MrT | Continuous Flow an action guide for ETTORE) & production associates by Ue Uae ar au ery LR Me ee ae LT aTES ERC RMU RAC aC) AG lamer Gu) Cre ati n g OUR ced pioneer Continuous ‘WHAT IS THE WORK? ene crea MR uated An Action Guide for Managers, Engineers MACHINES, MATERIAL AND LAYOUT FOR FLOW 5 a and Production Associates Peer to URC 6. How much automation? nO cee Ca eee ety CU CeCe cd By nace Hetrer anal rc serrie Foreword by Jim Womack, Dan Jones and John Shook DSU NCR aU eaid a Ce ee Ree Ld ROR RC un ea Re eed % CONNECTING TO THE CUSTOMER AND REGULATING THE FLOW SORT RC UC Coc cid DR Wem OU ne a ce A Lean Toolkit Method and Workbook 0? THE LEAN ENTERPRISE INSTITUTE v Brookline, Massachusetts, USA Version 1.0 June 2001© Copyright 2001 The Lean Enterprise Insticure, Ine P.O. Box 9, Brookline MA 02446 USA. wwwdean.org Version 1.0, Jun ISBN 0.966784 2001 All rights co che text and illustrations reserved by The Lean Encerprise Insticure, PODDODEDD DMD DDD The Shop Floor is a Reflection of Management With gratitude to our editors Jim Womack and John Shook, OffPiste Design, our friends at many manufacturing companies, and Dave Logozzo, who coined the apt phase, Eyes for Flow,FOREWORD When we launched Learning to See (LTS) in the summer of 1998, as the first publication of the Lean Enterprise Institute, we urged readers to identify their major product families and to draw raps showing the flow of information and products as it currently exists, We pointed our chat mapping. can be done at many levels — from a single process within a manufacturing facility to the complete path from raw macerial to customer —and suggested that the best place to start is with the flow of information and product within the walls of a single plant. We then unged readers to envision a furure state for each product family’s value stream in which information flows smoothly back from the cuscomer and the product flows smoothly — indeed continuously — toward the customer, Finally, we suggested an implementation plan for achieving, future states quickly We have been delighted with the response to Learning to See, which has now sold more than $0,000 rman, Japanese, Portuguese, copies in English and has been translated into Chinese, French, € Spanish, Swedish, and Torkish, However, we have also been struck by che diffieulry many readers hhave had in actually achieving continuous flow within their facilities. A sight we frequently encounter when couring plants is processing steps relocated from departments a C process villages’) to product-family cells (as recommended in LTS), but with only intermieten cratic flow through the cell. Output gytates from hour to hour and small piles of inventory accumulate between each operation. When we see this pattern, we know immediately that half or more of the benefits of cellularization is being lose. In addition, if the cell is lacated upstream from the pacemaker ic may ever reach the customer due t0 process leading directly so the customer, none of the ben stagnation and instability in downstream activities, So how can you create truly continuous flow with the benefits reaching the customer and sustained perfected over time? The methods are nor mysterious. Indeed, ‘Toyota and its affiliated compani them years ago. However, we've found that co actually apply them most managers, engineers, and production associates need a friendly sensei (teacher) co walk them through a step-by-step process that focuses their vision and targets their actions. ECE eee eE LEE ‘To fill this need we decided to publish this sequel volume to Mike Rother and John Shook’s Learning to See. In it we move from the plant co the process level as Mike and Rick Harris take your hand and lead the yy in introducing and sustaining continuous flow to the maximum extent possible, beginning with the pacemaker process. You already know Mike from Learning to See, but Rick Harris may be a new name. After fifteen years at General Motors, starting on the shop floor in Anderson, Indiana, Rick got his lean education at Toyota wher hhe was a manager in assembly at che Georgetown, Kentucky plant. Rick and Mike now continue their in learning by working with companies on lean implementation. Those of you who have already read Learning to See and accurately drawn your current and furure state ‘maps will find the help you need in the pages ahead to achieve eruly continuous flow and its benefits. Other readers — who are just encountering lean thinking or who are process improvement veterans and think chey need only a few cips on improving their existing cells — will benefic from studying the first section of this workbook to correctly identify product families and pacemaker processe ‘These readers will then discover many shortcuts on the path to truly continuous flow in the remainder of this workbook. Bur a word of warning: Drawing maps and envisioning future states is invigorating and fun. After all, anyone ean draw an attractive fueure state on paper. In Creating Continuous Flow you will be tackling the real issues of implementation, and success is only possible through intense collaboration between managers, engineers, and production asso 1 mistakes. Bue the ates, [e's hard work and you will m: benefits are enormous and all the knowledge you will need is summarized here. fen the nature of your challenge we ate particularly anxious to hear about your successes and your difficulties and vo connect you with the lean community at wwwlean.org. We also nced to hear your stions for improving Creating Continuous Flow at eef@lean.org. So please take the tin to study this Action Guide carefully, referring back to Learning to See as necessary. Then seize che opportunity to implement and sustain continuous flow: And tell us about your experiences so we can share them with the entire lean necwork. Jim Womack, Dan Jones, and John Shook Brookline, MA, USA; Ross-on-Wye, Hereford, UK; Ann Arbor, MLUSCONTENTS Foreword Introduction Partl: Getting Started Part What is the Work? Part Machines, Material and Layout for Flow Part IV: Distributing the Work Part V: Connecting to the Customer and Regulating the Flow Part VI: Implementing, Sustaining & Improving Conclusion About the Authors Appendices A: A Continuous Flow Refresher B: The Standardized Work Combination TableINTRODUCTION Continuous flow is the ultimate objective of lean production, and creating continuous flow has been the goal of countless kaizen projects. We work at a wide range of manufacturing facilities and see many commendable efforts to create flow, Unfortunately, we see very lite of ic actully achieved. For example, ic seems that many of ws have concentrated on making U-shaped process layouts instead of on the more important part: Creating and maintaining an efficient continuous flow. Almost any grouping of machines that performs processing steps in a sequence is called a ‘cell’, but itis rare to find real continuous flow which is what actually makes a cell a cel. Ideally, product would flow continuously all the way through your value streams, from raw material to the customer, But that is coo much to tackle at first. You need a place to focus. That place is the ‘pacemaker’ process or segment of the value stream, where products take their final form for your external customer. This is usually the most important segment of any value stream, since how the pacemaker operates affects both how well you serve your customer and what demand is like for your upstream processes, A steady production rhythm, level mix, and consistent continuous flow of material at the pacemaker process places regular and consistent demands on your value stream. Yet a closer look at many pacemaker processes shows erratic and intermittent flow of product, fluctuating uumulations between steps, excessive batching, output varying from hour to hour, and inventor poor use of human effore due to the anchoring of operators (o individual machines. Performance has certainly been improved over the old process village layouts, where equipment was grouped by type «l much leaner value streams are possible, ‘of machine, but much better performance a The objective of this book is to sharpen your eyesight and equip you with skills to achieve and maintain a truly efficient continuous flow of material, We'll concentrate on operator-based cells because this type of processing is so widespread and — in a world of geographically scattered customers and short product life cycles — it is often important to be able co design and manage simple, inexpensiv. flexible and reliable operaror-based processes. We'll use methods and thinking based on practices foyora and its aff pioneered wit ed companies, which you can utilize nearly anywhere you would like to ercate a continuous flow: ‘Tools and techniques ean be useful, but the most significant ching you and your team can gain from studying this workbook is a better ability to see and feel flow. As you apply the methods deseribed here you should automatically start to focus less on layout and more on flow. But the most important thing to da is to select one of your pacemaker processes and get started right away — today — because how much we learn depends on our action orientation and persistence in implementation, Don’t wait! Mike Rother and Rick Harris Ann Arbor, Michigan and Stamping Ground, Kentucky June 2001 Continuous Flow ‘This book focuses on creating continuous flow in pacemaker processes. But the concepe ‘of continuous flow goes beyond just pacemaker processes, extending everywhere to any production process. Similarly, the tools deseribed in this book can be used in a variety of applications. This list shows the appli bility of this book for various types of processes. Type of Process Applicability Completely manual production XXX Operator driven cells and lines XXX incorporating automated equipment Conveyorized production lines xx Partially automated transfer lines xx (with operator work stations) Fully automated transfer lines {operators as line attendants) Highly multifunctional automated mact Definition of a Cell A cell is an arrangement of people, machines, materials, and methods with the processing steps placed right next to each other in sequential order, through which parts are processed. in a continuous flow (or in some cases in a consistent, small batch size that is maintained through the sequence of processing steps). The most well-known physical cell layout is “U" shape, but many shapes are possible. Continuous flow processing is also possible in I” and “line” interchangeably, straight production lines. Many companies use the terms as we do in this book.Team Involvement Please note that you will need a team effort to ereate continuous flow. Lean systems «ely heavily on production associaces, especially for daily continuous improvement efforts, but they also depend on the daily involvement of management and engineering to set up. systems, show che way, respond to problems, and manage the processes. Your team efforts to develop continuous flow will involve several people in your organization, including Value Stream Manager (sce Learning to Sve): Draws and keeps fine tuning the future state value stream map, which shows the pacemaker provess and where continuous flow is possible. Area Manager: Leads the effort co create continuous flow and ensures daily that the flows are maintained and continuously improved. Industrial Engineers and Manufacturing Engineers: Design the initial layouts and staffing levels of continuous flow cells using data they personally collect on the faciliey floor. ‘They assist closely with implementation and debugging. Engineers also design, specify, and build he small, simple machines eh necessary to support continuous flow Production Team: ‘The operators, team leader, and supervisor are essential for helping, ‘make the flow work, maintaining ie, and finding ways to improve it on a regular basis Maintenance: De-bugs the new cell until it works as intended (with the Industrial and Manufacturing Engineers) and is chen on a fast-response call for problems, Lean Specialists: Assse all ofthese people PART | GETTING STARTEDWelcome to Apex Tube Apex Tube Company is a typical discrete parts manufacturer that we will use t0 illustrate the process of creating continuous flow. Apex produces a variety of tubular ne | GETTING STARTED products for automotive, truck, and heavy-equipment applications. Two years ago awe Apex responded to pressure from its customers for lower prices, higher qualit * Do you have the right end items? more frequent deliveries, and more rapid response to changing demand by taking a hard look ac ies manufac DeWeese cid For many years the company had organized its fabrication and assembly processes by department with each product visiting each department as necessary. The resulting maze of spaghetti-like product movements was hard to manage cn harder to improve. Apex managers therefore took the first step recommended in Learning to See and conducted an analysis of their products to find product families that could be managed individually. Apex managers drew up a product family matrix that grouped products by similar sequence of final processing (pacemaker) steps and machines, Apex’s Product Family Matrix aes eae PRODUCTS PART: GETTING STARTED 4“The light-truck product family made the greatest revenue contribution to Apex and was under the heaviest price pressure. Apex appointed a Value Stream Manager for this product family, who drew a current state value stream map. This product family is shipped to the State Street assembly plant in three variants: a short-hose assembly (8) for the shore ¢ model, and an alternative-fuel wheelbase truck, long-hose (L) for the long wheelbas (ethanol) assembly (A) offered as an option on this vehicle ae Michigan Weekiy SteclCo. | | fee “Tube Extrusion h machines wei -n the new cell and n'a batch mode shared Production Control v End Forming across several produet families. These pull systems replaced the schedul -s previously used to regulate these processes, Through hard work and by suspending traditional rules of thumb on how quickly change could happen, Apex was able to design and implement the future state shown here ot] seconds Ci = "eseconds (10=thowr (C10 = 10 minutes 3 days ‘T seconds 12 seconds 2days “Operators C10-=20 seconds 2days Forecast State Street | “Assembly Daily Order ——— 1B80/day Box= 30 poo 2 his Apex Truck Fuel Lines Future State Map Daily Ship Schedule a Daily 1 159 seconds PART i GETTING STARTEDApex started its fuel line value stream improvement at the right place: the ‘pacemaker’ process. ‘The pacemaker involves production steps that are dedicaved to a particular family of products and responds to orders from external customers. A well run pacemaker sends smooth demand signals upstream to the pull loops of the remaining batch fabrication processes, which respond to requirements from internal customers, Apex managers and engineers made another good decision by minimizing their initial investment and keeping the cell simple. For example, they could have created a more extended continuous flow by incorporating an end-forming press into the fuel line cell red substantial capital investment. (In the future Apex But such a press would have req} may decide to apply some of the cost savings from its improvements to purchase and add a press to the cell.) They decided to install a simple, inexpensive, flexible operator-based cell designed for State Street Assembly's needs. This is more likely to be highly reliable and well-suited eo sending smooth signals up the value stream, Apex managers chose a classic U-shaped layout for their new operator-based cell, as illustrated on the next page. In only a few days they were able to move machines and configure the new cell to achieve striking reductions at this process in lead time and floor space required, while dramatically increasing the number of pieces produced per production associate. Original Current State State Apex's Continuous Progress with Flow Continuous Flow sae 7” eae enver Snir |~62; {actual/target) 690 690 Space} 1130 580 (sq. feet) Assembly| ttdays | 37min Lead Time (iP x Take) Number of Operators] & 4 Productivity | 13.5 20 (pieces/associate/hr) Functions Effectively as ee ne Pacemaker PERGHRGER TER TGO TER ODD DRG DD OOD) A Closer Look — With Eyes for Flow Apex managers, engineers, and production associates were excited about their new fucl line cell. After all, they quickly increased productivity by 50% while halving look at the Apex cell with “eyes for flow” you should actually be disappointed. A walk through the fuel line cell will show why space requirements and dramatically slashing lead times. Apex's fuel line cell — current state material flow ‘Assembly Tube Bender (automat) sea aes Hourly Production oat Plan _[ Actual 1 290 | 6 2/2 | 2 BS pete 400 Tube Qu co aa seston neon ee (fished goods) 5| 90 | 76 6 | 9 | 6 7| 7% | ¢ | [s{ 20 | 2 PART GETTING STARTED 7‘The first step when we visita facility is typically to go see the current situation with our own eyes and ask, “What is the problem?” At Apex, the first thing we notice is, the production oucpuc chart at the entrance/exit of the cell showing planned and actual production. Looking at the output figures we wonder, “Why is there so much variation, and why does total produetion fall shore of planned production?” More specifically, “Why is the cell achieving only two-thirds of planned output during many hours of the shift?” Is the problem incapable machines that make bad parts? Is it machines that won't tun? Is a supplier shipping bad parts, or are parts missing? And who reacts when these problems occur? Whatever the cause, the variation in output is clear evidence that cell performance s when we note that in two can be greatly improved. We are even more certain of t hours out of eight the cell actually produced more than the plan, which is just as bad as being under the target. Four production associates were assigned to the cell the entire shift, so a change in staffing can’t explain the variations. Unless this was achieved by hurrying, unacceptably risking stress injuries and bad quality, there must be waste in the process. We begin to s of variation and waste when we closely examine the first nwo steps in the production sequence: the tube bender and the first assembly operation. The fi about every 16 minutes if the cell is producing to takt time (as explained below in Question 2). This requires three minutes and means that either the material flow st production associate has to leave her regular work area every 25 pieces, o stops or the tube bender and the first ewo assembly steps are all decoupled fram one another. This means no continuous flow As we continue to walk around we notice that there are various quantities of inventory between every operation and that the production associates are each anchored to their machine, which often means they have to wait while the machines cycle. Variable inventory buffers between workstations are an inefficient way to balance uneven workloads. When a buffer gets too full, che supplying operation often takes an unofficial break — perhaps to get materials or do other out-of-cycle work — while the downstream station catches up. Operations are decoupled, allowing each to produce batches ins ad of one piece at a time. = =_ —_— =—= : Decoupled operations, which we call “slands’, bake the waste of overproduction and the waste of waiting into a cell, causing them , month, and year, to be repeated many times every shift, day, w Tiny wastes often don’t seem sig the process (and apparently are not visible to Apex think about chem as they add up more than 600 times per shift! cant to managers just visiting agers), but Decoupled operations also make it difficult to notice production problems as they happen. When a problem occurs the rest of the stations keep on working. By the end of a shift the unnoticed problems add up and the production volume falls short of the target. Pacemaker processes, in particular, need to be manageable, Problems. or abnormalities need to be spotted as they occur and support personnel must respond to them quickly. Production associates cannot react to and fix significant production problems, find and jiminate the causes of those problems, and at the same time still achieve full production! Finally, as we complete our tour we note that the Apex cell is laid out in a very wide “U”. This defeats one of the main objectives of a U-shaped cell layout: Permitting flexible deployment of operators by moving work areas into close proximity. Both the first and last production associates are moving back and forth over considerable distances to handle materials. Flow stops every time they leave a station to backtrack. Our conclusion, at the end of our walk through Apex’s cell, is thac there is actually no continuous flow anywhere. Instead we see only erratic and intermittent flow — as indicated by the small piles of ‘ory between each machine and the fluctuating output from hour to hour, Indeed, this cell is really just a ‘module’ of adjacent machines and operators producing at best ‘fake flow’ chat misleads Raa Pee eed Camere Poors Dee nnd SD PO reo rng ee Pes) Peet Be coe Ree ee) Penne Pecan SUR DCs eer ay Pee eee Sood Denne Pe ey Ree Cee een COs Seen performing one value- Berea an Pere eectsTargets for Apex’s Fuel Line Cell Current State Continuous | Ng i produce waste roduction | eee Shite (ectuaifarget) 690 691 Space (eco Rass | 1180 580 Assembly Lead Time | ttdays | 37min | 200sec (WIP x Takt) Number of Operators 6 a 2 Productivity | 13.5, 20 40 (pleces/associate/hr) Functions Effectively as No No Yes Pacemaker While Apex’s new cell performance is much better than the original process village layout, «careful effort to achieve true continuous flow through proper process design and operation ‘can double labor productivity, halve the needed space, reduce lead time by a further 90%, istomer requirements. and dramatically improve both quality and responsiveness to Realistic targets for this cell, which we will show you how to achieve in the pages ahead, are shown in the right hand column of the table above. We'll get started by posing the first of eleven questions you should go through as you strive to develop true continuous flow in your own cells and lines. The questions requite careful ‘work and attention by your entire team, but you will discover that the answers are invaluable once they ate incorporated in your business. 10 DODDDDDCOO ODDO OCOD DDO Question 1: Do You Have the Right End Items? Apex has already determined their product families and assigned three end items to may have to think carefully about the right products to assign to your pacemaker process. Here are some ie! line cell. However, as you consider your own situation, yo guidelines we've found helpful, 1) Flexibility. Sometimes demand is high enough to allow you to dedicate individual products to their own cells or lines like this: Product A Product B “ 7 “ 7 However, if demand gyrates between products and you can keep changeover times short, you are often better off sharing products between mixed-model cells like this: Products A&B Products AaB \ 7 ~ 7 The total capacity is the same in both cases but the ability of each process to accommodate shifts in demand between the owo products is much greater in the second case. The ind for a whole product demand for one product within a family may vary, while the der family is often more stable, PART: GETTING STARTED 1112 2) Variation in Total Work Content. The total work content — that is the operator time ss one piece from start to finish — should not vary by more than about required to proc 30% benween the ell, especially when a moving conveyor is used. When the work content varies too much it becomes difficult to maintain flow and productivity. In such cases you may want to split the cell of assign some rare or low-volume end items co other cells. (Some facilities even create a separate line or cell to ferent end items processed in the handle low-volume end items, until product engineers can reduce the content differences between the items via design changes.) 3) Similarity of Processing Steps and Equipment. When the steps required to build different products within the cell vary coo much (ie., when some products skip some processing steps) operators will have to “shift gears” every time they change to assembling ases the chance of quality a variant of che product. This reduces productivity and incr imes it is better to produce variants with markedly different problems. Again, som¢ processing steps in different cells, 4) Takt Time (Production Pace). Takt time is the rate at which customers require finished units. It is determined by dividing the total available production time per shift by the customer demand rate per shift (see the equation at right). As a general guideline, when take time for a cell falls below ten seconds the operators’ jobs may become highly rep |. When high demand calls for very short takt times you should consider using and sere: multiple footprints of the cell, possibly side-by-side, instead of a single high-speed cell. “This is particularly appropriate if the capital requirements of additional cells can be kept Jow through utilization of simple equipment, Conversely, when takt time slows to more than about 120 seconds, the number of work elements sometimes gets so high that work motions can be difficult to standardize. In such cases consider adding additional but similar end items to the cell to bring down the takt time. Of course, with some products it will simply be impossible to set rake times below 120 seconds because volume requirements ate inherently low, even when several different end items are run through the same cell of line, (With long takt times it can get di have all parts at the line for the operators for the different product variations. Sometimes you have to inerease the parts delivery frequency or deliver certain parts in the assembly sequence.) tule ro sed geographically, i a different '5) Customer Location. When customers for a product are widely disp may make sense to split up the work into multiple lines, each located 1 ping costs and duties for finished units customer. This makes sense particularly when shi are high, when there are potential exchange-rate losses, when lead times for components ate long, or when local infrastructure (supervision, buildings, etc.) is available at reasonable cost. Question 2: What is the Takt Time? Having decided what products to produce in the pacemaker, the next task for Apex managers was to determine the takt time. (Take isa German word for a pace or beat, often likened to a conductor's baton.) Take time is a reference number that is used to help match the rate of production in a pacemaker process to the rate of sales. takt time Used to help synchronize pace of production with the pace of sales takt time = ’ FJ] customer demand per s 27,600 seconds = 40 seconds 5 your available work time per shift example: 690 piece: this means: 9 this product at a rate of one every 40 seconds. Sales are usually calculated on a daily or weekly basis but most pacemaker processes are actually up and running only some fraction of each day or week. Since the point of takt time is to pace actual production, the most sensible thing to do is to divide the number of products demanded daily or weekly into the number of shifts operated in that time period to determine demand per production shift. For example, the customer demand for Apex’s light truck fuel lines is currently 6900 units per week and Apex operates its fuel line cell ten equal shifts per week. Thus the demand per shift is 690 units Once demand per shift is known the final step in the calculation of takt time is to divide this number into the ‘effective working time’ per shift. This is start-to-stop shift time minus any scheduled operator breaks, meetings, cleanups, etc. Because takt time must represent the actual customer demand rate do tot subtract time for unplanned machine downtime, changeovers, or other internal problems. PART: GETTING STARTED 1314 Apex operates two 8-hour shifts Monday through Friday, 6:00 AM to 2:30 PM, and 3:30 PM. to Midnight. There are two 10-minute breaks each shift but no scheduled downtime for maintenance. This means Apex has 27,600 seconds of effective working time in each shift 480 min. (8 hours) ~ 20 min. of breaks = 460 min. x 60 sec./min. = 27,600 seconds By dividing 690 units into 27,600 available seconds we determine the take time: 40 seconds. 27,600 seconds = seconds per unit 690 units This is the rate of customer demand, the all important ‘beat’ of the market. Notice thar take time is expressed in ‘seconds-per-unit’ because it is easier for everyone to understand and use than decimals of minutes. Similarly, we use ‘seconds-per-unit’ rather than ‘pieves- perhour’ to deseribe actual production rates, or ‘cycle time’. Comparing takt time and eycle time is the easiest way co answer the simple but critical questions: “How frequently does the customer need one piece?” and “How frequently do we actually make one piece at our pacemaker process?” There is one additional point that may be very important in your own take time calculations, the amount of variation in customer orders. In Apex’s case the 6900 unit per week demand was relatively easy to determine bee: plant whose own take time does not change frequently. But what if long-term average demand and day-to-day actual demand are different: ise Apex is supplying a massive automotive assembly We suggest that you check the range of daily customer demand variation by reviewing. actual shipments (not orders) over the past twelve months. Your cell must be able to handle cained demand, Por occasional spikes in demand it is generally better to operate at steady take time (based on average long-term demand) and either hold a buffer stock of finished goods or tun some daily overtime to ensure your ability to serve the customer. Changing take time from day to day is inefficient, disrupts the work pace, and increases the potential for quality problems. Lastly, regarding future demand for new products, it ean be difficult to make accurate forecasts far in advance, When future demand is uncertain it may be wiser to add capaciey in steps, as increased demand actually materializes, rather than designing your pacemaker now for a peak demand that may not appear. TO OG TED OT TTD O ODDO ODDO aD Cycle Time Cycle time is how frequently a finished unit actually comes off the end of your pacemaker cell. We often find processes that are operated at cycle times faster than takt time. For example, if you are n utilization) you will probably always need cycle times slightly below take time because ning your facility three full shifts (perhaps to achieve high machine there is never any time available to catch up if your equipment or materials system fails. And to some degree these sorts of problems will always occur in manufacturing! However, keep in mind that when you chronically yele much faster than takt time you increase the chances of overproducing and may be using extra operators. (As the diagram below shows.) Much worse, you conceal your production problems and reduce the incentive to find and eliminate their causes. It is important to maintain a certain tautness at the pacemaker to ensure that problems get noticed quickly and receive fast response by support staff Cycling much faster than takt may require more people takt time cycle time — extra operator Note: The inevitability of problems in manufacturing is one of the reasons why many production facilities in the Toyota group of companies run their pacemaker Processes for two shifts with a one to four hour gap between shifts. Then there is time to make up production losses with a little overtime at the end of each shift. PART: GETTING STARTED 15Setting the Pace As you go through the calculations to determine your own pacemaker takt time we need to explain one final point: It is seldom the case that there is only one correct takt time! 3 Remember that takt time is customer demand (which you can’t change) divided into available production time (which you can change.) Specifically, you ean adjust: he available production time — the number or length of shifts he number of end items produced in a cell 3) ‘The number of cells making a particular end item. ‘The pace of production is one of the most critical considerations for the design of your processes, Here you will often have some choices to make. For example: # A.cell that has a takt time of 40 seconds over two shifts could also be run at 20-second takt in only one shift. In some eases ic is easier and less costly to manage only one shift particularly if running @ second shift means extra support structure and paying night premiums. An added bonus is that the waste of waiting time is easier to see and eliminate when takt time is shorter. # The size, weight, and complexity of product can influence what is a reasonable time and the number of motions for each operator. Producing a light, low-complexity product with only a few work el fine, But when operators are working on larger, heavier or more complex products it can be better to work to a longer take time and assign more work elements to cach operator. -ments per operator to a ten-second takt time may be # When new products are introduced, substantial savings in capital investment can be achieved by adding them to existing cells rather than building additional cells. This will decrease the takt time for those cells, As you launch your new cell itis often much better to utilize a temporary and separately held ‘safety stock’ of specific finished goods to protect your customer and to set your eycle time only slightly faster than take time. The tension this produces forces you and your staff to address the causes of production interruptions With experience you will gradually learn whar’s best for yo is that you must know what the take time is and how it was determined. The key point for the moment 16 LN a | iF WHAT IS THE WORK?PART | I WHAT IS THE WORK? OW RRC eC arg Ca Ree td Orr e aera sae Tcl CeCe a ce What is the Work? We've now examined and answered the first two questions confronting your team as you strive to create continuous flow. We've specified the products appropriate to the pacemaker and determined the take time, Although you may be addressing some of these issues for the first time, Apex managers had in fact already answered them quite well. Yet the performance of the cell they ereated falls far short of what is possible. This therefore brings us t0 the more detailed aspects of cell design, which fewer managers have mastered: Zeroing in on the actual work elements, timing each one of them, and immediately eliminating obvious waste in the work. At this step in continuous flow design you should forget about physical layouts or the number of operators and simply concentrate on the work content that needs to be done by people. Question 3: What Are the Work Elements for Making One Piece? When we look more closely at the fuel line assembly process we ean see that each operator performs a series of discrete steps, or ‘work elements’, that are required co complete one cycle at each station. By collecting all the work clements at each workstation, we have the total operator work content of the ell. Un e ements is a key ingredient for creating and A work clement can be defined as “the smallest increment of work that could be moved to another person”. Thus “get one hose and place it in the fixture” is a work element while “get one hose” would not be. In the Process Study Form shown on the next two pages we have written down the work elements for the Assembly [and Assembly II steps in the creation of a fuel line at Ape: Note: Always break work into elements. This helps you identify and eliminate te that is otherwise buried within the total operator ©) PART I: WHAT ISTHEWORK? 47.Process: SLA Fuel Lines Process Study OPERATOR Process Steps Work Element Observed Observer: Times Mary Smith Lowest Repeatable MACHINE Cycle Time Date/Time: Feb. 10,2000 3PM Notes Assembly! | Get bent tube & press into fixture Operator has to hammer to fit Get connector, place & clamp Get hose & place to fixture Operator stacks own hoses (parts) Start cycle Unclamp & remove Attach convolute Get tube & place to fixture Assembly Il Get hose & RH ferrule, assemble Parts far away; Lots of walking Place to fixture & clamp Get LH ferrule, assemble to hose Place to fixture & clamp Get valve & place to fixture Start cycle Unclamp & remove QDR DEED DODD 00000000 0 0 HHH Quality check needed? PART I: WHAT ISTHE WORK? 1920 You can only complete a Process Study Form by carefully and repeatedly observing actual work, Do not rely on file data, As you observe the work you will probably find that operators perform icin a slightly different way from cycle to cycle. You will need to think about the best way co do the job and try to record the elements as done this way. Use the “notes” area of the form co jot down problems, questions, and ideas. Icis best to use a pencil for recording work elements, We find that we always have co correct the list several times before we are satisfied that we have understood and captured the ist with the operators who process. Then when you think you've got it right, review the will show you what you've missed. Then re-write the list again! Shop Floor Courtesy Carefully observing a process means that you will be spending time at the process you are trying to improve. You will be a guest in the “office” of the people who work there. Please use the same courtesy you would when entering anyone's office: = Introduce yourself - Explain what you are doing - Don’t take notes in front of production associates without showing them what you have written - Say “thank you” It may be best to do this through the team leader or supervisor so you don't interrupt the operators and affect their safety, quality, and productivity. Always keep in mind that you are not watching people or evaluating their performance. You are watching the process or how the product is made. You are figuring out what are the steps and then the times required to make the product. Although we say these things when we gather observations on the shop floor, we know it takes time for this sort of thinking to sink into the culture of a company. When people are observed while they are working it is a natural reaction to think that they are being critiqued, And sometimes we tend to blame people for problems rather than working to understand the details of a process. Always remember that the question is not, “How is that person doing?’ but rather, “What is the work?" This is the objective question that people should focus on — ‘out on the shop floor — in a non-judgmental way. POQDDDCCODDD0DD OOD DDODD DDD OoaDD Paper Kaizen As you observe and record the work elements there is something else you should begin co see: Waste! Operators walking considerable distances to get parts or waiting while machines cycle. Operators leaving their work area to perform out-oF-eyele s. None of these actions adds value from the standpoint of the customer, All ta disrupt the flow and all are waste Here is an important step in completing your Process Study Form: Do not include any obvious wastes as work elements! ‘They are not part of the work that needs co be done and an objective of the design process is to eliminate them. We call this iately leaving out wasteful steps ‘paper kaizen’ becaus approach of imme eliminating some waste on paper before the process is improvements, like fine tuning parts pres new cell is set-up and running, Bur there is usually a lot of waste you can eliminate in the paper kaizen stage. it in place, OF course, many rntation, will have to be done when the Here are some paper kaizen guidelines: 1. Do not include any walking as a work element. Because the actual amount of walking in your new process design is unknown and will be minimized, you should ignore it at this point. 2. Do not include out-of-cycle work for operators as work elements. This is a guideline you should never forget! Out-of-eycle work — like the first operator in the Apex cell stopping to feed the tube bender every 25 pieces — destroys continuous flow and makes it impossible to maintain efficient and consistent production to take time. Other examples include periodically getting bins of parts, making a quality check, or moving a container of finished parts. “These tasks may need doing bur should be given to support-saff like team leaders and material handlers, who work outside of the takt-based continuous flow. If you are ving out-of-cycle work to operators as a sort of break, chen schedule an official break or practice job rotation instead of burying such flow-killing waste in the work. Some out-of-cycle tasks can be converted to in-eycle tasks. For example, with only minor changes the tube bender in Apex’s cell can be loaded with a single work piece each time the operator eyeles through his or her work elements. This allows continuous flow and is easily achieved because the tube bender already has automation that can be adapted to process and eject finished pieces. PART I: WHAT ISTHE WORK? 2422 3. Do not include operators waiting for machines to cycle as a work element. ing for a machine to cycle is pure waste and must be eliminated, Always separate machine work from people’s work. It is OK to have machines finish cycling and sit idle until the operator returns on the next takt eyele, but an operator should never wait for a machine. You should develop your cells in a way that allows operators to load a machine, start it, and move on to the next workstation while the machine cycles. 4, Do not include time for removing finished parts from machines wherever you believe automatic eject could reasonably be introduced. When an ‘operator returns to a machine on the next takt cycle, he or she should ideally find an open and empty fixture (an “empty nest) into which the next pare to be processed can be loaded. Stopping to remove parts before another part can be loaded adds extra handling and waste. ‘Try to configure cells and equipment to avoid this waste. Work Elements for the Apex Cell Using the guidelines for paper kaizen, let's take another look at Apex’s fuel line cell. We've listed the fuel line work elements beneath the cell layout. Notice that the current operator activities that paper k: shown crossed out. cn eliminated are DEDEEDDDOGD DODGE DOGO DOOD DDO Apex’s fuel Tube Bender (automatic) Work Elements 400 Tes (oowmacerae) ine cell — work elements material flow ‘Assembly I (teamed, Testor \aucomatic) BS pace (faced eo) Belore Faizes Laat autof Aver Katzen Ger 5 tube & Pace to bender yee Auto eject Ge bent abe, place paced clamp Get hose & pace Start cycle aenembe Pole tohose Face toxture lap Get lef ferme ‘assent tohose Pace &clamp Getvalve& Starteycle yee wate) Unclamp&.remove Aide Get acnemely pace RH ade ere Removehose cap Place clamp fateach hose 20 Hide eure Start cycle pi Rene Reattacheap Inepect Pace to aippng PART WHAT ISTHEWORK? 2324 Question 4: What Is the Actual Time Required for Each Work Element? With all of the waiting on machines and manual removal of parts characterizing are now ready to time the work elements Apex’s current situation left out, w thae are still necessary for making the fuel lines. To collect accurate times for each work element you and your team need to go to the workplace and use stop watches. Avoid the temptation to use standard ‘ause they do not capture the current time data or time-and-motion tables be reality of the shop floor. Likewise, avoid reliance on time-study data on file in necring office. Collecting the information yourself on site will help you c waste that will otherwise remain hidden. the en; understand the real situation and si Note: Itis OK to begin with times from time-and-motion tables or data from past time studies when you are designing a completely new process and observing actual elements is not possible. However, as soon as the new process is operational you need to gather the real data as described here. red by an Be sure to time each work element separately, not the toral rime req operator to perform a sequence of work elements. ‘This is because the total time — between work for a sequence will include wasted time — in particular waiti elements that should not be counted as work. (However, if several work elements in succession are only one second long you may find it impractical to measure cach one. It is OK to group such very short elements.) Once you have timed the work eyele from start to individual elements then time the operator's comple finish. This time will almost invariably be higher than the sum of the work lements. The difference is the wasted waiting time between the elements. You will need to time every work element several times to get meaningful daca, Indeed, if you are unfamiliar with this task we suggest that you time each elem ten times. This is a lot of work, but practice is the only way to become proficier As you do this be prepared for the reality chat timing is labor intensive and time consuming, even if you are highly experienced. PEGHRGRGR REDE DRAG DDO DODD DDE Sometimes as you record the time for one element, the operator will already be on to the next element before you can reset your stopwatch. So you will have to wait for another cycle to time that ele! imilarly, nt. if'a work element is interrupted while you are timing you must diseard that time and wait for the next cycle. Just remember that there is no substitute for patience because the work element and timing data are the bedrock for everything else. You should time an experi nced operator who is fully qualified to perform the job, but pick a typical ope: not the fastest or slowest. Then, aft the lowest consistently repeatable time for each element. Do not use tor if possibl + you have timed many eyeles of each work element, select the average time since the lowest repeatable time is more indicative of what is realistically possible. Finally, and critically important, don’t forget shop floor courtesy. Make clear to everyone that you are timing the work, not the operator. As you record the times for each work element on the Process Study Form be careful to always separate operator work time from machi cycle time. For example, if'an operator loads a machine for five seconds, takes one second to stare the machine, and then the machine cycles for ten seconds, the operator work time will equ: While you are timing operator work elements go ahead and time the six seconds, not 16 seconds, machine cycles as well and record them separately on the process study form as shown on che next page. Note: Some experienced people we have worked with don’t use a stopwatch! Instead they count operator “motions;’ valuing them at 0.6 second each. Perhaps you will feel comfortable doing this yourself some day. However, we suggest you start with the method described above. Ry Cresco at the process. Dene EO pierce Coes Soca eee Or reacr eee cae? Oren Oey Peeks CUT OE eed Cae) ees rose ead eas Sey remeron26 Process Process Study Process: S,LA Fuel Lines OPERATOR Observer: Mary Smith Lowest MACHINE Cycle Time| Date/Time: Feb. 10,2000 3PM Steps Work Element Observed Times Repestable Notes Get bent tube & press into fixture 5/5) 4 Is] 5 Operator has to hammer to fit Get connector, place & clamp 4) 4135/4 4 Get hose & place to fixture 5) 4]4/4 Operator stacks own hoses (parts) Start cycle Unclamp & remove 2al2l2l2 Attach convolute 6|7/6|715 Assembly Il | Get tube & place to fixture 5) 4|5|5 Get hose & RH ferrule, assemble 4) 5)4)4 Farts far away; Lots of walking Place to fixture & clamp alalala 4 Get LH ferrule, assemble to hose 4) 413)4)4 4 Place to fixture & clamp Get valve & place to fixture Start cycle Unclamp & remove POG D O00 200000 0 0 HHHAHHHHH Quality check needed? PART Il: WHAT ISTHE WORK? 2728 Work Element Times for the Apex Cell When we look at the list of all of Apex’s element times and machine cycle times an important finding jumps out. The operators at Assembly I, Assembly II, the Crimper, and the ‘Tester wait at their machines for a total of 21 seconds each time a fuel line is produced. 21 seconds may not seem like much wasted time on casual observation, bur 21 seconds times 690 pieces per shift totals four hours of operator time spent watching machines cycle. No customer would think this creates value and it is completely avoidable because each machine only needs to eyele once every 40 seconds (takt time). There is nothing gained by the operator staying at the machine and reloading it as soon as it has finished its cycle, Instead, the operator can perform other value-creating in-eycle work and return to the machine for reloading some time after ic has finished cycling. Note: In reviewing the times in the list, we have estimated the time required to load the tube bender in a one-piece-at-a-time fashion because the work is not currently done this way. All “get & place” times at the other machines were measured at five seconds, so we be will use that figure for the tube bender now. This estimate replaced with real data once the new cell is in operation. Apex’s fuel line cell — work element times material flow ‘Assembly ® © © wens EZ AL [sstomatic weet @ & Bd = nace (wnat) So pentose (fae gods) Work Elements Work Elements rae Sareea Garbo pace pace poco ioe to Laaatoteior | 3 Get ttn one Rive paced soso fre Mace clap o ‘She [oe Auto eject a Place to fixture & art cycle Start eyle carp Solel Geet ferme assembe to hose nlonpdamiors- Place clamp spect emg After aie pace tobender Geral & place Pulcomohte to fture over cris — Starve side Auto dice Cae (wae) Unelamp remove Ade Machine Gcle=4rsee | Machine! Machine Cyel PART Il:WHAT ISTHE WORK? | |The Results of Paper Kaizen Now that times are known for all of the work elements, let's see the benefits of our paper kaizen, We can show this by stacking up the times of all the work elements as the operators have been performing them. Then we can draw a second stack on the right showing the coral work content after waste was eliminated by: © Introdui eet at Assembly I, Assembly II, the Crimper, and the Tester. (This eliminates operator time to unclamp, remove, and set aside parts.) 1g auto-¢ © Eliminating the waiting while machines cycle. + Converting the out-of-cycle work of loading the bender with a batch of 25 pieces into in-cyele work with the operator loading one piece every eyele. You can easily see that the paper kaizen has removed substantial operator effort from the Apex fuel line assembly process. ‘Total work content to make one piece has fallen by 30 seconds, from 118 to 8. This improvement is actually more dramatic because the redesigned work elements have added the step of loading the bender every cycle instead of every 25 cycles. (This conversion of work from out-of-cyele to in-eyele «will make the assembly process much more predictable and easier to manage against take time and production requirements.) Because the amount of value creating work is the same in both the left and right stacks, it follows that in the future operators can devote a greater percentage of their time to actually creating value without working any harder. Apex’s first Operator Balance Chart With the work elements and times in hand, Apex’s managers can now cr useful tool, the Operator Balance Chart. The OBC is a picture of the distribution of te a critically work among operators in relation to take time, based on real data that you personally observe and record. It is quanticative, simple, visual, and takes the guesswork out of rs, managers, designing and operating efficient operator-based cells, It enables engin and production associates to work together using facts. This tool has been very helpful for developing our own “eyes for flow”. Whenever people start working with an OBC we always note how effective the tool is in helping them to understand, create, manage, and improve continuous flow. 125 120 15 110 105 100/—| 95) 90) 85 80 75 70} 65 60} 55 50 45 35) 30) 25 20 15) Paper kaizen for Apex fuel line work content current CToractine= >) _> 18 seconds 7 sce to container Remove St Eliminate, Use auto elect. 1 Gale - { __ wate, Operator moves: on.as machine cycles, 90 85) 80} | Remove cap & attach hoce F— CRED | cet sesembly & pace to fixe -— 28 secon a liminate Fullcomolute over erimps inspectormps | UnslanpETEMGe et ——® Eiminate Use auto eject. Cycle += Eliminate, Operator moves ‘on ao machine cyces, Place & clamp LH side “| Get assembly place | Bilsdde to fattire ee ee Unclamp &remove ef—e cycle onas machine cycles, Get valve & place to fieture Place & clamp Get LH ferme assemble tonose Place to cure & clamp |] Get hooe & Ri feral, assemble I Gettube place = = = Elim Attach convolute TRCETpATEMOE et —* Elminate, Use auto eject, FS Eliminate, Operator moves ‘on.as machine cyc indard Work-in-Progress Got bent tube & place to ; ‘Rasembiyi = Workplece stays n machine, 75) 70] 65 60] 55 50] 45| 40] 35| {Get finshed plece, place Remove cap &attach hose Place to tester fixture Pll convolute over imps. Gat ished pecs Banopock corp Place clamp LHe PHside 16 hire bee Get valve & place to fixture Place & clamp Gor Ur ferrule & assemie cohose = Place to fixture & clamp Get hose & RH ferule, assem 30 25) 20) 15) 10) 5| Place to Assembly Il ficture Get frished piece Sabeach confohite pee | Gethose & place Get connector place and clamp Got bent tube & place to ‘Rasembiyl 9G 96 eube & place to bender — =takt a2 40 sec In the OBC each horizontal line equals one second, with Apex's fuel line take time drawn in at the 40 second level. ‘The work elements for each operator are stacked one on top of another (which is why the OBC is sometimes called a ‘stack chart’). The height of each box in the stack represents the time for that element. Note that operator load and unload times are included but not machine eyele times, because the OBC is summarizing human work and not machine work, Apex's managers thought they understood cell design, but looking at the fuel line OBG should give everyone at Apex a shock! Each operator has considerably less work content then the 40-second takt. In ewo cases the operator work elements toral less than half of take time. We have alrcady scen that material is not flowing through the cell and that output is, highly unstable, Now it is apparent that Apex is also using too many operators to produce fuel fines. This adds cost to the product and threatens everyone's job. But please remember ve that we are analyzing the process and not operator performance. In fact, the waste w ‘ortunately, the OBC found has its roots in the design and management of this proces: can help Apex find a berter way, as we will explain in the pages ahead. Apex’s Operator Balance Chart - current situation Get finshed pce attach comolute Gee Frshed par Pace to fixture & clamp inspect coh T Get bene tube & pace toassombly | hese 8 orale eee =] aco vp Assembiy 4 Baars cure e MACHINES, MATERIAL AND LAYOUT FOR FLOWMachines, Material and Layout for Flow. Production processes of any cype require the coordination of Man, Machines, MACHINES, MATERIAL Materials, and Method (commonly called “The Four Ms’). In the previous pare of Creating Continuous Flow we talked about Man (or more accurately; People) AND LAYOUT FOR FLOW in terms of work elements. Now that the work elements have been identified — nee and timed, we can put these aside for a moment and turn our attention to arrangin machines and workstations (Machines), and the materials management system, and apparatus (Materials), in a way that permits continuous flow. (Ota a a atc ed DOWEL hag Question 5: Can Your Equipment Meet Takt Time? Once Apex managers determined the products co make in their first cell (light How can the physical process be laid truck fuel lines in three variants) and calculated the take time (40 seconds), they CS ae ttt needed to ask whether the machines they were moving together to create a cell ere a eed could actually mect the takt time. To do this each machine must be able to complete its cycle on each part within takt time. In fact, as we will see in a moment, the ‘effective cycle time’ of each machine should be considerably less than cake time if continuous flow is to be achieved. As Apex managers and engineers examined the five machines they had moved into the cell, they summarized their operations as follows: 1) Tube Bender. Stainless steel tubes from the previous process are bent to final shape in a tube bending machine, which eycles and ejects automatically as long as its feed hopper contains raw tubes. Because the hopper holds pieces it would need to be refilled about every 16 minutes if the cell operates with a 40-second eyele 2) Assembly I. At this machine a connector and rubber hose are assembled to the tube. An operator loads and unloads this machine, which performs an insertion and crimping operation, 3) Assembly Il. Ac this machine a Teflon hose, ferrules (metal rings for connecting tubes to hoses), and a valve are assembled to the tube. An operator loads and unloads the machine, which automatically performs the insertion and crimping operations. This machine is changed over to run the two different lengths of ll: MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT 33,36 hose required by the product variants going through the cell. This involves the operator unpinning and sliding a clamp fixture to another position and repining it there. The shore- hoseflong-hose changeover takes about 20 seconds, or half of take time, 4) Crimper. This machine ctimps the left-hand and right-hand sides of the fuel line assembly, It is loaded and unloaded by an operator 5) Pressure tester. The finished fuel line assembly is tested in an automated test fixture, which is loaded and unloaded by an operator. Apex’s managers then prepared the following table to summarize the cycle time characteristics, times of each machine. By ‘effective machine cycle tim or effective we mean: machine cycle time per piece + load and unload time (during which the machine cannot cycle) + changeover time divided by number of pieces between changeovers As the Apex team looked at these data they noted that the basic cycle time of each machine was well below cakt time, the longest case being only 16 seconds. However, when they Effective Cycle Times of machines in Apex's cell Load, Start Effective Machine & Unload clo Time! Machine "Cyclo. Time Batch Size Bender 16 sec 5 sec oO 21sec Assembly! | 46ec | 16sec o 20 sec Assembyil | 7sec | 28sec ° 36 sec Crimper | Seec | 12sec oO 17 sec tester | Sec | 12sec ° 17 sec *Time is actually 0.67 second with a minimum bateh size of 20, based on packaging the customer requires as explained later. With a 20-second changeover time, the changeovers on this machine consume just under one second per cycle when averaged over the smallest run EE HHH reviewed the effective machine cycle times they realized that the Assembly I machine raises a problem, If demand were to inerease (meaning takt time fell) or if the ines were not completely capable (chat is, able to make a good part on every cycle), oF completely available (chat is, able co eycle every time they are instructed to) then Assembly II could easily become a bottleneck. Apex may need to consider improving the operator load and unload times at this step. At the other machine: there are no bottlenecks that will inhibit continuous flow. In faet, we would expect these machines to be idle for several seconds during each 40-second take interval. In our experience, in a world where machines are not completely capable or available and demand does change, it is best to target effective cycle times for every machine in the cell at no more than 80% of the fastest (highest-volume) take time. This, ensures that operators will not have to wait for machines to finish cycling the next time they come around to go through the work elements. It also provides a bit of extra capacity to accommodate some demand increases without the need to add capital equipment or pay large amounts of overtime, ‘What if some of your machines can’t meet the takt time wich a 20% margin? You have a number of options: * Kaizen the load, start, and unload process. ‘+ Eliminate waste in the machine cycle itself to reduce time. For example, shorten the travel distance and time of moving machine parts. © Split apart some of the tasks a bottleneck machine performs and use more than one machine to perform them. Use simpler or single-task machines running simultaneously at shorter eycle times. * Install ewo machines of the same and alternate between them on each eycle. pe at the bottleneck point in the cell, te when there * Create to cells instead of one. This may be particularly approp are advantages to locating separate pacemaker cells near different customers. Finally, if all else fails: * Remove the bottleneck equipment from the cell and operate it decoupled ker ina batch mode. Normally this will require establishing a supermarket pull system to regulate the production of the decoupled equipment. P from the pac PART Il: MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUTWhat About New Machinery? — Increments of Capacity In the Apex example, the company already has the machines it needs and wants to move ahead with its cell quickly to cut cost and improve responsiveness. However, you may be in a different situation. Some pieces of equipment are so anti-flow that replacing them now is the best option. Or, in the extreme case, you may have a cellular layout in mind for an entirely new product and process requiring all new machines. What are useful guidelines for designing the needed machines in order to achieve continuous flow? ‘The first question is, “How should the materials be processed to achieve a quality part?” If there is 2 clear choice in technologies for making the part, then the design of the new process and its equipment should begin there. ‘The next question is, "What is the desired process capacity?” The answer to this question is, related to machine cycle times. The issue is whether you chose to design in the direction of one or a few complex ‘super machines’ that perform many activities with relatively long total cycle times, or you opt for a series of simple machines that each perform only one or a few of the processing steps with short cycle times. Because the cycle time of a multi- function machine will be longer, its capacity will be lower than a series of single-function machines that each cycle more quickly. Demand rates and product portfolios can change frequently, even in stable indust For this reason it is often to your advantage to buy or build a number of simple machines that cycle quickly. These types of machines provide each cell with more flexibility to respond to change. (This advantage holds if you keep operator load times per machine from getting too long.) For example, if the cycle times of two multi-function machines in a process are near takt time when installed (as shown in the machine balance chart below) there is not much potential to handle additional demand or additional products without buying another machine. Capacity increases in this example must be made by additional machines in increments of 30 seconds of cycle time, because the longest machine cycle time in a process determines the overall increment in which capacity can be added, ility of multifunction machines Limited flexil takt time 40 seconds Ability to handle increased demand and more products machine cycle time 30 seconds machine balance chart POODDDODDDDDDDDDDDODDDDDDDD ODOT If this same process instead uses a series of simple machines that each cycle in ten seconds (as shown below) the cell or line has the ability to handle demand increases and additional products without buying more equipment. And capacity can now be added in increments of only ten seconds. Single-function machines also tend to be more reliable and less expensive than larger multi-function machines. Also, procurement lead time is shorter. In fact, you might be able to design and build such simple machines yourself! Greater flexibility of simple machines takt time 40 seconds ~ Greater ability to handle increased demand and more products <— machine cycle time 10 seconds 10s. 10s. 10s. 10s. Maximize the Utilization of Machines or People? Many of us have been taught that efficiency is achieved by maximizing machine utilization, ‘As we analyze equipment capacity we need to reconsider this flawed maxim. The physical elements of production are people, machines, and material. There are tradeoffs between these elements when you design a process. If you try to maximize the utilization of one element, the utilization of the other two tends to decline. For example, if you try to maximize the utilization of machines — running them constantly and as fast as possible — you will need extra people to run machines all the time. You will also need extra in-process material between processes to cover problems and keep the ‘machines running, Likewise, if you seek to maximize your utilization of material — having virtually no inventory on hand — you'll need extra people and equipment to handle demand fluctuations and breakdowns. Interestingly, trying to maximize the utilization of people is unique because humans are flexible. If the item that a machine makes is not yet needed by the next processing step then it is OK for that machine to sit idle and not yet cycle. (This is particularly true with simple equipment.) But an operator can move to a different machine to make something that is needed now. The machine is not very flexible, the operator is. This means that in pacemaker cells and lines you should design operator work content not to simply maximize equipment utilization, but for the best operator utilization. At times this, may appear to underutilize the equipment, which sits idle for some time during each takt interval, but producing faster than takt is overproduction — the worst waste of all PART Il: MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT 3738 Question 6: How Much Automation? Let's take a closer look at how automation can be used to make an efficient continuous flow, You can utilize automation to help you achieve an efficient and flexible continuous flow of material, But designed or used the wrong way, automation can also inhibit flow. To avoid this you must consider how che material flow and the operator flow will interact with one another. As a guide to thought, we often use a simple chart highlighting what we call ‘the great divide’ in automation (see below). ld value while a machine works you will n “Toallow operators to move on and 8 dat lea Level 2 Automation in your cell. This permits machines to automatically complet cycle once they're started without the need for further human attention. With L Automation operators can work in a sequence like this: Remove a finished workpiece from Machine 1 | Place a new workpiece in Machine 1. 4 Start Machine 1 (which chen eycles unattended), 4 Carry the finished workpiece to Machine 2 (the next processing step). 4 Repeat the sequence at Machine 2, Levels of automation ee Deer arin cores een Cover 4 uw} 3 eC Auto Auto e > The Great Divide w a| 4 Auto Auto Auto e 5 Auto Auto Auto Auto PROP EDO D0 0 HEHEHE Standard WIP (one piece) This work progression allows operators to handle multiple processes within the take time, as shown in the diagram below. While the machine cycles, the operator moves on to the next processing step. The operator never waits for the machine, We think of it this way: When the operator waits at a machine while it cycles the operator is working for the machine. When the operator ‘moves on to perform subsequent work elements while a machine eycles the machine is working for the operator. Sometimes we still see operators staying at machines to monitor them. Again, the operator is working for the machine. This is pure waste. In these cases engineers need to develop sensors that detect problems, alert someone, and if necessary even automatically stop the machine. Then people come to the machine only when they are really needed. The cost of simple sensors to detect problems is almost always far below the cost of keeping an operator at a machine. And human inspection is never 100% effective anyway. Multi-process handling instead of waiting PART I: MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT 39,Comer) Peed so that operators can cca aoe Peo Reed Cece) penny he or she is not needed ere) Cee CC aT Pierce CEE a ORCS cg CO od Ort automation) the Cn Ec Coen ay waste of waiting is CTR eres Havi finished piece to the next machine means that one piece of ‘standard za machine cycle unattended while the operator moves the work-in-process’ inventory is left behind in the machine. Parts are c of “standard being processed one piece at a time, but the one pie WIP" frees the operators from the machines. (During daily operation of the cell the supervisor or team leader will need to regularly ensure that these pieces of standard WIP are in place or the efficient flow will break down.) Note: Proper machine guarding needs to be in place when machines are able to cycle without the operator's hands remaining on the switch. Look for ways to configure safety devices so they do not interfere with the operator's smooth motion. Level 2 Automation May Not Be Enough Level 2 Automation works well when parts can be unloaded and loaded with one hand. However, there is a problem when the parts being processed require both hands to unload and toad. Then the operator has to work in this sequence Set the new workpiece aside. | Remove the finished workpiece from the machine. | Set the finished workpiece aside. | Pick up th | Place the new workpiece in the machine. 1 Start the machine, which then eycles unattended. 4 Pick up the finished workpiece | Bring the finished piece to the next machine, and repeat these steps. new workpiece TOUGH DGO0DDDDDDDDDDODH AY As you can se waste occurs because the operator must double-handle both the finished workpiece and the new piece. This is the situation in Apex’s cell, where both hands are needed to handle the long fuel lines, and ic is one of the reasons that Apex’s operators each stay at one machine. Instead of having operators handle h fuel line twice as they walk through Apex’s cell, it appears more efficient to have them stay in one position and simply remove a finished part, hang it onco a rack for the next operator, a nd then get and load a new part, In fact, the parts are still double-handled, but the waste is obscured because it is spread over two operators. Apex managers also felt that by keeping the operators at the machines the operators could reload the machines as soon as they are open gain, which results in high machine utilization and feels efficient. But of course, this completely ignores take time, causes waste, and destroys flow, Double-handling means that many pacemaker processes need Level 3 Autom to achieve an efficient continuous flow. Level 3 Auromation means that the finished workpiece is automatically ejected from the machine at the end of the cycle. As a result, the machine presents an ‘empty nest’ cach time the operator returns with a new part. A new part can be loaded without having to double-handle both parts, Because great precision is generally not required to eject a part, Level 3 Automation is usually quite inexpensive. A workpiece can often be ejected by utilizing energy from the final cyclical movements of the machine, for example via a part eject arm (or ‘kicker’) connected to a moving ram. (We urge you to avoid steadily blowing compressed air to eject parts. This creates a noisy workplace and high energy bills.) More Than Level 3 Automation May Be Too Much An interesting point Level 3 Automation to Level 4 or Level § Automation capital costs and technical the rable of automation levels is that when you go beyond complexity increase dramatically. Properly loading parts is easy for humans but can require delicate technologies to automate. Similarly, transferring parts automatically may require robots or transfer lines. This may seem attractive on paper, but the complexity often reduces process reliability to below 70%. In addition, what ean you do with an expensive, highly automated line when customer demand changes? When demand falls off you are stuck with an underutilized piece of high-depreciation equipment. When demand rises above capacity you need to buy another expensive automated line PART Ill MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUTIn our experience, Level 3 Automation achieves many of the benefits of full auto- ‘mation but without the expense, procurement lead time, maintenance requirements, downtime, and volume inflexibility, We call the decision to pursue Level 4 and 5 Automation ‘crossing the great divide’. In some cases you may need to do it, b you should look very hard at the alternatives firs. Question 7: How can the physical process be laid out so one person can make one piece as efficiently as possible? Here is an elegant tactic for cell design. Arrange the machines, workstations, and material presentation devices as if only one operator makes the product from beginning to end, even if you will never run the cell this way. When you design a process so one person can move through it and efficiently perform all of the work omatically design a process that avoids isolated islands of act elements, you y minimizes inventory accumulation between processes, eliminates excessive walking, removes obstacles in walking paths, and brings the people-driven, value-creating steps as close to one another as possible. This is certain to be the most efficient layout, even though the correct number of operators has yet to be determined (and will vary anyway when takt time changes significancly). On the following pages are two simple checklists for organizing machines and workstations so that operators can perform their work elements as, efficiently as possible. Among these guidelines is that machines and workstations should be close together and that the inside width of a cell should be kept to about five feet if possible. With this in mind, many cells naturally end up in a narrow U-shape. The more workstations or machines in the cell, the longer the U. Of course, there are often product, machine, or part presentation issues that affect cell design and thus many different cell shapes are possible. Note: There is @ school of thought that material should flow through cells in a right-to-left direction relative to the operator, because more people are right handed and it is more efficient and natural to work from right to left. However, many efficient processes flow to the left and many flow to the right. Simply evaluate on a case-by-case basis whether a particular direction makes more sense. LL Guidelines for Cell Layout 1 Place machines and workstations close together to minimize walking distance. Oo Remove obstacles from the efficient operator walking path. O21 try to keep the inside width of a cell at around five feet to allow flexibility in reallocating work elements among team members. With a width of no more than five feet, team members can easily walk across the inside of the cell during their work cycle. Q. Eliminate spaces and surfaces where work-in-process inventory can accumulate. Q Maintai consistent heights for work surfaces and points of use. 1 Locate the leadoff and final processes near one another. This minimizes return walking for the next cycle and allows one operator to easily handle both the leadoff and final process. When this is possible it greatly aids line pacing. Q.avoid up-and-down and front-to-back transfers of the workpiece. If possible, keep the sides of the machines open to allow horizontal transfers on the shortest path between them. Q._ Use gravity to assist operators in placing parts and moving materials whenever possible. CQ. install flexible adjustments 1g to make layout O21 keep hand tools as close as possible to the point of use and orient them in the direction that they are used by operators. Q1_ Use dedicated hand tools instead of tools that require bit changes, and combine two or more tools wherever possible. continued —= PART Il MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT a3Guidelines for Cell Layout 2 Absolutely ensure safety and good ergonomics. A lean process is designed to support the operator and value-added working. Poor ergonomics is undesirable from a human standpoint and contributes to waste. Keep manual, operator-based work steps close together to allow flexible work element distribution and value-added operator work. ‘Segregate Level 5 automation and continuous-cycle operations (like ovens) from manual operators or operator-based work flow, as shown in the diagram below. Note that an automated segment incorporated into a cell in this manner must be highly reliable. If reliability is poor and hard to improve, begin by placing the automated segment in a separate area and regulate its production with a pull loop. Incorporating automated segments into cells <— Automated segment Manual area (operators work here) material flow WORDED ODDD DODD DODO DDOD DDR Guidelines for Machines Q._ Use small equipment dedicated to a single task rather than large, multi-task equipment. Introduce auto-eject (Level 3 Automation) whenever operators must use both hands to handle the part. Install one-touch automation where possible. One-touch automation means that an operator can place a part in a machine, initiate the machine cycle, and move on. Avoid batching. Ideally, machines should be able to process one-piece-at-a-time in less than takt time. Incorporate sensors to signal abnormal conditions and even automatically stop machines if necessary, so operators don’t need to watch machines during their cycle. Design in maintainability. This means machine designs that accessible for maintenance and repairs, and can be fixed quickly. At the pacemaker process, strive to devise machine changeovers between different end items that take less than one takt time cycle. Guidelines for Materials Management The essential companion co these guidelines for layout and machines are guidelines for material handling, As Apex’s team works on the physical design of the fuel line cell it also needs to take a look at its system for getting the required parts and materials to theie ‘point of use’ in the cell. When you use the following materials management guidelines it will help your cell and line operators perform their work elements as efficiently as possible, PART Il MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT 4846 Guidelines for Materials Management Present parts as close as possible to the point of use, but not in the walk- ing path of the operator. Present parts so operators can use both hands simultaneously. Try to keep all part variations at the operators’ fingertips at all times to eliminate changeover time. + Use fail-safe storage mechanisms when different parts look almost the same to prevent the wrong parts being assembled. *When you cannot keep all part variations near the point of use because they are too bulky or numerous, increase the delivery frequency for those parts or sequence their delivery to match the end-item assembly mix running through the pacemaker. For example, deliver sequenced parts every ‘pitch’ of work. (Pitch is discussed under Question 10.) Do not have operators yet or restock their own parts. With the possible exception of refilling screw pouches inside the workstation use a material hendler on a regularly scheduled, standardized route (typically every hour) to deliver parts and take away finished goods. Q. Keep no more than two hours of materials at the point of use. If the material handler fails to deliver on schedule, the cell or line will soon stop, forcing menagers to address erratic material flow. Q_ Do not put additional parts storage in or near the process because this makes the operation of the cell or line harder to understand and encourages operators to get their own parts, This can reintroduce the evil of out-of-cycle work 1 Utilize kanban to regulate parts replenishment. The material handler ‘comes regularly but will only bring those parts that have actually been used as indicated by kanban. No kanban, no parts. 1 Size parts containers for the convenience of the operators or as a multiple of finished-goods packout quantity, not for the convenience of the material handler or the supplying process. The operators are the ones creating the value. Everyone else is at best incidental work! SHAH Guidelines for Materials Management Q_ Do not interrupt operator work cycles to replenish parts. Parts should be replenished in small containers from outside the cell and wherever possible should slide to the point of use by gravity-feed racks or chutes. Design these so an empty container taken off the flow rack causes the next full container to slide into position. The operator then slides the empty container down a return chute to exit the cell or line. boxes opened for operator (one kanban / on each box) Ee] Flow rack with return se empty containers material handler operator Overhead view of flow rack delivery Flow racks can also flow over benches and =— Von machine ———77 oO C=] just between them PART li MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT 4748 Applying the guidelines to the Apex cell When we examine the current Apex cell through the lens of our guidelines, we see the following: vo much walking distance from beginning to end. ‘The inside of the cell is too wide, ‘The leadoff and final operations are far apart, with the consequence that a single ‘operator will have to walk a long way to get to the beginning of the next eyele. © There is ample space for work-in-process accumulation between every machine. the tbe bender needs modification to load one piece every eycle: © The “out” tray for the bender obstructs the operator walking path. Current Apex fuel line module layout 580 square feet, 56 pieces in process 29 feet al mm LA ie Zn 20 ee Tube Bender (cote tested) went FY mere] er lai ES A “eshed goose Before applying guidelines Reorganizing the cell in accordance with the guidelines produces a very different configuration as shown in the diagram below. ‘This layout will be fine-tuned when, deployed on the shop floor, However, we have now improved the physical layout to a point that we need to ask how to integrate the work elements and the operators in the newly configured cell. Examp! jent one-operator, one: 252 square feet, 5 pieces in process jayout for effi 14 feet Assy Il angled to keep cell inside — width about § ft parts & materials presented on SR LEB ~~ flow racks from outside cell sent A single piece of in-process stock left 18 in machine as operator moves on feet ° Ps crimper (Gmaas—e] e no obstructions in walking path — “ue Boner 1no space for WIP accurnulation Beets [| | — sais Fal =< tester angled to bring cell start ou and end together is hj ‘else goat After applying guidelines PART li MACHINES, MATERIAL, LAYOUT50 Apex was able to create their cell layout because their existing pacemaker equipment was designed to process one piece at a time, but some of your ‘current pacemaker equipment may be configured to rapidly process batches instead of operating in @ continuous flow. We call this sort of batch-oriented equipment ‘monuments’ and they often involve processes like painting, heat treating, and plating. In the future you may be able to replace your ‘monuments with simpler, single-piece-flow equipment. But what can you do today? *You can separate a batch-oriented process from your continuous flow with a supermarket pull system or FIFO buffer. * Heating, cooling, curing, and similar processes can sometimes be kept within a continuous flow when they are moving-conveyor processes, as long as operators can drop off a single uncured piece and pick up a single cured piece once within each takt time. Walk distances should be minimized. * Sometimes you can ignore the batch capability of equipment and use it in a single-piece mode. However, the equipment's effective cycle time for processing only one piece must still fit under the takt time. * Sometimes, with a little creativity, a batch-oriented machine can be replaced by an inexpensive, single-piece processing method right away. For example, manual spray guns placed in-line can sometimes do the work of a batch- oriented, conveyorized paint line. ee AVA DISTRIBUTING THE WORKee hf DISTRIBUTING THE WORK ON Ca ie eMC Te tcl Deceased Oe MCE eer as eee LT) Re cons DISTRIBUTING THE WORK With the physical process now rearranged so that work can be performed in the most efficient manner, it is time co bring the operators and the customer back into the cell design process. Question 8: How Many Operators Are Neede: to Meet Takt Time? ‘The total operator work time to make one fuel line after Apex’s paper kaizen is 88 seconds. If this were equal t0 or less than take time, the cell could meet the customer's need with one operator, However, the customer currently requires one finished fuel line every 40 seconds, so more than one operator will be needed. The appropriate number of operators should nor be determined by estimate or by negotiation between the different members of the team. Instead you should begin the process of determining the operator need with this equation: Total Work Content (after paper ksizen) _ Number of Operators TaktTime In the Apex example this works out as follows: 88-seconds work content 2.2 Operators 40-second takt time ‘There being no such thing as ewo-tenths (0.2) of an operator, this means that three operators will be needed if Apex is to meet customer demand with no further improvement in operating methods. While this is already one fewer ‘operator than Apex is currently using, two-tenths is not far above two, which means using three operators would result in low productivity. This cell can be run with two operators if the entire team is willing to set this as a goal, PART IV: DISTRIBUTING THE:‘The table below provides a guideline to evaluate the initial ‘number of operators’ calculation. This table assumes that operator loading will be in the 90 to 95% range, ‘That is, 90 to 95% of each take interval will be filled with work and operators will not need to watch machines or wait for parts. ‘The table also assumes that your cell or line will he introduced and managed as described in this books. Note: If you intend to use a cycle time more than 10% below takt time be sure to make your first number-of-operators calculation based on takt time, We think you should have the potential productivity of your cell or line clearly in mind. ‘Then you can redo the calculation using your planned cycle time as the denominator, instead of the takt time, keeping in mind the serious problems associated with cycling too much faster than takt time, We have found that in each facility or company the commitment to create continuous flow should be accompanied by a consensus on how fully jobs will be loaded against take time. This discussion shouldn't reoccur every time a new cell is designed and it er become a game where management is always trying to increase certainly should ne loadings and production teams are try ing, process quite precise so the whole team can 1g to reduce them. Fortunately, the Operator Balance Chart makes the actual loa: discuss the issue with facts. \es for determining the number of operators in a cell Remainder in calculotin fter Guideline / Target paper kaizen) Do not add an extra operator. Further reduce waste & incidental work. Do not add an extra operator yet. After two weeks of cell operation & kaizen, carefully evaluate if enough waste & incidental work can be taken out. ‘Add an extra operator if necessary and keep reducing waste & incidental work to eventually eliminate the need for that operator in the cell, 52 TQDDDDTDOODDDDDODODDDODDDDDDEEH How can Apex reach the 2-operator goal? By committing their whole ream of managers, engineers, and production associates to a 2 ~4 week troubleshooting. and debugging process at the cell. When you stare ro run the cell with two operators you may only reach 65% of, target production and be tempted to add another operator. This will be a critical moment of decision because if you do add a third operator now the pressure to Kaizen out more waste is likely co disappear. Instead, we urge you to run the cell with two operators for extra time at the end of the shift or on the weekend to make the necessary output target while you continue to Kaizen. In our experience, a team willing to commit to intense kaizen in pursuit of a target number of operators based on our guidelines can usually reach 80% of che required output within a week of startup and 90% within two weeks. ‘The final 10% is the hard part and will require all elements of production and support to come together, However, as you reach this goal — and we absolutely know that you can — you will have created an operation that can run for months at low cost ‘with crue continuous flow. Even more important, this will set a new standard for your entire organization, Operator Loading Options When you are in the upper range of our operator guideline (wich an initially calculated need over 0.5 additional operator per cell) you will face a choice of how o distribure a less-than-full work content among the operators as you begin to operate your cell. ‘The tradicional approach is called ‘balancing the line’ (see Option A on the following page). ‘The work content is divided evenly between the operators, perhaps from a desire to be fair. But craditional line balancing bakes the waste of waiting into the process by spreading it evenly across all operators. The eycle time of each operator is indeed balanced, but each operator is only partially loaded. This practice not only makes it harder to eliminate waste later but also creates the potential for overproduction, For lean producers this is just a bad as failing to meet demand PART IV: DISTRIBUTINGTHEWORK 63.54 After a few days of running, the operators in a traditionally balanced cell usually be gin to function as isolated iskinds. Small batches of inventory start to pile up between operators and continuous flow falls apart. Managers may try to overcome this problem by placing ‘kanban squares’ between hold one piece of work and operators are not allowed to make another piece until the downstream kanban square is emptied by the next downstream operator. ‘This technique can reestablish a single-piece-flow of material, but at the price of permanently incorporating the waste of waiting time in the process. It is a band-aid that doe ich operator. These only "t address the root cause A better solution is to redistribute the work elements and fill every operator but cone with work elements consuming almost the entire takt interval (Option B below). This is the lean option. By loading most of the waste of waiting on one operator, the opportunity for kaize is brought to the surface. Then, once the cell is able to operate with one less production associate, the organization realizes a true cost savings, balancing the I vs. the lean option FF OF A B Option A: ‘Balancing the line’ by dividing work evenly between the workers in the cell tends to bake the waste of waiting into the cell by spreading it evenly across all the operators. Operators are “balanced” but not fully loaded. Option B: This approach redistributes work to fully load every operator but one. This exposes the waste and makes it easier to improve. OF Tee Lee ELL Question 9: How Will You Distribute the Work Among the Operators? Apex’s team has decided to operate the cell with two operators, each loaded with work content that equals about 9: nents to give which operator. of takt time, Apex now needs to decide which work el Work element allocation in a cell can be done in many ways. Managers and. engineers need to be aware of the range of possibilities, both for our Apex cell example and for different types of cells they may construct in the future. Here are some approaches to consider: 1. Split the Work among the operators so cach performs one take time worth of the total work content, often moving between several machines. 2. The Circuit, where one operator performs all the work elements to make a complete circuit of the cell in the direction of material flow. A second operator follows a few stations behind. 3. Reverse Flow, in which the operators make a circuit in the reverse direction of the material flow. 4. Combinations of splitting the work and a citeuit or reverse flow 5. One-OperatorperStation, in which each operator stays at one workstation, 6. The Ratchet, in which each operator works two machines and “ratchets” the work piece ahead each time the operator moves to a downstream machine. Let's look at each of these approaches in more detail PART IV: DISTRIBUTING THE WORK1. Split the Work Because the machines in Apex’s cell are now arranged in a narrow U-shape, operators can easily cross from one side of the cell to the other during their work cycle. This means that a number of split-the-work combinations are possible. It also means that the sequence of work elements the operator performs can be ferent from the processing sequence required to make the product. ‘The ability to create across-the-cell work combinations is particularly helpful in finding new combinations of work elements that stack up to takt time when work elements need to be redistributed after a kaizen or due to a change in customer demand. The variety of combinations made possible by keeping, manual workstations close together is another reason to isolate fully automated segments of production from the operator-driven portion of a cell. In splitting up the work it is a good idea to assign the same operator the first and last work elements in the material flow because this creates an automatic pacing effect for the whole cell Splitting the work Splitting the work means that each operator is given one portion of the total work content. F cwerstor 3 ©. : “oo +0 0-0 6-0 finished product 56 PODDDODGGOR DOR B O00 8 HHH 2. The Circuit Assigning all work elements to every operator and having the next operator follow the first with a gap of a few stations provides a number of advantages. Ir provides a natural pacing effect. It is easy to implement. It can reduce walking distances since operators have a short return path co start the next cycle at the completion of the circuit. And it automatically rotates jobs and makes th more interesting. work However, circuits also have limitations: * They are generally limited to two operators because it is quite difficult to coordinate more, It's better to try another approach if the cotal work content Fequites more than «wo operators. er its will generally not work if more than 40% of the total operator work content occurs at a single workstation, because the operators will jam up at the high-content station. If simple, quick-loading, single-purpose machines ccan be substituted for a complex, high-c to spread the work over more stations and make a circuit feasible. time machine you may be able * They require skilled operators because each operator must be qualified to perform every clement, while operating all the equipment and making all necessary quality checks. Circuit work distribution Each operator performs all the work elements. O® A <— return walking distance PART IV DISTRIBUTINGTHEWORK 873. Reverse flow Reversing the direction of operators in a circuit where parts require both hands is a good choice when the machines do not yet have auto-cject (Level 3 Automation). ‘The long-term solution is to modify the machines with automatic part ejection, but this ean take time and may even have to wait until the launch of a new product, Because we want to maintain an action orientation and introduce continuous flow right away, reverse flow can be a good interim step. Reverse flow, once you try it, creates a more natural working/walking sequence in this situation, Wich reverse flow the operators move in the opposite direction from the workpieces progressing through the cell. Operators start at the finished goods container and work upstream to the leadoff point in the cell. Reverse flow does Fequire that one additional piece of in-process product be kept in a holding position between each operation, but the advantages outweigh this drawback ‘The diagram illustrates how reverse flow works in a three-machine cell (which we have used for case of presentation): * Standing at Machine 3, the operator unloads a finished part and puts ie into the packout containes. The operator then reaches to the holding position berween Machines 3 and 2, takes the waiting part, places it in Machine 3, and starts the machine cycle. * The operator walks to Machine 2 empty-handed * ACMachine 2 the operator unloads the finished pare and places it in the holding Position between Machines 2 and 3, the position just emptied to load Machine 3. Then the operator reaches between Machine 1 and 2, takes the part from the holding position, loads it into Machine 2, and starts the machine + The operator walks to Machine 1 empty-handed. ‘* At Machine 1 the operator repeats the sequence by removing the completed part and placing ic in the empty holding station between Machines 1 and 2 He then takes a piece out of the raw-material container, puts it in Machine 1, and starts the eye * The operator walks back to Machine 3 empty-handed to complete the reverse circuit. CRGDGGGCHDGDODDROG CD00 DRE Reverse flow Operators move in the opposite direction of the material flow. Machine 3 Machine 1 You have probably noted har each workpiek flow. This is undesirable and can only be elimi: However, while the machines +s, part holding positions Machine 2 i i a-== material flow ——— operator flow s still double-handled in reverse inated by introducing auto-eject. are being modified we suggest using reverse flow. PART IV: DISTRIBUTING THE WORK.4. A Combination In many cells a combination of splitting the work and a circuit or reverse flow will make the most sens For example, some operators will work at specific stations or combination of stations, while one or more pairs of operators work in citeuits or reverse flows in other parts of the cell, This can achieve many of the benefits of circuits in cells requiring more than two operators. In addition, when a pair of operators include both the leadoff and the final work ts in their circuits, it provides an excellent pacing mechanism for the whole cell, elem Combination work distribution material @ ®& 4 (circuit portion) 5. One-Operator-per-Stati Some processes involve only manual work with no automated equipment. In this situation the number of workstations can be the same as the number of operators, or there can be ‘one operator on each side of a workstation, Each operator performs all of his or her work n clements at the single workstation and then passes the work on to the next station. The assignment of work elements is easy, but it may be harder to evenly balance work and fully load the operators because of the limited ability to devise flexible work combinations. A moving conveyor to transfer the workpiece is often a good idea for maintaining continuous flow with this type of work distribution, because without it there can be a tendency for regression to batching. One-Operator-per-Station distribution Empty station material flow for volume wane, increase TAHA 6. The Ratchet In this arrange of operators. nent the number of workstations is one greater than the number Zach operator works at two workstations and moves back and forth berween sta ‘ovo operators will work in each station, one after the other. When operators move to the downstream workstation they carry the workpiece along, Moving upstream is done empty-handed. Thus the work ‘ratchets’ forward with each eyele of the operators. jons every takt increment, Except for the leadoff and final workstations, The work content for each operator must be divided benween the two workstations such that each operator divides the takt time in the same ratio between the two stations, For example, if after 50% of the take time one operator moves downstream to complete his or her eyele at the ‘ond workstation, all operators must move after 50% of the take time. Because all operators move at the same time, the ratcher provides a strong pacing mechanism and is excellent for day use line imbalance to-day kaizen bet are immediately visible. However, ratchets are only practical when work elements can. be evenly divided within takt time at every work station. This generally implies mostly load-and-start machines, short machine cycle times, and light machines, that can be moved easily to even up the work elements. A good example is sewing, complex articles in the garment industry. The Ratchet Example: 4 operators & 5 workstations Workstation responsibility in the Ratchet Operator 1: workstations A + B Operator 3: workstations C + D Operator 2; workstations 8 + C Operator 4: workstations D +E PART IV: DISTRIBUTINGTHEWORK 6162 Selecting a Work Distribution for Apex With these basic approaches in mind, we may now ask what the best work distribution will be for Apex. In looking at the situation it is apparent that a ratchet approach is not appropriate because it would be very hard to div the eycle time on each machine into, say, half of take time. The one-operator per-station distribution is not suited to this application because all of the machines are to some extent automated, permitting operators to move on and le up perform other work elements while the machines cycle. In addition, we note that this is a small cell with a target of two operators, so there is no need for a combination of splitting up the work and circuits or reverse flow. This leaves the first three choices on our list — split operations, a circuit, and reverse flow, We prefer the idea of the two operators moving all the way through the cell each take interval, which makes it easier to maintain continuous flow, provides a pacing mechanism, and adds variety to the work. Because it will take a litele time for Apex to design and install the auto-e efficient circuic discribution in this case, we will begin with a reverse flow and move as quickly as possible to 2 circuit. Reverse flow does involve a little more work content due to the double-handling of par little overtime each shift. This should create pressure co eliminate more waste and introduce auto-eject as soon as possible. devices essential for an 5. 80 there will be a need for a CONNECTING TO THE CUSTOMER & REGULATING THE FLOWCONNECTING TO THE CUSTOMER ae & REGULATING THE FLOW Ge OO U eta C Rr te rhc ied CCRC Ee tac Corde coc ee Pee Crt Ed Connecting to the Customer and Regulating the Flow We have now integrated Man (People), Materials, Machines, and Methods to design «true, efficient continuous flow: Buc we still need to determine how to schedule the cell and how to reace when there are changes in customer demand. Question 10: How Will You Schedule the Pacemaker? ’o this point we have been working on the flow of products through the cell and the flow of materials and operators to support the product flow, We now need to design a suitable information flow from the customer. Icis not realistic to expect customer demand (o be completely smooth. However, if we ty to adjust the output of the cell ro respond from hour to hour to every twitch in demand it will be very hard to sustain any type of flow. Costs will go up and quality will fall, Similarly, it is not realistic to expect the mix of product types demanded to be constant, Yet if we try to change over from one product type to another, as each item. goes through the cell we may encounter material handling and productivity problems. The alternative of producing large batches of one product type between changeove reduces these problems, but at the price of slowing response to customer requirements for different types, and sending large waves of component orders upstream. This will require holding substantial inventories of finished goods downstream from the cell — in the hope that we will have on hand what the customer wants — and of the necessary parts and components upstream of the cell, Both of these inventor increase the lead time through your value stream To achieve and maintain continuous flow and a lean value stream we need to schedule and operate a cell, particularly when it is a pacemaker process as in the Apex case, with as little volume fluctuation as possible, We call this ‘leveling the volume” of work. Similarly, we need to decide on the most appropriate batch sizes to run before changing over to another product type. We call this ‘leveling the product mi volume leveling and mix leveling must be part of your cell design process PARTV: CONNECTINGTOTHE CUSTOMER 636a Leveling the Volume If the customer's schedule to a pa cruates widely over emaker process fl extended periods, you will need capacity (people, machines, material) well above average long-run demand in order to always meet customer needs. But, for the more typical peaks and valleys in demand, when long-term average demand is fairly stable, establishing a supermarket of finished goods between the pacemaker process and the customer can allow you to level production, requirements in the cell while still satisfying the customer, The cost of the supermarket — linked to the cell by pull signals — is often much less than maintaining extra capacity. Life would be simpler if customers were the only cause of demand fluctuations. ses internal variations in performance also create waves of But in most proc demand variation. For example, the pacemaker process may at times experience machine problems, quality defects, or missing materials that cause its output and material requirements to vary. You have the choice of either responding very quickly to these problems to maintain level output, or adding more inventory of finished goods downstream and parts upstream from the cell. Level g the volume of work more level production { deytoxiay v ' volume fluctuations OM Finished Goods Customer Supermarket “ATTA HHH Rapid response to problems is the better choice. To respond rapidly you need to become aware of problems as soon as they occur. Speed of awareness is related to how much production you release to the pacemaker at one time. For example, if production control releases a daily schedule to the pacemaker process, managers and production associates will tend to find out how they are doing only coward the end of the day. Ac that point it may be hard to catch up and the whole discipline of working to takt time will have been lost. What you need is a much smaller ‘management time frame’, by which we mean the amount of work you release to your pacemaker and the amount of finished goods you take away, By reducing your management time frame and responding quickly to problems, it should become possible over time to produce a consistent me without needing to hold extra finished goods inventory “just in case”. Ideally, Apex’s production control would release one takt worth of production (one fuel line) to the pacemaker cell every 40 seconds. At the same time, material handling would take away one finished fuel line. ‘This would be true continuous flow. Apex would be able to discover any production problems “instantly” within a single take time. What is your management time frame? “What increment of work are you releasing? + How often do you know your performance to customer demand? PART: CONNECTING TOTHE CUSTOMER‘The problem, of cours: is thae releasing and taking away one take at a time at each of your pacemaker processes would require an army of material handlers. Apex will need to employ a more practical approach based on the concept of Pitch is the kt time multiplied by some number of pieces that gives a practical time inerement for releasing and taking away work at the cell. An often-used multiplier is the finished goods packout quantity Ac Apex the packou quantity for the cell is 30 pieces per container. We get from Apex’s packout quantity to a pitch with the following formula: 30 pieces per container Pitch = _x 40 seconds per piece (takt time) 1200 seconds or 20 minutes 20 minutes would be the basic scheduling increment, or “heartbeat”, for Apex’s pacemaker cell. Based on this pitch, Apex can establish a material handler route through the plant. Every 20 minutes he or she will bring the next 20 minutes of schedule for the cell and simultaneously take awa ‘one container of 30 pieces. This technique of ‘paced withdrawal’ will allow Apex’s managers to always know within 20 minutes if they have a problem. 20 minutes of production — If.a fast problem-response mechanism is in place it should be possible to correet problems and get production back on track without the need for large amounts of overtime. Apex managers can truly manage their cell by pitch if they: 1) Know the target (30 pieces every 20 minutes). 2) Check progress regularly to spot abnormalities (every 20 minutes). 3) Quickly respond to abnormalities Remember that the operators will be working very nearly to the full ake time. They cannot solve the problem and stay on pitch. Instead the team leader will ually need to step into the cell to address the problem, or switch places with «an operator who can rework defective parts AEE Managing a cell by pitch is most feasible when changeover times are very short. Ideally the changeover time will be less than takt time, This goal should be addressed by engineers who design the machines for the cell, Fortunately, this, is the case for the Apex cell where the longest changeover time is 20 seconds. Whenever you encounter changeover times that are significantly greater than takt time you will need to assign changeovers to specific pitch increments and skip one or more pitches cach time there is a changeover. There are many possible pitch intervals, and you need to find pitch times that make sense for your own situation, We sometimes begin with longer pitches and move to shorter ones as the capability of the pacemaker process is improved. Note: Pitch and paced withdrawal are used to detect problems in a pacemaker process, not to make operators work harder or faster. Leveling the Mix Producing large batches of one product family variant to supply the customer with a variety of product types in a short lead time with- out holding extra finished goods. Batching a for particular components up your value stream. ‘This forces upstream processes ninimize batching, surges, and the cell makes it hard, 0 tends to send surges of demand to hold more inventory to handle che surges. upstream inventory, you need to level the product mix of your cell You can measure the degree of batching in any process by looking at its ‘EPE’ which means “every-part-every-interval”. EPE indicates how often a proce: can produce each of the high-running product types it makes. For example, if 4 process can produce all of its high-running end items every day, then EPE becomes “every-part-every-day”. An appropriate EPE for pacemaker processes is “every-part-every-ship-window” or “every-part-every-day”, whichever is smaller. Apex makes two shipments of fuel lines per eight hour shift (with all three product family variants potentially included in each shipment). ‘The goal for Apex’s cell should be an EPE of every-part-every-four-hours, Apex’s managers will need to caleulate changeover frequencies accordingly (with six changeovers per shift). PARTY: CONNECTINGTOTHE CUSTOMER 67The Load Leveling Box One good tool for leveling production volume and production mix at the pacemaker is a load leveling box. This simple device has a column of slots to hold the kanban for each pitch interval and a row of slots for the kanban for cach type of end item running through the cell In Apex’s load leveling box the columns would represent 20-minute increments (the pitch). It would contain three rows of slots for the 8, L, and A fuel fine variants. ‘On each box of finished fuel lines in the cell’s finished goods supermarket there would be one kanban card indicating the following: ype of fuel line (S, L, or A) * Quantity in the box (30 pieces) upermarket address ell address [As production control pulls a customer order from the finished goods supermarket to stage it for shipping, the kanban cards are removed from the boxes and placed into the load leveling box for the pacemaker cell in a level mix for each ship window (four hours). ‘The material handler serving the cell then withdraws kanban from the box at the pitch increment (20 minutes) and delivers them to the cell to initiate production. Apex’s load leveling box Kaizen the Ship Frequency Many manufacturers are required to make daily (or even more frequent) shipments to their customers. This is a blessing because it establishes a rapid ‘clock speed" for your pacemaker process, within which it must be able to produce all of its high- running part numbers. If you get to the point where the EPE for all of your processes (both pacemakers and upstream fabrication) equals the ship frequency, then your entire value stream will flow. Your facility will be a ‘money pump’ that converts raw ‘materials into final products that can gatner cash before the materials bills come due. However, if your customers require only infrequent shipments or fail to steadily reduce the ship interval there will be little pressure on your pacemaker and "upstream processes to improve. Steadily increasing ship frequencies is therefore a highly worthy kaizen project for you and your customers. Leveling Production in a Make-to-Order Environment ‘Make-to-order processes, such as production of custom items, stock picking in warehouses, and even administrative processes, are often mistakenly considered unsuitable for continuous flow processing and workload leveling, ‘since the work content involved in each customer order varies too much. In fact, you can approximate continuous flow and achieve many of its benefits in make-to-order processes by maintaining a FIFO (first-in, first-out) flow through the processing steps and carefully regulating the quantity of work you consistently release to that FIFO chain of steps. Instead of releasing work in increments of customer ordering, release work based on a standard, consistent time increment or ‘pitch’ Do this by finding the bottleneck operation in your FIFO chain of make-to-order processes. Then break down orders not by customer, but into equal time increments based on the bottleneck’s capacity. The bottleneck process then becomes: the ‘pitch setter’ for the FIFO chain. The result is @ much more consistent work flow that quickly hig interrupting abnormalities. Just like continuous flow processing. PART V: CONNECTINGTOTHE CUSTOMER 69Question 11: How Will the Pacemaker React to Changes in Customer Demand? We have now given lengthy atcention to the Apex fuel line cell in order to integrate Man, Machines, Materials, and Methods. Afterall this work it would be great to finish kaizening the process during implementation (as explained in Pare VI) and then run it as designed forever! Unfortunately, this will be impossible for two reasons. First, kaizen is never finished and second, customer demand always changes. In particular, changing volume requirements are something that anyone who is designing a pacemaker process needs to consider from the beginning of operations so thac they can be ready to respond, Responding to Change in Customer Demand Many facilities are only subject to small day-to-day fluctuations in demand, A yearlong history of shipments will often show that demand is stable for periods of time. The customer takes a little more today, a little less tomorrow, and over time it balances out Smaller day-to-day demand fluctuations are best handled by use of a finished goods supermarket. The supermarket allows managers to set the takt time and the number of operators and makes it possible to manage continuous flow for extended periods. But eventually the average customer volume requirement will change and the pace- maker process will need to respond. If volume drops and you keep the same number of operators, productivity will fall and the potential for overproduction will increase. If volume increases then the takt time for the cell will decrease (che takt time bar moves down the OBC). You will need to add people and perhaps machine capacity to continue producing to tak. Responding to an incr: take 1 take 2 POTD O OOD DOOD DDD DD The periodic need to increase or reduce the number of operators is one of the main reasons for utilizing cells and arranging them in a narrow U-shape. great variety of walking patterns offered by the U creates many options for redistributing the work elements over a different number of operators. When designing a cell, engineers should prepare ‘one-up’ and ‘one-down! scenarios for responding to changes in volume requirements. ‘They do this by drawing OBCs for the current number of operators and for work with one less and one more operator, We call these different positions ‘toggles’ because they are like the different positions on a toggle switch. You can alter the output of a cell by ‘toggling’ che number of operators up or down in response to changing customer demand. istributions Over the next 18 months of operating the fuel line cell at Apex, the customer demand, number of operators, and output per operator (labor productivity) may look as follows. Apex’s customer demand/shift JanMar—AprduneJuySapt OetOee Jan Mar Aprune PARTV: CONNECTINGTOTHE CUSTOMER 7172 Apex’s number of operators amount of overtime ent tm Og per shift ‘in Mar Aprdune JuySept OetDee Jn Mar AprJune Apex’s hourly output per operator increases due to 0, ongoing kaizen —— “eMac Arne ySeptOeDee Jan-Mar Apriine Note: The hourly output per operator (labor productivity) remains constant (with a bit of improvement toward the end from continuing kaizen) despite changes in customer demand and the number of operators. This is quite an achievement and, in combination with true continuous flow, is a hallmark of a lean pacemaker process. We call this achievement ‘labor linearity’, meaning that at each toggle position — with different numbers of operators in the cell — the work content for every operator stays very close to takt time. TH HHH Apex has three options for reacting to changes in customer demand, listed in incr order of volume change: * Absorb day-to-day customer fluctuations with a finished goods supermarket. * Run a little overtime each shift (which can only be done if there is a time gap between shifts, making this difficult in three shift operations). It is better to run a little overtime than Co stop production a little early because operator productivity stays high. * Toggle the number of operators. This list of options also corresponds to the frequency with which you should resort to them. Ics better to try to deal with demand variation through overtime and the use of a finished goods store. These two options can be used daily. But in our experience the minimum time frame for maintaining a toggle (at a particular take time and staffing level) is a week, and we strongly recommend two weeks to a month. And when you are starting up a new or redesigned cell, as Apex will shortly, you should try co maintain takt time even longer, say three months, to give yourself time to kaizen the process and develop your process management routines. Not Trying to change the takt time as you toggle is difficult because you must also change work distribution and redeploy people. For this reason, lean facilities try to maintain their takt times for some period of time. Toyota, for example, currently recalculates takt times in its vehicle assembly plants monthly. Increments of Capacity Increasing output above current process capacity will require not only more operators but more machines, Fortunately, lean cells typically use small, simple, inexpensive equipment that permits flexibility in responding to changing customer requirements. In many cases you can increase capacity incrementally by adding a machine to the cell. We call this ‘increments of machine capacity’, If even more capacity is needed you can choose to make some of the product in an existing adjacent cell, adding some machinery there if necessary. Finally, if large increases in ourput are needed it may be appropriate to add another cell. We call this adding ‘increments of cell capacity’. These options require redeployment of people, plus capital spending and significant lead times. You want to make sure that you have achieved the full benefits of kaizen in your cells and have high n ichine reliability before you consider PARTV: CONNECTINGTOTHE CUSTOMER 7374 Moving Assembly Lines Are a Little ‘The term ‘cell’ implies that the material being processed is moved by the operators (although cells can have segments of moving conveyon. Alternatively, many pacemaker processes are built around a moving conveyor that advances the mater Moving lines are typically used to handle lange products or in situations where & stronger method of pacing is necessary. The product is brought to the operator by the moving line and the workstations are usually all the same size. Sometimes operators are located on only one side of a moving line, which then makes the line even more similar to a cell. The operator balance chart and many of the ‘concepts in this workbook can be used for designing, maintaining, and improving continuous flows on moving lines. A difference with moving lines relates to changing the number of operators in response to a change in customer demand. A great advantage of cells is their flexibility to adjust ourput volume. You can also achieve output flexibility with moving lines. For example, you may be able to halve the output of some moving lines by tion and shifting from one operator per station to one operator every other s slowing the conveyor to 1/2 speed, or by having each operator work through two stations instead of just one. Alternatively, you can insert empty workstations periodically along the line and add operators at those positions when the customer demand increases. Line output then inereases, but of course you have to redistribute the work elements over the higher number of operators. oe AB IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING & IMPROVINGpart WI. IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING & IMPROVING Implementing, Sustaining, Improving Using the Apex example as our guide, we have now worked our way through eleven questions to introduce continuous flow in a pacemaker process. For Apex’s new cell wwe have a target of operating with owo production associates, However, you should have noticed that the total work content for each operator is still more than take time. This is normal at this point because not all waste can be eliminated during paper kaizen. To do this you will need to work on the actual process on the shop floor. Working out the waste on the shop floor is called ‘debugging’. In this last part of Creating Continuous Flow we will implement our improvements to the fuel line cell and then ‘debug’ it with intensive kaizen of such items as fix parts presentation, and. the reduction of something called ‘incidental work efforts will conclude the process design effort and transition us to the daily operation of the cell. No design can be made perfect on paper. As you implement your continuous flow on the shop floor you will uncover details that you missed and more waste to be eliminated. This presents the opportunity to get greater input from everyone in your continuous flow implementation effort. The question for your team now is, “OK, what do we all ned to do to make this work: One word of warning: The first continuous flow cell in a facility is often the most difficult to introduce, but is also the most important. Once people see a concrete example of tru continuous flow, one thac defies all the reasons why it wouldn't work, then they can begin to think of new ways to improve and spread continuous flow in your facility. For this reason it is a good idea to work very hard with one cell to ensure its success, and then spread this success to other processes Implementation Planning Before you start implementing a new process you should quickly draft an implementation plan. This will help you check if you are actually achieving your targets or if more work is, necessary. The implementation plan should contain the reason for improving the process, a summary of the current and target conditions, an implementation schedule, and a place to record quantitative targets and results PART VI IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 78APEX TUBE COMPANY — Continuous Flow Project Truck Fuel Line Pacemaker Cell <— Be sure to link your plan to business objectives 1) Background/Business Case Product - S/L/A Fuel Lines Location - Anytown Needs: + Customer requires 5% cost reduction + Improve productivity 2) Initial condi +No continuous material flow + No people flow (operators stay at one machine) * Unstable output * Too much overtime + Not working to takt time * Too many operators for demand rate 580 square feet 56 pieces in process AN Assembly @ ‘Tube Berder (coveted (automatic) (automatic) (materi) “ond goods) HEED DDD DDD DD000000 & Assy Il angled to keep cell inside = — width about § ft parts & materials presented on flow racks from outside cell in machine as operator moves on ee maS5 y = LEP ange rece of nprocess soc : no obstructions in walking paths __= no space for WIP accumulation tester angled to bring cell start and end together 4) Implementation Mack Uptril ‘Aad Auto Eject Reconfigure coll Sta. Work Training “Train Material Handler Cali Debuaaing Finished Goods Supermarket Production Kanban Frequent Withdrawal Heljnka Box Proposed Start © Actual Start A Proposed Completion ‘A Actual Completion (Planning/Tracking) © Review © OnTarget X Trouble A Behind Target (Evaluation) 5) Indicators Be sure to include goals so level of success can be evaluated. ART VI IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 7‘The goal of implementation planning is not to create lengthy, intricate documents, but to develop a workable plan that anyone can understand and then to get to work. We suggest your overall cell implementation plan should fit on a single sheet of 11” x 17” (A3) paper. you draw up these plans yourself, by hand, and in pencil, and know if it makes sense. ‘And we strongly recommend th ‘This will ensure that you understand the pla Contrary to common thinking, the most important part of implementation planning is not creating the plan itself, but rather using the plan to regularly review progress and address problems, You can only tell where a project needs help when you have a plan against which to compare progress. Once again, itis imperative that management: 1) Know the target or goals (i.e implementation project targets and milestones). 2) Review the process regularly to spot problems that affect achieving the goals (for our Apex example: progress review every 30 days). 3) Respond quickly to those problems to get back on track. With your plan in hand you ean review your implementation progress at intervals just like the pitch of a paced withdrawal, For example, if implementation milestones occur monthly then review progress against the plan every 30 days, Implementing the Flow ‘Once you have an implementation plan it’s time co get to work. Typically, continuous flow implementation is started by a team of managers, engineers, and the production team, But once an initial design is in place the degree of operator involvement rapidly increases. Implementation stages Flow functions as designed involvement Paper Kaizen & ——» Mock ~» Debugging —» Sustaining Initial Process. Up Design EEE Stage 1. Initial Process Design ‘The initial design of a continuous flow is primarily the responsibility of management and gin n is not a bottom-up, self-directed team process. Generally a small group of people should first come up with an initial design. Why? Because getting any large group of people together and asking, “How should we run this proce: .. Continuous flow des almost always results in chaos. A small team of managers, engineers, and someone from the production team should create flow design, based on real data and times that they collect on the shop floor, using, the detailed design process presented in this workbook. The new process design must be the initi based on shop floor realities. If you tend to design cells primarily in an office using CAD systems and standard time data you will be headed for problems. Why would the production team be willing to let a small team make the initial cell design? Because they should know that after the detailed, real-data based design process, they will have ample opportunity during the mock-up and 2 ~ 4 week debugging period to fine tune, improve, and even alter the cell design. Stage 2. Mock-Up ‘The initial process design and operator balance chart represent theoretical ideas for creating a continuous flow. Now it is time to bring in the experts — the production team. Explain the initial continuous flow design to them, try out the new process, and start getting more of their input. A good place to begin is to show the operators the layout diagram and operator balance chart, and to discuss the goals of the project. In many cases you may also decide to run a non-production mock-up of the new process. A process mock-up includes nor only the physical process, but also a Standard Work Chare (SWC) for each operator or workstation. These SWG forms vary in appearance from company to company, but like the implementation plan we recommend using an 11” x 17” sheet of paper. A typical SWC includes the major sequential steps at each workstation, the time needed for each step, and key points, such as quality checks or critical adjustments. For example, a key point on an Apex SWG would be that after placing the fuel line in the fixture, rotate it 20 degrees to get a good fit. A sample SWC for the Apex fuel line cell is shown on the following pages, PART VE IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 79Takt Time JOB ELEMENTS [Time | ‘Comments Get bent tube Press into fixture Get connector Place & clamp ‘Assomblyl Gethoce e Place to fixture Rotate 20° Start cycle Get finished part, attach convolute connectors e060 ° ° ° oO Total Time IMPROVEMENT IDEA [[_ercenweeres |S APEX Standard Li Station ; Team Leader Supervisor PART Vi IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 81SWCs are used ¢o explain the work to the operators, to check how the work is being done, and to form a basis for developing and capturing improvement ideas. The SWC should also include an area to note improvement needs, a sketch of the workstation layout, and operator movements. SWCs should be prepared by hand and in pencil. Never laminate them, Computer printed or laminated SWCs imply that someone has already decided exactly how the cell will run. ‘The goal of the mock-up is to introduce operators to the process design and to find improvement opportunities before the actual process is deployed on the shop floor. Ac this stage avoid making the various part presentation devices and workstations permanent, That makes you less willing to undertake further adjustments! As much as possible try to make improvements immediately during the mock-up. Encourage a quick and practical approach. low have someone temporarily hold it higher or put some bricks under it to find a better position ‘or example, if'@ parts presentation device is too Stage 3. Debugging ‘The mock-up phase for an existing process should take one day, slightly longer for a totally new process. Once improvement ideas from the mock-up have been incorporated into the process you are ready to set up the cell and get into the 2— 4 week period we call ‘debugging’. Debugging is without a doubt the most important phase of implementing an e! continuous flow. This is the time when the process begins opera ing and is improved to the point where it can make production as designed. During debugging the hourly customer requirements ate introduced. The cell will run with the correct number of operators and be watched closely every shift by supervisors, maintenance, and engineers for kaizen opportunities. Debugging is also the time to start using the systems you have developed for supporting and managing the cell. With the equipment in place on the shop floor it’s time to start up. No matter what staffing is called for on the OBC, first start running the cell with one operator handling all the work elements from start (0 finish for about two hours, Ask the operator to make suggestions as he or she goes through the cell. Take notes right on the SW ‘This single-operator approach allows you to see the actual process flow and discover ways to improve it right away. If you begin with all requited operators in the cell the process flow will be harder to recognize. TAH After running the cell with one operator, switch to two operators running the cell in a circuit walking pattern, Finally, run the cell with the staffing level and work distribution called for in the OBC. Make sure each operator who will work in the cell has the opportunity to try it out, Don’t worry about achieving the takt time just yet. As operators run the cell, the supervisors and cell design team members should stand close by to look for more ways to improve the cell and record those ideas on the standard work charts. Encourage operators to recommend ways to improve the cell. Then make the improvements that night and update the standard work charts, As you observe a process in operation, watch operator work motions carefully. You will see three categories of work motions — value adding, incidental work, and waste. Waste should be eliminated. ‘The work-motion category “incidental work’ involves motions that operators must do to be able to produce the product, but that don’t actually add value for the customer —like getting parts and tools, or threading nuts onto bolts. Incidental work is necessary, bur it should be minimized. Make the bolt as short as possibl minimum threading the nut, Present parts and tools as cl le to their poine so onl is involved in tighte Se as poss of use to minimize reaching. Categories of Work Motion Examples: ‘*Weld flange onto part + Bolt part to product Examples: ‘*Walking to get parts ‘Waiting time motion Examples: * Pull down tool * Unclamp & clamp fixture Incidental Work PART VE IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 83Here are some points to keep in mind for the debugging period: ‘* Keep the elapsed time between communicating about a new process and actually starting it up as short as possible. It is better to judge a change from real experience rather than from hearsay. Once a change is begun people can curn their attention to the reality of making it work. * The engineers and maintenance staff need to work with the new process until i¢ functions as designed. The debugging period ends when the cell or line functions consistently as designed. * Because the debugging phase usually lasts from 2 ~4 weeks you will need to begin early enough to get up to the customer demand rate. If you are converting an existing module, you should plan ahead and build up a stock of finished goods to ensure that customer demand will be met during the transition. * Do not change the take time during the debugging period, and for as long as possible afterward. It takes time to develop the critical routines for running and managing a new cell. * Achieving 60 ~ 65% of target production on the first day is not bad! 80% is often reachable in about a week, and 90% within two weeks. *# The cell’s suecess is everyone's responsibility If the cell is not moving closer to its goals, the entire team of operators, managers, and engineers must work to solve the problem. + Implement improvement ideas quickly, overnight if possible. * The operator balance chart and standard work charts must be kept up to dare. ‘They should now begin to be updated by the team leader and supervisor. * People have attachments to ways of doing things, so when a new cell is introduced there will be a transition period. On average, it takes three weeks for people to become accus- tomed to a change. As normal resistance to change arises, remember that continuous flow is not optional. There is no going back to fake flow, However, how to achieve continuous, flow is optional and the place for many creative ideas from all participants. ‘+ Mark milestones that prove you're making progress. Making the hourly carget for the first time, making it two hours back-to-back, or the first time you make the daily carget selves. are good occasions to congratulate you ‘* Near the end of the debugging period the work elements should be carefully relisted sor under guidance of the and retimed. This is done by the team leader and super st engineers who designed the cell. Do not skip t HEAD Da A Debugging Checkii During the debugging period, the cell design team and supervisors need to watch the new process frequently and closely on every shift. Here is a checklist of the types of things they should be looking for: Oils there one-piece flow? Can the operator “make one, move one” without waiting? Ask yourself, how would the part build itself? Do operators perform the work as specified in the operator balance chart and standard work chart? If not, why? Has a better method been found? What is the right way to do it? 1 Do the team leader and supervisor understand their job responsibilities? Does the information flow? Do the operators, team leader, and supervisor know! ~ What is the take time? = What 10 make? - How many to make? - How many are actually made? - What problems are occurring? - If changeovers are occurring.at the correct time? - If changeovers are taking too much time? Q Are parts and materials delivered in the proper quantities? Is the size of flow racks and containers correct? Are there too many parts? Are there part shortages? Q Are material presentation devices correct or do the operators reach too far? How are the parts positioned when presented? How do the operators pick them up? Q Does the cell use the minimum amount of equipment and inventory? Are the correct levels of standard work-in-process inventory being maintained? Is inventory accumulating between machines? (Exception: Where two operators have a hand-off there should be one unit of standard work-in-process stock to account for minor fluctuation in operator cycles.) Is any excess material sitting on the floor? QlAre you using the minimum amount of equipment requited to make the product? Is the travel distance of moving machine parts minimized? If a table in the cell is used for just ‘one end item in the product family why walk past it all the other times? If the actual work surface of a machine is only 12 inches wide, why is the machine 3 feet wide? Q Can the cell change over between different end items in less than takt time? Q Does the cell reduce lead time? Compare before and after results. PART VI IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 85During debugging you should start tracking production results against customer demand. You can use a problem awareness board for this. Before the start of every shife the supervisor writes on the board an hour-by-hour list of what parts are co be made and the quantities required to meet customer demand, ‘The purpose of the board is not to schedule, but to highlight production problems and trigger response. If goals are not being met, the team leader should review the problems, use temporary measures to stop the abnormal condition until the root cause can be addressed, and then take steps to address the condition from occurring again. The supervisor should also be che and signing-off on the production numbers every hour. es to prevent the ing the board One by one, the problems preventing the cell from meeting takt time should be identified and their causes eliminated. The key during this phase of implementation is to make constant improvement. Be aware, however, that a problem awareness board and the team leader need a support system that helps to eliminate the causes of production gaps. Otherwise the team leader will end up writing the same things on the board every day and the tool becomes meaningless. Example problem awareness board Tine Team Usader Fuel Line Cell Barb Smith Suaniy Tact Time Require’ 690 40 sec. Tine Pian Actual | Problome/Causes [wont] 67 | 90/00] 90,720 remember-| 78 | 90/769 | 160,7' 16 _| vera tare reeks) 8-2 | 20/20 210/ 268 a=s0-| 90705 | 360 ss [eet =| 90/760 | 4507448 supervisor 7s | ae 7a signe hourly a 20760 | 6907 6m -<— sree manager 1 Z| 6907680 | (oninaes) signe at inch | ++ hourly cumulative AHHH Apex’s Debugging Results Apex’s debugging goal is to reduce the operator need from 2.2 to 2, with operator loading at 95% of takt time. ‘This means red ig the current total work content of 88 seconds to about 76 s ‘onds, In observing the cell during the debugging period the team was able to spot a varicty of incidental work items where time could be reduced * ‘The loading chute for the bender was relocated closer to the Assembly IT process, and the parts flow rack for raw stainless steel tubes was placed right next to the bender’s load chute. This took two seconds off the load time. ‘+ The auto-eject chute on the tube bender was moved so that finished tubes automatically slide toward the Assembly I workstation, which is the next processing step. This also eliminated two seconds. ‘© With auto-eject added, Apex engineers were able to go ahead with their plan to go from reverse flow to circuit. This meant that the standardized work charts and operator balance charts had to be redone, and the appropriate debugging executed, to achieve smooth natural movement and rhythm by the operators, * The Assembly IT operation involves the most parts, so the team paid particular attention to part presentation and handling here * The Assembly II fixture was improved to reduce load time by one second for two of the four items loaded into this fixture. Total reduction: two seconds. + By assembling the LH ferrule to the hose first, the operator could then grab the RH ferrule with her right hand and the valve with her left hand simultaneously, ‘The valve is simply dropped into a spot in the fixture. ‘This took out two seconds, + Acthe packout operation, the finished goods box was raised and angled toward the operator, reducing pack time by one second ‘The total time reduction for these changes was nine seconds, a fine achievement. However, the team retimed the work elements and discovered that total walk time in the new cell layout, with the tube bender chute position already improved is six seconds, The total work content is 88 + 6 = 94 seconds, and the debugging target i 76 seconds. The nine second time reduction broughe the total work time down to 85 seconds, but itis still nine seconds too much, PART VI: IMPLEMENTING, SUSTAINING, IMPROVING 38775 70 65 60 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 Pullcomvolute over crimps | (Gee fished pce nopacbareps F gree Flace & clamp LH side Get fished piece, place RH cde bo xt Get valve & place to-xture f Ger ib fere& assemble to hose} — { Place to fixture &clamp |= Get hose & RH ferrule, assemble Place to Assembly fixture Get fished pece Sataachconkoiite Get hose & place Get connector place and clamp | Get bent tube & place to ‘Asoembiyi f te & place to bendor TOTAL TIME= 88 seconds, 90 Rae 79 seconds

Вам также может понравиться

• International Standard: Cold-Reduced Carbon Steel Sheet of Commercial and Drawing Qualities

  

  Документ16 страниц

  International Standard: Cold-Reduced Carbon Steel Sheet of Commercial and Drawing Qualities

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• POSCO Electrical Steel Catalogue PDF

  

  Документ14 страниц

  POSCO Electrical Steel Catalogue PDF

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• Opendxm Supplier Client - Documentation Cad Data Exchange

  

  Документ14 страниц

  Opendxm Supplier Client - Documentation Cad Data Exchange

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• • Журналы
  • Подкасты
  • Нотное издание
• Our Products: Powercore Grain Oriented Electrical Steel

  

  Документ20 страниц

  Our Products: Powercore Grain Oriented Electrical Steel

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• Non - Oriented - Bulletin AK Steel PDF

  

  Документ16 страниц

  Non - Oriented - Bulletin AK Steel PDF

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• GO Steel Cogent

  

  Документ16 страниц

  GO Steel Cogent

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• Non - Oriented - Bulletin AK Steel PDF

  

  Документ16 страниц

  Non - Oriented - Bulletin AK Steel PDF

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• October 2009: in Case of Doubt, The German-Language Original Shall Be Considered Authoritative

  

  Документ15 страниц

  October 2009: in Case of Doubt, The German-Language Original Shall Be Considered Authoritative

  Victor Macovei

  100% (1)
• Description: 1 of 2 mp-01010 C

  

  Документ2 страницы

  Description: 1 of 2 mp-01010 C

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• Barcodes and Symbology Basics For Machine Vision: Jonathan Ludlow Barbie Labine

  

  Документ40 страниц

  Barcodes and Symbology Basics For Machine Vision: Jonathan Ludlow Barbie Labine

  koalaboi

  Оценок пока нет
• Din 8062-3 2009 PDF

  

  Документ10 страниц

  Din 8062-3 2009 PDF

  koalaboi

  33% (3)
• Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  

  От Everand

  Shoe Dog: A Memoir by the Creator of Nike

  Phil Knight

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (537)
• The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  

  От Everand

  The Yellow House: A Memoir (2019 National Book Award Winner)

  Sarah M. Broom

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (98)
• The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  

  От Everand

  The Subtle Art of Not Giving a F*ck: A Counterintuitive Approach to Living a Good Life

  Mark Manson

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (5794)
• Yes Please

  

  От Everand

  Yes Please

  Amy Poehler

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (1891)
• The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  

  От Everand

  The Little Book of Hygge: Danish Secrets to Happy Living

  Meik Wiking

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (400)
• Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  

  От Everand

  Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance

  Angela Duckworth

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (588)
• Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  

  От Everand

  Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future

  Ashlee Vance

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (474)
• A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  

  От Everand

  A Heartbreaking Work Of Staggering Genius: A Memoir Based on a True Story

  Dave Eggers

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (231)
• Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  

  От Everand

  Hidden Figures: The American Dream and the Untold Story of the Black Women Mathematicians Who Helped Win the Space Race

  Margot Lee Shetterly

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (895)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  

  От Everand

  Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln

  Doris Kearns Goodwin

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (234)
• Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  

  От Everand

  Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It

  Chris Voss

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (838)
• The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  

  От Everand

  The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer

  Siddhartha Mukherjee

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (271)
• Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  

  От Everand

  Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America

  Gilbert King

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (266)
• On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  

  От Everand

  On Fire: The (Burning) Case for a Green New Deal

  Naomi Klein

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (74)
• Principles: Life and Work

  

  От Everand

  Principles: Life and Work

  Ray Dalio

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (599)
• The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  

  От Everand

  The Unwinding: An Inner History of the New America

  George Packer

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (45)
• Fear: Trump in the White House

  

  От Everand

  Fear: Trump in the White House

  Bob Woodward

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (738)
• Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  

  От Everand

  Rise of ISIS: A Threat We Can't Ignore

  Jay Sekulow

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (137)
• The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  

  От Everand

  The Hard Thing About Hard Things: Building a Business When There Are No Easy Answers

  Ben Horowitz

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (345)
• Steve Jobs

  

  От Everand

  Steve Jobs

  Walter Isaacson

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (806)
• The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  

  От Everand

  The World Is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century

  Thomas L. Friedman

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (2259)
• Bad Feminist: Essays

  

  От Everand

  Bad Feminist: Essays

  Roxane Gay

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (1016)
• Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  

  От Everand

  Angela's Ashes: A Memoir

  Frank McCourt

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (440)
• The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  

  От Everand

  The Glass Castle: A Memoir

  Jeannette Walls

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (1713)
• The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  

  От Everand

  The Gifts of Imperfection: Let Go of Who You Think You're Supposed to Be and Embrace Who You Are

  Brené Brown

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (1090)
• John Adams

  

  От Everand

  John Adams

  David McCullough

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (2409)
• The Outsider: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  The Outsider: A Novel

  Stephen King

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (1839)
• The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  The Light Between Oceans: A Novel

  M.L. Stedman

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (789)
• The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  

  От Everand

  The Sympathizer: A Novel (Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)

  Viet Thanh Nguyen

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (121)
• A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  A Man Called Ove: A Novel

  Fredrik Backman

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (4609)
• Wolf Hall: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  Wolf Hall: A Novel

  Hilary Mantel

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (3811)
• Brooklyn: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  Brooklyn: A Novel

  Colm Toibin

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (1937)
• The Woman in Cabin 10

  

  От Everand

  The Woman in Cabin 10

  Ruth Ware

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (2322)
• Little Women

  

  От Everand

  Little Women

  Louisa May Alcott

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (104)
• Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  Manhattan Beach: A Novel

  Jennifer Egan

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (792)
• The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  

  От Everand

  The Perks of Being a Wallflower

  Stephen Chbosky

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (2104)
• Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  Sing, Unburied, Sing: A Novel

  Jesmyn Ward

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (1103)
• The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  The Art of Racing in the Rain: A Novel

  Garth Stein

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (4200)
• Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  

  От Everand

  Her Body and Other Parties: Stories

  Carmen Maria Machado

  Рейтинг: 4 из 5 звезд

  4/5 (821)
• A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  

  От Everand

  A Tree Grows in Brooklyn

  Betty Smith

  Рейтинг: 4.5 из 5 звезд

  4.5/5 (1929)
• The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  

  От Everand

  The Constant Gardener: A Novel

  John le Carré

  Рейтинг: 3.5 из 5 звезд

  3.5/5 (104)