ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

A. Defining Ethnographic Research

Ethnography refers to study of human cultures. In education, ethnographic
research is used to describe teachers and students behavior; their viewpoints, their
needs, their interactions, their language use, etc. Virtually, any topic involving social
behavior that impinges on education is a potential candidate for ethnographic
research ( Charles, C.M1995:149).
Ethnographic research is one of the qualitative research designs involving
verbal data, collected using human instrument, presented in a narrative story, and
analyzed inductively using verbal analysis and interpretation to discover salient
patterns and themes. Ethnographic research is also based on the assumption that
behaviors, interactions, and communication of people always follow certain patterns,
themes, or regularities although they may not be consciously aware of those patterns.
Ethnographic research is the work of describing cultures, aimed at
understanding another way of life from the native point of view, understanding how
other people see their experience, learning from people rather than studying people
(Spradley, J.P., 1979:3)
B. Characteristics of Ethnographic Research
As one of the qualitative research designs, Ethnographic research also has the
characteristics of qualitative research. Hammersley, M (1998:2) present 5
characteristic of Ethnographic research as follows.
1. Peoples behavior is studied in everyday context, rather than under conditions
created by the research, such as in experiments.
2. Data are gathered from a range of sources, but observation ad/or relatively
informal conversations are usually the main ones.
3. The approach to data collection is unstructured in the sense that it does not
involve following through a detailed plan set up at the beginning.
4. The focus is usually a small number case, perhaps a setting or group of people of
relatively small scale.
5. The analysis of the data involves the interpretation of the meanings and functions
of human actions and mainly takes the form of verbal descriptions and
explanations, with quantification and statistical analysis playing a subordinate role
at most.
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C. Ethnographic Concepts
There are a number of concepts that guide the work of ethnographers as they
go about their research in the field. Some of the most important are below:
1. Culture.
The concept of culture is typically defined in one of two ways. Those who
focus on behavior define it as the sum of a social groups observable patterns of
behavior, customs, and ways of life. Those who concentrate on ideas say that it
comprises the ideas, beliefs, and knowledge that characterize a particular group
of people. However one defines it, culture is the most important of all
ethnographic concepts. Cultural interpretation refers to the researchers ability to
describe what he or she sees and hears from the point of view of the members of
the group.
2. A Holistic Perspective.
Ethnographers try to gain some idea of the groups history, social structure,
politics, religious beliefs, symbols, customs, rituals, and environment.
Ethnographic researchers do their best to see beyond the immediate scene or
event occurring in a classroom, in a neighborhood, on a particular street, or in a
location in order to understand the larger picture of which the particular event
may be a part. As you can imagine, developing a holistic perspective demands
that the ethnographer spend a great amount of time out in the field gathering
many different kinds of data. Only by doing so is he or she able to develop a
picture of the social or cultural whole of that which he or she is studying.
3. Contextualization.
When a researcher contextualizes data, he or she places what was seen and
heard into a larger perspective. Contextualization helped maintain a worthwhile
program that otherwise might have been eliminated.
4. An Emic Perspective.
An emic perspective that is, an insiders perspective of reality is at the heart
of ethnographic research. Gaining an emic perspective is essential to
understanding and thus describing accurately the behaviors and situations an
ethnographer sees and hears. They try to combine an insightful and sensitive
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cultural interpretation with a rigorous collection and analysis of what they have
seen and heard.
5. Thick Description.
When ethnographers prepare the final report of their research, they engage in
what is known as thick description. In essence, this involves describing what they
have seen and heardtheir work in the fieldin great detail, frequently using
extensive quotations from the participants in their study. The intent is, as
mentioned earlier, to paint a portrait of the culture they have studied, to make it
come alive for those who read the report.
6. Member Checking.
One way that ethnographic researchers do this is through what is known as
member checkingby having the participants review what the researchers have
written as a check for accuracy and completeness. It is one of the primary
strategies used in ethnographic research to validate the accuracy of the
researchers findings.
7. A Nonjudgmental Orientation.
A nonjudgmental orientation requires researchers to do their best to refrain
from making value judgments about unfamiliar practices. None of us, of course,
can be completely neutral. But we can guard against our most obvious biases.
How? By doing our best to view another groups behaviors as impartially as we
can.

D. Methods Used in Ethnographic Research

As a qualitative research, the data include verbal description of people,
interactions, settings, language use, objects, and phenomena within the life of
segment being studied ( Charles, C.M. 1995;148). The data are in the form of
quotations, description, and excerpts of documents ( Hammersley, 1990) or of
interviews. Ethnographic research employs a range of data source: fieldnotes from
observation, audio and video recordings and transcripts, interviews, documents, and
perhaps also questionnaire responses and/or test result (Hammersley, 1998:35).
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Typical Ethnographic research employs three kinds of data collection: interviews,

observation, and documents.
E. Data Analysis in Ethnographic research
Many techniques, including content analysis are involved in analyzing
ethnographic data.
1. Triangulation. Triangulation is fundamental in ethnographic research.
Essentially, it establishes the validity of an ethnographers observations. It
involves checking what one hears and sees by comparing ones sources of
information.
2. Patterns. Those who do ethnographic research look for patterns in the ways
that people think and behave. They offer a means of checking ethnographic
reliability when they reveal consistencies in what people say and what they do.
3. Key Events. Key events occur in every social group and provide data that
ethnographic researchers can use to describe and analyze an entire culture.
4.

They convey a tremendous amount of information.

Visual Representations. These include such things as maps (e.g., of a
classroom or school), flowcharts (e.g., of who says what to whom during a
classroom discussion), organizational charts (e.g., of how a school library is
organized), sociograms (e.g., of which students receive the most invitations to
participate as a member of a classroom research team, matrices (e.g., a chart to
compare and cross-reference the various categories that exist in a creative arts
department in a university, such as music, dance, theatre, painting, and the
like). The very process of preparing a visual representation often can help a
researcher crystallize his or her understanding of an area, a system, a location,

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or even an interaction.
Statistics. Although you might not expect it, ethnographers often do use
statistics in their work. Usually, however, they use nonparametric techniques,

such as a chi-square test, more often than parametric ones.

6. Crystallization. The important thing to realize about the analysis of
ethnographic data is that there is no single stage or time when crystallization
occurs. Multiple analyses and multiple forms are essential. Often it is cyclical
data are collected, thought about, more data are collected, patterns are
looked for, more data are collected, new patterns are looked for, matrices and

then more matrices are developed, and on and on. Data analysis in
ethnography is ongoing, from start to finish.
F. Guidelines for Ethnographic Research
Following are some generic guidelines for conducting Ethnographic research
by Genzuk, M (1999:8)
Be descriptive in taking field notes
Gather a variety of information from different perspectives
Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kind of data. Example:
observations,

interviews,

program

documentation,

recordings,

and

photographs.
Use quotations; represent program participants in their own terms. Capture

participants views of their own experiences in their own words.

Select key informants wisely and use them carefully. Draw on the wisdom of
their informed perspectives, but keep in mind that their perspectives are

limited.
Be aware of and sensitive to the different stages of fieldwork
Build trust and rapport at the entry stage. Remember that the researcher

observer is also being observed and evaluated

Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine middlephase of fieldwork
Focus on pilling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork draws to a close
Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes at all stages of

work
Be as involved as possible in experiencing the observed setting as fully as
possible while maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the purpose

of the fieldwork: to conduct research

Clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment
Provide formative feedback as part of the verification process of fieldwork
Time that feedback carefully. Observe is impact
Include in your field notes and observations reports of your own experiences,
thoughts, and feelings. These are also field data.

G. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

A key strength of ethnographic research is that it provides a much more
comprehensive perspective than other forms of educational research. It lends

itself well to topics that are not easily quantified. Also, it is particularly

appropriate for studying behaviors best understood in their natural settings.

Like all research, ethnographic research also has its limitations. It is highly
dependent on the particular researchers observations. Furthermore, some
observer bias is almost impossible to eliminate. Lastly, generalization is
practically nonexistent.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
A. Defining Ethnographic Research
Historical research takes a somewhat different tack from much of the other
research we have described. There is, of course, no manipulation or control of
variables like there is in experimental research, but more particularly, it is unique in
that it focuses primarily on the past. Some aspect of the past is studied by perusing
documents of the period, by examining relics, or by interviewing individuals who
lived during the time. An attempt is then made to reconstruct what happened during
that time as completely and as accurately as possible and (usually) to explain why it
happened although this can never be fully accomplished since information from and
about the past is always incomplete. Historical research then, is the systematic
collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and thereby understand actions
or events that occurred sometime in the past.
B. The Purposes of Historical Research
1. To make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn
from past failures and successes.
2. To learn how things were done in the past to see if they might be applicable to
present-day problems and concerns.
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3. To assist in prediction. If a particular idea or approach has been tried before,

even under somewhat different circumstances, past results may offer policy
makers some ideas about how present plans may turn out.
4. To test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends. Many inexperienced
researchers tend to think of historical research as purely descriptive in nature.
5. To understand present educational practices and policies more fully.
C. Steps in Historical Research
There are four essential steps are involved in doing a historical study in
education:
1. Defining the Problem
Historical research problems, therefore, are identified in much the
same way as are problems studied through other types of research. Like any
research problem, they should be clearly and concisely stated, be manageable,
have a defensible rationale, and (if appropriate) investigate a hypothesized
relationship among variables. A concern somewhat unique to historical
research is that a problem may be selected for study for which insufficient data
are available. Often important data of interest (certain kinds of documents,
such as diaries or maps from a particular period) simply cannot be located in
historical research. This is particularly true the further back in the past an
investigator looks. As a result, it is better to study in depth a well defined
problem that is perhaps more narrow than one would like than to pursue a
more broadly stated problem that cannot be sharply defined or fully resolved.
As with all research, the nature of the problem or hypothesis guides the study;
if it is well defined, the investigator is off to a good start.
2. Locating Relevant Sources
a. Categories of Sources.
In general, however, historical source material can be grouped into
four basic categories: documents, numerical records, oral statements and
records, and relics.
b. Primary Versus Secondary Sources.
A primary source is one prepared by an individual who was a
participant in or a direct witness to the event being described. An

eyewitness account of the opening of a new school would be an example,

as would a researchers report of the results of his or her own experiment.
A secondary source, on the other hand, is a document prepared by an
individual who was not a direct witness to an event but who obtained his
or her description of the event from someone else. They are one step
removed, so to speak, from the event. A newspaper editorial commenting
on a recent teachers strike would be an example

3. Summarizing Information Obtained From Historical Sources

The process of reviewing and extracting data from historical sources is
essentially the one described. They are determining the relevancy of the
particular material to the question or problem being investigated; recording the
full bibliographic data of the source; organizing the data one collects under
categories related to the problem being studied; and summarizing pertinent
information (important facts, quotations, and questions)
4. Evaluating Historical Sources
Perhaps more so than in any other form of research, the historical
researcher must adopt a critical attitude toward any and all sources he or she
reviews. A researcher can never be sure about the genuineness and accuracy of
historical sources.
D. Generalization In Historical Research
As in all research, researchers who conduct historical studies should exercise
caution in generalizing from small or non representative samples.
E. Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research
The main advantage of historical research is that it permits the investigation of
topics that could be studied in no other way. It is the only research method that
can study evidence from the past.

A disadvantage is that controlling for many of the threats to internal validity is

not possible in historical research.