
law reduces to
X
Fz = 0
(2.12)
Now, inserting Eqs. 2.5 and 2.11 into Eq. 2.12 we find
Fweight + Fpress = 0
0 gdxdydz
dp
dz
dxdydz = 0.
0
Now, Eq. 2.14 can be rearranged to obtain the hydrostatic equation
(2.13)
(2.14)
dp
=
dz
(2.15)
where the subscript 0 is dropped because the expression applies to any point in the fluid.
Now lets reduce Eq. 2.15 to form that is convenient for manometer and similar types of problems.
Consider an arbitrary incompressible fluid, with a density k , in static equilibrium. If the pressure
at some reference point i is Pi , then what is the pressure in the same fluid some vertical depth
h away? In other words, we need to solve for Pf , where Pf is the pressure at depth h. To
accomplish this, we integrate Eq. 2.15 for the constant density (incompressible) case
pf
dp =
pi
pf
z= h
gdz
z=0
pi = gh
which rearranged to yield
pf = pi + gh
(2.16)
which is a constant density hydrostatic equation, giving the pressure pf at depth h. Similarly, if
we were interested in the pressure at some height h away from the reference point i, our limits
of integration become z = 0 and z = h to yield the equation
pf = pi
gh
(2.17)
which is a constant density hydrostatic equation, giving the pressure pf at height h.
2.1.3
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure can be described by a simple formula that we may need for manometer and
many other problems well encounter. Lets consider the case of a container of water open to the
atmosphere. At the free surface (where water and air meet), the pressure is atmospheric (patm ).
To determine the pressure p at some depth h we can apply Eq. 2.16 to obtain
p = patm + gh
(2.18)
Here p is the absolute pressure since it is determined relative to an absolute vacuum. This is the
8
value that we used in Thermodynamics to solve problems using the ideal gas law, for example.
We can rewrite this expression as
patm = gh,
(2.19)
since it is very often convenient to express pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. In fact, we
express pressure relative to atmospheric pressure so often that we define
pg = p
patm
(2.20)
where pg is the gauge pressure. Most pressure devices measure gauge pressure. For example,
a tire gauge actually measures the tires pressure above atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure
specification might be 30 psig, a gauge pressure, and so the absolute pressure is 30 + 14.7 = 44.7
psi, where 14.7 psi is atmospheric pressure.
2.2
2.2.1
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACE PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
1. Students will draw force components on the submerged plane geometry
Assumptions
1. Students will recognize the fluid in a submerged plane problem as a fluid at rest
2. Students will recognize that the fluid density is constant (incompressible)
Known and Unknowns
1. Students will list the given information on pressures, forces and system properties
including geometery (Knowns)
Governing Equations
9
unknown. For submerged plane surface problems these equations MAY include:
(a) Resultant fluid force equation
(b) The y and x coordinates of the resultant force
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
2.2.2
Resultant Fluid Force Equation
We previously determined how pressure varies in a static fluid. That understanding will help us
determine the magnitude, direction, and location of a resultant force. This type of analysis is
important when considering a dam, which stores water in a reservoir when there is an excess.
Swimming pools are another example in which there are significant hydrostatic forces acting on
the pool walls. In this section, we consider the forces needed to support the submerged walls of
dams, swimming pools, and other systems. Consider the general case shown in Fig. 2.2. While
we may imagine that a swimming pool wall is vertical, we will generalize our analysis to apply
to vertical and sloping walls. Before starting, lets clarify some aspects of the situation shown in
Fig. 2.2. The following analysis applies when
The fluid free surface is open to the atmosphere
The plane on which the surface lies intersects with the free surface at the coordinate system
origin, where y = 0
10
Figure 2.2: Notation for hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface of arbitrary shape.
The area has an arbitrary shape
Now, at a given depth h the dierential force, dF , acting on the dierential area, dA, is given by
dF = gh dA,
(2.21)
This dierential force of Fig. 2.2 acts perpendicular to the surface, and characterizes the fact
that the force varies all about the surface area depending on the value of h. Also, comparing
Eqs. 2.21 and 2.19 we see that the above equation is basically gauge pressure multiplied by a
dierential area to obtain the dierential force. Even though the pressure varies all over the
area, we wish to find a single resultant force, FR , to use instead of dF . The resultant force is
found by integrating (summing) over the entire surface
FR =
gh dA =
A
gy sin dA
(2.22)
where the substitution h = y sin was made. For constant density and
FR = g sin
y dA
(2.23)
The integral of Eq. 2.23 is the first moment of the area with respect to the x axis, so we write
11
y dA = yc A
(2.24)
where yc is the y coordinate for the centroid of area A measured from the origin. We now rewrite
Eq. 2.23 as
FR = gAyc sin
(2.25)
FR = ghc A
(2.26)
or
where h is the vertical distance from the free surface to the area centroid as shown in Fig. 2.2.
2.2.3
The Resultant Force Coordinates
Weve just determined the magnitude of the resultant force. Now we want to know where on the
area does the resultant force act. More specifically we need to know yR , the y-coordinate of the
magnitude force location, and xR , the corresponding x-coordinate. Well start by determining
yR using the summation of moments about the x axis. The moment of the resultant force must
equal the moment obtained by integrating all around the area, or
FR y R =
y dF =
A
gy 2 sin dA
(2.27)
and substituting Eq. 2.26 into 2.27, and rearranging we find
yR =
y 2 dA
yc A
(2.28)
The integral is the second moment of the area or moment of inertia, Ix with respect to the x-axis
or
Z
y 2 dA = Ix = Ixc + Ayc2
(2.29)
where the parallel axis theorem was used, and where Ixc is the second moment of the area with
respect to an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to the x axis. So we can now write
yR =
Ixc
+ yc
yc A
(2.30)
12
Figure 2.3: Notation for hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface of arbitrary shape.
Following a similar approach we can determine the x coordinate, xR , by summing the moments
about the y axis, so
FR x R =
gxy sin dA
(2.31)
and
xR =
xy dA
Ixy
=
yc A
yc A
(2.32)
where Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Now employing the parallel
axis theorem again, we can write
xR =
Ixyc
+ xc
yc A
(2.33)
where Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing
through the centroid of the area. Centroidal coordinates and moments of inertial for common in
Fig. 2.3.
13
2.3
2.3.1
SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACE PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
1. Students will draw force components on the submerged curved geometry, including
dierential force components.
2. Students will draw system property components, including dierential geometry components.
Assumptions
1. Students will recognize the fluid in a submerged curved problem as a fluid at rest
2. Students will recognize that the fluid density is constant (incompressible fluid).
3. Students will recognize that atmospheric pressure is constant all around the geometry.
Known and Unknowns
1. Students will list the given information on pressures, forces and system properties
including geometry (Knowns)
Governing Equations
unknown. For submerged curved surface problems, these equations MAY include:
(a) Dierential gauge pressure force equation
(b) Hydrostatic equation
(c) Sum-of-Moments Equation
equations listed.
Solution Method
1. Students will show a development of the final solution consistent with the Procedure
for Solving Curved Surfaces Problems.
14
Answer
1. Students will box final answer.
2. Students will write the correct units for final solutions.
3. Students will write final answer only using the significant figures (digits).
Validation
1. Students will check that the units are consistent.
2. Students will check that magnitude of the solution is reasonable.
2.3.2
Differential Pressure Force Equation
In general, we can express the force that results from a pressure field as
F=
pnAs
(2.34)
where p is the pressure and the vector force, F, points in the opposite direction of the unit normal
n associated with the surface area As . Since pressure is isentropic, and thus does not vary with
direction, we can take the ordinary derivative with respect to the surface area to obtain
dF =
pn dAs
(2.35)
which gives the dierential force, dF, acting on dAs . Finally, for most curved surface problems,
it is very convenient to use the dierential gauge pressure force equation
dF =
2.3.3
pg n dA =
(p
patm )n dA
(2.36)
Procedure for Solving Curved Surfaces Problems
Consider the geometry shown in Fig. 2.4. An arbitrary fluid, with a maximum depth of h is
bounded by a curved wall, with a curvature defined by z = (h/a2 )x2 . Note the coordinate z
refers to the vertical component, while x is the horizontal component. Also notice that the origin
of the coordinate system is located at the bottom of the fluid. We wish to find the resultant
force F and its line of action (the z- and x-coordinates of where the force acts).
We begin by assuming that atmospheric pressure, patm , is constant all around the wall. A tire
gauge only measures gauge pressure because the forces acting on the tire wall are gauge pressure
15
Figure 2.4: An arbitrary fluid bounded by a curved wall.

forces. The atmospheric pressure force is the same on the inside and outside of the tire - it
cancels itself out. So in the following analysis we are interested in the gauge pressure force since
atmospheric pressure is the same everywhere. F is a vector, and well solve for the resultant
force acting on the wall shown in Fig. 2.4 by solving for each component: Fx and Fz .
Curved Surfaces: Force in x-Direction

By examination of Eq. 2.36 we see that the dierential force for the x-direction may be given as
dFx = pg w dz
(2.37)
where w is the thickness of the wall into the page, and dz is the vertical dierential distance,
which when multiplied together gives dAs . Note that the normal component, n, shown in Eq. 2.36
is taken care of because we know that Fx points perpendicular to the z-axis, and that it points
in same direction as the x-axis (thats why dFx is positive).
From Eq. 2.19 we see that pg = gh. However this expression needs to be rewritten so that it
varies as a function of z. To accomplish this, we let h = H
pg (z) = g(H
z)
z so that the pressure field becomes
(2.38)
and Eq. 2.37 is rewritten as
dFx = g(H
z)w dz
(2.39)
16
We can now integrate this expression from the origin, z = 0, to the height of the water, z = H
Fx =
g(H
z)w dz = gw Hz
z2
2
(2.40)
0
which reduces to
Fx =
1
gwH 2
2
(2.41)
Curved Surfaces: Force in z-Direction

We take a similar approach to determine Fz . Here dFz acts in a direction that is perpendicular
to the x-axis, and thus the area on which the force acts is given by the width of the wall, w,
times the dx, so
dFz = pg w dx
(2.42)
Now we need an expression for pg , but this time the pressure needs to vary by x so we can
integrate. From Fig. 2.4 we see that
z=
H 2
x
a2
(2.43)
which can be used to transform Eq. 2.38
pg = g(H
z) = g(H
H 2
x )
a2
(2.44)
This expression is now plugged into Eq. 2.42
dFz = g(H
H 2
x )w dx
a2
(2.45)
To find Fz we integrate Eq. 2.45 from the origin, 0 at the walls edge, to the point where the
water meets the wall
Fz =
g(H
0
H 2
x )w dx = gw Hx
a2
H 2
x
3a2
(2.46)
0
Another way of thinking about the limit of integration is to consider that the limits in in Eq. 2.41
were from 0 to H. To convert these limits so that they apply in this case, we rearrange Eq. 2.43
p
as x = a2 z/H, and consider the case when z = H. Simplification of Eq. 2.46 gives
17
Fz =
2
gwaH
3
(2.47)
Curved Surfaces: Resultant Force

The resultant force F is found using vector addition
p
Fx2 + Fz2
r
H4
4H 2 a2
= gw
+
4
9
r
1 4a2
= gwH 2
+
4
9
F =
(2.48)
(2.49)
(2.50)
which reduces to
1
F = gwH 2
2
1+
16a2
9H 2
(2.51)
Curved Surfaces: Line of Action

To determine where the resultant force acts, we stat by describing the moment associated with
the force component Fx as
M 0 = z R Fx
(2.52)
where M0 is the moment about the axis through the origin, and zR is the z-coordinate for the
Fz line of action. We can also write an equivalent dierential moment statement as
dM0 = z dFx
(2.53)
Note that the z in Eq. 2.53 is some point on the z axis, and the equation gives the dierential
moment dM0 at any point z due to the force of the fluid. We can integrate Eq. 2.53 to obtain
M0 =
H
0
z dFx =
zg(H
z)w dz
(2.54)
where dFx was replaced by the expression in Eq. 2.39. We can now make Eqs. 2.54 and 2.52
equivalent
zR Fx = g
z(H
0
z)w dz
(2.55)
18
or
1
zR gwH 2 = g
2
z(H
z)w dz
(2.56)
Where we have replaced Fx with the expression in Eq. 2.41. We now integrate Eq. 2.56 and
rearrange to solve for zR to find
1
H
3
zR =
(2.57)
We can follow a similar approach to find xR . In this case
M 0 = x R Fz
(2.58)
and
M0 =
a
0
x dFz =
xg(H
0
H 2
x )w dx
a2
(2.59)
where dFz is replaced by the expression in Eq. 2.45. Making Eqs. 2.58 and 2.59 equal
x R Fz =
xg(H
0
H 2
x )w dx
a2
(2.60)
we solve for xR by replacing Fz with the expression in Eq. 2.47, rearranging, and integrating to
obtain
xR =
2.4
3
a
8
(2.61)
BUOYANCY PROBLEMS
Archimedes two laws of buoyancy can be summarized as:

1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force equal to the weight of the
fluid it displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it floats
The first law can be proved using the hydrostatic principles we developed previously. Consider
the completely submerged body shown in Fig.2.5a. We know that there is a net upward force
FB which is determined by
19
Figure 2.5: An arbitrarily shaped body submerged in a liquid.
FB =
(p2
body
p1 ) dAH = g
(z1
z2 ) dAH
(2.62)
body
The point through which FB acts is called the center of buoyancy, which we label c as shown in
Fig. 2.5b.
We can also discuss the stability of the geometry shown Fig. 2.5. A stable submerged (or floating)
body returns to an equilibrium position when it is displaced. For example, a stable boat will
not overturn, just because you move around in the vessel: the center of gravity shifts because of
the passengers motion, the boat rocks a bit, but ultimately returns to an equilibrium position.
However, an unstable submerged (or floating) body will overturn. Focusing on submerged bodies, if the center of gravity is below the center of buoyancy, the immersed body will always be
stable.
The case of a floating body is a special case since only a portion of the body is submerged. So
in the floating body case
FB = g(displaced volume) = floating body weight
(2.63)
This expression demonstrates Archimedes second law. The stability of a floating body, however,
is more complicated. As shown in Fig. 2.6, the stability of a floating body can be accomplished
even if the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy.
20
Figure 2.6: Stable floating body.
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
/8+59"(&7&
&
:& 5+,;5(<(=& $-& +& -$59"(& %(>$)(& #-(%& <;& 5(+-#=(& <*(& 9=(--#=(& %$??(=(,)(& @(<A((,&
<A;& 9;$,<-& );,,()<(%& @B& +& );,<$,#;#-& "$,(& ;?& ?"#$%C& D;,-$%(=& <*(& 5+,;5(<(=& <#@(&
-*;A,&@(";AE&?$""(%&A$<*&<*=((&%$??(=(,<&$,);59=(--$@"(&?"#$%-C&F*(&)";-(%&(,%&;?&<*(&
<#@(&$-&);,,()<(%&<;&+&=(-(=>;$=&A$<*&);,-<+,<&9=(--#=(C&!;=&<*$-&);,?$G#=+<$;,E&?$,%&
<*(&9=(--#=(&$,&<*(&=(-(=>;$=&$,&H+I&+@-;"#<(&9=(--#=(&$,&!"#J&H@I&+-&G+#G(&9=(--#=(&
$,&!"#J&H)I&<*(&(K#$>+"(,<&*($G*<&;?&A+<(=J&H%I&<*(&(K#$>+"(,<&*($G*<&;?&5(=)#=BC&
&
&
&
&
&
,k
The same liquid, in two separate

tubes, at
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
/8+59"(&:&
&
;,&+<(+&$,&=*(&>?<5&?>&+,&$-?-)("(-&=<$+,@"(&A$=*&+&B+-(&A$%=*&?>&C&>=&+,%&+,&+"=$=#%(&
?>&D&>=&"$(-&$,&=*(&9"+,(&>?<5$,@&?,(&A+""&?>&+&=+,E&A*$)*&)?,=+$,-&+&"$F#$%&*+G$,@&+&
-9()$>$)&A($@*=&?>&3HID&"BJ>=1I&K*(&-$%(-&-"?9(-&#9A+<%&5+E$,@&+,&+,@"(&?>&C2L&A$=*&
=*(& *?<$M?,=+"I& K*(& B+-(& ?>& =*(& =<$+,@"(& $-& *?<$M?,=+"& +,%& =*(& G(<=(8& $-& +B?G(& =*(&
B+-(I&N(=(<5$,(&=*(&<(-#"=+,=&>?<)(&=*(&>"#$%&(8(<=-&?,&=*(&+<(+&A*(,&=*(&>"#$%&%(9=*&
$-&62&>=&+B?G(&=*(&B+-(&?>&=*(&=<$+,@#"+<&+<(+I&O*?AP&A$=*&=*(&+$%&?>&+&-E(=)*P&A*(<(&
=*(&)(,=(<&?>&9<(--#<(&$-&"?)+=(%I&
&
&
&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
/8+59"(&:&
&
;*(&9+<+=>"$)&?+@(&-*>A,&$-&6&5&A$%(&+,%&9$B>@(%&+@&!C&"&D&2E6:&5.7F&#&D&6&5F&+,%&$&D&
1&5E&G(@(<5$,(&H+I&@*(&5+?,$@#%(&+,%&"$,(&>J&+)@$>,&>J&@*(&B(<@$)+"&J><)(&>,&@*(&?+@(&
%#(&@>&@*(&A+@(<F&H=I&@*(&*><$K>,@+"&J><)(&+99"$(%&+@&%&<(L#$<(%&@>&5+$,@+$,&@*(&?+@(&
$,&(L#$"$=<$#5F&+,%&H)I&@*(&B(<@$)+"&J><)(&+99"$(%&+@&%&<(L#$<(%&@>&5+$,@+$,&@*(&?+@(&
$,&(L#$"$=<$#5E&
&
&
&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
/8+59"(&:&
&
;&)<,)=(>(&?"<)@&=(->-&<,&>*(&?<>><5&<A&+&"+@(B&C*(&?"<)@&$-&+&)#?(D&7&A>&<,&+&-$%(B&
E+")#"+>(&>*(&A<=)(&=(F#$=(%&><&*<"%&>*(&?"<)@&+>&+&A$8(%&%(9>*B&C*(&%(,-$>G&<A&
)<,)=(>(&$-&6H22&!"I#1B&
&
Chapter 3
Fluid Motion: Part One

3.1
STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, CONTINUITY PROBLEMS
3.1.1
Learning Objectives
System Description
1. Students will draw a control volume
2. Students will draw velocity components
Assumptions
1. Students will recognize the fluid flow as steady flow
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as one-dimensional flow
3. Students will recognize that gravity forces are negligible
Known and Unknowns
1. Students will list the given information on pressure, velocity, material properties, or
system geometry (Knowns)
21
22
Figure 3.1: Actual duct and control volume representations.

Governing Equations
1. Students will list the one-dimensional, steady-flow, continuity equation
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
3.1.2
Control Volume
Lets start with an example of the types of problems well be solving in this chapter. Figure 3.1a
shows a picture of an actual variable area duct section. There are many question one could ask
regarding flow through this section of pipe flow. We could ask, What velocity of flow at the
inlet, would result in a flow rate of 2 gallons per minute?. Or maybe, What kind of forces are
generated as the fluid flows through the expanding section?. As we shall see, answers to both
of these questions are related to the geometry of the pipe section. Thats why in this chapter we
will always approach solving these problems by first defining a control volume. Weve redrawn
the pipe section to include a control volume in Fig. 3.1b. Now, we can reframe our questions
23
Figure 3.2: Comparison between a one and two-dimensional flow.

as: What flow rate into the control volume will result in a specific flow rate exiting the control
volume. Or, What kind of forces act on the control volume as the fluid flows through it.
3.1.3
Steady Flow
Our next task is to understand what steady flow means in the context of fluid flow problems.
The CV (control volume) in Fig. 3.1b shows that the velocity and density at the inlet are V1 and
1 , and the outlet properties are V2 and 2 . Notice that Fig. 3.1b does not indicate that these
properties change with time. It is therefore implied that these properties are the same at every
instance in time. When the inflow and outflow conditions do not vary with time, we call this
flow steady flow.
3.1.4
One-Dimensional Flow
Lets return to Fig. 3.1b notice the arrows at the inlet and outlet used to represent the flow field
at those locations. The arrows are the same length all along inlet and outlet cross-sections, however the arrows are shorter at the outlet suggesting that the flow is slower as it exits the control
volume. Considering the inlet, we can say that the velocity is constant across each cross-section,
or in reference to the coordinate axis, that the velocity does not vary in the x-direction. The
same is true for the outlet: the velocity does not vary in the x-direction. On the other hand, as
we noted above, the velocity does get faster as we move from the inlet to the outlet. Thus the
velocity does vary in the x-direction. Since the flow only varies in one direction (in this case, the
x-direction), we call this one-dimensional flow.
One-dimensional flow fields do not occur naturally - they are idealizations of multi-dimensional
flow fields. For example, Fig. 3.4 shows a two-dimensional flow field and its idealized onedimensional flow field. The 2D flow field is a more accurate representation of an actual flow
through a circular pipe, however there are cases where the 1D approximation is sucient. For
example, very fast flow fields can often be approximated as 1D. We will talk more about this later.
24
Figure 3.3: Geometry for continuity analysis.
Finally, consider the image in Fig. 3.1c. Since the velocity is the same all along the cross section
instead of drawing several arrows, we sometimes represent 1D flows by simply drawing one arrow
at the inlet and outlet.
3.1.5
Continuity Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional Flow
We will now consider the fundamental principle, which requires that mass be conserved when a
fluid can be approximated as steady one-dimensional flow. Consider the control volume shown
in Fig. 4.1. Because the flow is steady, all the mass that enters the control volume (CV), must
exit: mass cannot be stored or generated in the CV. So, over a short time
t we can calculate
the
Mass entering area A1 = 1 A1 V1 t
(3.1)
Mass exiting area A2 = 2 A2 V2 t
(3.2)
and
and since mass has to be conserved, the mass entering must equal the mass exiting, so
1 A1 V 1 = 2 A2 V 2
or
(3.3)
25
1 A1 V 1
2 A2 V 2 = 0
(3.4)
Note that in the equation above, the mass flow rates are scalar quantities, and thus independent
of direction. Furthermore, this equation is only applicable to 1D, steady flows, with one inlet
and one outlet. For the case of 1D steady flow with several inlets and outlets, the expression can
be written as
N
X
i Ai V i = 0
(3.5)
i=1
3.2
STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, MOMENTUM EQUATION PROBLEMS
3.2.1
Learning Objectives
System Description
3. Students will draw force components
Assumptions
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as one-dimensional flow
3. Students will recognize the fluid flow as either unidirectional or bidirectional flow
4. Students will recognize that gravity forces are negligible
Known and Unknowns
26
Figure 3.4: Steady, one-dimensional, unidirectional flow.

Governing Equations
1. Students will list the one-dimensional, steady-flow, continuity and/or momentum
equation
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
3.2.2
Unidirectional and Bidirectional Flow
Consider the geometry shown in Fig. 3.4. As we discussed in the previous section, the arrows
represent the direction of the flow. It is clear from the figure that the inlet and outlet flow
conditions are constant for all time, so the flow is steady. Also note that the velocity does not
vary across the inlet cross section. While the magnitude of the velocity at the outlet is dierent
27
Figure 3.5: Steady, one-dimensional, unidirectional flow.

from that at the inlet, the velocity does not vary across the outlet either. Since the velocity does
not vary at the outlet and inlet cross sections, we call this flow one-dimensional. Now compare
Fig. 3.4 to Fig. 4.1. We see that both flows are steady and one-dimensional, however, in Fig. 3.4
the flow is only in the x-direction, while in Fig. 4.1 the flow is in both x- and y-directions. Fig. 3.4
is an example of unidirectional flow. Fig. 4.1 is an example of bidirectional flow.
3.2.3
Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Unidirectional Flow
Forces cause fluids to move (or stop moving). Forces also result from moving fluids. Much of
this course is devoted to understanding the relationship to fluid motion and the forces required,
or generated. Some forces that we will consider when analyzing fluid flow are:
Forces that result from pressure dierences
Forces that arise due to gravity
Friction (viscous) force
Surface forces
Figure 3.4 shows a steady, one-dimensional, unidirectional flow. It is clear from the figure that
forces will arise from the pressure dierence. For this problem we will assume that the geometry
is not very big, and so gravity is negligible. We will also assume that viscous force is negligible.
However, we do see in Fig. 3.4 a surface force Rx acting the x direction. Rx is the force of the
duct acting on the fluid. Lets determine the magnitude of this force Rx , by applying Newtons
second law:
Sum of the forces = time rate of change in momentum
(3.6)
28
Utilizing the notation presented in Fig. 3.4, and noting that flow, and the associated forces, occur
in the x-direction we write
x-momentum entering CV during time span
t = mass V1 = (1 A1 V1 t)V1
(3.7)
x-momentum exiting CV during time span
t = mass V2 = (2 A2 V2 t)V2
(3.8)
and
so
time rate of change in x-momentum =

=
x-momentum exiting CV
2 A2 V22 t
x-momentum entering CV
t
1 A1 V12 t
t
and so the momentum time rate of change in the x-direction is

= 2 A2 V22
1 A1 V12
(3.9)
To complete application of Newtons second law (Eq. 3.6) we need to sum the forces acting on
the control volume. We noted earlier that gravity and viscous forces are negligible, leaving the
pressure forces and the force of the ducts surface on the fluid, Rx . Since pressure acts on all
surfaces, atmospheric pressure acts equally everywhere, so we express the pressure forces in terms
of gauge pressure
force due to pressure at A1 = pg,1 A1
(3.10)
force due to pressure at A2 =
(3.11)
pg,2 A2
So, summing the forces,
Sum of the forces in x-direction = Rx + pg,1 A1
pg,2 A2
(3.12)
and using Eq. 3.9 and 3.12 in Eq. 3.6 gives
Rx + pg,1 A1
pg,2 A2 = 2 A2 V22
1 A1 V12
(3.13)
29
The above equation is Newtons second law for one-dimensional, unidirectional, steady-flow problems (when there is one inlet and one outlet
3.2.4
Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Bidirectional

Flow
Now lets consider the geometry shown in Fig. 4.1. Similar to the situation studied in the previous
section, this case is also steady, one-dimensional, and we neglect gravity and friction. The key
dierence here is that, not only does the magnitude of velocity changes as the fluid flows through
the control volume, but also its direction. Lets derive an equation similar to Eq. 3.13 that
applies to the specific geometry shown in Fig. 4.1. Starting with the x-direction, we can write
that
Time rate of change in x-momentum = (2 A2 V2 t)V2 cos

= 2 A2 V22 cos
(1 A1 V1 t)V1
1 A1 V12
and
Sum of the forces in x-direction = Rx + pg,1 A1
pg,2 A2 cos
(3.14)
Using the above equations in Eq. 3.6 we obtain the momentum equation for the x-direction as
Rx + pg,1 A1
pg,2 A2 cos = 2 A2 V22 cos
1 A1 V12
(3.15)
In the y direction,
Time rate of change in y-momentum = 2 A2 V22 sin
(3.16)
which takes into account that there is no y-momentum at the inlet, and now
Sum of the forces in y-direction = Ry
p2 A2 sin
(3.17)
Using Eqs. 3.16 and 3.17 in Eq. 3.6 we obtain
Ry
pg,2 A2 sin = 2 A2 V22 sin
(3.18)
30
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
!
"#$%&'(!)8&9&):"$,%(;&<=&%$+5(>(;&!&+,%&"(,?>*&"&$-&5<#,>(%&<,&+&@->$,?@&-#AA<;>&$,&
+&B$,%&>#,,("C&+-&-*<B,&D("<BE&F*(&B$,%&>#,,("&$-&<=&;()>+,?#"+;&);<--&-()>$<,&+,%&
*($?*>& G!E& F*(& $,)<5$,?& ="<B& $-& ->(+%:& +,%& #,$=<;5C& B$>*& )<,->+,>& %(,-$>:& +,%& +&
H("<)$>:&#7E&I<B,->;(+5&<=&>*(&):"$,%(;&>*(&->;(+5"$,(-&D()<5(&A+;+""("&+?+$,C&+,%&
>*(&-*+A(&<=&>*(&H("<)$>:&A;<=$"(&$-&+-&-*<B,E&!$,%&>*(&5+?,$>#%(&<=&#6&$,&>(;5-&<=&#7E&
&
"#$%&'(! *8&J<,-$%(;&>*(&="<B&-*<B,&D("<BE&F*(&A;(-(,)(&<=&>*(&):"$,%(;&)*+,?(-&
>*(&="#$%&A;(--#;(&+,%&5<5(,>#5&%$->;$D#>$<,-C&D()+#-(&>*(&):"$,%(;&(K(;>-&+&=<;)(&
<,&>*(&="#$%C&L$%E&M,&>*$-&(K+5A"(&B(&B$-*&><&=$,%&$%E&
&
&
Chapter 4
Fluid Motion: Part Two

4.1
4.1.1
TANK DRAINING PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
Assumptions
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as constant density
3. Students will recognize the fluid flow as inviscid
4. Students will recognize points that lie on same streamline
5. Students will recognize that pressure is constant across straight parallel streamlines
Known and Unknowns
31
32
Governing Equations
1. Students will list the Bernoulli Equation
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
4.1.2
The Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli equation states:

1
1
p1 + V12 + gz1 = p2 + V22 + gz2 = constant
2
2
(4.1)
which is applicable when

Points 1 and 2 lie on the same streamline,
The fluid has constant density,
The flow is steady, and
The flow is inviscid.
We will now derive the Bernoulli equation because it is very instructive to understand how the
above assumptions are applied in the derivation. We approach the derivation of Bernoullis equation by following a fluid particles motion along a streamline. In Fig. 4.1, s, is the direction along
33
Figure 4.1: Small fluid element and the streamline associated with its flow.
Figure 4.2: Pressure.
the streamline, and n points normal to the streamline. R is the streamlines radius of curvature,
and is the angle between R and the z axis. The angle, , is the angle between the tangent of
the curve (at the specified point), and the curve path, s. Also note that gravity points down,
that is, opposite to the z-axis. Figure 4.2 shows the same fluid particle, but instead highlights
the pressure acting on each face.
To derive Bernoullis equation, lets use Newtons 2nd law to analyze fluid motion in the sdirection. The forces acting in the s direction are
A weight component acting in s-direction =
g sin dndsdx =
z
s dndsdx
34
A force component due to pressure acting in s-direction (following Fig. 4.1)
=
=
p ds
s 2
dndx
p
dndsdx
s
p+
p ds
s 2
dndx
As with our derivation of the one-dimensional momentum equation, we start with Newtons 2nd
law, with one minor adjustment: we divide both sides by the volume of the fluid element
Sum of the forces
time rate of change in momentum
=
volume of the fluid element
(4.2)
Now, summing the weight component and the force component due to pressure in the s-directions,
yields
P
Sum of the forces
Fs
=
=
dndsdx
p
s
z
s
(4.3)
Now we must derive an expression for

time rate of change in momentum
dV
=
dt
(4.4)
which we show to be equal to the density (mass/volume of fluid element) times the element acceleration. To obtain an expression for the element acceleration, we note that the force described
in Eq. 4.3 will accelerate the fluid particle from a velocity of V to V +
V
s
ds along the s-direction.
So we can express the dierential change in velocity along the streamline as
dV =
=
V +
V
ds
s
V
ds
s
Plugging the above expression into 4.4, we obtain
V
ds
dV
ds V
V
= s
=
= V
dt
dt
dt s
s
(4.5)
Now we can apply Newtons 2nd law to the fluid element by combining Eqs. 4.3 and 4.5 with
Eq. 4.2 to obtain the equation
p
s
z
V
= V
s
s
(4.6)
35
Now multiply through by ds
p
ds
s
z
V
ds = V
ds
s
s
(4.7)
and by the same reasoning used for Eq. 2.63, we can rewrite the above equation as
dp
gdz = V dV
(4.8)
Finally, for constant density, we can integrate and rearrange the above equation to obtain the
Bernoulli equation as
p 1 2
+ V + gz = constant
2
4.1.3
(4.9)
Constant Pressure Across Streamlines
To obtain Eq. 4.9 we applied Newtons 2nd law to a single fluid particle traveling along a streamline. The final form of the Bernoulli equation will be very useful when we know the velocity of
the flow (at two points) and we want to calculate the pressure dierence between the two points
on the streamline. To obtain an expression that tells gives us a relationship between pressure
dierences and velocity across streamlines, we again start with Newtons second law, except now
we frame it as
Sum of the forces in the n-direction = time rate of change in momentum in the n-direction
(4.10)
Now, lets assume that the geometry is so small that we can ignore gravity. When gravity is
negligible we can rewrite Eq. 4.3 for the n-direction as:
Sum of the forces in the n-direction =
p
n
(4.11)
For the change in momentum portion of Newtons Second Law, we present the solution as
time rate of change in momentum in the n-direction = V 2
where the curvature, = R
(4.12)
(inverse of the radius of curvature). A rigorous derivation of
Eq. 4.12 can be found in most good Fluid Mechanics books, here we provide a qualitative
treatment. The curvature, , of the streamline is defined as
T
sin
s
(4.13)
36
Figure 4.3: Draining Tank

where T is the tangent to the curve at some point. Now, the mass flux is given as V , and when
multiplied by the velocity we get a momentum flux. We are interested in the momentum flux in
the n direction, and we see that multiplying the velocity times the curvature gives us the velocity
component in the n direction, or V V sin . Thus Eq. 4.12 gives the momentum flux in the
n-direction.
Now, consider the situation where the streamline, as defined by s, becomes a straight line. In
the case of a straight line 0, and by Eq. 4.13,
p
n
0, which implies that the pressure is
constant across straight streamlines.
4.1.4
Draining Tank Problems
Consider the large water tank shown in Fig. 4.3. Water is evacuated from the tank through an
orifice at the bottom right, and we want to know the velocity of the discharged water. When we
say that the tank is large, we mean that even though the tank is discharging water, the tank is
so large that the water level does not change. In other words, the velocity of the water at an
arbitrary point on the waters surface is approximated as zero, since the water level isnt changing
that much. The assumption that the velocity of water at the top water-air interface does not
change, i.e. remains zero, is a quasi-static assumption. We also note that atmospheric pressure
is constant all around the tank. Figure 4.3 shows three streamlines, a, b, and c, associated with
fluid particles that start at the waters surface and flow out the tank through the orifice. To
37
solve for the discharge velocity, we could use any one of the three streamlines, but well choose
streamline a for our analysis. Streamline a extends from the water surface (point 1) to the
outlet exit plane (point 2). Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same streamline, the fluid density is
constant, the flow is (quasi) static, and the flow is inviscid, we use Bernoullis equation along the
streamline, which takes the form:
p1
p2
1
+ 0 + gH =
+ V22 + 0
(4.14)
Now, as noted above, Fig. 4.3 also shows two additional representative streamlines. At the outlet
plane 2, the streamlines are parallel and straight. As discussed in the previous section, this implies
that the pressure is constant across the outlet plane. Since we noted that atmospheric pressure
is constant around the entire geometry, and since the pressure across the straight streamlines are
constant, we conclude that p1 = p2 = patm , and Eq. 4.14 reduces to
V2 =
2gH
(4.15)
which is the velocity of the water exiting the simple system shown in Fig. 4.3.
4.2
4.2.1
ONE-DIMENSIONAL TUBE AND DUCT PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
Assumptions
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as constant density (incompressible)
3. Students will recognize the fluid flow as inviscid
4. Students will recognize points that lie on same streamline
38
5. Students will recognize that pressure is constant across straight parallel streamlines
6. Students will recognize that flow is one-dimensional
Known and Unknowns
Governing Equations
1. Students will list the Bernoulli equation
2. Students will list the appropriate one-dimensional momentum equation
3. Students will list the one-dimensional continuity equation
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
The key dierence between the STEADY FLOW, ONE-DIMENSIONAL, MOMENTUM EQUATION PROBLEMS discussed above, and the ONE-DIMENSIONAL TUBE AND DUCT PROBLEMS of this section is how pressure is handled. The one-dimensional problems studied so far,
only required the continuity and 1D momentum equations because the (gage) pressure force was
usually given (e.g. equal to zero). Basically, the tube and duct problems studied in this section require that you determine the pressure. Since one-dimensional problems can be recognized
39
steady-flow, incompressible, and inviscid, it is possible to use Bernoullis equation to determine
the pressure. Example 11 gives an example of the one-dimensional tube and duct problems
considered in this section.
40
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&.&'//0&123&
&
&
&
4+5(6666666666666666666666666&
!+""&7281&
&
&
!"#$%&'( )*( 9:,-$%(;& +& <+,=& %;+$,$,>& <*;:#>*& +& -5+""& :;$?$)(@& A*(;(& <*(& :;$?$)(&
:#<"(<&B:$,<-&#B&+<&+,&+,>"(&!@&+-&-*:A,&C(":AD&E*(&5+>,$<#%(&:?&<*(&(F$<&G(":)$<H&$-&
-<$""&!! ! ! !!"D&I-&<*(&J(<&$--#(-&$,<:&<*(&+<5:-B*(;(@&<*(&G(;<$)+"&):5B:,(,<&:?&<*(&
G(":)$<H&K"L&%();(+-(-&#,%(;&<*(&+)<$:,&:?&>;+G$<HD&E*(&G(;<$)+"&G(":)$<H&>:(-&<:&M(;:&
+<& <*(& <:B& :?& <*(& J(<& <;+J()<:;H& +,%& <*(,& C():5(-& ,(>+<$G(D& E*(& *:;$M:,<+"&
):5B:,(,<& :?& <*(& ?"#$%& G(":)$<H& K#L& ;(5+$,-& ):,-<+,<& <*;:#>*:#<& <*(& <;+J()<:;H&
A*(,& +$;& ?;$)<$:,& $-& ,(>"()<(%@& +,%& <*(& :,"H& ?:;)(& +)<$,>& $-& %#(& <:& >;+G$<HD& !$,%& <*(&
5+F$5#5&*($>*<&<:&A*$)*&<*(&J(<&;$-(-D&
&
&
&
(
!"#$%&'( +,*( ( I&<+,=&-$<-&:,&+&C+"+,)(&-)+"(&<:&5(+-#;(&<*(&G(;<$)+"&+,%&*:;$M:,<+"&
?:;)(-&$%&+,%&$&D&E*(&<+,=&*+-&+,&:B(,$,>&,(+;&<*(&C:<<:5&<*+<&B:$,<-&#B&+<&+,&+,>"(&
!&<:&<*(&*:;$M:,<+"&K-((&<*(&?$>#;(&C(":ALD&E*(&A+<(;&"(G("&$-&=(B<&):,-<+,<&-:&<*+<&
<*(&B;:C"(5&$-&-<(+%HD&N(&A$""&+--#5(&<*+<&<*(;(&+;(&,:&":--(-@&+,%&<*+<&<*(&?"#$%&$-&
:?&):,-<+,<&%(,-$<H&'D&
K+L&N*+<&$-&$%O&
KCL&N*+<&$-&$&O&
K)L&!$,%&<*(&A($>*<&:?&<*(&A+<(;&$,&?"$>*<D&
&
&
&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&
!"#$%&'())(
(
8+9(:& ;<& %(,-$9=& !& $--#(-& -5;;9*"=& <:;5& +& ->$?;9& ;<& )$:)#"+:& ):;--@-()9$;,& $,9;& 9*(&
+95;->*(:(A&+-&-*;B,&C(";BD&E9&9*(&<"+,?(A&9*(&F(";)$9=&$-&"D&G*(&%$+5(9(:&%():(+-(-&
<:;5&#&+9&9*(&<"+,?(&9;&#HI&+9&9*(&(J$9D&K?,;:$,?&";--(-A&L+M&<$,%&9*(&?+#?(&>:(--#:(&+9&
9*(&<"+,?(&$,&9(:5-&;<&!&+,%&"A&+,%&LCM&<$,%&9*(&5+?,$9#%(&+,%&%$:()9$;,&;<&9*(&<;:)(&
(J(:9(%&C=&9*(&B+9(:&;,&9*(&->$?;9&$,&9(:5-&;<&!A&#A&+,%&"&L$?,;:(&9*(&B($?*9&;<&B+9(:&
);,9+$,(%&$,&9*(&->$?;9MD&
&
&
Chapter 5
Integral Equations of Motion:

Part One
5.1
5.1.1
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
Assumptions
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as two-dimensional
3. If appropriate, students will recognize the fluid flow as incompressible
4. Students will note any assumptions made regarding force or pressure components
Known and Unknowns
41
42
Governing Equations
1. Students will list the integral form of the continuity equation for steady and/or incompressible flow
2. Students will list the integral form of the momentum equation (if necessary)
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
5.1.2
Flux
The concept of flux will be very useful in developing the ideas we will discuss in this section.
The flux of something is the amount of that something that crosses a surface per unit time. For
example, the mass flux is the amount of mass transported across a surface over a unit of time.
5.1.3
Integral Form of Continuity Equation
We will now derive the integral form of the continuity equation. This equation can be used to
solve the type of problems discussed in this section. To derive this equation, we start with the
control volume (CV) shown in Fig. 5.1. The figure shows an arbitrarily shaped fluid system, and
we have drawn a control volume around this system. Now, consider a tiny piece of this system,
a dierential fluid element with a volume dV located within the control volume (see Fig. 5.1).
The mass of this tiny piece is given by
43
Figure 5.1: Arbitrarily shaped control volume defining a fluid system with density .
Mass of dierential fluid element = dV
(5.1)
so the total mass in the control volume (CV) is
Total mass in the CV =
dV
(5.2)
CV
In general this total mass can change over time, so by taking the derivative with respect to time
we obtain
The time rate of change of total mass in the CV =
dV
(5.3)
CV
The rate at which mass in the CV changes depends on the flux of mass into and out of the
control volume, so we need an expression for the mass flux. As noted above, the flux of mass
out of the control volume is the amount of mass transported across the control surface (CS) per
unit time. So
The total mass flux out of the CV per unit time =
CS
n VdA
(5.4)
To understand the above equation, consider the term VdA, which is very similar to a mass
flow rate across a dierential cross sectional area dA, except the term has direction and magnitude because the velocity is a vector (remember: mass flow rate is a scalar quantity). To
obtain the mass flux, we took the dot product of the unit normal n and VdA. The dot product operation gives us the portion of the of the mass flow that is transported in the direction of n.
Now, conservation of mass requires that the flux of mass exiting the CV (crossing the control
44
surface), be equal to the rate of decrease of mass in the control volume, or
Z
CS
n VdA =
dV
(5.5)
CV
As discussed in section 3.1.3, the when a flow is steady the inlet and outlet flow properties are
constant over all time. So for steady flow, the mass within the CV doesnt change either, so the
R
term t CV dV 0 and Eq. 5.5 reduces to
Z
CS
n VdA = 0 Integral Form of Continuity for Steady Flow
(5.6)
Finally, for steady, constant density (incompressible) flow, is factored out and the above equation reduces to
Z
5.1.4
CS
n VdA = 0 Integral Form of Continuity for Steady, Incompressible Flow
(5.7)
Integral Form of Momentum Equation
We will now derive an integral form of the momentum equation. The integral form of the
momentum equation is generally applicable to two- or three-dimensional, unsteady flows. We
start by describing how momentum changes inside the control volume (CV), and flow out of the
CV, is related to the forces acting on the CV:
8
>
>
time rate of change
>
>
<
of momentum
>
>
>
>
:
inside the CV
9
>
>
>
>
=
8
9
>
8
>
>
net outflux of>
>
>
>
>
<
= >
< forces acting on fluid
+
=
momentum > >
>
>
>
>
>
inside the CV
>
>
> :
>
>
; : from the CV >
;
9
>
=
>
;
(5.8)
The above equation is the basis for our development of the integral form of the momentum
equation. First we mathematically define the rate of change of momentum inside the CV, by
starting with the mass of the elemental volume, dV , shown in Fig. 5.1. The mass of the elemental
volume is dV , and so its momentum is given by multiplying the mass by the velocity or, VdV .
R
Thus the total momentum within the control volume is CV VdV . We can therefore take the
derivative with respect to time and write
8
>
>
time rate of change
>
>
<
of momentum
>
>
>
>
:
inside the CV
9
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
;
VdV
CV
(5.9)
45
To determine the net outflux of momentum, we examine the momentum flux through the surface
element dA shown in Fig. 5.1. We are interested in the volume of fluid passing through dA, in
the normal direction n, per unit time, i.e. we need the momentum flux. Recall that the mass flux
is n VdA. To obtain the momentum flux we multiply mass flux by velocity, or (n V)VdA,
which is integrated around the entire control surface (CS) to result in
8
>
>
net outflux of
>
>
<
momentum
>
>
>
>
: from the CV
9
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
;
CS
(n V)VdA
(5.10)
Now we need the forces acting on the fluid in the CV. This force could be a surface force, a body
force, or a force due to external surfaces. Below we present mathematical expressions for each:
(a) Surface Forces
forces due to viscous forces = Fv

forces due to pressure dierence (acts normal to surface) =
npdA
(b) Body Forces: Could be gravitational, magnetic, or electrical forces. We only consider
R
R
gravitational forces = gdV = g dV = mg
(c) Forces Due to External Surfaces such as the walls of a duct for example, or forces acting
on flanges = Fext
Now, combining the forces, Eqn. 6.1 and Eqn. 6.2, with Eq. 5.8 we obtain a form of the integral
momentum equation
VdV +
CV
CS
(n V)VdA = Fv + Fext
npdA +
gdV
(5.11)
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&&
!"#$%&'()*(
&
89,-$%(:& ;*(& -;(+%<& %#);& -*9=,& >("9=?& @*(& %#);& *+-& +& )9,-;+,;& =$%;*& !A& +,%& ;*(&
$,B"9=&+,%&9#;"(;&C("9)$;$(-&C+:<&$,&;*(&".%$:();$9,A&+,%&$,&;*(&#.%$:();$9,?&@*(&B"9=&$-&
;=9.%$5(,-$9,+"& -$,)(& ;*(& C("9)$;<& %$-;:$>#;$9,-& %(D(,%& 9,& ;=9& -D+)(& C+:$+>"(-& E"&
+,%& #F?& G,& ;*$-& )+-(A& ;*(& C("9)$;<& %$-;:$>#;$9,& 9C(:& ;*(& $,"(;& $-& D+:+>9"$)A& +,%& +-& ;*(&
+:(+& (HD+,%-A& ;*(& D:9B$"(& >()95(-& "(--& IB#""I& +;& ;*(& (H$;?& @*(& B"9=& $-& -;(+%<?& @*(&
D:(--#:(&9#;-$%(&;*(&%#);&$-&+;59-D*(:$)&(C(:<=*(:(A&+,%&9C(:&;*(&$,"(;&+,%&9#;"(;&
+:(+-&;*(&J+#J(&D:(--#:(-&+:(&$7&+,%&$6A&+,%&;*(&%(,-$;$(-&+:(&%7&+,%&%6A&:(-D();$C("<?&
@*(& D:(--#:(-& +,%& %(,-$;$(-& +:(& #,$B9:5& 9C(:& &7& +,%& &6?& !$,%& ;*(& C("9)$;<& :+;$9&
'(6K'(7?&
&
&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&&
!"#$%&'()*(
&
89,-$%(:&+,&+$:;9$"&<"+)(%&$,&+&=$,%&>#,,("&9;&)9,->+,>&):9--.-()>$9,+"&+:(+&?*($@*>&!&
+,%&=$%>*&"AB&C*(&;"9=&$-&->(+%D&+,%&9;&)9,->+,>&%(,-$>DE&+,%&>*(&+$:;9$"&%(F("9<-&+&
"$;>&;9:)(&+,%&+&%:+@&;9:)(&?-((&!$@#:(&GB72AB&C*(&"$;>&;9:)(&#$&$-&%(;$,(%&+-&>*(&;9:)(&9,&
+&H9%D&,9:5+"&>9&>*(&%$:()>$9,&9;&>*(&$,)95$,@&;"9=E&+,%&>*(&%:+@&;9:)(&#%&$-&%(;$,(%&
+-& >*(& ;9:)(& $,& >*(& %$:()>$9,& 9;& >*(& $,)95$,@& ;"9=B& C*(& $,)95$,@& ;"9=& $-& #,$;9:5&
+):9--& >*(& =$,%& >#,,("& =$>*& +& F("9)$>D& 5+@,$>#%(& &7E& H#>& %9=,->:(+5& >*(& F("9)$>D&
F+:$(-&+):9--&>*(&>#,,("&$,&>*(&'.%$:()>$9,B&C*(&F("9)$>D&$,&>*(&=+I(&9;&>*(&+$:;9$"&$-&
"(--&>*+,&&7B&&C*(:(&$-&+"-9&+&<:(--#:(&%$;;(:(,)(E&-9&>*+>&(6&$-&"(--&>*+,&(7E&H#>&-$,)(&
>*(& ->:(+5"$,(-& +>& ->+>$9,-& 7& +,%& 6& +:(& <+:+""("E& >*(& <:(--#:(-& +:(& )9,->+,>& +):9--&
>*(&=$,%&>#,,("&?=(&=$""&$@,9:(&@:+F$>DAB&J9=&)+,&=(&;$,%&>*(&"$;>&+,%&%:+@&;9:)(-K&
&
&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&&
!"#$%&'()*(
&
8&*9:$;9,<+"&=(<&9>&?+<(:@&9>&)9,-<+,<&A("9)$<B&!"@&-<:$C(-&+&%(>"()<9:&-#)*&<*+<&<*(&=(<&
%$:()<$9,& $-& -599<*"B& )*+,D(%@& +-& -*9?,& E("9?F& !$,%& <*(& :+<$9& 9>& <*(& A(:<$)+"& +,%&
*9:$;9,<+"& )95G9,(,<-& 9>& <*(& >9:)(& :(H#$:(%& <9& *9"%& <*(& %(>"()<9:& -<+<$9,+:B& $,&
<(:5-&9>&<*(&+,D"(&#F&4(D"()<&D:+A$<+<$9,+"&(>>()<-F&I9(-&<*$-&>9:)(&:+<$9&)*+,D(&?*(,&
<*(&%(>"()<9:&59A(-&<9&<*(&:$D*<&?$<*&A("9)$<B&!$J&
&
&
Chapter 6
Internal Viscous Flow

6.1
6.1.1
VISCOUS PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

Learning Objectives
System Description
Assumptions
2. Students will recognize the fluid flow as incompressible
3. Students will note any assumptions regarding shaft work
Known and Unknowns
Governing Equations
1. Students will list the Energy Equation for pipe flow
47
48
equations listed
Solution Method
Answer
Validation
6.1.2
Energy Equation for Pipe Flow
Recall the one-dimensional pipe flow problems we discussed several sections ago. We learned
that we could use Bernoullis equation, the 1D momentum and 1D continuity equations together
to solve problems in which a value for pressure is needed, but not given. One of the principle
reasons we were allowed to use Bernoullis equation is that viscous forces at the pipe walls of
one-dimensional flow are assumed to be negligible. The integral form of the continuity and momentum equations can be used for two-dimensional flows that include viscous forces at the pipe
walls, however we have not been given an equation thats similar to Bernoullis equation - we do
not have an equation that can be used to solve for unknown pressures in 2D, viscous flows. The
energy equation presented in this section can be used to determine pressures in viscous, 2D flows.
A particular application where the energy equation is useful, is to approximate a real pipe
flow. What I mean by real pipe flows, are those flows in which friction at the pipe walls
(viscous forces) restrict the flow aecting the flow velocity, and the flow pressure. Fittings such
as valves, tees and couplers can result in flow separation, which basically means that the flow is
losing energy because of the fittings. Again, the flow rate and pressure is aected by this energy
loss due to separation. The following analysis gives us insight by approximating real pipe flow
situations. To examine a real piping or ducting system, we need to be able to take into account
49
Figure 6.1: Viscous fluid flow through a arbitrarily shaped tube. Note that the viscous flow
generates a two-dimensional velocity profile at the inlet and outlet.
changes in duct size, interaction of flow with valves, surface roughness, etc. and how these factors
impact the pressure.
To start, we examine steady flow of an incompressible fluid through a tube and apply the following
energy equation
shaf t =
Q + W
p 1
(n V) e + + |V|2 + gz dA
2
(6.1)
where,
Q
shaf t
W
e
Heat transferred to the fluid

Rate of work done on the fluid by a rotating shaft
Internal energy of the fluid per unit mass
Now we apply the above energy equation to the arbitrary pipe flow shown in Fig. 6.1. For
uniform pressure and internal energy at stations 1 and 2 of the pipe in Fig. 6.1 we can rewrite
Eq. 6.1 as
p2
p1
Q + Wshaf t = m
(e2 + e1 ) + m
+ mg
(z2 + z1 )
2
1
Z
Z
1 2
1 2
+ 2 V 2
V
dA2
1 V 1
V
dA1
2 2
2 1
(6.2)
To obtain expressions for the last two terms, we recognize them as the kinetic energy (KE) flux,
and define
average KE flux =
1 3
Vi A
2
(6.3)
50
where
is a constant that will be discussed below, the subscript i = 1 or 2 representing the inlet
or outlet station, and Vi is the average velocity at station i. To obtain this constant we equate
the actual and average KE flux
Z
1 V i
1 2
V
2 i
1 3
1 2
Vi Ai = m
V
2
2 i
(6.4)
since m
= Vi Ai . Equation 6.4 is then rearranged to obtain
1
= 3
AV
i
Vi3 dA
(6.5)
and the energy equation is written as

shaf t = m
Q + W
(e2 + e1 ) + m
p2
2
p1
1
+ mg
(z2 + z1 ) + m
1
2
= (e2
2
2 V2
1
2
2
1 V1
e1 )
Q
m
(6.6)
When Wshaf t = 0, we can rewrite Eq. 6.6 as
where
and
p1
1
+ gz1 +
1
2
2
1 V1
p2
1
+ gz2 +
2
2
2
2 V2
8
>
> mechanical energy per
>
>
<
pi
1 2
+ gzi +
V
=
i i
unit mass at each
>
1
2
>
>
>
:
cross section
(e2
e1 )
8
>
Q < total energy loss

=
>
m
: per unit mass
the total energy loss is often represented as
ghL = (e2
e1 )
9
>
=
9
>
>
>
>
=
>
>
>
>
;
(6.7)
(6.8)
(6.9)
>
;
Q
m
(6.10)
where hL is the total head loss, which as units of length. So we have
p1
1
+ gz1 +
1
2
2
1 V1
p2
1
+ gz2 +
2
2
2
2 V2
= ghL
(6.11)
which is a form of the energy equation that can be conveniently applied to pipe flow problems.
The values for
depend on the type of flow, and are tabulated in Table 6.1.
51
Type of Flow
Laminar flow with a parabolic profile
Turbulent pipe flow
One-dimensional flow
2.0
1.08 - 1.03
1
Table 6.1:
values for dierent types of flow.
Figure 6.2: Moody Diagram
To calculate the total head loss
hL = total loss = major losses + minor losses
(6.12)
Major losses are due to friction, and are calculated with
major losses = f
L V 2
D 2g
(6.13)
where f is the friction factor, L is the length of the pipe, and D is the diameter of the pipe.
Values for f can be obtained with the Moody diagram shown in Fig. 6.2. Minor losses characterize
52
Figure 6.3: Typical Loss Coecients

energy loss due to flow separation at pipe fittings. The losses are calculated with
minor losses = K
V 2
2g
where K is the loss coecient. Typical loss coecients are given in Fig. 6.3.
(6.14)
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&&
!"#$%&'()*(
&
89,-$%(:&+&"+:;(&<+,=&>$""(%&?$<*&?+<(:&%:+$,$,;&<*:9#;*&+&"9,;&@$@(&9>&%$+5(<(:&!&
+,%&"(,;<*&"&A&722!B&"9)+<(%&,(+:&<*(&C9<<95&9>&<*(&<+,=&-*9?,&C("9?D&E*(&(,<:+,)(&
<9& <*(& @$@(& $-& -F#+:(.(%;(%B& +,%& <*(:(& $-& +& C+""& G+"G(& <9& )9,<:9"& <*(& >"9?& :+<(D& E*(&
G+"G(& $-& ?$%(& 9@(,B& +,%& <*(& @$@(& $-& *9:$H9,<+"B& !$,%& +,& (I@:(--$9,& >9:& <*(& +G(:+;(&
(I$<& G("9)$<J&!D& E*(& K(J,9"%-& ,#5C(:& 9>& <*(& @$@(& >"9?& $-& 6222B& -9& <*+<& <*(& >"9?& $-&
"+5$,+:D&
&
&
Fig. 7.1
Chapter(7(
(
External(Viscous(Flow:(Flow(Over(a(Flat(Plate(
!
!
Laminar(Boundary(Layer(!! < !"! (
!
The!3D(vector!forms!of!the!Continuity!and!Navier5Stokes!equations!for!incompressible,!
Newtonian!flow!(ignoring!gravity)!are!given!as!
!
! = 0!!
(7.1)!
!
and!
!
!!
! !" = ! + !! !!! !
(7.2)!
!
!
respectively.!The!above!equations!can!be!used!to!exactly!calculate!the!flow!over!a!flat!plate,!
but! the! equations! are! extremely! difficult! to! solve.! We! can! make! things! easier! by! splitting!
the! flow! into! regions! inside! the! and! outside! the! boundary! layer.! ! Outside! the! boundary!
layer,!the!flow!is!inviscid!and!can!be!accurately!described!by!invisid!flow!analysis!(like!the!
Bernoulli!equation).!Inside!the!boundary!layer,!the!flow!is!dominated!by!viscous!force,!but!
the! flow! is! approximately! 2D,! and! since! the! geometry! is! conveniently! represented! in!
Cartesian!coordinates,!we!rewrite!the!Continuity!and!Navier5Stokes!equations!as!
!
!"
!"
+ !" = 0!! !
(7.3)!
!"
!
and!!
!
!"
!"
! !"
! !! !
!"
!"
! !"
! !! !
! !" + ! !" = ! !" + !

!
! !" + ! !" = ! !" + !
!! !
+ !! ! !!
!! !
!! !
!! !
+ !! ! !!
(7.4a)!
(7.4b)!
!
we!also!assume!that!the!pressure!gradient!is!only!in!the!x5direction,!i.e.!there!is!no!pressure!
pulling!the!fluid!flow!up,!or!
!
!"
= 0!!
(7.5)!
!"
!
In!1904!Ludwidg(Prandtl!showed!that!inside!the!boundary!layer,!the!above!momentum!
equations!(7.4)!reduce!to!
!
!"
!"
!! !
! !" + ! !" = ! !! ! ! !
!
and!
!
!"
!"
= 0!!
(7.6)!
(7.7)!
!
Equations!7.6!and!7.7!above!are!easier!to!solve!than!the!full!Navier5Stokes!equations.!For!
the!boundary!layer!problem!described!by!Prandtl!(Eqs.!7.6!and!7.7)!we!use!the!following!
boundary!conditions!
!
! = ! = 0!at!! = 0!(no(slip(condition)! !
(7.8)!
!
and!
!
! !! !as!! !! !
(7.9)!
!
To!solve!the!equations,!Dr.!Prandtls!student!Paul(Richard(Heinrich(Blasisus!showed!that!
the!solution!of!Eqs.!(7.6)!!(7.9)!takes!the!form!
!
!
!!
= ! ! = ! !
!! !
!
!! !
(7.10)!
!
where!! = ! !! ! !.! ! The! variables!!!and!! !! !are! called! similarity! variables,! which! we!
use! instead! of! the! dimensional! variables! u,! x,! and! y.! Using! the! similarity! variables! in! the!
boundary! layer,! Eq.! (7.6)! and! the! Continuity! Equation! (7.3),! a! similarity! solution! for! flow!
within! a! laminar! boundary! layer! can! be! obtained.! We! show! solutions! for! a! range! of!
similarity! variables! in! Table! 10.1.! These! solutions! are! validated! by! experimental! values!
plotted!in!Fig.!10.2.!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Now!the!viscous!force!on!a!plate!of!width!W!and!length!L!is!given!by!
!
!
!! = ! !! !"# !
(7.11)!
!
where!the!Newtonian!stress5strain!relationship!is!
!
!"
!! = ! !"
!
(7.12)!
!"##
!
and!the!velocity,!u,!is!the!Blasius!solution!for!the!flat!plate!shown!in!the!Fig.!7.1!above.!Non5
dimensionalizing!Fv!as!
!
!
!! = !!! !! !"! !
(7.13)!
!
!
!! !is!the!total(skin(friction(coefficient.!We!also!normalize!the!wall!shear!stress!as!
!
!
!! = !!!!! !
!
(7.14)!
!
!! !is!the!local(skin(friction(coefficient.!Using!these!normalizations,!Blasius!found!for!
laminar!flow!that!
!
!.!"#
!.!!"
!
!.!
!! = !" !;! !!!! = !" ;! and!! ! = !" !
(7.15)!
!
where!!
!
! = !! !
at!
!! = 0.99!! .! !
!
(7.16)!
Turbulent(Boundary(Layer(!! > !"! (

(
For!!"! > ! 10! !transition!to!turbulence!in!boundary!layers!can!occur.!A!turbulent!
boundary!layer!is!also!bounded!on!one!side!by!an!external!free!stream.!However,!the!edge!
between!the!free!stream!and!turbulent!boundary!layer!is!twisted!and!complex.!Also,!the!
turbulent!boundary!layer!thickness!varies!with!time.!We!therefore!use!a!time!averaged!
boundary!layer!thickness!
!
! = !! !
at!
! ! = 0.99!! .!
(7.17)!
!
where!
!
!
!!
!
!!"#
(7.18)!
!
and! where! n! varies! with! the! Reynolds! number! (e.g.! for!!"! ~500,000!n! =7).! Notice! in! the!
Fig.!10.6!below!that!the!above!equation!has!an!infinite!slope!at!the!wall.!What!does!this!say!
about!the!stress!a!the!wall?!It!says!that!!! = ,!thus!the!above!equation!cannot!be!used!to!
find!the!skin!friction!of!a!turbulent!flow.!However,!it!is!a!good!estimate!of!boundary!layer!
thickness! variation! with! the! Reynolds! number.! For! the! total! and! local! skin! friction!
coefficient,!we!use!experimental!results.!Experimental!evidence!suggests!that!the!total!skin!
friction! coefficient,! the! local! skin! friction! coefficient,! and! boundary! layer! thickness!
variation!with!Reynolds!number!for!turbulent!boundary!layers!are!
!
!.!"#
!.!"#$
!
!.!"
!! = !" !.! !;! !!!! = !" !.! ;! and!! ! = !" !.! !!
(7.19)!
!
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6271&&
!"#$%&'()*(
&
8&9"+:&;"+:(&72&!"&"<,=&$-&$55(>-(%&$,&?+:(>&+:&@2A#B&9"<?$,=&;+>+""("&:<&:*(&;+:(&+:&
62&!"C$D&
&
E+F&& !$,%&:*(&+;;><G$5+:(&H<#,%+>I&"+I(>&:*$)J,(--&+:&%&K&L&!"&+,%&%&K&72&!"B&?*(>(&
%&$-&5(+-#>(%&9><5&:*(&"(+%$,=&(%=(D&
EHF&& !$,%&:*(&:<:+"&%>+=&)<(99$)$(,:&&#D&
E)F& !$,%&:*(&:<:+"&%>+=&;(>&#,$:&?$%:*&<9&:*(&;"+:(&$9&:*(&?+:(>&)<M(>-&H<:*&-$%(-D&
!"#$%&'()*+,$)-&&.&'//0&123&
&
&
4+5(& &
&
&
&
&
!+""&6277&
/8+59"(&:3&
&
;& )<)"$-=& $-& +>"(& =?& +==+$,& +& 5+8$5#5& -9((%& ?@& 12& A5B*C& ?,& +& )+"5& %+<D& E*(& =?=+"&
5+--&?@&C$%(C&+,%&>$A(&$-&FG&AHD&E*(&C?""$,H&C(-$-=+,)(&?@&=*(&=$C(-&$-&!! ! !!!4I&+,%&
=*(& %C+H& )?(@@$)$(,=& +,%& @C?,=+"& +C(+& +C(&!! ! !!!&+,%&! ! !!!"56D& E*(& )<)"$-=& >(=-&
=*+=&=?%+<I&(J(,&=*?#H*&=*(C(&$-&+&*(+%K$,%&?@&:2&A5B*CI&-*(&)+,&5+$,=+$,&+&-9((%&
?@& 6L& A5B*CD& M*(& +"-?& >(=-& =*+=I& )<)"$,H& K$=*& K$,%& -#99?C=I& -*(& )+,& +==+$,& +& =?9&
-9((%&?@&L2&A5B*CD&N*$)*I&$@&+,<I&>(=&%?(-&-*(&K$,O&
Contents
2 Fluid Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
MANOMETER PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
Learning Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2
The Hydrostatic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3
Absolute and Gauge Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACE PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
2.2.2
Resultant Fluid Force Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
The Resultant Force Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACE PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
2.3.1
13
2.3.2
Dierential Pressure Force Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
2.3.3
Procedure for Solving Curved Surfaces Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
BUOYANCY PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3 Fluid Motion: Part One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.1
3.2
STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, CONTINUITY PROBLEMS . . . . .
21
3.1.1
21
3.1.2
Control Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
3.1.3
Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.1.4
One-Dimensional Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
3.1.5
Continuity Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional Flow . . . . . . . . . .
24
STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, MOMENTUM EQUATION PROBLEMS 25

3.2.1
25
3.2.2
Unidirectional and Bidirectional Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
3.2.3
Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Unidirectional Flow .
27
3.2.4
Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Bidirectional Flow . .
29
53
54
4 Fluid Motion: Part Two . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1
4.2
TANK DRAINING PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.1.1
31
4.1.2
The Bernoulli Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
4.1.3
Constant Pressure Across Streamlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
4.1.4
Draining Tank Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
ONE-DIMENSIONAL TUBE AND DUCT PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
4.2.1
37
5 Integral Equations of Motion: Part One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5.1
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
5.1.1
39
5.1.2
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.1.3
Integral Form of Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
5.1.4
Integral Form of Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
6 Internal Viscous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6.1
VISCOUS PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
6.1.1
45
6.1.2
Energy Equation for Pipe Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46

25NOV14 Fluids Notes v16 1

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

25NOV14 Fluids Notes v16 1

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

!

The Hydrostatic Equation

Now, Eq. 2.14 can be rearranged to obtain the hydrostatic equation

which rearranged to yield

which is a constant density hydrostatic equation, giving the pressure pf at height h.

Absolute and Gauge Pressure

SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACE PROBLEMS

Resultant Fluid Force Equation

The Resultant Force Coordinates

and substituting Eq. 2.26 into 2.27, and rearranging we find

SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACE PROBLEMS

Differential Pressure Force Equation

Procedure for Solving Curved Surfaces Problems

Figure 2.4: An arbitrary fluid bounded by a curved wall.

Curved Surfaces: Force in x-Direction

z so that the pressure field becomes

and Eq. 2.37 is rewritten as

Curved Surfaces: Force in z-Direction

which can be used to transform Eq. 2.38

This expression is now plugged into Eq. 2.42

Curved Surfaces: Resultant Force

Curved Surfaces: Line of Action

We can follow a similar approach to find xR . In this case

Archimedes two laws of buoyancy can be summarized as:

Figure 2.5: An arbitrarily shaped body submerged in a liquid.

FB = g(displaced volume) = floating body weight

Figure 2.6: Stable floating body.

The same liquid, in two separate

Fluid Motion: Part One

STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, CONTINUITY PROBLEMS

Figure 3.1: Actual duct and control volume representations.

Figure 3.2: Comparison between a one and two-dimensional flow.

Figure 3.3: Geometry for continuity analysis.

Continuity Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional Flow

Mass entering area A1 = 1 A1 V1 t

Mass exiting area A2 = 2 A2 V2 t

STEADY FLOW, ONE DIMENSIONAL, MOMENTUM EQUATION PROBLEMS

Figure 3.4: Steady, one-dimensional, unidirectional flow.

Unidirectional and Bidirectional Flow

Figure 3.5: Steady, one-dimensional, unidirectional flow.

Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Unidirectional Flow

x-momentum entering CV during time span

x-momentum exiting CV during time span

time rate of change in x-momentum =

and so the momentum time rate of change in the x-direction is

force due to pressure at A1 = pg,1 A1

force due to pressure at A2 =

So, summing the forces,

Sum of the forces in x-direction = Rx + pg,1 A1

and using Eq. 3.9 and 3.12 in Eq. 3.6 gives

Momentum Equation for Steady, One-Dimensional, Bidirectional

Time rate of change in x-momentum = (2 A2 V2 t)V2 cos

pg,2 A2 cos = 2 A2 V22 cos

Sum of the forces in y-direction = Ry

Using Eqs. 3.16 and 3.17 in Eq. 3.6 we obtain

pg,2 A2 sin = 2 A2 V22 sin

Fluid Motion: Part Two

TANK DRAINING PROBLEMS

The Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation states:

which is applicable when

Figure 4.2: Pressure.

A weight component acting in s-direction =